
i 

if 
; 

ir 




street of the Tombs at Pompeii. 



CLASSICAL DICTIONARY 



BIOGEAPHY, IITTHOLOGT, AND GEOGEAPHY 



BASED ON THE LARGER DICTIONARIES 



BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D. 



EDITOR OF THE LATIX DICTIOXARIES 




Ninth Edition, with 750 Illustrations //C?!^ ^^N^ 

1876 

LONDON >s:sL*'WASHVV^ 

JOHN MUKRAY, ALBEMARLE STREE*^ 
JAMES WALTON, GOWER STREET 
1868 



5 ro'^ % 



DR. WM. SMITH'S LATIN DICTIONARIES. 
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PREFACE. 



'1'he great progress which classical studies have made in Europe, and more especially 
ill Germany during the present century, has superseded most of the Works usually 
employed in the elucidation of the Greek and Roman writers. It had long been felt 
by our best scholars and teachers that something better was required than we yot 
possessed in English language for illustrating the Antiquities, Literature, Mytho- 
logy, and Geography of the Ancient Writers, and for enabling a diligent student 
tfo rea them in the most profitable manner. It was with a view of supplying this 
i ' owledged want that the series of Classical Dictionaries was undertaken ; and the 
' vourable manner in which these Works have been received by the Scholars and 
Teachers of this country demands from the Editor his most grateful acknowledgments. 
The approbation with which he has been favoured has encouraged him to proceed in 
the design which he had formed from the beginning, of preparing a series of works 
which might be useful not only to the scholar and the more advanced student, but 
also to those who were entering on their classical studies. The Dictionaries of 
" Greek and Roman Antiquities," of " Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology,*' 
and of " Greek and Roman Geography," are intended to meet the wants of the more 
advanced scholar ; but these Works are on too extended a scale, and enter too muck 
into details, to be suitable for the use of junior students. For the latter class of persons, 
a work is required of the same kind as Lempriere's well-known Dictionary, contaimng 
in a single volume the most important names. Biographical, Mythological, and Geo- 
graphical, occurring in the Greek and Roman writers usually read in our public 
schools. It is invidious for an author to speak of the defects of his predecessors ; but 
it may safely be said that Lempriere's work, which originally contained the most 
serious mistakes, has long since become obsolete ; and that since the time it was com- 

a 



vi 



PREFACE. 



piled wc liave attained to more correct knowledge on ca vast number of subjects com- 
prised in that work. 

The present Dictionary is designed, as already remarked, chiefly to elucidate the 
Greek and Roman writers usually read in schools ; but at the same time it has not 
been considered expedient to omit any proper names connected with classical anti- 
quity, of which it is expected tliat some knowledge ought to be possessed by every 
person who aspires to a liberal education. Accordingly, while more space has been 
fr'wen to the prominent Greek and Roman writers, and to the more distinguished 
characters of Greek and Roman history, other names have not been omitted altogether, 
but only treated with greater brevity. The chief difficulty which every Author has to 
contend with in a Work like the present is the vastness of his subject and the 
copiousness of his materials. It has therefore been necessary in all cases to study the 
greatest possible brevity ; to avoid all discussions ; and to be satisfied with giving 
simply the results at which the best modern scholars have arrived. The Writer is 
fully aware that in adopting this plan he has frequently stated dogmatically conclusions 
which may be open to much dispute ; but he has thought it better to run this risk, 
rather than to encumber and bewilder the junior student with conflicting opinions. 
AVith the view likewise of economising space few references have been given to ancient 
and modern writers. In fact such references are rarely of service to the persons for 
whom such a Work as the present is intended, and serve more for parade than for any 
useful purpose ; and it has been the less necessary to give them in this Work, as it is 
supposed that the pijrsons who really require them will be in possession of the larger 
Dictionaries 

The present Work may be divided into three distinct parts. Biography, Mythology, 
and Geography, on each of which a few words may be necessary. 

The Biogr^iphical portion may again be divided into the three departments of 
History, Literature, and Art. The Historical articles include all the names of any 
importance which occur in the Greek and Roman writers, from the earliest times down 
to the extinction of the Western Empire in the year 476 of our era. Very few names 
are inserted which are not included in this period ; but still there are some persons 
who lived after the fall of the Western Empire who could not with propriety be 
omitted in a Classical Dictionary. Such is the case with Justinian, whose legislation 
has exerted such an important influence upon the nations of Western Europe ; with 
Thcodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, at whose court lived Cassiodorus and Boethius ; 
and with a few others. The lives of the later Western Emperors and their contem- 
poraries are given with greater brevity than the lives of such persons as lived in the 
more important e])ochs of Greek and Roman history, since the students for whom the 
present Work is intended will rarely require information respecting the later period 
of the empire. The Romans, as a general rule, have been given under the cognomens, 
and not under the gentile names ; but in cases where a person is more usually 
mentioned under the name of his gens than under that of his cognomen, he mil be 



PREFACE. 



vii 



fo^lnd under the former. Thus, for example, the two celebrated conspirators againsb 
Caesar, Brutus and Cassius, are given under these names respectively ; though uni- 
formity would require, either that Cassius should be inserted under his cognomen of 
Longinus, or Brutus under his gentile name of Junius. But in this, as in all other 
cases, it has been considered more advisable to consult utility, than to adhere to any 
prescribed rule, which would be attended with practical inconveniences. 

To the Literary articles considerable space has been devoted. ISTot only are all 
Greek and Roman writers inserted whose works are extant, but also all such as exer- 
cised any important influence upon Greek and Roman literature, although their 
writings have not come down to us. It has been thought quite unnecessary, however, 
to give the vast number of writers mentioned only by Athenaeus, Stobaeus, the Lexi- 
cographers, and the Scholiasts ; for though such names ought to be found in a complete 
history of Greek and Roman Literature, they would be clearly out of place in a Work 
like the present. In the case of all writers whose works are extant, a brief account 
of their works, as well as of their lives, is given ; and at the end of each article one or 
two of the best modern editions are specified. As the present work is designed for 
the elucidation of the Classical writers, the Christian writers are omitted, with the 
exception of the more distinguished Fathers, who form a constituent part of the 
history of Greek and Roman literature. The Byzantine historians are, for the same 
reason, inserted; though in their case, as well as in the case of the Christian Fathers, 
it has been impossible to give a complete account either of their lives or of their 
writings. 

The lives of all the more important Artists have been inserted, and an account has 
also been given of their extant works. The history of ancient Art has received so 
little attention from the scholars of this country, that it has been deemed advisable to 
devote as much space to this important subject as the limits of the Work would allow. 
Accordingly, some artists are noticed on account of their celebrity in the history of 
Art, although their names are not even mentioned in the ancient writers. This 
remark applies to Agasias, the sculptor of the Borghese gladiator,, which is still pre- 
served in the Louvre at Paris : to Agesander, one of the sculptors of the group of 
Laocoon ; to Glycon, the sculptor of the Farnese Hercules ; and to others. On the 
contrary, many of the names of the artists in Pliny's long list are omitted, because 
they possess no importance in the history of Art. 

In writing the Mythological articles care has been taken to avoid, as far as possible, 
all indelicate allusions, as the Work will probably be much in the hands of young 
persons. It is of so much importance to discriminate between the Greek and Roman 
mythology, that an account of the Greek divinities is given under their Greek names, 
and of the Roman divinities under their Latin names, a practice which is universally 
adopted by the continental writers, which has received the sanction of some of our 
own scholars, and which is moreover of such great utility in guarding against endless 
confusions and mistakes as to require no apology for its introduction into this Work. 



viii 



PREFACE. 



In the Gcoi;rai)hlcal articles, besides the original sources, use has been made of the 
best modern treatises on the subject, and of the valuable works of travels in Greece, 
Italy, and the East, which have appeared within the last few years, both in England 
and in Germany. It would have been impossible to give references to these treatises, 
without interfering with the general plan of the present Work; but this omission is 
supplied in the " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography." It is hoped that in 
the Geographical portion of the AVork very few omissions will be discovered of names 
occurring in the chief classical writers ; but the great number of names found only in 
Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, and the Itineraries, have been purposely omitted, except in 
cases where such names have become of historical celebrity, or have given rise to 
important towns in modern times. At the commencement of every geographical 
article the Ethnic name and the modern name have been given, whenever they could 
be ascertained. 

The present Edition has been revised, and Illustrations have been inserted for the 
first time. These illustrations, which exceed 750 in number, have reference to the 
^Mythological, Biograi)hical, and Geographical articles, and will, it is believed, add 
considerably to the value and usefulness of the Work. The Mythological illustrations, 
taken from ancient works of art, give numerous representations of the Greek and 
Roman divinities, with their various attributes, of the most celebrated heroes, and of 
other mythical beings. The Biographical illustrations consist of coins drawn from 
originals in the British Museum, and exhibit a complete series of the rulers of the 
chief nations of antiquity, such as the Roman emperors from Augustus to the last 
emperor of the West, the monarchs of the Greek kingdoms founded by the successors 
of Alexander, and various others. The Geographical illustrations contain, in addition 
t(; coins of the more important places, representations of public buildings and of other 
ancient monuments. 

WILLIAM SMITH 

London : January 1, 1858. 




Gate of Sigiiia 



A 

CLASSICAL DICTIONARY, 

BIOGRAPHICAL, MYTHOLOGICAL, AND 
GEOGRAPHICAL. 



ABACAENUM. 
Abacaenum {'A§aKa7uov or to. 'A§dKaiva: 
A€aicaiv7vos : nr. Tripi, Ru.), an ancient town of 
the Siculi in Sicily, W. of Messana, and S. of 
Tyndaris. 

Abae (^ASai : 'A§a7os : nr. ExarcTio^ Ru.), an 
ancient town of Phocis, on the boundaries of Boe- 
otia, said to have been founded by the Argive 
Abas, but see Abantes. It possessed an ancient 
temple and oracle of Apollo, who hence derived 
the surname of Abacus. The temple was destroyed 
by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes, and a 
second time by the Boeotians in the sacred Avar : it 
was rebuilt by Hadrian. 

Abantes ("Agavres), the ancient inhabitants of 
Euboea. (Horn. II. ii. 536.) They are said to 
have been of Thracian origin, to have first settled 
in Phocis, Avhere they built Abae, and afterwards 
to have crossed over to Euboea. The Abantes of 
Euboea assisted in colonising several of the Ionic 
cities of Asia Minor. 

Abantiades CA€auTtd^r}s), any descendant of 
Abas, but especially Perseus, great-grandson of 
Abas, and Acrisius, son of Abas. A female de- 
scendant of Abas, as Danae and Atalante, was 
called Abantias. 

Abantias. [Abantiades.] 

Abantidas {'Agavridas), son of Paseas, became 
tyrant of Sicyon, after murdering Clinias, the father 
of Aratus, B. c. 264, but was soon after assassinated. 

Abaris {"ASapis), son of Seuthes, was a Hyper- 
borean priest of Apollo, and came from the country 
about the Caucasus to Greece, while his own 
country was visited by a plague. In his travels 
through Greece he carried with him an arrow as 
the symbol of Apollo, and gave oracles. His his- 
tory' is entirelj' mythical, and is related in various 
ways : he is said to have taken no earthly food, and 
to have ridden on his arrow, the gift of Apollo, 
through the air. He cured diseases by mcantations, 
and delivered the world from a plague. Later 
writers ascribe to him several works ; but if such 
works were really current in ancient times, they 
were not genuine. The time of his appearance in 
Greece is stated differently : he may perhaps be 
placed about b. c. 570. 

Abamis {"ASapvis or "ASapvos : A€apvevs), a 



ABDOLONYMUS. 

town and promontory close to Lampsacus on the 
Asiatic side of the Hellespont. 

Abas CASas). 1. Son of Metanira, was 
changed by Demeter into a lizard, because he 
mocked the goddess when she had come on her 
Avanderings into the house of his mother, and drank 
eagerly to quench her thirst. —2. Twelfth king of 
Argos, son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, grandson 
of Danaus, and father of Acrisius and Proetus. 
When he informed his father of the death of 
Danaus, he was rewarded Avith the shield of his 
grandfather, Avhich was sacred to Hera. This 
shield performed various marvels, and the mere 
sight of it could reduce a reA^olted people to sub- 
mission. He is described as a successful conqueror 
and as the founder of the town of Abae in Phocis, 
and of the Pelasgic Argos in Thessaly. 

Abdera (ra "ASSripa, Abdera, ae, and Abdera, 
orum : 'AgSTjpiTT/y, Abderites and Abderita). L 
{Polystilo)^ a town of Thrace, near the mouth of 
the Nestus, which flowed through the town. Ac- 
cording to mythology, it Avas founded by Hercules 
in honour of his favourite Abderus ; but accord- 
ing to history, it was colonised by Timesius of 
Clazomenae about b. c. 656. Timesius was ex- 
pelled by the Thracians, and the tOAvn was colo- 
nised a second time by the inhabitants of Teos in 
Ionia, who settled there after their own tOAvn had 
been taken by the Persians B. c. 544. Abdera 
was a flourishing town wlien Xerxes invaded 
Greece, and continued a place of importance under 
the Romans, who made it a free city. It Avas the 
birthplace of Democritus, Protagoras, Anaxarchxxs, 
and other distinguished men ; but its inhabitants 
notwithstanding were accounted stupid, and an 
" Abderite" Avas a term of reproach. — 2. (Adra)^ 
a tOAvn of Hispania Baetica on the coast, founded 
by the Phoenicians. 

Abderus ("AeSripos), a faA'ourite of Hercules, 
was torn to pieces by the mares of Diomedes, Avhich 
Hercules had given him to pursue the Bistones. 
Hercules is said to have built the toAvn of Abdera 
in honour of him. 

Abdolonymus or Abdalonimus, also called 
Ballonymus, a gardener, but of royal descent, Avas 
made king of Sidon by Alexander the Great. 



2 ABELLA. 

Abella or Avella (Ahe\\Sinu& : Avella reccJaa), 
a town of Campania, not far from Nola, founded 
by the Chalcidians in Euboea. It was celebrated 
for its apples, whence Virgil (Aen. vii. 740) calls 
it malifira, and for its great hazel-nuts, nuces 
AveUdnae. 

Abellinum (Abelllnas: Avellino), a town of 
the Hirpini in Samnium, near the sources of the 
Sabatus. 

Abgarus, Acb&rus, or Axiganis {"ASy apos, 
"AKSapos, Atryapos). a name common to many rulers 
of Edcssa, the capiuil of the district of Osrhoene in 
Mesopotamia. Of these rulers one is supposed by 
Eusebius to have been the author of a letter 
written to Christ, which he found in a church at 
Edessa and translated from the Syriac. The letter 
is believed to be spurious. 

Abia {v A€ia : nr. Zaniaia\ a town of Mes- 
senia, on the Messenian gulf. It is said to have 
been the same to\\Ti as the Ire of the Iliad (ix. 292), 
and to have acquired the name of Abia in honour of 
Abia, the nurse of Hyllus, a son of Hercules. At a 
later time Abia belonged to the Achaean League. 

Abii ("AStoi), a tribe mentioned by Homer (II. 
xiii. G), and apparently a Thracian people. This 
matter is discussed by Strabo (p. 296). 

Abila (to "AgiAo : 'A§i\r)p6s), a town of Coele- 
Syria, afterwards called Claudiopolis, and the capi- 
tal of the tetrarchy of Abilene (Luke, iii. 1 ). The 
position seems doubtful. A town of the same name 
is mentioned by Josephus as being 60 stadia E. of 
the Jordan. 

Abisares {'A§i(Tdp7)s), also called Embisarus, 
an Indian king beyond the river Hydaspes, sent 
embassies to Alexander the Great, who not only 
allowed him to retain his kingdom, but increased 
it, and on his death appointed his son his successor. 

Abnoba Mons, the range of hills covered by 
the Black Forest in Germany, not a single moun- 
tain. 

Aboniticlios {'ASuivov reixos), a town of Pa- 
phlagonia on the Black Sea, with a "harbour, after- 
"w.irds called lonopolis (^IcovSttoKls), whence its 
modem name Incfjoli, the birth-place of the pre- 
tended prophet Alexander, of whom Lucian has 
left us an account. 

Aborigines, the original inhabitants of a coun- 
try, equivalent to the Greek avTox^Jfes. But the 
Aborigines in Italy are not in the Latin writers 
the original inhabitants of all Italy, but the name 
of an ancient people Avho drove the Siculi out of 
Latium, and there became the progenitors of the 
Latini. 

Aborrhas ( 'A§op^ay : KJtabur), a branch of the 
Euphrates, which joins that river on the east side 
near Arcesium. It is called the Araxes by Xeno- 
phon {Anah. i. 4. § 19), and was crossed by the 
army of Cj-rus the Younger in the march from 
Sardis to the neighbourhood of Babylon, b. c. 401, 
A branch of this river, which rises near Nisibis, 
and is now called Jakhjakhah, is probably the an- 
cient Mygdonius. The Khabur rises near Orfah, 
and is joined noar the lake of Khatuniyah by the 
Jakhjakhah, after which the united stream flows 
into the Euphrates. The course of the Khabur is 
very incorrectly represented in the maps. 

Abradatas ('AgpoSdras), a king of Susa and an 
ally of the Assyrians against C\tus, according to 
Xenophon's Cyropaedia. His wife Panthea was 
tiken on the conqrest of the Assyrian camp. In 
consequence of the honourable treatment which she 



ABYDOS. 

received from Cyrus, Abradatas joined the latter 
with his forces. He fell in battle, while fighting 
against the Egyptians. Inconsolable at her loss, 
Panthea put an end to her own life. Cyrus had a 
high mound raised in honour of them. 

Abrincatui, a people of Gallia Lugdunensis in 
the neighbourhood of the modern Avranches. 

Abrocomas (^ASpoKOjxas), one of the satraps of 
Axtaxerxes Mnemon, was sent with an army, to 
oppose Cyrus on his march into Upper Asia, e. c. 
401. He retreated on the approach of C)tus, but d:d 
not join the king in time for the battle of Cunaxa. 

Abronychus ASpwwxos)., an Athenian, served 
in the Persian war, b.c. 480, and was subsequently 
sent as ambassador to Sparta with Themistocles and 
Aristides respecting the fortifications of Athens. 

Abrotonum, mother of Themistocles. 

Abrotonum (^Aip6rovov : Sahart or Old Tri- 
poli), a city on the coast of Africa, between the 
Syrtes, founded by the Phoenicians ; a colony 
under the Romans. It was also called Sabraw 
and Neapolis, and it formed, with Oea and Leptis 
Magna, the African Tripolis. 

Absyrtides or Apsyrtides, sc. insulae {^A-^vp- 
Ti'Ses : Cherso and Osero)^ the name of two islands 
off the coast of lUyricum. According to one tra> 
dition Absyrtus was slain in these islands by his 
sister !Medea and by Jason. 

Absyrtus or Apsyxtus {^Ai^vpros), son of 
Aeetes, king of Colchis, and brother of Medea. 
When Medea fled with Jason, she took her brother 
Absyrtus with her ; and when she was nearly 
overtaken by her father, she murdered Absyrtus, 
cut his body in pieces and strewed them on the 
road, that her father might thus be detained by 
gathering the limbs of his child. Tomi, the place 
where this horror was committed, was believed to 
have derived its name from Tifxvw, "cut." Accord- 
ing to another tradition Absyrtus did not accompany 
]Medea, but was sent out by his father in pursuit 
of her. He overtook her in CorcjTa, where she 
had been kindly received by king Alcinous, who 
refused to surrender her to Absyrtus, When he 
overtook her a second time in certain islands off the 
Illyrian coast, he was slain by Jason. The son of 
Aeetes, avIio was murdered by Medea, is called by 
some writers Aegialeus, 

Abiilites {^ASovXWris), the satrap of Susiana, 
surrendered Susa to Alexander. The satrapy was 
restored to him by Alexander, but he and his son 
Oxj'athres were afterwards executed by Alexander 
for the crimes they had committed. 

Aburnus Valens. [Valens.] 

Abus (Flumber), a river in Britain, 

Abydenus {'Aevdrjuos), a Greek historian, tvTotc 
a histor}' of AssjTia. His date is uncertain : he 
made use of the works of Megasthenes and Berosus, 
and he -UTote in the Ionic dialect. His work was par- 
ticularly valuable for chronology. The fragments ' 
of his history have been published by Scaliger, De 
Emendatione Teinpontm, and Richter, Berosi Chul- 
daeorum Historiae, &c.. Lips. 1 825. 

Abydos (^ASv^os : 'AguSTjvds), 1. A town of , 
the Tread on the Hellespont, and a Milesian colony, fj 
It was nearly opposite to Sestos, but a little lower ! 
down the stream. The bridge of boats which ' 
Xerxes constructed over the Hellespont, B. c. 480, 
commenced a little higher up than Abj'dos, and 
touched the European shore between Sestos and : 
Madytus. The site of Abydos is a little N. of ; 
Sultania or the old castle of Asia, which is opposite | 



ABYLA. 



ACCA. 



3 



to the old castle of Europe.—- 3. (Nr. Arahai el 
Maifoon and El Birleli, Ru.), a city of Upper 
Egypt, near the W. bank of the Nile ; once second 
only to Thebes, but in Strabo's time (a. d. 14) 
a small village. It had a temple of Osiris and a 
Memnonium, both still standing, and an oracle. 
Here Avas found the inscription known as the Table 
o/Ahydos, which contains a list of the Egyptian 
kings. 

Abyla or Abila Mons or Colunma ('AgwAi? or 
'Agi'Arj <Tri]X/] or opos : Jehel Zatotd, i. e. Apes'' 
Hill, above Ceuta), a mountain in Mauretania Tin- 
gitana, forming the E. extremity of the S. or 
African coast of the Fretum Gaditanum. This and 
M. Calpe ( Gibraltar), opposite to it on the Spanish 
coast, were called the Columns of Hercules, from 
the fable that they were originally one mountain, 
which Avas torn asunder by Hercules. 

Acacallis {'AKUKaAXis), daughter of Minos, by 
whom Apollo begot a son Miletus, as well as other 
children. Acacallis was in Crete a common name 
for a narcissus. 

Acacesium (^AKaKrjcriov : 'AicaKrjcTLos), a town 
of Arcadia, at the foot of a hill of the same name. 

Acacesius ('AKaKtjaios), a surname of Hermes, 
for which Homer uses the form Acacetes. Some 
writers derive it from the Arcadian town of Acace-- 
siura, in which he was believed to have been 
brought up ; others from Ka/cbs, and suppose it to 
mean ^ the god who does not hurt." The same 
surname is given to Prometheus, whence it may be 
inferred that its meaning is that of benefactor or 
deliverer from evil. 

Acacetes. [Acacesius.] 

Academia ('A«:ci5r;/.ieia or 'AKaK^rjixIa : also 
Academia in the older Latin Avriters), a piece of 
land on the Cephissus, 6 stadia from Athens, 
originally belonging to the hero Academus, and 
subsequently a gymnasium, which was adorned by 
Cimon with plane and olive plantations, statues, 
and other works of art. Here taught Plato, who 
possessed a piece of land in the neighbourhood, and 
after him his followers, who were hence called the 
Academici, or Academic philosophers. When Sulla 
besieged Athens in B. c. 87, he cut down the plane 
trees in order to construct his militar}'- machines ; 
but the place was restored soon afterwards. Cicero 
gave the name of Academia to his villa near Puteoli, 
where he wrote his " Quaestiones Academicae." 

Academici. [Academia.] 

Academus ('A/ca57],uos), an Attic hero, who be- 
trayed to Castor and Pollux, when they invaded 
Attica to liberate their sister Helen, that she was 
kept concealed at Aphidnae. For this the Tyn- 
darids always showed him gratitude, and whenever 
the Lacedaemonians invaded Attica, they spared 
the land belonging to Academus. [Academia.] 

Acalandrus (Sulandrella), a river in Lucania, 
flowing into the gulf of Tarentum. 

Acamas ('Afca^as). 1. Son of Theseus and 
Phaedra, accompanied Diomedes to Troy to demand 
the surrender of Helen. During his stay at Troy 
he won the affection of Laodice, daughter of Priam, 
and begot by her a son, Munitus. He was one of 
the Greeks concealed in the wooden horse at the 
taking of Troy. The Attic tribe Acamantis de- 
rived its name from him. — 2. Son of Antenor and 
Theano, one of the bravest Trojans, slain by Me- 
riones. — 3. Son of Eussorus, one of the leaders of 
the Thracians in the Trojan war, slain by the Te- 
lamonian Ajax. 



AcantllUS CAkuvBos : 'AKavQios). 1. (Nr. Erso^ 
Ru.), a town on the Isthmus, which connects the 
peninsula of Athos with Chalcidice. It was founded 
by the inhabitants of Andros, and continued to be a 
place of considerable importance from the time of 
Xerxes to that of the Romans.-=2. (Dashur), a 
town on the W. bank of the Nile, 120 stadia S. of 
Memphis, with a temple of Osiris. 

Acarnan {'AKapvdv, -avos), one of the Epigoni, 
son of Alcmaeon and Callirrhoe, and brother of 
Amphoterus. Their father was murdered \sj Phe- 
geus, when they were very young, and Callirrhoe 
prayed to Zeus to make her sons grow quickl}^ 
that they might be able to avenge the death of 
their father. The prayer was granted, and Acar- 
nan with his brother slew Phegeus, his wife, and 
his two sons. The inhabitants of Psophis, where 
the sons had been slain, pursued the murderers as 
far as Tegea, where, however, they Avere received 
and rescued. They afterwards went to Epirus, 
where Acarnan founded the state called after him 
Acarnania. 

Acarnania QAKapvavia : 'AKapvdv, -auos), the 
most westerly province of Greece, was bounded on 
the N. by the Ambracian gulf, on the W. and 
S. W. by the Ionian Sea, on the N. E. by Amphi- 
lochia, Avhich is sometimes included in Acarnania, 
and on the E. by Aetolia, from which at a later 
time it was separated by the Achelous. The name 
of Acarnania does not occur in Homer. In the 
most ancient times the land was inhabited by the 
Taphii, Teleboae, and Leleges, and subsequently by 
the Curetes, who emigrated from Aetolia and settled 
there. At a later time a colony from Argos, said to 
have been led by Acarnan, the son of Alcmaeon, 
settled in the country. In the seventh century B. c. 
the Corinthians founded several towns on the coast. 
The Acarnanians first emerge from obscurity at the 
beginning of the Peloponnesian war, B. c. 431. 
They were then a rude people, living by piracy 
and robbery, and they always remained behind the 
rest of the Greeks in civilization and refinement. 
They were good slingers, and are praised for their 
fidelity and courage. The different tovvns formed 
a League with a Strategus at their head in the 
time of war : the members of the League met at 
Stratoa, and subsequently at Thyrium. or Leucas. 
Under the Romans Acarnania formed part of the 
province of Macedonia. 

Acastus {"AKaaTos), son of Pelias,king of lolcus,. 
and of Anaxibia or Philomache. He was one of 
the Argonauts, and also took part in the Calydonian 
hunt. His sisters were seduced by Medea to cut 
up their father and boil him, in order to make him 
young again. Acastus, in consequence, drove Jason 
and Medea from lolcus, and instituted funeral 
games in honour of his father. During these games 
Astydamia, the wife of Acastus, also called Hip- 
poly te, fell in love with Peleus, whom Acastus had 
purified from the murder of Eurytion. When Peleus 
refused to listen to her addresses, she accused him 
to her husband of having attempted her dishonour. 
Shortly afterwards, when Acastus and Peleus Avere 
hunting on mount Pelion, and the latter had fallen 
asleep, Acastus took his sword from him, and left 
him alone. He was in consequence nearlj^ destroyed 
by the Centaurs ; but he Avas saved by Chiron or 
Hermes, retiuTied to Acastus, and killed him toge- 
ther Avith his wife. 

Acbarus. [Abgarus.] 

Acca Laiirer^tia or Larentia, a mythical 

B 2 



4 ACCIUS 
woman in early Roman story. According to one 
account, in the reign of Ancus Martins a servant 
(cu'dituus) of the tfniple of Hercules invited the 
god to a game of dice, promising that if lie should 
lose the game, he would treat the god with a re- 
past and a beautiful woman. When the god had 
conquered the servant, the hitter shut up Acca 
Laurentia together with a well-stored table in the 
temple of Hercules. On the following morning the 
god advised her to gain the affection of the first 
wealthy man she should meet. She succeeded in 
making Carutius or Tarrutius, an Etniscan, love 
and maiT)' her. After his death she inherited his 
large property, which she left to the Roman people. 
Ancus, in gratitude for this, allowed her to be 
buried in the Velabrum, and instituted an annual 
festival, the Lar.ntalia, at which sacrifices were 
offered to the Lares. According to another account, 
Acca Laurentia was the wife of the shepherd Fau- 
stulus and the nurse of Romulus and Remus after 
they had been taken from the she-wolf. Accord- 
ing to other accounts again she was not the wife of 
Faustulus, but a prostitute Avho from her mode of 
life was called lupa by the shepherds, and who left 
the property she gained in that way to the Roman 
people. Thus much seems certain, whatever we 
may think of the stories, that she was of Etruscan 
origin, and connected with the worship of the Lares, 
from which her name Larentia seems to be de- 
rived. 

L. Accius or Attius, an early Roman tragic 
poet and the son of a freedman, was born B. c. 170, 
and lived to a great age. Cicero, when a .young 
man, frequently conversed with him. His tragedies 
were chiefly imitated from the Greek, but he also 
wTote some on Roman subjects {Praetextata) ; one 
of which, entitled Brutus, was probably in honour 
of his patron D. Brutus. We possess only fragments 
of his tragedies, but they are spoken of in terms of 
admiration by the ancient writers. Accius also wrote 
Annales in verse, containing the history of Rome, 
like those of EnniuB ; and a prose work, Libri Didas- 
calion^ which seems to have been a history of poetry. 
The fragments of his tragedies are given by Bothe, 
Poet. Scenici Latin, vol. v. Lips. 1834 : and those 
of the Didascalia by Madvig, De L. Attii Didas- 
caliis Comment. Hafniae, 183L 

Acco, a chief of the Senones in Gaul, who in- 
duced his countrymen to revolt against Caesar, B. c. 
53, by whom he was put to death. 

Acs. [Proi.E.MAis.] 

Acerbas, a Tyrian priest of Hercules, who mar- 
ried Elissa, the sister of king Pygmalion. He had 
concealed his treasures in the earth, knowing the 
avarice of Pygmalion, but he was murdered by 
Pygmalion, who hoped to obtain his treasures 
through his sister. The pnadence of Elissa saved 
the treasures, and she emigrated from Phoenicia. 
In this account, taken from Justin, Acerbas is the 
same person as Sichaeus, and Elissa the same as 
Dido in Virgil {Acn. i. 343, seq.). The names 
in Justin are undoubtedly more correct than in 
Virgil ; for Virgil here, as in other cases, has 
changed a foreign name into one more convenient 
to him. 

Acerrao (Acerranus). 1. {Acerra)^ a town in 
Campania on the Clanius, received the Roman fran- 
chise in B. c. &32. It was destroyed by Hannibal, 
but was rebuilt.— 2. (Ccrra), a towji of the Insu- 
bres in G.illia Transpadana. 

Acersecomes ('Afcepcre/fd/irjs), a surname of 



ACHAEL 

Apollo expressive of his beautiful hair which was 
never cut or shorn. 

Acesas ('A/ceo-as), a native of Salamis in Cyprus, 
famed for his skill in weaving cloth with variegated 
patterns {poh/mitari'is). He and his son Helicon 
w^ere the first who made a peplus for Athena Po- 
lias. They must have lived before the time of 
Euripides and Plato, who mention this peplus. 

AcesTnes ('AKetriVrjs). 1. (Chemmh), a river 
in India, into wOiich the Hydaspes flows, and 
which itself flows into the Indus.— 2. (Alcantara). 
a river in Sicily, near Tauromenium. 

Acestes ('A/feVTrjs), son of a Trojan woman of 
the name of Egesta or Segesta, who was sent by 
her father to Sicily, that she might not be devoured 
by the monsters which infested the territory ot 
Troy. When Egesta arrived in Sicily, the river- 
god Crimisus begot by her a son Acestes, who was 
afterwards regarded as the hero who had founded 
the town of Segesta. Aeneas, on his arrival in 
Sicily, was hospitably received by Acestes. 

Acestor ('A/ceo-Twp). 1. Surnamed Sacas, on 
account of his foreign origin, was a tragic poet at 
Athens, and a contemporary of Aristophanes.— 2. 
A sculptor of Cnossus, who flourished about b. c. 
452. 

Achaea ('Axata, from ^x^^, " grief"), " the 
distressed one," a surname of Demeter at Athens, 
so called on account of her sorrow for the loss of 
her daughter. 

Achaei ('Axaioi), one of the chief Hellenic 
races, were according to tradition descended from 
Achaeus, who was the son of Xuthus and Creusa, 
and grandson of Hellen. The Achaei originally 
dwelt in Thessaly, and from thence migrated to 
Peloponnesus, the whole of which became subject 
to them with the exception of Arcadia, and the 
country afterwards called Achaia. As they were 
the ruling nation in Peloponnesus in the heroic 
times, Homer frequently gives the name of Achaei 
to the collective Greeks, On the conquest of the 
greater part of Peloponnesus by the Heraclidae and 
the Dorians 80 years after the Trojan war, many 
of the Achaei under Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, 
left their country and took possession of the north- 
ern coast of Peloponnesus then called Aegialea, 
and inhabited by the lonians, Avhom they expelled 
from the country, Avhich was henceforth called 
Achaia. The expelled lonians migrated to At- 
tica and Asia Minor, The Achaei settled in 12 
cities : Pellene, Aegira, Aegae, Bura, Helice, 
Aegium, Rhypae, Patrae, Pharae, Olenus, D3'me, 
and Tritaea, These cities are said to have been 
governed by Tisamenus and his descendants till 
Ogyges, upon whose death a democratical form of 
government was established in each state ; but the 
twelve states formed a league for mutual defence 
and protection. In the Persian war the Achaei 
took no part ; and they had little influence in the 
affairs of Greece till the time of the successors of 
Alexander. In b. c. 28 1 the Achaei, who were then 
subject to the Macedonians, resolved to renew their 
ancient league for the purpose of shaking off the 
Macedonian yoke. This was the origin of the 
celebrated Achaean League, It at first consisted 
of only four towns, Dyme, Patrae, Tritaea, and 
Pharae, but was subsequently joined by the other 
towns of Achaia w^ith the exception of Olenus and 
Helice. It did not, however, obtain much im- 
portance till b. c. 251, when Aratus united to it 
his native town, Sicyon. The example of Sicyon 



ACHAEMENES. 



ACHERUSIA. 



5 



was followed by Corinth and many other towns in 
Greece, and the League soon became the chief po- 
litical power in Greece. At length the Acliaei de- 
clared war against the Romans, who destroyed the 
League, and thus put an end to the independence 
of Greece. Corinth, then the chief town of the 
League, was taken iDy the Roman general Mum- 
mius, in b. c. 14G, and the whole of southern 
Greece made a Roman province under the name of 
AcHAiA. The different states composing the 
Achaean League had equal rights. The assemblies 
of the League were held twice a year, in the 
spring and autumn, in a grove of Zeus Homa- 
gyrius near Aegium. At these assemblies all the 
business of the League was conducted, and at the 
spring meeting the public functionaries were chosen. 
These were: — 1. a Strategus ((TTpaTTj'yos) or Ge- 
neral, and an Hipparchus (linrapxos) or com- 
mander of the cavalry ; 2. a Secretary (ypafM- 
fiarevs) ; and 3. ten Demiurgi (drjiniovpyo'i, also 
called apxovT€s), who appear to have had the right 
of convening the assembly. For further particu- 
lars see Did. o/j7it., art. Achaicum Foedus. 

Achaemenes ('Axa(,LteVT7s). 1. The ancestor of 
the Persian kings, who founded the family of the 
Acliaemenidae ('Axa'M^'''5ai), which was the noblest 
family of the Pasargadae, the noblest of the Per- 
sian tribes. The Roman poets use the adjective 
Achaemenius in the sense of Persian. — 2. Son 
of Darius L, governor of Egypt, commanded the 
Egj'ptian fleet in the expedition of Xerxes against 
Greece, b. c. 480. He was defeated and killed in 
battle by Inarus the Libyan, b. c. 460. 

Aciiaenieiiides, or Ackemenides, son of Ada- 
mastus of Ithaca, and a companion of Ulysses, 
who left him behind in Sicih', when he fled from 
the Cyclops. Here he was found by Aeneas, who 
took him with him. 

Achaeus (Kxaios). 1. Son of Xuthus, the 
mythical ancestor of the Achari. — 2. Governor 
under Antiochus IIL of all Asia W. of mount 
Taurus. He revolted against Antiochus, but was 
defeated by the latter, taken prisoner at Sardis, and 
put to death, b. c. 214. •— 3. Of Eretria in Euboea, 
a tragic poet, born b. c. 484. In 447, he contended 
with Sophocles and Euripides, and though he 
subsequently brought out many dramas, according 
to some as many as 34 or 40, he nevertheless 
only gained the prize once. In the satyrical drama 
he possessed considerable merit. The fragments of 
his pieces have been published by Urlichs, Bonru 
1834. 

Achaia ('Axaia : 'Axatos). 1. The northern 
coast of the Peloponnesus, originally called Aegialea 
{MyiaKua) or Aegialus {hiyiaXos), i. e. the coast- 
land, was bounded on the N. by the Corinthian 
gulf and the Ionian sea, on the S. by Elis and Ar- 
cadia, on the W. by the Ionian sea, and on the E. ' 
by Sicyonia. It was a narrow slip of country slop- 
ing down from the mountains to the sea. The 
coast is generally low, and has few good ports. 
Respecting its inhabitants see Achaei. — 2. A 
district in Thessaly, which appears to have been 
the original seat of the Achaei. It retained the 
name of Achaia in the time of Herodotus. — 3. The 
Roman province, included Peloponnesus and north- 
em Greece S. of Thessaly. It was formed on 
the dissolution of the Achaean League in b. c. 146, 
and hence derived its name. 

Acharnae ('Axapfat : 'Axapvevs, PI. 'Axctpj/^s), 
the principal demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe 



Oeneis, 60 stadia N. of Athens, possessed a rough 
and warlike population, Avho were able to furnish 
3000 hoplitae at the commencement of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. Their land was fertile and they 
carried on a considerable traffic in charcoal. One 
of the plays of Aristophanes bears the name of the 
inhabitants of this demus. 

Acharrae, a town in Thessaliotis in Thessaly, 
on the river Pamisus. 

Achates (Dirillo), a river in southern Sicily, be- 
tween Camarina and Gela, in which the first agate 
is said to have been found. 

Acheloides, a surname of the Sirens, the 
daughters of Achelous and a Muse : also a surname 
of water-nymphs. 

Achelous (Ax^^(fOS, 'AxeAwi'os in Horn. : Aspro 
Potamo), more anciently called Thoas, Axenus, 
and Thestlus, the largest river in Greece. It 
rises in Mount Pindus, and flows southward, form- 
ing the boundary between Acarnania and Ae- 
tolia, and falls into the Ionian sea opposite the 
islands called Echinades. It is about 130 miles in 
length. The god of this river is described as the 
son of Oceanus and Tethj-s, and as the eldest of 
his 3000 brothers. He fought Avith Hercules for 
Deianira, but was conquered in the contest. He 
then took the form of a bull, but was again over- 
come by Hercules, who deprived him of one of his 
horns, which however he recovered by giving up 
the horn of Amalthea. According to Ovid {Met. 
ix. 87), the Naiads changed the horn which Her- 
cules took from Achelous into the horn of plenty. 
Achelous was from the earliest times considered to 
be a great divinity throughout Greece, and was 
invoked in prayers, sacrifices, &c. On several 
coins of Acarnania the god is represented as a 
bull with the head of an old man. — Achelous was 
also the name of a river in Arcadia, and of another 
in Thessaly. 

Achemenides [Achaemenides.] 

Acheron ('Ax^po^f)^ the name of several rivers, 
all of which were, at least at one time, believed to 
be connected with the lower world.— -1. A river in 
Thesprotia in Epirus, which flows through the lake 
Acherusia into the Ionian sea. — 2. A river in 
Elis which flows into the Alpheus. ~— 3. A river 
in southern Italy in Bruttii, on which Alexander 
of Epirus perished. — 4. The river of the lower 
world, round which the shades hover, and into 
which the Pj-riphlegethon and Cocytus flow. In 
late writers the name of Acheron is used in a ge- 
neral sense to designate the whole of the lower 
world. The Etruscans were acquainted with the 
worship of Acheron (Acheruns) from very early 
times, as we must infer from their Acheruntici libn, 
which treated of the deification of souls, and of the 
sacrifices (Achericntia sacra) by which this was to 
be effected. 

Acherontia. 1. {Acerenza)., a town in Apulia 
on a summit of Mount Vxiltur, whence Horace 
{Carm. iii. 4. 14) speaks of celsae nidum Aclie- 
rontiae.—2. A town on the river Acheron, in 
Bruttii. [Acheron, No, 3.] 

Acherusia {'Ax^povaia Xijupr] or 'Axepovais), 
the name of several lakes and swamps, which, like 
the various rivers of the name of Acheron, were at 
some time believed to be connected with the lower 
world, until at last the Acherusia came to be con- 
sidered to be in the lower world itself. The lake 
to which this belief seems to have been first at- 
tached was the Acherusia in Thesprotia, through 

B 3 



6 ACHETUM. 

wliich the Acheron flowed. Other lakes or swamps 
of tlie same name were near Ilermione m Argolis, 
between Cinnae and cape Misenum in Campania, 
and lastly in Key pt, near Memphis. — Acherusia 
■was also "the name of a peninsula, near Ilt-raclea in 
Bith^vnia, with a deep cha^n, into Avhich Hercules 
is sriid to have descended to bring up the dog Cer- 
berus. 

Achetum, a small town in Sicily, the site of 
which is uncertain. 

Achilla or Acholla ("AxoWa: 'Axo\\a7os, 
Achillitanus : El Alialu Ru.), a town on the sea- 
coast of Africa, in the Carthaginian territory (By- 
zaccna), a little above the northern point of the 
Syrtis iSIinor. 

Achillas ('Ax'^Aas), one of the guardians of 
the Egyptian king Ptolemy Dionysus, and com- 
mander of the troops, when Pompey fled to Egypt, 
B. c. 48. It was he and L. Septimius who killed 
Pompey. He subsequently joined the eunuch Po- 
thinus in resisting Caesar, ani obtained possession 
of the greatest part of Alexandria. He was shortly 
afterwards put to death by Arsinoe, the youngest 
sister of Ptolemy, B. c. 47. 

Achilles ('AxiA.A6us), the great hero of the Iliad. 
— Homeric sfoiy. Achilles was the son of Peleus, 
king of the Myrniidones in Phthiotis, in Thessaly, 
and of the Nereid Thetis. From his father's name 
he is often called Pelides, Pele'iades, or Pellori, 
and from his grandfather's, Aeacides. He was edu- 
cated by Phoenix, who taught him eloquence and 
the arts of war, and accompanied him to the Trojan 
war. In the healing art he Avas instmcted by 
Chiron, the centaur. His mother Thetis foretold 
him that his fate was either to gain glory and die 
early, or to live a long but inglorious life. The 
hero chose the former, and took part in the Trojan 
war, from which he knew that he was not to 
return. In .50 ships he led his hosts of Myrmi- 
doncs, Hellenes, and Achaeans against Troy. Here 
the swift-footed Achilles was the great bulwark of 
the Greeks, and the worthy favourite of Athena 
and Hera. Previous to the dispute with Aga- 
memnon, he ravaged the country around Troy, 
and destroy id. 12 towms on the coast and 11 in 
the interior of the country. When Agamemnon 
was obliged to give up Chryseis to her father, he 
threatened to take away Briseis from Achilles, who 
surrendered her on the persuasion of Athena, but 
at the same time refused to take any further part 
in the war, and shut himself up in his tent. Zeus, 
on the entreaty of Thetis, promised that victorj' 
should be on the side of the Trojans, until the 
Achaeans should have honoured her son. The affairs 
of the Greeks declined in consequence, and they 
were at last pressed so hard, that an embassy was 
sent to Achilles, offering him rich presents and the 
restoration of Briseis ; but in vain. Finally, hov/- 
ever, he was persuaded by Patroclu.s, his dearest 
friend, to allow him to make use of his men, 
his horses, ami his armour. Patroclus was slain, 
and when this news reached Achilles, he was 
seized with unspeakable grief. Thetis consoled 
him, and promised new arms, to be made by 
Hephaestus, and Iris appeared to rouse him from 
his lamentations, and exhorted him to rescue the 
body of Patroclus. Achilles now rose, and his 
thundering voice alone put the Trojans to flight. 
When his new armour was brought to him, he 
hurried to the field of battle, disdaining to take 
any drink or food until the death of Lis friend 



ACHILLES. 

should be avenged. He wounded and slew num- 
bers of Trojans, and at length met Hector, whom 
he chased thrice around the walls of the cit}'. He 
then slew him, tied his body to his chariot, and 
dragged him to the ships of the Greeks. After 
this, he burnt the body of Patroclus, together with 
twelve young captive Trojans, who were sacrificed 
to appease the spirit of his friend ; and subsequently 
gave up the body of Hector to Priam, who came in 
person to beg for it. Achilles himself fell in the 
battle at the Scaean gate, before Troy was taken. 
His death itself does not occur in the Iliad, but it 
is alluded to in a few passages (xxii. 358, xxi. 
27o). It is expressly mentioned in the Odyssey 
(xxiv, 36), where it is said that his fall — • 
his conqueror is not mentioned — was lamented 
by gods and men, that his remains together with 
those of Patroclus were buried in a golden urn 
which Dionysus had given as a present to Thetis, 
and were deposited in a place on the coast of the 
Plellespont, where a mound was raised over them. 
Achilles is the principal hero of the Iliad : he is 
the handsomest and bravest of all the Greeks ; he 
is affectionate towards his mother and his friends ; 
formidable in battles, which are his delight ; open- 
hearted and without fear, and at the same time 
susceptible of the gentle and quiet joys of home. 
His greatest passion is ambition, and when his 
sense of honour is hurt, he is unrelenting in his 
revenge and anger, but withal submits obediently 
to the will of the gods. — Later traditions. These 
chiefly consist in accounts which fill up the history 
of his youth and death. His mother wishing to make 
her son immortal, is said to have concealed him 
by night in the fire, in order to destroy the mortal 
parts he had inherited from his father, and by day 
to have anointed him with ambrosia. But Peleus 
one night discovered his child in the fire, and cried 
out in terror. Thetis left her son and fled, and 
Peleus entrusted him to Chiron, who educated and 
instructed him in the arts of riding, hunting, and 
playing the phorminx, and also changed his original 
name, Ligyron, i. e. the " whining," into Achilles. 
Chiron fed his pupil with the hearts of lions and 
the marrow of bears. According to other accounts, 
Thetis endeavoured to make Achilles immortal by 
dipping him in the river Styx, and succeeded with 
the exception of the ankles, by which she held 
him. When he was nine j'ears old, Calchas de- 
clared that Tro}' could not be taken without his 
aid, and Thetis knowing that this war would be 
fatal to him, disguised him as a maiden, and in- 
troduced him among the daughters of Lycoraedes 
of Scyros, where he was called by the name of 
Pyrrha on account of his golden locks. But his 
real character did not remain concealed long, 
for one of his companions, DeidamLn, became 
mother of a son, Pyrrhus or Neoptolcmus, by him. 
Ulysses at last discovered his place of concealment, 
and Achilles immediately promised his assistance. 
During the war against Troj-, Achilles slew Pen- 
thesilea, an Amazon. He also fought with Mem- 
non and Troilus. The accounts of his death 
differ very much, though all agree in stating 
that he did not fall by human hands, or at least 
not without the interference of the god Apollo. 
According to some traditions, he was killed by 
Apollo himself ; according to others, Apollo as- 
sumed the appearance of Paris in killing him, while 
others say that Apollo merely directed the weapon 
of Paris against Achilles, and thus caused his 



ACHILLES. 



ACRAE. 



7 



death, as had been suggested by the dying Hector. 
Others again relate that Achilles loved Polyxena, 
a daughter of Priam, and tempted by the promise 
that he should receive her as his wife, if he would 
join the Trojans, he went without arms into the 
temple of Apollo at Thymbra, and was assassinated 
there by Paris. His body was rescued by Ulysses 
and Ajax the Telamonian ; his armour was pro- 
mised by Thetis to the bravest among the Greeks, 
which gave rise to a contest between the two heroes 
who had rescued his body. [Ajax.] After his 
death, Achilles became one of the judges in the 
lower world, and dwelled in the islands of the 
blessed, where he was united with Medea or Iphi- 
genia. 

Achilles Tatms, or as others call him Achilles 
Statius, an Alexandrine rhetorician, lived in the 
latter half of the fifth or the beginning of the 
sixth century of our era. He is the author of a 
Greek romance in eight books, containing the ad- 
ventures of two lovers, Clitophon and Leucippe, 
which has come down to us. The best edition is 
by Fr. Jacobs, Lips. 1821. Suidas ascribes to 
this Achilles a work on the sphere (TrepI (r<paipas), 
a fi-agment of which professing to be an intro- 
duction to the Phaenomena of Aratus is still 
extant. But this work was written at an earlier 
period. It is printed in Petavius, Uranologia, 
Paris, 16.30, and Amsterdam, 1703. 

AcMlleum. ('AxiAAeior), a town near the pro- 
montory Sigeum in the Troad, where Achilles was 
supposed to have been buried. There was a place 
of the same name on the Cimmerian Bosporus, or 
Straits of Kaffa, on the Asiatic side. 

Achilleus, assumed the title of emperor under 
Diocletian, and reigned over Egypt for some time. 
He was taken by Diocletian after a siege of 8 months 
in Alexandria, and put to death, a. d. 296. 

Achilleus Dromos (Axi^Xeios dp6/xos : Ten- 
dera or Tendra), a narrow tongue of land in the 
Euxine Sea, not far from the mouth of the Bory- 
sthenes, where Achilles is said to have made a 
race-course. Before it lay the celebrated Island of 
Achilles {Insula Acltillis) or Leuce {A^vK-i]), where 
there was a temple of Achilles. 

Achilleus Portus (AxiAAetos Xip.riv)^ a har- 
bour in Laconia, near the promontory Taenarum. 

Achillides, a patronymic of Pyrrhus, son of 
Achilles. 

Achillis Insula. [Achilleus Dromos.] 

Achiroe ('Axiporj), daughter of Nilus, and wife 
of Belus, by whom she became the mother of 
Aegyptus and Danaus. 

Achivi, the name of the Achaei in the Latin 
writers, and frequently used, like Achaei, to sig- 
nify the whole Greek nation. [Achaei.] 

Acholla. [Achilla.] 

Acholoe. [Harpyiae.] 

Achradina or Acradina. [Syracusae.] 

Acichorius ('AKix^pios), one of the leaders of 
the Gauls, who invaded Thrace and Macedonia in 
B. c. 280. In the following year he accompanied 
Brennus in his invasion of Greece. Some writers 
suppose that Brennus and Acichorius are the same 
persons, the former being only a title and the latter 
the real name. 

Acid alia, a surname of Venus, from the well 
Acidalius near Orchomenos, where she used to bathe 
with the Graces. 

Acidinus, L. Manlius. 1. One of the Roman 
generals in the second Punic war, praetor urbanus 



B. c. 210, served against Hasdrubal in 207, and 
Avas sent into Spain in 206, where he remained till 
199.— 2, Surnamed Fulvianus, because he ori- 
ginally belonged to the Fulvia gens, praetor B. c. 
188 in Nearer Spain, and consul in 179 with his 
OAvn brother Q. Fulvius Flaccus, which is the only 
instance of two brothers holding the consulship at 
the same time. 

Acilia Gens, plebeian. Its members are men- 
tioned under the family-names of Aviola, Balbus, 
and Glabrio. 

Acis ("A/cts), son of Faunus and Symaethis, wasf 
beloA'^ed by the nymph Galatea : Polyphemus the 
Cyclop, jealous of him, crushed him under a huge 
rock. His blood gushing forth from under the 
rock was changed by the nymph into the river 
Acis or Acinius at the foot of Mount Aetna (now 
Fiume di Jad). This story, which is related only 
by Ovid {Met. xiii. 750, seq.), is perhaps no more 
than a happy fiction suggested by the manner in 
which the little river springs forth from under a 
rock. 

Acmoma {'AKfxovia : 'AKiJ.oviT7]s, Aemonensis), 
a city of the Greater Phrygia. 

Acmonides, one of the three Cyclopes in Ovid, 
is the same as Pyracmon in Virgil, and as Arges 
in most other accounts of the Cyclopes. 

Acoetes ('A/coiTTjs), son of a poor fisherman 
of Maeonia, who served as a pilot in a ship. After 
landing at the island of Naxos, the sailors brought 
with them on board a beautiful boy asleep, whom 
they wished to take with them ; but Acoetes, 
who recognised in the boy the god Bacchus, dis- 
suaded them from it, but in vain. When the ship 
had reached the open sea, the boy awoke, and 
desired to be carried back to Naxos. The sailors 
promised to do so, but did not keep their word. 
Hereupon the god disclosed himself to them in his 
majesty ; vines began to twine round the vessel, 
tigers appeared, and the sailors, seized with mad- 
ness, jumped into the sea and perished. Acoetes 
alone was saved and conveyed back to Naxos, 
where he was initiated in the Bacchic mysteries. 
This is the account of Ovid (i¥e^. iii. 582, &c.). 
Other writers call the crew of the ship Tyrrhenian 
pirates, and derive the name of the Tyrrhenian sea 
from them. 

Acontius (A/coVrtos), a beautiful youth of the 
island of Ceos. On one occasion he came to Delos 
to celebrate the annual festival of Diana, and fell 
in love with Cydippe, the daughter of a noble 
Athenian. In order to gain her, he had recourse 
to a stratagem. While she was sitting in the 
temple of Diana, he threw before her an apple upon 
which he had Avritten the words " I swear by the 
sanctuary of Diana to marry Acontius." The nurse 
took up the apple and handed it to Cydippe, who 
read aloud what Avas written upon it, and then 
threw the apple away. But the goddess had heard 
her vow, and the repeated ilkiess of the maiden, 
when she Avas about to marry another man, at 
length compelled her father to give her in marriage 
to Acontius. This story is related by Ovid (He- 
roid. 20, 21), who borroAved it from a lost poem of 
Callimachus, entitled " Cydippe." 

Acoris {"AKopis), king of Egypt, assisted Ey&- 
goras king of Cyprus, against Artaxerxes king of 
Persia, about B. c. 385. He died about 374, before 
the Persians entered Egypt, which was in the fol- 
lowing year. 

Acrae ("AK^ctt) 1. (Nr. PcUazzalo, Ru.), a town 

B 4 



fi ACRAEA. 

in Sicily, W. of Syracuse, and 10 stadia from the 
river Anapus, was founded by the Syracusans 70 
years after the foundation of their own city.— 2. 
A town in Aftolia. 

Acraea ('A/fpa/a), and Acraeus, are sumnmes 
given to various goddesses and gods whose temples 
were situated upon hills, such as Zeus, Hera, 
Aphrodite. Pallas, Artemis, and others. 
Acraepheus. [Acraephia.] 
Acraephia, Acraephaae, or Acraephion ('A- 
Kpaicpia, 'AKpai(p'iai, 'AKpaKpiov : 'AKpaitpios, 'AKpai- 
<l)iaios : Kardhiiza), a town in Boeotia, on the lake 
Copais, said to have been founded by Acraepheus, 
the son of Apollo. 
Acragas. [Acrigknttm.] 
Acratus, a freedman of Nero, sent into Asia 
and Achaia (a. d. 64) to plunder the temples and 
take away the statues of the gods. 

Acriae {'AKpial, or *AKpa?at), a town in Laconia, 
not far from the mouth of the Eurotas. 

Acrillae, a town in Sicily between Agrigen- 
tum and Acrae. 

Acrisione CAKpi<nwvr]), a patronymic of Danae, 
daughter of Acrisius. Perseus, grandson of Acri- 
sius, was called in the same way AcrisiOmades. 

Acrisius ('A/fpiVioy), son of Abas, king of 
Argos, and of Ocalla, grandson of Lynceus, and 
great-grandson of Danaus. His twin-brother was 
Proetus, with whom he is said to have quarrelled 
even in the womb of his mother. Acrisius ex- 
pelled Proetus from his inheritance ; but, supported 
by his father-in-law lobates, the LA'cian, Proetus 
returned, and Acrisius was compelled to share his 
kingdom with his brother by giving up to him 
TirA-ns, while he retained Argos for himself. An 
oracle had declared that Danae, the daughter of 
Acrisius, would give birth to a son who would kill 
his grandfather. For this reason he kept Danae 
shut up in a subterraneous apartment, or in a 
brazen lo-^er. But here she became mother of Per- 
seus, notwithstanding the precautions of her father, 
according to some accounts by her uncle Proetus, 
and according to others by Zeus, who visited her 
in the form of a shower of gold. Acrisius ordered 
mother and child to be exposed on the wide sea in 
a chest ; but the chest floated towards the island 
of Seriphus, where both were rescued by Dictys. 
As to the manner in which the oracle was sub- 
sequently fulfilled, see Perseus. 

Acritas ('A/c^eiTaj : C. Galio), the most southerly 
promontory in Messenia. 

Acroceraunia (ra 'AicpoKepawia, sc. upri : C. 
Linyue(ta), a promontory in Epirus, jutting out into 
the Ionian sea, was the most westerly part of the 
Cerauxh Montes. The coast of the Acroce- 
raunia was dangerous to ships, whence Horace 
(Cum. i. 3. 20) speaks of infames scopulos Jcro- 
cerauniu. 

Acrocorintlius. [Corinthus.] 
Acrolissus. [Lissus.] 

Acron. 1. King of the Caenincnses, whom 
Romulus slew in battle, and whose arms he dedi- 
cated to Jupiter Feretrius as Spolia Opima.—2, 
An eminent physician of Agrigentura in Sicily, is 
said to have been in Athens during the great 
plague (b. c. 430) in the Peloponnesian war, and 
to have ordered large fires to be kindled in the 
streets for the purpose of purifying the air, which 
proved of great service to several of the sick. This 
fact, however, is not mentioned by Thucydides. 
The medical sect of the Empirici,' in order to boast 



ACTE. 

of a greater antiquity than the Dogmatici (foanded 
about B. c. 400), claimed Acron as their founder, 
though they did not really exist before the third 
century b. c. 

Acron, Helenius, a Roman grammarian, pro- 
bably of the fifth century A. D., wrote notes on 
Horace, part of which are extant, and also, accord- 
ing to some critics, the scholia which we have on 
Persius. 
Acropolis. [Athenae.] 
Acropolita, Georgius {redcp^/ios 'A/.-poTroAi'xTjs), 
a Byzantine writer, was born at Constantinople in 
A, D. 1220, and died in 12o2. He wrote several 
works which have come down to xis. The most 
important of them is a historj' of the Byzantine 
empire, from the taking of Constantinople by the 
Latins in 1204, down to the year 1261, when 
Michael Palaeologus delivered the city from the 
foreign yoke. Edited by Leo Al latins, Paris, 
16.51, reprinted at Venice, 1729. 

Acrorea ( -/? 'AKpu>peia), a mountainous tract of 
country in the north of Elis. 

Acrotatus {'AKpoTaros). 1. Son of Cleomenes 
II. king of Sparta, sailed to Sicily in B. c. 
314 to assist the Agrigentines against Agathocles 
of Syracuse. On his arrival at Agrigentura he 
acted with such t}-ranny that the inhabitants com- 
pelled him to leave the city. He returned to 
Sparta, and died before his father, leaving a son, 
Areus. — 2. Grandson of the preceding, and the 
son of Areus I. king of Sparta ; bravely defended 
Sparta against Pyrrhus in B. c. 272 ; succeeded 
his father as king in 265, but was killed in the 
same year in battle against Aristodemus, the tyrant 
of Megalopolis. 

Acrothoum or Acrothoi {'AKpSQusov, 'Aicp6- 
doooi : 'AKpodutrris : Lavra), afterwards called 
Uranopolis, a town near the extremity of the pen- 
insula of Athos. 

Actaea {'AKrala), daughter of Nereus and Doris. 
Actaeon (Aicra'iwv). 1. A celebrated hunts- 
man, son of Aristaeus and Autonoe, a daughter of 
Cadmus, was trained in the art of hunting by the 
centaur Chiron. One day as he was hunting, 
he saw Artemis with her nj-mphs br.thing in 
the vale of Gargaphia, whereupon the goddess 
changed him into a stag, in which form he was torn 
to pieces by his 50 dogs on Mount Cithaeron. Others 
relate that he provoked the anger of the goddess by 
boasting that he excelled her in hunting. — 2. Son 
of Melissus, and grandson of Abron, who had fled 
from Argos to Corinth for fear of the tyrant Phi- 
don. Archias, a Corinthian, enamoured w^ith the 
beauty of Actaeon, endeavoured to carry him oit ; 
but in the struggle which ensued between Melissus 
and Archias, Actaeon w^as killed. [Archias] 

Actaeus ('AKraTos), son of Erisichthon, and the 
earliest kinc;- of Attica. He had three daughters, 
Agraulos, Herse, and Pandrosus, and was suc- 
ceeded by Cecrops, who married Agraulos. 

Acte, the concubine of Nero, was originally a 
slave from Asia Minor. Nero at one time thought 
of marrying her ; whence he pretended that she 
was descended fi-om king Attains. She survived 
Nero. 

Acte ('A/cTTj), properly a piece of land running 
into the sea, and attached to another larger piece of 
land, but not necessarily by a narrow neck. 1. An 
ancient name of Attica, used especially by the 
poets.— 2. The eastern coast of Peloponnesus near 
Troezen and Epidaurus. — 3. The peninsula be- 



ACTIACUS. 

tween the Strymonic and Singitic gulfs, on which 
[ Mount Athos is. 
i Actiacus. [AcTiuM.] 

Actisanes ('AKTiadvrjs), a king of Ethiopia, 
who conquered Egypt and governed it with justice, 
in the reign of Amasis. This Amasis is a more 
ancient king than the contemporary of Cj^rus. 

Actium {"Aktiov : "Aktios : La Punta not Azio\ 
a promontory, and likewise a place, in Acarnania, at 
tlie entrance of the Amhracian gulf, off which Au- 
gustus gained the celebrated victory over Antony 
and Cleopatra, on September 2, B. c. 31 . At Actium 
there was originally no town, but only a temple of 
Apollo, who was hence called Actiacus and Actiiis. 
This temple Avas beautified by Augustus, who 
established, or rather revived, a festival to Apollo, 
called Actia (see Diet, of Ant. s. v.), and erected 
NicopOLis on the opposite coast, in commemoration 
of his victory. A few buildings sprung up around 
the temple at Actium, Imt the place was only a 

'/ kind of suburb of Nicopolis. 

I Actius. [Attius.] 

Actor CAKTwp). 1. Son of Deion and Dio- 

I mede, father of Menoetius, and grandfather of 
Patroclus. — 2. Son of Phorbas and Hyrmine, 
and husband of Molione. — 3. A companion of 
Aeneas, of whose conquered lance Turnus made a 
boast. This story seems to have given rise to the 
proverb Actoris spolium (Juv. ii, 100), for any poor 
spoil. 

Actorides or Actorion {'AicTopih]s or 'Akto- 
piwi/), patronymics of descendants of an Actor, such 
as Patroclus, Erithus, Eurytus, and Cteatus. 

Actuarius, Joannes, a Greek physician of Con- 
stantinople, probably lived in the reign of Andro- 
nicus II. Palaeologus. a. d. 1281 — 1328. He was 
the author of several medical works, which are 
extant. 

C. Aculeo, an eminent Roman lawyer, who 
married the sister of Helvia, the mother of Cicero : 
his son was C. Visellius Varro ; whence it would 
appear that Aculeo was only a surname given to 
the father from his acuteness, and that his full 
name was C. Visellius Varro Aculeo. 

Acusilaus ('AfcoutriAaos), of Argos, one of the 
earlier Greek logographers, flourished about B. c. 
525. Three books of his Genealogies are quoted, 
which Avere for the most part only a translation of 
Hesiod into prose. He wrote in the Ionic dialect. 
His fragments are published by Sturtz, Lips. 
1824, and in Didofs Fragm. Histor. Gvaec. p. 100, 
seq. 

Ada C^ASa), daughter of Hecatomnus, king of 
Caria, and sister of Mausolus, Artemisia, Idrieus, 
and Pixodarus, She was married to her brother 
Idrieus, on whose death (b. c. 344) she succeeded 
to the throne of Caria, l3ut was expelled by her 
brother Pixodarus in 340. When Alexander en- 
tered Caria in 334, Ada, Avho was in possession of 
the fortress of Alinda, surrendered this place to 
him. After taking Halicarnassus, Alexander com- 
mitted the government of Caria to her. 

Adamantea. [Amalthea.] 

Adamantius. (ASa/xat'Tfos), a Greek physician, 
flourished about a.d. 415, the author of a Greek 
treatise on Physiognomy, which is borrowed in a 
great measure from Polemo's work on the same 
subject. Edited by Franzius, in Scriplores Phy- 
siognomiae Feieres, 1780, 8vo. 

Addua (Adda), a river of Gallia Cisalpina, 
which rises in the Rhaetian Alps, and flows through 



ADONIS. 9 

the Lacus Larlus {L. di Como) into the Po, about 
8 miles above Cremona. 

Adherbal ('ATopgas), son of Micipsa, and grand- 
son of Masinissa, had the kingdom of Numidia 
left to him by his father in conjunction with his 
brother Hiempsal and Jugurtha, b. c. 1 1 8. After 
the murder of his brother by Jugurtha, Adherbal 
fled to Rome and was restored to his share of the 
kingdom by the Romans in 117. But he was 
again stripped of his dominions by Jugurtha and 
besieged in Cirta, Avhere he was treacherously 
killed by Jugurtha in 112. 

Adiahene ('ASiagTjvT]), a district of Assyria, E. 
of the Tigris, and between the river Lycus, called 
Zabatus in the Anabasis of Xenophon, and the 
Caprus, both of which are branches of the Tigris. 

Adimantus ('AdelfxavTos). 1. The commander of 
the Corinthian fleet, when Xerxes invaded Greece 
(b. c. 480), vehemently opposed the advice of The- 
mistocles to give battle to the Persians. — 2. An 
Athenian, one of the commanders at the battle of 
Aegospotami, B. c. 405, where he was taken pri- 
soner. He was accused of treachery in this battle, 
and is ridiculed by Aristophanes in the " Frogs." 
— 3. The brother of Plato, frequently mentioned 
by the latter. 

Adis ('ASi'y: Rhades ?), a considerable town on 
the coast of Africa, in the territory of Carthage 
(Zeugitana), a short distance E. of Tunis. Under 
the Romans it appears to hare been supplanted by 
a new city* named Maxula. 

Admet© ('A5iJ.7jTr]). 1. Daughter of Oceanus 
and Thetys. 2. Daughter of Eurystheus and 
Antimache or Admete. Hercules was obliged by 
her father to fetch for her the girdle of Ares, which 
was Avorn by Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. 

Admetus ("AS^tjtos). 1. Son of Pheres and 
Periclymene or Clymene, Avas king of Pherae in 
Thessaly. He took part in the Calydonian hunt 
and in the expedition of the Argonauts. He sued 
for the hand of Alcestis, the daughter of Pelias, 
Avho promised her to him on condition that he 
should come to her in a chariot drawn by lions and 
boars. This task Admetus performed by the assist- 
ance of Apollo, AA^ho served him, according to some 
accounts, out of attachment to him, or, according to 
others, because he Avas obliged to serve a mortal for 
one year for having slain the Cyclops. On the day 
of his marriage with Alcestis, Admetus neglected 
to offer a sacrifice to Artemis, but Apollo reconciled 
the goddess to him, and at the same time induced 
the Moirae to grant to Admetus deliverance from 
death, if at the hour of his death his father, mother, 
or Avife Avould die for him. Alcestis died in his 
stead, but was brought back by Hercules from the 
lower Avorld. — 2. King of the Molossians, to 
whom Themistocles fled for protection, Avhen 
pursued as a party to the treason of Pausanias. 

Adonis (^ASavis), a beautiful youth, beloved 
by Aphrodite. He Avas, according to ApoUodorus, 
a son of Cinyras and Medarme, or, according to 
the cyclic poet Panyasis, a son of Theias, king of 
Assyria, and Smyrna (Myrrha). The ancient 
story ran thus : Smyrna had neglected the Avorship 
of Aphrodite, and was punished by the goddess 
with an unnatural love for her father. With the 
assistance of her nurse she contrived to share her 
father's bed. When he discovered the crime he 
Avished to kill her ; but she fled, and on being 
nearly overtaken, prayed to the gods to make her 
invisible. They Avere moved to pity and changed 



10 ADONIS, 
her into a tree called aixvpva. After the lapse of 
9 months the tree burst, and Adonis was bom. 
Aphrodite was so much cliarmed with the beauty of 
the infant, that she concealed it in a chest which 
she cntnistcd to Persephone ; but the latter refused 
to give it up. Zeus decided the dispute by 
declarintj that during 4 months of every year 
Adonis should be left to himself, during 4 nionths 
he should belong to Persephone, and during the 
remaining 4 to Aphrodite. Adonis, however, 
preferring to live with Aphrodite, also spent with 
her the "four months over which he had control. 
Adonis afterwards died of a Avound which he re- 
ceived from a boar during the chase. The grief of 
the goddess at the loss of her favourite was so 
great, that the gods of the lower world allowed 
iiim to spend 6 months of every year with 
Aphrodite upon the earth. The worship of Adonis, 
which in later times was spread over nearly all the 
countries round the Mediterranean, was, as the 
story itSL'lf sufficiently indicates, of Asiatic, or more 
especially of Phoenician origin. Thence it was 
transferred to Assyria, Egypt, Greece, and even to 
Italy, though of course with various modifications. 
In the Homeric poems no trace of it occurs, and 
the later Greek poets changed the original symbolic 
account of Adonis into a poetical story. In the 
Asiatic religions Aphrodite was the fructifying 
principle of nature, and Adonis appears to have 
reference to the death of nature in winter and its 
revival in spring — hence he spends 6 months in 
the lower and 6 in the upper world. His death 
and his return to life were celebrated in an- 
nual festivals {Adoiiia) at Byblos, Alexandria in 
Egypt, Athens, and other places 

Adonis ("ASwi/is), a small river of Phoenicia, 
whicli rises in the range of Libanus. 

Adramyttium ('ASpajuuTTejot' or 'AdpafxvTTiov : 
*A^paij.vTTriv6s : Adramyti), a town of Mysia near 
the head of the gulf of Adramyttium, and opposite 
to the island of Lesbos. 

Adrana (Eder), a river in Germany, which 
flows into the Fulda near Cassel. 

Adranum or Hadranum {"Adpavov, "Ahpavov : 
'ASpaw'iTrjs : Adenio), a town in Sicily, on the 
river Adranus, at tlie foot of M. Aetna, was built 
by Dionysius, and was the seat of the worship of 
the god Adranus. 

Adranus (A^pavos). [Adranum.] 

Adrastia ('Aopao-Teta), 1, A Cretan nymph, 
daughter of Melisseus, to whom Rhea entrusted the 
infant Zeus to be reared in the Dictaean grotto. 
— 2. A surname of Nemesis, derived by some 
writers from Adrastus, who is said to have built 
the first sanctuary of Nemesis on the river Asopus, 
and by others from the verb SidpdaKeiv, i. e. the 
goddess whom none can escape. 

Adrastus ("ASpacTToj). 1. Sonof Talaus, kingof 
Argos, and Lysimachc, or Lysianassa or Eurynome. 
Adrastus was expelled from Argos by Amphiaraus, 
and fled to Polybus, king of Sicyon, whom he suc- 
ceeded on the throne of Sicyon, and instituted the 
Nemean games. Afterwards he became reconciled to 
Amphiaraus, and returned to his kingdom of Argos. 
He married his two daughters Deipyle and Argia, 
the former to Tydcus of Calydon, and the latter 
to Polynlces of Thebes, both fugitives from their 
native countries. He now prepared to restore Po- 
lynices to Thebes, who had been expelled by his 
brother Eteocles, although Amphiaraus foretold that 
all who should engage in the war should perish, 



I 

ADULA. 

with the exception of Adrastus. Thus arose the 
celebrated war of the " Seven against Thebes," in 
which Adrastus was joined by six other heroes, 
viz. Polynices, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, 
Hippomedon, and Parthenopaeus. Instead of Ty- 
dcus and Polynices other legends mention Eteocles 
and Mecisteus. This war ended as inifortunately 
as Amphiaraus had predicted, and Adrastus alone 
was saved by the swiftness of his horse Aiion, 
the gift of Hercules. Creon of Thebes refusing to 
allow the bodies of the six heroes to be buried, 
Adrastus went to Athens and implored the assist- 
ance of the Athenians. Theseus was persuaded to 
undertake an expedition against Thebes ; he took 
the city and delivered up the bodies of the fallen 
heroes to their friends for burial. Ten years after 
this Adrastus persuaded the seven sons of the 
heroes who had fallen in the war, to make a new 
attack upon Thebes, and Amphiaraus now promised 
success. This war is known as the war of the 
"Epigoni" (E-rriyovoL) or descendants. Thebes was 
taken and razed to the ground. The only Argive 
hero that fell in this war, was Aegialeus, the son of 
Adrastus : the latter died of grief at Megara on his 
return to Argos, and was buried in the former city. 
He was worshipped in several parts of Greece, as 
at jNIegara, at Sicyon, where his memory was cele- 
brated in tragic choruses, and in Attica. The 
legends about Adrastus and the two Avars against 
Thebes furnished ample materials for the epic as 
well as tragic poets of Greece.— 2. Son of the 
PhrA'gian king Gordius, haA'ing unintentionally 
killed his brother, fled to Croesus, Avho received 
him kindly. While hunting he accidentally killed 
Atys, the son of Croesus, and in despair put an end 
to his own life. 

Adria or Hadria. 1. (Adria), also called At- 
rica, a town in Gallia Cisalpina, betAveen the mouths 
of the Po and the Athesis (Adige), from AA^hich 
the Adriatic sea takes its name. It Avas originally 
a poAverful toAvn of the Etruscans. — 2. (Airi)^ a 
toAATi of Picenum in Italy, probably an Etruscan 
toAA'n originally, afterAvards a Roman colony, at 
Avhich place the family of the emperor Hadrian 
liA-ed. 

Adria {'ASplas, Ion. 'ASptTjs), or Mare Adria- 
ticum, also Mare Superum, so called from the 
toAATi Adria [No. 1], Avas in its Avidest signification 
the sea betAveen Italy on the W., and Illyricum, 
Epirus, and Greece, on the E. By the Greeks 
the name Adrias Avas only applied to the northern 
part of this sea, the southern part being called the 
Ionian Sea. Jj 

Adrianus. [Hadrianus.] M 

Adrianus ('Adpiauos), a Greek rhetorician,' 
born at Tyre in Phoenicia, was the pupil of He- 
rodes Atticus, and obtained the chair of philosophy 
at Athens during the lifetime of his master. He 
Avas invited by M. Antonius to Rome, where he 
died about A. D. 192. Three of his declamations 
are -extant, edited by Walz in Rhetores Graeci, 
vol. i. 1832. 

Adrumetum. [Hadrumetuji.] 

Aduatuca, a castle of the Eburones in Gaul, 
probably the same as the later Aduaca Tongrorum 
(Tonqern). 

Aduatiici or Aduatici, a powerful people of 
Gallia Belgica in the time of Caesar, Avere the de- 
scendants of the Cimbri and Teutoni, and lived 
betAveen the Scaldis (Schdde) and Mosa (Maas). 

Adula Mons. [Alpes.] 



ADULE. 



AEGAE. 



11 



Adule or Adulis ('ASovAi?, "ASouAiy, and also 
other forms : 'ASouAi'ttjs, Adulitanus : Arkiko or 

, Zula, liu.), a maritime city of Aethiopia, on a bay 

I of the Red Sea, called Adulitanus Sinus ('ASovAi- 
riK^s koXttos, Annedey Bay). It was believed to 
have been founded by slaves who fled from Egj'-pt, 
and afterwards to have fallen into the power of the 
Auxumitae, for whose trade it became the great 
emporium. Cosmas Indicopleustes (a. d. 535) 
found here the Momimmtuia Adzdiiamwi, a Greek 
inscription recounting the conquests of Ptolemy II. 
Euergetes in Asia and Thrace. 

Adyrmacliidae {'Advpfiax'tSai), a Libyan peo- 
ple, who appear to have once possessed the whole 

I coast of Africa from the Canopic mouth of the Nile 
to the Catabathmus Major, but were afterwards 

' pressed further inland. In their manners and cus- 
toms they resembled the Egyptians, to whom they 
were the nearest neighbours. 

Aea (Ala), sometimes with the addition of the 
word Colchis, may be considered either a part of 
Colchis or another name for the countr}% (Herod. 
i.2.) 

' Aeaces (Aidicris), son of Sj^ioson, and grand- 
son of Aeaces, v/as tyrant of Samos, but was de- 
prived of his tj^ranny by Aristagoras, when the 
lonians revolted from the Persians, B. c. 500. He 
then fled to the Persians, who restored him to the 
tyranny of Samos, b, c. 494. 

Aeacenm (AlaKeiov). [Aegina.] 

Aeacides (AlaKi^Tjs), a patronymic of the 
descendants of Aeacus, as Peleus, Telamon, and 
Phocus, sons of Aeacus ; Achilles, son of Peleus 
and grandson of Aeacus ; Pyrrhus, son of Achilles 
and great-grandson of Aeacus ; and Pyrrhus, king of 
Epirus, who claimed to be a descendant of Achilles. 

Aeacides, son of Arymbas, king of Epirus, 
succeeded to the throne on the death of his cousin 
Alexander, who was slain in Italy, B. c. 326. 
Aeacides married Phthia, by whom he had the 
celebrated Pyrrhus. Pie took an active part in 
favour of OljTnpias against Cassander ; but his 
subjects disliked the war, rose against their king, 
and drove him from the kingdom. He was recalled 
to his kingdom by his subjects in B. c. 313 : Cas- 
sander sent an army against him under Philip, 
who conquered him the same year in two battles, 
in the last of which he was killed. 

Aeacus (Amkos), son of Zeus and Aegina, a 
daughter of the river-god Asopus. He was born 
in the island of Oenone or Oenopia, Avhither 
Aegina had been carried by Zeus, and from 
whom this island was afterwards called Aegina. 
Some traditions related that at the birth of Aeacus, 
Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus 
changed the ants (juup^urj/fes) of the island into 
men (Myrmidones) over whom Aeacus ruled. Ovid 
(Met. vii. 520) relates the story a little difterenthr. 
Aeacus was renowned in all Greece for his justice 
and piety, and was frequently called upon to settle 
disputes not only among men, but even among 
the gods themselves. He was such a favourite 
with the gods, that, when Greece Avas visited by a 
drought, rain was at length sent upon the earth in 
consequence of his prayers. Respecting the temple 
which Aeacus erected to Zeus Panhellenius, and 
the Aeaceum, where he was worshipped by the 
Aeginetans, see Aegina. After his death Aeacus 
became one of the three judges in Hades. The 
Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of 
their island. 



Aeaea (Atai'o). 1. A surname of Circe, the 
sister of Aeetes. Her son Telegonus is likewise 
mentioned with this surname.— =2. A surname of 
Calypso, who was believed to have inhabited a 
small island of the name of Aeaea in the straits 
between Italy and Sicily. 

Aebiira {Cuerva), a town of the Carpetani in 
Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Aebatia Gens, patrician, was distinguished in 
the early ages of the Roman republic, when many 
of its members were consuls, viz. in B. c. 499, 463, 
and 442. 

Aeca or Aecae (Aecanus), a town of Apulia on 
the road from Aquilonia in Samnium to Venusia. 

Aeculanum or Aeclanum, a town of the Hir- 
pini in Samnium, a few miles S. of Beneventum. 

Aedepsus (A'l5r]\pos : Al^xpios: Dipso), a town 
on the W. coast of Euboea, N. of Chalcis, Avith 
warm baths sacred to Hercules, which the dictator 
Sulla used. 

Aedon ('A^jScoj/), daughter of Pandareus of 
Ephesus, wife of Zethus king of Thebes, and 
mother of Itylus. Envious of Niobe, the wife of 
her brother Amphion, who had six sons and six 
daughters, she resolved to kill the eldest of Niobe's 
sons, but by mistake slew her own son Itylus. 
Zeus relieved her grief by changing her into a 
nightingale, whose melancholy tunes are repre- 
sented by the poets as Aedon's lamentations about 
her child. Aedon's story is related differently in 
a later tradition. 

Aediii or Hediii, one of the most powerful peo- 
ple in Gaul, lived between the Liger {Loire) and 
the Arar (Saone). They were the first Gallic 
people who made an alliance with the Romans, by 
whom they were called " brothers and relations." 
On Caesar's arrival in Gaul, B. c. 58, they were 
subject to Ariovistus, but were restored by Caesar 
to their former power. In B. c. 52 they joined in 
the insurrection of Vercingetorix against the Ro- 
mans, but were at the close of it treated leniently 
by Caesar. Their principal town was Bibracte. 
Their chief magistrate, elected annually by the 
priests, was called Vergobretus. 

Aeetes or Aeeta (AiT^TTjj), son of Helios (the 
Sun) and Perseis, and brother of Circe, Pasiphae, 
and Perses. His wife was Idyia, a daughter of 
Oceanus, by whom he had two daughters, Medea 
and Chalciope, and one son, Absyrtus. He was 
king of Colchis at the time when Phrixus brought 
thither the golden fleece. For the remainder of 
his history, see Absyrtus, Argonautae, Jason, 
Medea. 

Aeetis, Aeetias, and Aeetine, patronymics of 
Medea, daughter of Aeetes. 

Aega (Atyri)^ daughter of Olenus, Avho with 
her sister Helice, nursed the infant Zeus in Crete, 
and was changed by the god into the constellation 
Capella. 

Aegae (Alyai : AIjolos). 1. A town in Achaia 
on the Crathis, with a celebrated temple of Posei- 
don, was originally one of the twelve Achaean 
towns, but its inhabitants subsequently removed 
to Aegira. — 2. A town in Emathia in Macedonia, 
the burial-place of the Macedonian kings, was pro- 
bably a different place from Edessa.— > 3. A town 
in Euboea with a celebrated temple of Poseidon, 
who was hence called Aegaeus. — 4. Also Aegaeae 
(Alyatai : At^earTjs), one of the twelve cities of 
Aeolis in Asia Minor, N. of Smyrna, on the river 
Hyllus : it suffered greatly from an earthquake in 



12 AEGAEON. 

the time of Tiberius. — 6. {Ayas\ a seaport town 

of Cilicia. 

Aegaeoa {Pdyaix'v), son of Uranus by Gaca. 
Aegacdn and his brothers Gygcs and Cottus are 
known under the name of the Uranids, and are 
dcscrilied as hu,i;e monsters with a hundred arms 
(eKaT(57Xfipes) and fifty lieads. Most writers men- 
tion the third Uranid under the name of Briareus 
instead of Aegacon, which is explained by Homer 
(//. i. 403), who says that men called him Aegaeon, 
but the gods Briareus. According to the most 
ancient tradition Aegaeon and his brothers con- 
quered the Titans when they made war upon the 
gods, and secured the victory to Zeus, who thrust 
the Titiuis into Tartarus, and placed Aegaeon and 
his brothers to guard them. Other legends repre- 
sent Aegaeon as one of the giants who attacked 
Olympus ; and many writers represent him as a 
marine god living in the Aegaean sea. Aegaeon 
and his brothers must be regarded as personifica- 
tions of the extraordinary powers of nature, such as 
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the like. 

Aegaeum Mare (jh hlyalov TreXayos, 6 Alya7os 
ir6vTos), the part of the JNIediterranean now called 
the Archipelaf/o. It was bounded on the N. by 
Thrace and Macedonia, on the W. by Greece, and 
on the E. by Asia Minor. It contains in its south- 
ern part two groups of islands, the Cyclades, v.'hich 
were separated from the coasts of Attica and Pe- 
loponnesus by the ^Myrtoan sea, and the Sporades, 
lying olf the coasts of Caria and Ionia. The part 
of the Aegaean which washed the Sporades was 
called the Icarian sea, from the island Icaria, one 
of the Sporades. The origin of the name of 
Aegaean is uncertain ; some derive it from Aegeus, 
the king of Athens, who threw himself into it ; 
others from Aegaca, the queen of the Amazons, who 
perished there ; others from Aegae in Euboea ; 
and others from aly'is, a squall, on account of its 
storms. 

Aegaeus (Alyalos). [Aegae, No. 3.] 
Aegaleos (AlydXeus, rh AlydXdui' opos : S/<:ar- 
matitja), a mountain in Attica opposite Salamis, 
from which Xerxes saw the defeat of his fleet. B. c. 
480. 

Aegates, the goat islands, were three islands off 
the W. coast of Sicily, between Drepanum and Lily- 
baeum, near which the Romans gained a naval 
victory over the Carthaginians, and thus brought 
the first Punic war to an end, b. c. 241. The is- 
lands were Aegusa (Alyovaaa) or Capraria {Favirj- 
nana), Phorbantia {Levunzo) and Hiera {Mure- 
timo). 

Aegeria or Egeria, one of the Camenae in 
Roman mythology, from whom Numa received his 
instructions respecting the forms of worsliip which 
he introduced. The grove in Avhich the king had 
his interviews with the goddess, and in which a 
well gushed forth from a dark recess, was dedi- 
cated by him to the Camenae. The Roman legends 
point out two distinct places sacred to Aegeria, one 
near Aricia, and the other near Rome at the Porta 
Capena, in the valley now called Caparclla. Aegeria 
was regarded as a prophetic divinity, and also as 
the giver of life, whence she was invoked by 
pregnant women. 

Aegesta. [Segest.a.] 

Aegestus. TAcestbs.] 

Aegeus {Aly^vs). 1. Son of Pandion and king 
of Athens. He had no children by his first two 
wives, but he afterwards begot Theseus by Aethra 



AEGIMIUS. 
at Troezen. When Theseus had gro\vn up to . 
manhood, he went to Athens and defeated the 
50 sons of his imcle Pallas, who had made war 
upon Aegeus and had deposed him. Aegeus waa 
now restored. When Theseus went to Crete to 
deliver Athens from the tribute it had to pay to 
Minos, he promised his father that on his return he 
would hoist white sails as a signal of his safety. 
On approaching the coast of Attica he forgot his 
promise, and his father, perceiving the black sail, 
thought that his son had perished and threw him- 
self into the sea, which according to some tradi- 
tions received from this event the name of the 
Aegean. Aegeus was one of the eponymous 
lieroes of Attica ; and one of the Attic tribes 
(Aegeis) derived its name from him.— 2. The 
eponymous hero of the phyle called the Aegidae 
at Sparta, son of Oeolycus, and grandson of Theras, 
the founder of the colony in Thera. All the 
Aegeids were believed to be Cadmeans, who formed 
a settlement at Sparta previous to the Dorian con- 
quest. 

Aegiae (Ai76/at, Alyalai), a small town in La- 
conia, not far from Cvthium, the Augiae of Homer 
(//. ii.5J!3). 

Aegiale or Aegialea {AlyidXt]^ AlyidXeia)^ 
daughter of Adrastus and Amphithea, or of Aegia- 
leus the son of Adrastus, whence she is called Adras- 
tine. She was married to Diomedes, who, on his 
return from Troy, found her living in adulter}' Avith 
Cometes. The hero attributed this misfortune to 
the anger of Aphrodite, whom he had wounded in 
the war acrainst Trov : when Aegiale threatened ' 
his life, he fled to Italy. 

Aegialea, Aegialcs. [Achaia ; Sicyon.] 

Aegialeus (Aiyiakevs). 1. Son of Adrastus, 
the only one among the Epigoni that fell in the 
war against Thebes. [Adrastus.]— 2. Son of 
Inachus and the Oceanid Melia, from whom the , 
part of Peloponnesus afterv.-ards called Achaia de- '} 
rived its name Aegialea : he is said to have been 
the first king of Sicyon.— 3. Son of Aeetes, and 
brother of Medea, commonly called Absyrtus. 

Aegldes (Alyeidrjs), a patronymic from Aegeus, 
especially his son Theseus. 

Aegila (ra At7jA«), a town of Laconia with a 
temple of Demeter. 

Aegllia (At7iAia : AlyiAievs). 1. A demus of 
Attica belonging to the tribe Antiochis, celebrated !j 
for its figs. — 2. (Cerigotio), an island between ' 
Crete and Cythera. — 3. An island W. of Euboea 
and opposite Attica. 

Aegimius (Alyi/LLios), the mythical ancestor of 
the Dorians, whose king he was w^hen they were 
yet inhabiting the northern parts of Thessaly. In- 
volved in a war with the Lapithae, he called Her- 
cules to his assistance, and promised him the third 
part of his territory, if he delivered him from his | 
enemies. The Lapithae were conquered. Hercules 
did not take the territory for himself, but left it to 
the king Avho was to preserve it for the sons of 
Hercules. Aegimius had two sons, Dymas and 
Pamphylus, who migrated to Peloponnesus, and 
were regarded as the ancestors of two branches of 
the Doric race (Dymanes and Paraphylians), while • 
the third branch derived its name" from Hyllus J 
(Hylleans), the son of Hercules, who had been 
adopted by Aegimius. There existed in antiquity j 
an epic poem called Aegimius, which described the 
war of Aegimius and Hercules against the La- i 
pithae. 



AEGIMURUS. 



AEGYPTUS. 



13 



Aegimnrus (Alyl/jLovpos, Aegimori Arae, Plin., 
and probably the Arae of Virg. Aen. i. 108 ; 
Zoivamour or Zemhra)^ a lofty island, surrounded 
by cliffs, off the African coast, at the mouth of the 
Gulf of Carthage. 

Aegina {hiyLva : AlytyfjTTjs : EgJiina), a rocky 
island in the middle of the Saronic gulf, about 200 
I stadia in circumference. It was originally called 
Oenone or Oenopia, and is said to have obtained 
the name of Aegina from Aegina, the daughter 
i of the river god Asopus, who was carried to the 
island by Zeus, and there bore him a son Aeacus. 
As the island had then no inhabitants, Zeus 
changed the ants into men (Myrmidones), over 
whom Aeacus ruled. [Abacus.] It was first co- 
lonized by Achaeans, and afterwards by Dorians 
from Epidaurus, whence the Doric dialect and cus- 
. toms prevailed in the island. It was at first closely 
connected with Epidaurus, and was subject to the 
Argive Phidon, who is said to have established a 
silver-mint in the island. It early became a place of 
great commercial importance, and its silver coinage 
was the standard in most of the Dorian states. In 
the sixth century B. c. Aegina became independent, 
and for a century before the Persian war was a 
prosperous and powerful state. The Aeginetans 
fought with 30 ships against the fleet of Xerxes at 
the battle of Salamis, B. c. 480, and are allowed 
to have distinguished themselves above all the 
other Greeks by tlieir bravery. After this time 
its power declined. In B. c. 429 the Athenians 
took possession of the island and expelled its inha- 
bitants, and though a portion of them was restored 
by Lysander in B. c. 404, the island never re- 
covered its former prosperity. In the N W. of the 
island there was a city of the same name, which 
contained the Aeaceum or temple of Aeacus, and 
on a hill in the NE. of the island was the cele- 
brated temple of Zeus Panhellenius, said to have 
been built by Aeacus, the ruins of which are still 
extant. The sculptures which occupied the tym- 
pana of the pediment of this temple were discovered 
in 1811, and are now preserved at Munich. In the 
half century preceding the Persian war, and for a 
few years afterwards, Aegina was the chief seat of 
Greek art : the most eminent artists of the Aegi- 
netan school were Gallon, Anaxagoras, Glau- 
ciAs, Simon, and Onatas. 

Aegineta Paulus. [Paulus Aegineta.] 

Aegimum (Alyiviov : Alyiuievs : Stagus), a 
town of the Tymphaei in Thessaly on the con- 
fines of Athamania. 

Aegiochus {Aiyioxos)^ a surname of Zeus, be- 
cause he bore the Aegis. 

Aegipan {AlyUo.v), that is, Goat-Pan, was, ac- 
cording to some, a being distinct from Pan, while 
others regard him as identical with Pan. His story 
appears to be of late origin. [Pan.] 

Aegiplanctus Mons (rb Aly'nvXayKrov opos), 
a mountain in Megaris. 

Aegira (Aiyeipa : Alyeipdrrfs), formerly Hy- 
peresia {'Tirepiia-ia), a town in Achaia on a steep 
hill, with a sea-port about 12 stadia from the town. 
[Aegae, No. 1.] 

Aegirussa {Aiyip6e(T(ra^ Alyipodaaa)^ one of the 
12 cities of Aeolis in Asia Minor. 

Aegisthiis (Aiyiados), son of Thyestes, v/ho 
unwittingly begot him by his own daughter Pe- 
iopia. Immediately after his birth he was exposed, 
but was saved by shepherds and suckled by a 
goat (ai"^), whence his name. His uncle Atreus 



brought him up as his son. When Pelopia lay 
with her father, she took from him his sword, 
which she afterwards gave to Aegisthus. This 
sword was the means of revealing the crime of 
Thj^estes, and Pelopia thereupon put an end to 
her own life. Aegisthus murdered Atreus, because 
he had ordered him to slay his father Thyestes, 
and he placed Thyestes upon the throne, of which 
he had been deprived by Atreus. Homer appears 
to know nothing of these tragic events ; and we 
learn from him only that Aegisthus succeeded 
his father Thyestes in a part of his dominions. 
According to Homer Aegisthus took no part in the 
Trojan war, and during the absence of Agamemnon, 
the son of Atreus, Aegisthus seduced his Avife 
Clytemnestra. Aegisthus murdered Agamemnon 
on his return home, and reigned 7 years over My- 
cenae. In the 8th Orestes, the son of Agamem- 
non, avenged the death of his father by putting 
the adulterer to death. [Agamemnon, Clytem- 
nestra, Orestes.] 

Aegithallus {AlyidaKXos ; C. di S. Teodoro)^ 
a promontory in Sicily, between Lilybaeum and 
Drepanum, near which was the town Aegithallum. 

Aegitmm {AlyiTiov), a town in Aetolia, on the 
borders of Locris. 

Aegium {Aiyiov : Alyievs : VostUza)^ a town of 
Achaia, and the capital after the destraction of 
Helice. The meetings of the Achaean league were 
held at Aegium in a grove of Zeus called Homarium. 

Aegle (A^y\7)), that is " Brightness" or "Splen- 
dour," is the name of several mythological females, 
such as, 1. The daughter of Zeus and Neaera, the 
most beautiful of the Naiads ;— 2. A sister of 
Phaeton ; — 3. One of the Hesperides ;— 4. A 
nymph beloved by Theseus, for whom he forsook 
Ariadne 5. One of the daughters of Aesculapius. 

Aegletes (At^A^TTjs), that is, the radiant god, 
a surname of Apollo. 

Aegocerus (AlyoKepws), a surname of Pan, de^ 
scriptive of his figure with the horns of a goat, but 
more commonly the name of one of the signs of the 
Zodiac, Capricornus. 

AegOS-Potamos {Alyls -noraiios), the " goat's- 
river," a small river, with atovvn of the same name 
on it, in the Thracian Chersonesus, flows into the 
Hellespont. Here the Athenians were defeated 
by Lysander, B. c. 405. 

Aegostliena {AlyoGQ^va: AlyoaOevevs, Alyo- 
adev'iTrjs), a town in Megaris on the borders of 
Boeotia, with a sanctuary of Melampus. 

Aegus and Roscillus, two chiefs of the Allo- 
broges, who had served Caesar with fidelity in the 
Gallic war, deserted to Pompey in Greece (b. c. 48). 

AegHsa. [Aegates.] 

Aegypsus or Aegysiis, a town of Moesia on 
the Danube. 

Aegjrptus (AtyvKTos), son of Belus and An- 
chinoe or Achiroe, and twin-brother of Danaus. 
Belus assigned Libya to Danaus, and Arabia to 
Aegyptus, but the latter subdued the country of 
the Melampodes, which he called Aegypt after 
his own name. Aegyptus by his several wives 
had 50 sons, and his brother Danaus 50 daughters. 
Danaus had reason to fear the sons of his brother, 
and fled with his daughters to Argos in Pelopon- 
nesus. Thither he Avas followed by the sons of 
Aegyptus, who demanded his daughters for their 
wives, and promised faithful alliance. Danaus 
complied with their request, and distributed his 
daughter.? among them, but to each of them he 



14 AEGYPTUS. 
gave a dagger, with wliich they were to kill their 
husbands in the bridal night. All the sons of 
Aegyptus were thus murdered, with the exception 
of Lvnceus, who was saved by Plypermnestra. 
The banaids buried the heads of their murdered 
husbands in Lerna, and their bodies outside the 
town, and were afterwards purified of their crime 
by Athena and Hermes at the command of Zeus. 

' Aegyptus (t) AtyvirTos : Alyvimos, Acgyptius : 
E[/)/p( ), a country in the N. E. corner of Africa, 
bounded on the' N. by the Mediterranean, on 
the E. by Palestine, Arabia Petraea, and the Red 
Sea, on the S. by Ethiopia, the division between 
the two countries being at the First or Little Cataract 
of the Nile, close to Syene {Assoucm ; Lat. 24° 
8'), and on the W. by the Great Libyan Desert. 
This is the extent usually assigned to the country ; 
but it would be more strictly correct to define it as 
that part of the basin of the Nile which lies below 
the First Cataract. — \. Physical Description of 
Egypt. The river Nile, flowing from S. to N. 
through a narrow valley, encounters, in Lat. 24° 8', 
a natural barrier, composed of two islands (Philae 
and Elephantine) and between them a bed of 
sunken rocks, by which it is made to fall in a 
series of cataracts, or rather rapids (ra KaraSouTra, 
d fiiKphs KarappaKTTjy, Catarrhactes jNIinor, comp. 
Catarrhactes), which have always been re- 
garded as the southern limit assigned by nature to 
Egypt. The river flows due N. between two 
ranges of hills, so near each other as to leave 
scarcely any cultivable land, as far as Silsilis (Jebel 
Selseleh), about 40 miles below Syene, where the 
valley is enlarged by the W. range of hills retiring 
from the river. Thus the Nile flows for about 
500 miles, through a valley whose average breadth 
is about 7 miles, between hills which in one place 
(W. of Thebes) attain the height of ] 000 or 1200 
feet above the sea, to a point some few miles below 
Memphis, where the W. range of hills runs to the 
N. W., and the E. range strikes off to the E., and 
the river divides into branches (seven in ancient 
time, but now only two), which flow through a low 
alluvial land, called, from its shape, the Delta, into 
the ^Mediterranean. To this valley and Delta must 
be added the country round the great natural lake 
Moeris (Dirkei-el-Keroun\ called Nomos Arsinoites 
(Faioum), Ij'ing N. W. of Heracleopolis, and con- 
nected with the valley of the Nile by a break in 
the W. range of hills. The whole district thus de- 
scribed is periodically laid under water by the over- 
flowing of the Nile from April to October. The 
river, in subsiding, leaves behind a rich deposit of 
fine mud, which forms the soil of Egypt. All be- 
yond the reach of the inundation is rock or sand. 
Hence Egypt was called the " Gift of the Nile." 
The extent of the cultivable laud of Egypt is in 
the Delta about 4500 square miles, in the valley 
about 2255, in Faioum about 340, and in all about 
7095 square miles. The outlying portions of 
ancient Egypt consisted of 3 cultivable valleys 
(called Oases), in the midst of the Western or Li- 
byan Desert, a valley in the W. range of hills on the 
W. of the Delta, called Nomos Nitriotes from the 
Natron Lakes which it contains, some settlements 
on the coast of the Red Sea and in the mountain 
passes between it and the Nile, and a strip of coast 
on the Mediterranean, extending E. as far as Rlii- 
nocolura { El-Arish), and AV. as far (according to 
some of the ancients) as the Catabathmus Magnus 
(Long, about 9,5° 10' E.). The only river of 




Egypt is the Nile [NiLUs]. A great artificial 
canal {Bahr-Yussouf, i. e. Josepli's Canal) runs 
parallel to the river, at the distance of about 6 
miles, from Diospolis Parva in the Thebais to a 
point on the W. mouth of the river about half-way 
between Memphis and the sea. Many smaller 
canals were cut to regulate the irrigation of the 
country. A canal from the E. mouth of the Nile 
to the head of the Red Sea was commenced under 
the native kings, and finished by Darius, son of 
Hystaspes. There were several lakes in the coun- 
tr}', respecting which see Moeris, Mareotis, 
BuTos, Tams, Sirboxis, and Lacus Amari. 
— 2. Ancient History. At the earliest period, to 
which civil history reaches back, Egypt was in- 
habited by a highly civilized agricultural people, 
under a settled monarchical government, divided 
into castes, the highest of which was composed of 
the priests, who were the ministers of a religion 
based on a pantheistic worship of nature, and hav- 
ing for its sacred sjinbols not only images but also 
living animals and even plants. The priests were 
also in possession of all the literature and science 
of the country and all the employments based upon 
such knowledge. The other castes were, 2nd, the 
soldiers, 3rd, the husbandmen, 4th, the artificers 
and tradesmen, and last, held in great contempt, 
the shepherds or herdsmen, poulterers, fishermen, 
and servants. The Egyptians possessed a written 
language, which appears to have had affinities with 
both the great families of Language, the Semitic 
and the Indo-European ; and the priestly caste had, 
moreover, the exclusive knowledge of a sacred sys- 
tem of writing, the characters of which are known 
by the name oiHieroc/li/phics, in contradistinction 
to which the common characters are called Encho- 
rial (i. c. of the country). They Avere acquainted 
with all the processes of manufacture which are 
essential to a highly civilized community : they 
had made great advances in the fine arts, especially 
architecture and sculpture (for in painting their 
progress was impeded by a want of knowledge of 
perspective) : they were deterred from commercial 
enterprize by the policy of the priests, but they 
obtained foreign productions to a great extent, 
chiefly through the Phoenicians, and at a later 
period they engaged in maritime expeditions : in 
science they do not seem to have advanced so far 
as some have thought, but then- religion led them 
to cultivate astronomy and its application to chrono- 
logy, and the nature of their country made a know- 
ledge of geometry- (in its literal sense) indispensable, 
and their application of its principles to architecture 
is attested by their extant edifices. There can be 
little doubt that the origin of this remarkable people 
and of their early civilization is to be traced to the 
same Asiatic source as the early civilization of Assyria 
and India. The ancient history of Egypt may be 
divided into 4 great periods : — (1) From the earliest 
times to its conquest by Cambyses ; during which 
it was ruled by a succession of native princes, into 
the difficulties of whose history this is not the 
place to inquire. The last of them, Psammenitus, 
was conquered and dethroned by Cambyses in 
B. c. 525, when Egypt became a province of the 
Persian empire. During this period Egypt was 
but little known to the Greeks. The "Homeric 
poems show some sliglit acquaintance with the 
country and its river (which is also called A'tyjirros. 
Od. siv. 25), and refer to the wealth and splen- 
dour of " Thfcbes v;ith the Hundred Gates."' In the 



AEGYPTUS. 

latter part of the period learned men among the 
Greeks began to travel to Egypt for the sake of 
studying its institutions : among others it was 
visited by Pythagoras, Thales, and Solon. (2) 
From the Persian conquest in B. c, 525, to the 
transference of their dominion to the Macedonians 
in B. c. 332. This period was one of almost con- 
stant struggles between the Egyptians and their 
conquerors, until B.C. 340, when Nectanebo II., 
the last native ruler of Egypt, _ was defeated by 
Darius Ochus. It was during this period that the 
Greeks acquired a considerable knowledge of 
Egypt. In the wars between Egypt and Persia, 
the two leading states of Athens and Sparta at 
different times assisted the Eg)T)tians, according 
to the state of their relations to each other and to 
Persia ; and, during the intervals of those wars, 
Egypt was visited by Greek historians and philoso- 
phers, such as Hellanicus, Herodotus, Anaxagoras, 
; Plato, and others, who brought back to Greece the 
' knowledge of the country which they acquired 
from the priests and through personal observation. 
I (3) The dynasty of Macedonian kings, from the 
i accession of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, in B. c. 
I 323, down to b. c. 30, when Egypt became a pro- 
j vince of the Roman empire. When Alexander 
I invaded Egypt in B. c. 332, the country submitted 
I to him without a struggle ; and, while he left it 
i behind him to return to the conquest of Persia, he 
conferred upon it the greatest benefit that was in 
his power, by giving orders for the building of 
Alexandria. In the partition of the empire of 
Alexander after his death in b. c. 323, Egypt fell 
to the share of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, who 
assumed the title of king in B. c. 306, and founded 
the dj-nasty of the Ptolemies, under whom the 
country greatly flourished, and became the chief 
seat of Greek learning. But soon came the period 
of decline. Wars with the adjacent kingdom of 
Syria, and the vices, weaknesses, and dissensions of 
the royal family, wore out the state, till in b. c. 81 
the Romans were called upon to interfere in the 
disputes for the crown, and in b. c. 55 the dynasty 
of the Ptolemies came to be entirely dependent 
on Roman protection, and, at last, after the battle 
of Actium and the death of Cleopatra, who was 
the last of the Ptolemies, Egypt was made a 
Roman province, B. c. 30. (4) Egypt under the 
Romans, down to its conquest by the Arabs in 
A. D. 638. As a Roman province, Egypt was one 
of the most flourishing portions of the empire. The 
fertility of its soil, and its position between Europe 
and Arabia and India, together with the possession 
of such a port as Alexandria, gave it the full be- 
nefit of the two great sources of wealth, agriculture 
and commerce. Learning continued to flourish at 
Alexandria, and the patriarchs of the Christian 
Church in that city became so powerful as to con- 
tend for supremacy with those of Antioch, Constan- 
tinople, and Rome, wliile a succession of teachers, 
such as Origen and Clement of Alexandria, con- 
ferred real lustre on the ecclesiastical annals of the 
country. When the Arabs made their great in- 
road upon the Eastern empire, the geographical 
position of Egypt naturally caused it to fall an 
immediate victim to that attack, which its wealth 
and the peaceful character of its inhabitants in- 
vited. It was conqxiered by Amrou, the lieutenant 
of the Caliph Omar, in A. D. 638. — 3. Political 
GeocjrajAy. — From the earliest times the country 
was divided into (1) The Delta or Lower Egj^t 



AEMILIA. 15 

(rb AeA-ra, 7? koltco X^P"-> El-Baliari, EUKehit) 
(2) The Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, 'ETrrai/o/xts, 
■q (xerai^v X^P"-) Mesr Mostani) ; (3) The Thebais, 
or Upper Egypt (0i7§ats, ?) cxvco x^P^y Said) : 
and it was further subdivided into 36 nomes or 
governments. Respecting the Oases, see Oasis. 

Aegys {P^iyvs, Al-yvr-qs : nr. Ghiorgiiza), a 
town of Laconia on the borders of Arcadia. 

Aelana {KiXava: Al\auLT7}s), a town on the 
northern arm of the Red Sea, near the Bahr-el- 
Akaba, which was called by the Greeks Aelanites 
from the name of the town. It is the Elath of the 
Hebrews, and one of the sea-ports of which Solomon 
possessed himself. 

Aelia Gens, plebeian, the members of which are 
given under their surnames, Gallus, Lamia, 
Paetus, Sejanus, Stilo, Tubeko. 

Aelia, a name given to Jerusalem after its re- 
storation by the Roman emperor Aelius Hadrianus. 

Aelianus, Claudius, was born at Praeneste 
in Italy, and lived at Rome about the middle of 
the 3rd century of the Christian era. Though an 
Italian, he spoke and wrote Greek as well as a 
native Athenian. He never married, and lived to 
the age of 60. Two of his works have come down 
to us : one a collection of miscellaneous history 
(UoiKiXr] 'IffTopia) in 14 books, commonly called 
Varia Historia ; and the other a work on the pe - 
culiarities of animals (Ilepl Zcowi/ iBiorriTos) in 17 
books, commonly called De Animalium Natura. 
The former work contains short narrations and 
anecdotes, historical, biographical, antiquarian, &c., 
selected from various authors, generally without 
their names being given, and on a great variety 
of subjects. The latter work is of the same kind, 
scrappy and gossipping. It is partly collected from 
older Avriters, and partly the result of his own 
observations both in Italy and abroad. There are 
also attributed to him 20 letters on husbandry 
KypoiKiKcu 'EiricTTokal), written in a rhetorical 
style and of no value, — Editions. Of the Varia 
Historia, by Perizonius, Leyden, 1701 ; by Gro^ 
novius, Leyden, 1731 ; and b}'- Kiihn, Leipzig, 
1780. Of the De Anivialium Natura., by Grono- 
vius, Lond. 1744 ; by J. Schneider, Leipzig, 1784 ; 
and by Fr. Jacobs, Jena, 1832. Of the Letters., 
by Aldus Manutius, in his Collectio Epistolarzmt 
Graecarum, Venice, 1499, 4to. 

Aelianus Meccius, an ancient physician, who 
must have lived in the 2nd century after Christ, 
as he is mentioned by Galen as the oldest of his 
tutors. 

Aelianus Tacticus, a Greek writer, Avho lived 
in Rome and wrote a work on the Militarj'- Tactics 
of the Greeks (riepl 1,TpaTriyiKchv Tc{|ewz/ 'EAA??- 
viKwu), dedicated to the emperor Hadrian. He 
also gives a brief account of the constitution of a 
Roman army at that time. — Editions. By Fran- 
ciscus Robortellus, Venice. 1552 ; and by Elzevir, 
Leyden, 1613. 

Aello, one of the Harpies. [Harpyiae.] 

Aellopus {'AeXKdivovs), a surname of Iris, the 
messenger of the gods, by which she is described 
as swift-footed as a storm-wind. 

Aemilia. 1. The 3rd daughter of L. Aemilius 
Paulus, who fell in the battle of Cannae, was the 
Avife of Scipio Africanus I. and the mother of the 
celebrated Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi. — 
2. Aemilia Lepida. [Lepida.] "=-3, A Vestal virgin, 
put to death u. c. 114 for having committed incest 
upon several occasions. 



16 AEMILIA GENS. 

Aemllia Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
pentes at Rome, said to have been descended from 
Mamercus, who received the name of Aerailius on 
account of the persuasiveness of his language 
al/JivK'tav x6yov). This Mamercus is represented 
by some as the son of Pythagoras, and by others 
as the son of Numa, 'The most distinguished 
members of the gens are given under their surnames 
Barbui-a, Lepidus, Mamercus or Mamer- 
ciNus, Papus, Paulus, Regillus, Scaurus. 

Aemilia Via, made by M. Aerailius Lepidus, 
cos. B. c. 1{)7, continued the Via Flaminiafroni Ari- 
minum, and traversed the heart of Cisalpine Gaul 
through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, Placentia (where 
it crossed the Po) to Mediolanum. It was sub- 
sequently continued as far as Aquileia. 

AenuliSnus. 1. The son of L. Aemilius Paulus 
Macedonicus, was adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio, 
the son of P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, and was 
thus called P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africa- 
nus. [Scipio.] —2. The governor of Pannonia and 
Moesia in the reign of Gallus, was proclaimed em- 
peror by his soldiers in a. d. 253, but was slain by 
them after reigning a few months. — 3. One of the 
30 tyrants (a.d. 259 — 268), assumed the purple 
in Egypt, but was taken prisoner and strangled by 
ord'-r of Gallkjnus. 

Aemilius Probus. [Nepos, Cornelius.] 

Aemona or Emona (Laibach), a fortified town 
in Pannonia, and an important Roman colony, said 
to have been built by the Argonauts. 

Aenaria, also called Pitheciisa and Inarime 
(Ischia), a volcanic island olf the coast of Campania, 
at the entrance of the bay of Naples, under which 
the Roman poets represented Typhoeus as lying. 

Aenea (Afi/eio : Alveievs, AiVeiarTjs), a town 
in Chalcidice, on the Thermaic gulf. 

Aeneades (AtVeiaSTjs), a patron}Tiiic from Ae- 
neas, given to his son Ascanius or lulus, and to 
those who were believed to be descended from him, 
such as Augustus, and the Romans in general. 

Aeneas (AiVelas). 1. Homeric Story. Aeneas 
was the son of Anchises and Aphrodite, and born 
on mount Ida. On his father's side he was a 
great-grandson of Tros, and thus nearly related 
to the royal house of Troy, as Priam himself 
was a grandson of Tros. He was educated from 
his infancy at Dardanus, in the house of Alca- 
thous, the husband of his sister. At first he 
took no part in the Trojan war ; and it was not 
till Achilles attacked him on mount Ida, and drove 
away his flocks, that he led his Dardanians against 
the Greeks. Henceforth he and Hector are the 
great bulwarks of the Trojans against the Greeks,' 
and Aeneas appears beloved by gods and men. On 
more than one occasion he is saved in battle by 
the gods : Aphrodite carried him off when he was 
wounded by Diomedes, and Poseidon, when he 
was on the point of perishing by the hands of 
Achilles. Homer makes no allusion to the emi- 
gration of Aeneas after the capture of Troy, but on 
the contrary he evidently conceives Aeneas and his 
descendants as reigning at Troy after the extinction 
of the house of Priam. — Later Stories. The later 
stories present the greatest variations respecting the 
conduct of Aeneas at the rapture of Troy and in 
the events immediately following. Most accounts, 
however, agree that after the city had fallen, he 
withdrew to mount Ida with his friends and the 
images of the gods, especially that of Pallas {Pal- 
ladium) ; and that from thence he crossed over to 



AENEAS. I 

Europe, and finally settled at Latium in Italjfll 
where he became the ancestral hero of the Romans. 
A description of- the wanderings of Aeneas before 
he reached Latium, and of the various towns and 
temples he was believed to have founded during 
his wanderings, is given by Dionysius of Halicar- 
nassus (i. 50, &c.), whose account is on the whole the 
same as the one followed by Virgil in his Aeneid, 
althouffh the latter makes various embellishments 
and additions, some of which, such as his landing 
at Carthage and meeting with Dido, are irrecon- 
cilable with mythical chronology. From Pallene, 
where Aeneas stayed the winter after the taking of 
Tro}-, he sailed with his companions to Delos, Cy- 
thera,Boiae in Laconia, Zacynthus,Leucas, Actium, 
Ambracia, and to Dodona, where he met the Trojan 
Helenus. From Epirus he sailed across the Ionian 
sea to Italy, where he landed at the lapygian pro- 
montorv'. Thence he crossed over to Sicily, where 
he met the Trojans, Elymus and Aegestus (Aces- 
tes), and built the towns of Ehme and Aegesta. 
From Sicily he sailed back to Itah*, landed in the 
port of Palinurus, came to the island of Leucasia, 
and at last to the coast of Latium. Various 
signs pointed out this place as the end of his 
wanderings, and he and his Trojans accordingly 
settled in Latium. The place where they had 
landed was called Troy. Latinus, king of the Ab- 
origines, prepared for war, but afterwards concluded 
an alliance with the strangers, gave up to them 
part of his dominions, and with their assistance 
conquered the Rutulians. Aeneas founded the 
town of Lavinium, called after Lavinia,the daughter 
of Latinus, whom he married. A new war then 
followed between Latinus and Tumus, in which 
both chiefs fell, whereupon Aeneas became sole 
ruler of the Aborigines and Trojans, and both 
nations were united into one. Soon after this 
Aeneas fell in a battle with the Rutulians, who 
were assisted by Mezentius, king of the Etruscans. 
As his bod}' was not found after the battle, it was 
believed that it had been carried up to heaven, or 
that he had perished in the river Numicius. The 
Latins erected a monument to him, with the in- 
scription To the fatlier and native god. Virgil re- 
presents Aeneas landing in Italy 7 years after 
the fall of Troy, and comprises all the events in 
Italy from the landing to the death of Tumus, 
within the space of 20 days. The story of the 
descent of the Romans from the Trojans through 
Aeneas was believed at an early period, but pro- 
bably rests on no historical foundation.— 2. Aeneas 
Silvius, son of Silvius, and grandson of Ascanius, 
is the 3rd in the list of the mythical kings of Alba 
in Latium : the Silvii regarded him as the founder 
of their house. 

Aeneas Gazaeus, so called from Gaza, his birth- 
place, flourished a. d. 487. He was at first a Pla- 
tonist and a Sophist, but afterwards became a 
Christian, when he composed a dialogue. On the 
Immortality of the Soul, called TheophroMus. — 
Editions. By Barthius, Lips. 1655 ; by Boissonade, 
Par. 1836. 

Aeneas Tactions, a Greek wTiter, may be the 
same as the Aeneas of Stvmphalus, the general of 
the Arcadians, b. c. 362 '(Xen. Hell vii. 3. § 1) ; 
and he probably lived about that period. He wrote 
a work on the art of war, of which a portion only 
is preserved, commonly called Commentarius Polior- 
ceiicus, showing how a siege should be resisted. 
An epitome of the whole book was made by Ciaeas. 



COINS OF PERSONS. AEMILIANUS —ALEXANDER. 




Agrippina I. Head of Caligula on the obverse. Page 28. 




Agrippina II. Head of Claudius on the reverse. Page 82. 




Cn. Domitius Ahcnobarbus. Page 29. AnExOBAHBUS, No. 




Albinus Clodius, Roman Emperor, a. d. 197. Page 31. 
{.To face p. 17. 



Alexander I., King of Macedonia, b. c. 507 — 435. Page 35. 




Alexander II., King of Macedonia, b. C. 369 — 367. Page 35. 




Alexander III., King of T^Iacedonia, B.C. 336 — 323. 

Pages 35 — 37. 



Alexander Balas, King of Syria, n. c. 150 — 14G. Pfge : 



AENESIDEMUS. 
(Cic. ad Fam. ix. 25.) — Editions. By Emesti, 
Lips. 1763 ; by Orelli, Lips. 1818. 

Aenesidemus(AtV7]o-t57]juoj),acelebrated sceptic, 
bom at Cnossus in Crete, probably lived a little 
later than Cicero. He differed on many points 
from the ordinary sceptics. The grand peculiarity 
of his system was the attempt to unite scepticism 
with the earlier philosophy, to raise a positive 
foundation for it by accounting from the nature of 
things for the never-ceasing changes both in the 
material and spiritual world. None of the works 
of Aenesidemus have come down to us. To them 
Sextus Empiricus was indebted for a considerable 
part of his work. 

Aenianes (AtViaves, Ion. 'Evirjves), an ancient 
Greek race, originally near Ossa, afterwards in 
southern Thessaly, between Oeta and Othrys, on 
the banks of the Spercheus. 

Aenus (Alvos : klvios, AtViaxTjs : Eno)^ an 
ancient town in Thrace, near the mouth of the 
Hebrus, mentioned in the Iliad. It was colonized 
by the Aeolians of Asia Minor. Virgil {Aen. iii. 
18) supposes Aenos to have been built by Aeneas, 
but he confounds it with Aknea in Chalcidice. 
Under the Romans Aenos was a free town, and a 
place of importance. 

Aenus {Iim) a river in Rhaetia, the boundary 
between Rhaetia and Noricum. 

Aeoles or Aeolii (AioAeis), one of the chief 
branches of the Hellenic race, supposed to be de- 
scended from Aeolus, the son of Hellen. [Aeolus, 
No. 1.] They originally dwelt in Thessaly, from 
whence they spread over various parts of Greece, 
and also settled in Aeolis in Asia Minor, and in 
the island of Lesbos. 

Aeoliae Insiilae ( ot Ki6\ov vr\(roi : Lipari 
Islands), a group of islands N. E. of Sicily, where 
Aeolus, the god of the winds, reigned. Homer (Od. 
X. 1) mentions only one Aeolian island, and Virgil 
(Aen.i. 52) accordingly speaks of only one ^eo- 
lia (sc. insula), Avhere Aeolus reig-ned, supposed 
to be Strongyle or Lipara. These islands Avere 
also called Hephaesiiades or Vulcdriiae, because 
Hephaestus or Vulcan was supposed to have 
had his workshop in one of them called Hiera. 
(Virg. Ae7i. viii. 415, seq.) They were also named 
Liparejises, from Lipara, the largest of them. 
The names of these islands were, Lipara (Lipari) ; 
Hiera ( Volcano) ; Strongyle (Strojuboli) ; Phoe- 
nicusa (Felicudi) ; Ericusa (Alicudi) ; Euonymus 
(Panaria) ; Didyme {Sali7ia) ; Hicesia (Lisca Bi- 
anca) ; Basilidia (Basilizzo) ; Osteodes {Ustica). 

Aeolides (AtoA/STjs), a patronymic given to 
the sons of Aeolus, as Athamas, Cretheus, Sisyphus, 
Salmoneus, «&c., and to his grandsons, as Cephalus, 
Ulysses and Phrixus. Aeolis is the patronymic 
of the female descendants of Aeolus, given to his 
daughters Canace and Alcyone. 

Aeolis (AtoAij) or Aeolia, a district of Mysia 
in Asia Mmor, was peopled by Aeolian Greeks, 
whose cities extended from the Troad along the 
shores of the Aegaean to the river Hermus. In 
early times their 12 most important cities were 
independent and formed a League, the members 
of which celebrated an annual festival {Panaeo- 
lium) at Smyrna. The 12 cities comprising this 
League were Cyme, Larissae, Neontichos, Temnus, 
Cnia, Notium, Aegirusa, Pitane, Aegaeae, Myrina, 
Grynea, and Smyrna ; but Smyrna subsequently 
became a member of the Ionian confederacy. (He- 
rod, i. 149, seq.) These cities were subdued by 



AEQUL 17 

Croesus, and were incorporated in the Persian em- 
pire on the conquest of Croesus by Cyrus. 

Aeolus {KioXos). 1. Son of Hellen and the 
njonph Orseis, and brother of Dorus and Xuthus. 
He was the ruler of Thessaly, and the founder of 
the Aeolic branch of the Greek nation. His child- 
ren are said to have been very numerous ; but the 
most ancient story mentioned only four sons, viz. 
Sisyphus, Athamas, Cretheus, and Salmoneus. 
The great extent of country which this race occu- 
pied probably gave rise to the varying accounts 
about the number of his children. — 3. Son of 
Hippotes, or, according to others, of Poseidon and 
Arne, a descendant of the previous Aeolus. His 
story probably refers to the emigration of a branch 
of the Aeolians to the west. His mother was car- 
ried to Metapontum in Italj', where she gave birth 
to Aeolus and his brother Boeotus. The two 
brothers afterwards fled from Metapontum, and 
Aeolus went to some islands in the Tyrrhenian sea, 
which received from him the name of the Aeolian 
islands. Here he reigned as a just and pious king, 
taught the natives the use of sails for ships, and 
foretold them the nature of the winds that were to 
rise. In these accounts Aeolus, the father of the 
Aeolian race, is placed in relationship with Aeolus 
the ruler and god of the winds. In Homer, how- 
ever, Aeolus, the son of Hippotes, is neither the 
god nor the father of the winds, but merely the 
happy ruler of the Aeolian island, to whom Zeus 
had given dominion over the winds, which he might 
soothe or excite according to his pleasure. {Od. x. 
1, seq.) This statement of Homer and the etym.o- 
logy of the name of Aeolus from aeWco led to Aeolus 
being regarded in later times as the god and king o^ 
the winds, which he kept enclosed in a mountain. 
It is therefore to him that Juno applies when she 
wishes to destroy the fleet of the Trojans. (Vir^. 
Aen. i. 78.) The Aeolian island of Homer was in 
later times believed to be Lipara or Strongyle, and 
was accordingly regarded as the place in which the 
god of the winds dwelt. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 

Aepea (A^Tre/a : AlireaTTjs). 1. A town in Mes- 
senia on the sea-coast, afterwards Thuria.— 2. A 
town in Cyprus, afterwards Soli. 

Aepy (AtTTu), a town in Elis, situated on a 
height, as its name indicates. 

Aepytus (AiTruros). 1. A mythical king of 
Arcadia, from whom a part of the country was 
called Aepytis. — 2. Youngest son of the Heraclid 
Cresphontes, king of Messenia, and of Merope, 
daughter of the Arcadian king Cypselus, When 
his lather aud brothers were murdered during an 
insurrection, Aepytus alone, who was with his 
grandfather Cypselus, escaped the danger. The 
throne of Cresphontes was in the meantime occu- 
pied by the Heraclid Polyphontes, who also forced 
Merope to become his wife. When Aepytus had 
grown to manhood, he returned to his kingdom, 
and put Polyphontes to death. From him the 
kings of Messenia were called Aepytids instead of 
the more general name Heraclids, — 3. Son of 
Hippothous, king of Arcadia, and great-grandson 
of the Aepytus mentioned first. 

Aequi, Aequicoli, Aequicolae, Aequiciilani, 
an ancient warlike people of Italy, dwelling in the 
upper valley of the Anio in the mountains forming 
the eastern boundary of Latium, and between the 
Latini, Sabini, Hernici, and Marsi. In conjunc- 
tion Avith the Volsci, who vi^ere of the same race, 
they carried on constant hostilities with Rome, but 

o 



18 AEQUI. 
were finally subdued in B. c 302. One of their 
chief seats was Mount Algidus, from which they were 
accustomed to make their marauding expeditions. 

Aequi Falisci. [Falerii.] 

Aequimaelium. [Maelius.] 

Aerope ('Aepdrrr?), daughter of Catreus,king of 
Crete, and granddaughter of Minos. Her father, 
who had received an oracle that he should lose his 
life by one of his children, gave her and her sister 
Clymene to Nauplius, who was to sell them in a 
foreign land. Aerope married Plisthenes, the son 
of Atreus, and became by him the mother of Aga- 
memnon and :Menelau3. After the death of Plis- 
thenes Aerope married Atreus ; and her two sons, 
who were educated by Atreus, were generally be- 
lieved to be his sons. Aerope was faithless to 
Atreus, being seduced by Thyestes. 

Aesacus (AfcraKos), son of Priam and Alex- 
irrhoe. He lived far from his father's court in the 
solitude of mountain-forests. Hesperia, however, 
the daughter of Cebren, kindled love in his heart, 
and on one occasion while he was pursuing her, 
she was stung by a viper and died. Aesacus in 
his grief threw himself into the sea and was changed 
by Thetis into an aquatic bird. This is the storj- 
related by Ovid {Met. xi. 750), but it is told dif- 
ferently by Apollodorus. 

Aesar, the name of the deity among the Etrus- 
cans. 

Aesar or Aesarus (Esaro), a river near Croton 
in Bruttii, in southern Italy. 

AescMnes (AI<jx'lv7]s). 1. The Athenian ora- 
tor bom B. c. 389, was the son of Atrometus and 
Glaucothea. According to Demosthenes, his poli- 
tical antagonist, his parents were of disreputable 
character and not even citizens of Athens ; but 
Aeschines himself says that his father was de- 
scended from an honourable family, and lost his 
property during the Peloponnesian war. In his 
youth Aeschines appears to have assisted his father 
in his school ; he next acted as secretary to 
Aristophon. and afterwards to Eubiilus ; he sub- 
sequently tried his fortune as an actor, but was 
unsuccessful ; and at length, after serWng with 
distinction in the army, came forward as a public 
speaker and soon acquired great reputation. In 
347 he was sent along with Demosthenes as 
one of the 10 ambassadors to negotiate a peace 
with Philip : from this time he appears as the 
friend of the Macedonian party and as the oppo- 
nent of Demosthenes. Shortly afterwards Aes- 
chines formed one of the second erabassj- sent to 
Philip to receive the oath of Philip to the treaty 
which had been concluded with the Athenians ; 
but as the delay of the ambassadors in obtaining 
the ratification had been favourable to the interests 
of Philip, Aeschines on his return to Athens was 
accused by Timarchus. He evaded the danger bj- 
bringing forward a counter-accusation against 
Timarchus (345), and by showing that the moral 
conduct of his accuser was such that he had no 
right to speak before the people. The speech in 
which Aeschines attacked Timarchus is still ex- 
tant : Timarchus was condemned and Aeschines 
gained a brilliant triumph. In 343 Demosthenes 
renewed the charge against Aeschines of treachery 
during his second embassy to Philip. This charge 
of Demosthenes (irepi TrapaTrpeaSeias) was not 
spoken, but published as a memorial, and Aeschines 
answered it in a similar memorial on the embassy 
(T€pl vapawpeaSe'ias), which was likewise pub- 



AESCHYLUS. 

lished. Shortly after the battle of Chaeronea in 
338, which gave Philip the supremacy in Greece, 
Ctesiphon proposed that Demosthenes should be 
rewarded for his services Avith a golden crown 
in the theatre at the great Dionysia, Aeschines 
in consequence accused Ctesiphon ; but he did 
not prosecute the charge till 8 years later, 330. 
The speech which he delivered on the occasion is 
extant, and was answered by Demosthenes in his 
celebrated oration on the crown (irepi arecpdvov). 
Aeschines was defeated, and withdrew from 
Athens. He went to Asia Minor, and at length 
established a school of eloquence at Rhodes. On 
one occasion he read to his audience in Rhodes his 
speech against Ctesiphon, and when some of his 
hearers expressed their astonishment at his defeat, 
he replied, " You would cease to be astonished if 
you had heard Demosthenes." From Rhodes he 
went to Samos, where he died in 314. Besides 
the 3 orations extant, we also possess 12 letters 
which are ascribed to Aeschines, but which are the 
work of late sophists. — Editions. In the editions of 
the Attic orators [Demosthenes], and by Bremi, 
Zurich, 1823. — 2. An Athenian philosopher and 
rhetorician, and a disciple of Socrates. After the 
death of his master, he went to Syracuse ; but re- 
turned to Athens after the expulsion of Dionysius, 
and supported himself, receiving money for his in- 
structions. He wTote several dialogues, but the 
3 which have come down to us under his name 
are not genuine. — Editions. By Fischer, Lips. 
1786 ; by Bockh, Heidel. 1810 ; and in many 
editions of Plato. —3, Of Neapolis, a Peripatetic 
philosopher, w^ho was at the head of the Aca- 
demy at Athens, together with Charmades and 
Clitomachus about B. c. 109. — 4, Of Miletus, a 
contemporary of Cicero, and a distinguished orator 
in the Asiatic style of eloquence. 

Aeschrion (AtVxpi'wi'). 1. Of Syracuse, whose 
wife Pippa was one of the mistresses of Verres, and 
who was himself one of the scandalous instruments 
of Verres.— 2. An iambic poet, a native of Samos. 
There was an epic poet of the same name, who was 
a native of Mytilene and a pupil of Aristotle, and 
who accompanied Alexander on some of his expe- 
ditions. He may perhaps be the same person as 
the Samian.— 3. A native of Pergamus, and a 
physician in the second century after Christ, Avas 
one of Galen's tutors. 

Aeschylus {hlax^^os). 1. The celebrated tragic 
poet, was bom at Eleusis in Attica, B. c 525, so 
that he was 35 years of age at the time of the 
battle of Marathon, and contemporary^ with Simo- 
nides and Pindar. His father Euphorion was pro- 
bably connected with the w^orship of Demeter, and 
Aeschylus himself was, according to some autho- 
rities, initiated in the mysteries of this goddess. 
At the age of 25 (b. c. 499), he made his first ap- 
pearance as a competitor for the prize of tragedy, 
without being successful. He fought wnth his 
brothers Cynaegims and Aminius, at the battle of 
Marathon (490), and also at those of Salamis (480) 
and Plataea (479). In 484 he gained the prize of 
tragedy ; and in 472 he gained the prize with the 
trilogy, of which the Persae, the earliest of his 
extant dramas, was one piece. In 468 he was de- 
feated in a tragic contest by his yoimger rival So- 
phocles ; and he is said in consequence to have quitted 
Athens in disgust, and to have gone to the court of 
Hiero, king of Syracuse, Avhere he found Simonides 
the lyric poet. In 467, his friend and patron king 



AESCULAPIUS. 



AESEPUS. 



19 



^iero died ; and in 458, it appears that Aeschylus 
was again at Athens, from the fact that the trilogy 
of the Oresteia Avas produced in that year. In the 
same or the following year, he again visited Sicily, 
and he died at Gela in 456, in the 69th year of his 
age. It is said that an eagle, mistaking the poet's 
bald head for a stone, let a tortoise fall upon it to 
break the shell, and so fulfilled an oracle, according 
to which Aeschylus was fated to die by a blow 
from heaven. The alterations made by Aeschylus 
in the composition and dramatic representation of 
Tragedy were so great, that he was considered by 
the Athenians as the father of it, just as Homer 
was of Epic poetry and Herodotus of History. 
Even the improvements and alterations introduced 
by his successors were the natural results and sug- 
gestions of those of Aeschylus. The first and 
principal alteration which he made was the intro- 
duction of a second actor (devTepaywvLffTiis) , and 
the consequent formation of the dialogue properly 
so called, and the limitation of the choral parts. 
This innovation was of course adopted by his con- 
temporaries, just as Aeschylus himself followed the 
example of Sophocles, in subsequently introducing 
a third actor. But the improvements of Aeschylus 
were not limited to the composition of tragedy : he 
added the resources of art in its exhibition. Thus, 
J he is said to have availed himself of the skill of 

IAgatharchus, who painted for him the first scenes 
which had ever been drawn according to the prin- 
ciples of linear perspective. He also famished his 
actors with more suitable and magnificent dresses, 
with significant and various masks, and Avith the 
thick-soled cothurnus, to raise their stature to the 
height of heroes. He moreover bestowed so much 
attention on the choral dances, that he is said to 
have invented various figures himself, and to have 
instructed the choristers in them without the aid 
of the regular ballet-masters. With him also arose 
the usage of representing at the same time a trilog?/ 
of plays connected in subject, so that each formed 
one act, as it were, of a great whole, which might 
be compared with some of Shakspeare's historical 
plays. Even before the time of Aeschylus, it had 
been customary to contend for the prize of tragedy 
! with 3 plays exhibited at the same time, but it 
was reserved for him to show how each of 3 
tragedies might be complete in itself, and indepen- 
dent of the rest, and nevertheless form a part of an 
harmonious and connected whole. The only ex- 
■ ample still extant of such a trilogy is the Oresteia, 
as it was called. A satyrical play commonly 
followed each tragic trilogy. Aeschylus is said 
to have written 70 tragedies. Of these only 
I 7 are extant, namely, the Persians, the Seven 
j against Thebes, the Suppliants, the Prometheus, the 
j Agamemnon, the Choephori, and Eumenides ; the 
j last three forming, as already remarked, the trilogy 
of the Oresteia. The Persians v/as acted in 472, 
and the Seven against Thebes a year afterwards. 
The Oresteia was represented in 458 ; the Sup- 
; pliants and the Prometheus Avere brought out some 
i time between the Seven against Thebes and the 
Oresteia. It has been supposed from some allusions 
in the Suppliants, that this play was acted in 461, 
when Athens was allied with Argos. — Editions. 
By Wellauer, Lips. 1823, W- Dindorf, Lips. 1827, 
and Scholefield, Camb. 1830, 

_ Aesculapius {'AaKXrjTrios), the god of the me- 
dical art. In the Homeric poems Aesculapius is 
Slot a divinity, but simply the "blameless physi- 



cian " (lr]T)]p aixvucov), whose sons, Machaon and 
Podalirius, were the physicians in the Greek army, 
and ruled over Tricca, Ithome, and Oechalia. 
Homer says nothing of the descent of Aesculapius. 
The common story relates that he was a son of 
Apollo and Coronis, and that when Coronis was 
with child by Apollo, she became enamoured with 
Ischys, an Arcadian. Apollo, uiformed of this by 
a raven, Avhich he had set to watch her, or, accord- 
ing to others, by his OAvn prophetic powers, sent 
his sister Artemis to kill Coronis. Artemis accord- 
ingly destroyed Coronis in her own house at Laceria 
in Thessaly, on the shore of lake Baebia. Accord- 
ing to Ovid {Met. ii. 605), it Avas Apollo himself 
Avho killed Coronis and Ischys. When the body 
of Coronis was to be burnt, either Apollo or 
Hermes saved the child Aesculapius from the flames, 
and carried it to Chiron, who instructed the boy in 
the art of healing and in hunting. There are 
various other narratives respecting his birth, accord- 
ing to some of which he was a native of Epidaurus, 
and this was a common opinion in later times. 
After he had groAvn up, reports spread over all 
countries, that he not only cured all the sick, but 
called the dead to life again. But Avhile he was 
restoring Glaucus to life, Zeus killed him Avith a 
flash of lightning, as he feared lest men might con- 
trive to escape death altogether, or, because Pluto 
had complained of Aesculapius diminishing the 
number of the dead. But, on the request of 
Apollo, Zeus placed Aesculapius among the stars. 
Aesculapius is also said to have taken part in the 
expedition of the Argonauts and in the Calydonian 
hunt. He was married to Epione, and besides the 
tAvo sons spoken of by Homer, Ave also find mention 
of the foUoAving children of his : laniscus, Alexe- 
nor, Aratus, Hygieia, Aegle, laso, and Panaceia, 
most of whom are only personifications of the 
powers ascribed to their father. Aesculapius was 
Avorshipped all OA'er Greece. His temples were 
usually built in healthy places, on hills outside the 
toAvn, and near Avells which were believed to have 
healing poAvers. These temples were not only 
places of worship, but were frequented by great 
numbers of sick persons, and may therefore be 
compared to modem hospitals. The principal seat 
of his worship in Greece was Epidaurus, Avhere he 
had a temple surrounded with an extensive grove. 
Serpents Avere everyAvhere connected Avith his wor- 
ship, probably because they were a symbol of pra- 
dence and renovation, and were believed to have 
the power of discovering herbs of wondrous powers. 
For these reasons, a peculiar kind of tame serpents, 
in which Epidaurus abounded, was not only kept 
in his temple, but the god himself frequently ap- 
peared in the form of a serpent. At Rome the 
worship of Aesculapius was introduced from Epi- 
daurus at the command of the Delphic oracle or of 
the Sibylline books, in B. c. 293, for the purpose 
of averting a pestilence. The supposed descendants 
of Aesculapius were called by the patronymic name 
Asclepiadae ('AcrfcATiTTiaSai), and their principal seats 
Avere Cos and Cnidus. They were an order or 
caste of priests, and for a long period the practice 
of medicine Avas intimately connected with religion. 
The knoAvledge of medicine was regarded as a 
sacred secret, which Avas transmitted from father to 
son in the families of the Asclepiadae. Respecting 
the festivals of Aesculapius, see Diet. ofAntiq. 

Aesepus (Aio-TjTros), a river Avhich rises in the 
mountains of Ida, and floAvs by a N. E. course into 

C 2 



*iO AESERNIA. 

the Propontis, which it enters W. of Cyziciis rjid 

E. of the Graniciis. 

Aesernia (AescrnTnus: Isemia)^ a town in 
Samniuni, made a Roman colony in the first Punic 
war. 

Aesis (Esino or Fiimesino), a river which formed 
the boundary Ijetweon Picenum and Umbria, was 
anciently the S. boundarj^ of the Senones, and the 
N.E. bo'undary of Italy proper. 

Aesis or Aesium (Aeslnas: Jesi)^ a town and 
a Roman colony in Umbria on the river Aesis, 
celebrated for its cheese, Aeshias caseus. 

Aeson (Atauv), son of Cretheus, the founder of 
lolcus, and of Tyro, the daughter of Salraoneus, and 
father of Jason "and Promachus. He was excluded 
from the throne by his half-brother Pelias, who en- 
deavoured to keep the kingdom to himself by send- 
ing Jason away with the Argonauts. Pelias sub- 
sequently attempted to get rid of Aeson by force, 
but the latter put an end to his own life. Accord- 
ing to Ovid (Met. vii. 1 62, seq.), Aeson survived 
the return of the Argonauts, and was made young 
again by Medea. 

Aesopus (Aforonros). 1. A writer of Fables, 
lived about b. c. 570, and was a contemporary of 
Solon. He was originally a slave, and received 
his freedom from his master ladraon the Samian. 
Upon this he visited Croesus, who sent him to 
Delphi, to distribute among the citizens 4 minae 
apiece ; but • in consequence of some dispute 
on the subject, he refused to give any money at 
all, upon which the enraged Delphians threw him 
from a precipice. Plagues were sent upon them 
from the gods for the offence, and they pro- 
claimed their willingness to give a compensation 
for his death to any one who could claim it. At 
length ladmon, the grandson of his old master, re- 
ceived the compensation, since no nearer connection 
could be found. A life of Aesop prefixed to a book 
of fables purporting to be his, and collected by 
Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th century, 
represents Aesop as a perfect monster of ugliness 
and deformity ; a notion for which there is no au- 
thority whatever in the classical authors. Whether 
Aesop left any written works at all, is a question 
which affords considerable room for doubt ; though it 
is certain that fables, bearing Aesop's name, were 
popular at Athens in its most intellectual age. 
We find them frequently noticed by Aristophanes. 
They were in prose, and were turned into poetry 
by several writers. Socrates turned some of them 
into verse during his imprisonment ; and Demetrius 
Phalereus (b. c. 320) imitated his example. The 
only Greek versifier of Aesop, of whose writings 
any whole fables are preserved, is Babrius. [Ba- 
BRius.] Of the Latin writers of Aesopean fables, 
Phaedrus is the most c lebrated. [Phaedrus.] 
The fables now extant in prose, bearing the name 
of Aesop, are unquestionably spurious, as is proved 
by Bentley in his dissertation on the Fables of 
Aesop appended to his celebrated letters on Pha- 
laris. — E'litions. By Emesti, Lips. 1781, and by 
Schaefer, Lips. 1820.-2. A Greek historian, who 
wrote a life of Alexander the Great. The original 
is lost, but there is a Latin translation of it by 
Julius Valerius. 

Aesopus, Claudius, orClodius, Avas the greatest 
tragic actor at Rome, and a contemporary of Roscius, 
the greatest comic actor ; and both of them lived on 
intimate terms with Cicero. Aesopus appeared for 
the last time on the stage at an advanced age at | 



AETHIOPIA. 

1 the dedication of the theatre of Pompey (b. c. 55), 
when his voice failed him, and he could not go 
through with the speech. Aesopus realized an im- 
mense fortune by his profession, which was squan- 
dered by his son, a foolish spendthrift. It is said, 
for instance, that he dissolved in vinegar and drank 
a pearl worth about 8000/., which he took from the 
ear-ring of Caecilia Metella. 

Aestii, Aestyi, or Aestui, a people dwelling on 
the sea-coast, in the N. E. of Germany, probably in 
the modern Kurland, who collected amber, which 
they called glessum. Their customs, says Taci- 
tus, resembled the Suevic, and their language the 
British. They were probably a Sarmatian or Sla- 
vonic race, and not a Germanic. 

Aesiila (Aesiilanus), a town of the Aequi on a 
mountain between Praeneste and Tibur. (Aesu- 
lae declive arvum," Hor. Carm. iii. 29.) 

Aethalia (At^aAfa, klBaX-r)), called Ilva {Elba) 
by the Romans, a small island in the Tuscan sea, 
opposite the town of Populonia, celebrated for it» 
iron mines. It had on the N. E. a good harbour, 
"Argons Portus" (^Porto Ferraio\ in which the 
Argonaut Jason Is said to have landed. 

Aethalides (AldaXtS-qs), son of Hermes and Eu- 
polemia, the herald of the Argonauts. He had 
received from his father the faculty of remembering 
every thing, even in Hades, and was allowed to 
reside alternately in the upper and in the lower 
world. His soul, after manj'- migrations, at length 
took possession of the body of Pythagoras, in which 
it still recollected its former migrations. 

Aether (Al6T]p), a personified idea of the mythi- 
cal cosmogonies, in which Aether was considered 
as one of the elementary substances out of which 
the Universe was formed. Aether was regarded 
by the poets as the pure upper air, the residence of 
the gods, and Zeus as the Lord of the Aether, or 
Aether itself personified. 

Aethices (A'ldLKes), a Thessalian or Epirot 
people, near M. Pindus. 

Aethicus, Hister or Ister, a Roman writer of 
the 4th century after Christ, a native of Jstria, 
the author of a geographical work, called Aethici 
Cosmographia, which appears to have been chiefly 
drawn up from the measurement of the whole Ro- 
man world ordered by Julius Caesar, b. c. 44, and 
from other official documents. Edited by Gro- 
novius, in his edition of Pomponius Mela, Leyden, 
1722. 

Aethilla {AtQiKXa or AiduWa)^ daughter of 
Laoraedon and sister of Priam, became after the 
fall of Troy the prisoner of Protesilaus. 

Aethiopes (Aldiones, said to be from a^6ca and 
cS-v//, but perhaps really a foreign name corrupted), 
was a name applied (i) most generally to all black 
or dark races of men ; (2) to the inhabitants of all 
the regions S. of those with which the early Greeks 
were well acquainted, extending even as far N. as 
Cyprus and Phoenicia ; (3) to all the inhabitants 
of Inner Africa, S. of Mauretania, the Great Desert, 
and Egypt, from the Atlantic to the Red Sea and 
Indian Ocean, and to some of the dark races of 
Asia ; and (4) most specifically to the inhabitants 
of the land S. of Egypt, which was called 
Aethiopia. 

Aethiopia {AlOio-n-ia, AlO. inkp AlyvnTov : Ai- 
dioip, AidioTrevs, Horn., fern. Aldioiris^ Aethiops : 
N'ubia, Kordo/an, Sennaar, Abyssinia), a country 
of Africa, S. of Egypt, the boundary of the countries 
being at Syene {Assouan) and the Smaller Cataract 



AETHLIUS. 



AETOLIA. 



21 



uf the Nile, and extending on the E. to the Red 
j Sea, and to the S. and S.W, indefinitely, as far ap- 
I parently as the knowledge of the ancients extended. 
I In its most exact political sense the word Aethiopia 
seems to have denoted the kingdom of Meroe ; 
but in its wider sense it included also the kingdom 
of the AxoMiTAE, besides several other peoples, 
such as the Troglodytes and the Ichthyophagi on 
the Red Sea, the Blemmyes and Megabari and 
Nubae in the interior. The country was w^atered 
by the Nile and its tributaries, the Astapus {Bahr- 
el-Azrek or Blue Nile) and the Astaboras (Atbara 
or Taeazze). The people of Ethiopia seem to 
have been of the Caucasian race, and to have spoken 
a language allied to the Arabic. Monuments are 
found in the country closely resembling those of 
Egypt, but of an inferior style. The religion of the 
Ethiopians appears to have been similar to that of 
the Egyptians, but free from the grosser supersti- 
tions of the latter, such as the worship of animals. 
1 Some traditions made Meroe the parent of Egyptian 
civilization, while others ascribed the civilization 
of Ethiopia to Egyptian colonization. So great 
was the power of the Ethiopians, that more than 
once in its history Egypt was governed by Ethio- 
pian kings ; and even the most powerful kings of 
Egypt, though they made successful incursions into 
Ethiopia, do not appear to have had any extensive 
or permanent hold upon the country. Under the 
Ptolemies Graeco-Egyptian colonies established 
themselves in Ethiopia, and Greek manners and 
philosophy had a considerable influence on the 
upper classes ; but the country was never subdued. 
The Romans failed to extend their empire over 
Ethiopia, though they made expeditions into the 
country, in one of which C. Petronius, prefect of 
Egypt under Augustus, advanced as far as Napata, 
and defeated the warrior queen Candace (b. c. 22). 
Christianity very early extended to Ethiopia, pro- 
bably in consequence of the conversion of the trea- 
surer of queen Candace (Acts, viii. 27). The historj' 
of the downfall of the great Ethiopian kingdom of 
Meroe is very obscure. 

AetMius X'kidMos), first king of Elis, father of 
Endymion, w^as son of Zeus and Protogenia, 
daughter of Deucalion, or son of Aeolus. 

Aethra (Aidpa). 1. Daughter of Pittheus of 
Troezen, was mother of Theseus by Aegeus. She 
afterwards lived in Attica, from whence she was 
carried off to Lacedaemon by Castor and Pollux, 
and became a slave of Helen, wath whom she was 
taken to Troy. At the capture of Troy she Avas 
restored to liberty by her grandson Acamas or 
Demophon. — 2. Daughter of Oceanus, by whom 
Atlas begot the 12 Hyades and a son Hj^as. 

Aetion ('AeTiw*/). 1. A sculptor of Araphipolis, 
flourished about the middle of the 3rd century 
B. c— 2. A celebrated painter, whose best picture 
represented the marriage of Alexander and Roxana. 
It is commonly supposed that he lived in the time 
of Alexander the Great ; but the words of Lucian 
(Herod. 4) show that he must have lived about 
the time of Hadrian and the Antonines. 

AetlUS. 1. A celebrated Roman general, de- 
fended the Western empire against the barbarians 
during the reign of Valentinian III. In a. d. 451 
he gained a great victory over Attila, near Chalons 
in Gaul ; but he was treacherously murdered by 
Valentinian in 454.-2. A Greek medical Avriter, 
born at Amida in Mesopotamia, lived at the end of 
the 6th or the beginning of the 6th centurj- after 



Christ. His work Bi§Kia 'larpiKo, 'EKKalSsKa. 
" Sixteen Books on Medicine," is one of the most 
valuable medical remains of antiquity, as being a 
judicious compilation from many authors whose 
works are lost. The whole of it has never ap- 
peared in the original Greek, but a corrupt trans- 
lation of it into Latin was published by Comarius, 
Basil. 1542, often reprinted, and in H. Stephens's 
Medicae Artis Principes, Paris, 1567. 

Aetna (Airvri). 1. (Monte Gibello), a vol- 
canic mountain in the N. E. of Sicily between 
Tauromenium and Catana. It is said to have 
derived its name from Aetna, a Sicilian njonph, a 
daughter of Uranus and Gaea, or of Briareus. Zeus 
buried under it Tj-phon or Enceladus ; and in its 
interior Hephaestus and the Cyclops forged the 
thunderbolts for Zeus. There were several erup- 
tions of M. Aetna in antiquity. One occurred 
in B. c. 475, to which Aeschylus and Pindar pro- 
bably allude, and another in B. c. 425, which 
Thucydides says (iii. 116) was the third on re- 
cord since the Greeks had settled in Sicily. The 
form of the mountain seems to have been much 
the same in antiquity as it is at present. Its 
base covers an area of nearly 90 miles in cir- 
cumference, and its highest point is 10,874 feet 
above the level of the sea. The circumference of 
the crater is variously estimated from 2i to 4 miles, 
and the depth from 600 to 800 feet. — 2. (Aetnen- 
ses : .S". Maria di Licodia), a town at the foot of 
M. Aetna, on the road to Catana, formerly called 
Inessa or Innesa. It was founded in B.C. 461, 
b}' the inhabitants of Catana, who had been ex- 
pelled from their own town by the Siculi. They 
gave the name of Aetna to Inessa, because their own 
town Catana had been called Aetna by Hiero I. 

Aetnaeus (Atrj/aTos), an epithet of several gods 
and mythical beings connected with Mount Aetna ; 
— of Zeus, of whom there was a statue on Mount 
Aetna, and to whom a festival was celebrated 
there, called Aetnea ; of Hephaestus ; and of the 
Cyclops. 

Aetolia (hlrooKia : KlrwKos), a division of 
Greece, was bounded on the W. by Acarnania, 
from which it was separated l^y the river Achelous, 
on the N. by Epirus and Thessaly, on the E. by 
the Ozolian Locrians, and on the S. by the en- 
trance to the Corinthian gulf. It was divided into 
two parts. Old Aetolia, from the Achelous to the 
Evenus and Calydon, and New Aetolia, or the 
Acquired (eVt/c ttjtos), from the Evenus and Caly- 
don to the Ozolian Locrians. On the coast the 
countr}- is level and fruitful, but in the interior 
mountainous and unproductive. The mountains 
contained many wild beasts, and were celebrated 
in mythology for the hunt of the Calj-donian boar. 
The country was originally inhabited by Curetes and 
Leleges, but was at an early period colonized by 
Greeks from Elis, led by the mythical Aetolus. 
The Aetolians took part in the Trojan Avar, under 
their king Thoas. They continued for a long time 
a rude and uncivilized people, living to a great ex- 
tent by robbery ; and even in the time of Thucy- 
dides (b. c. 410) many of their tribes spoke a lan- 
guage Avhich Avas not Greek, and were in the habit 
of eating ravv flesh. Like the other Greeks, they 
abolished at an early time the monarchical form of 
government, and lived under a democracy. They 
appear to have been early united by a kind of 
League, but this League first acquired political im- 
portance about the middle of the 3rd century b. c, 

c 3 ' 



22 



AETOLUS. 



AFRICA. 



and became a formidable rival to the Macedonian 
monarchs and the Achaean League. The Aetolian 
League at one time included not only Aetolia 
Proper, but Acarnania, part of Thessaly, Locris, 
and the island of Ccphallenia ; and it also had 
close alliances with Elis and several towns in the 
Peloponnesus, and likewise with Cius on the Pro- 
pontis. Its annual meetings, called Panaetolica, 
were held in the autumn at Thermus, and at them 
were chosen a General {(XTpa.r-q'yds)^ who Avas at 
the head of the League, an Hipparchus, or Master 
of the Horse, a Secretary, and a select committee 
called Apocleti (cnrdKArjToi). For further parti- 
culars respecting the constitution of the League, 
see Did. of Ant. art. Aetolicum Foedus. The Aeto- 
lians took the side of Antiochus III. against 
the Romans, and on the defeat of that monarch 
B.C. 189, they became virtually the subjects of 
Rome. On the conquest of the Achaeans, B. c. 
146, Aetolia was included in the Roman province 
of Achaia. After the battle of Actium, B.C. 31, 
a considerable part of the population of Aetolia was 
transplanted to the city of Nicopolis, which Au- 
gustus built in commemoration of his victor}'. 

Aetolus (AtTwAo's), son of Endymion and Neis, 
or Tphianassa, married Pronoe, by whom he had 
two sons, Pleuron and Calydon. He was king of 
Elis, but was obliged to leave Peloponnesus, be- 
cause he had slain Apis, the son of Jason or Sal- 
moneus. He went to the country near the Achelous, 
which was called Aetolia after him. 

Aexone (AlI^ccut) and Al^uvri'is : Ai^oovevs : 
Asani ?), an Attic demus of the tribe Cecropis or 
Pandionis. Its inhabitants had the reputation of 
being mockers and slanderers. 

Afer, Domitius, of Neraausus (Nismes) in 
Gaul, was the teacher of Quintilian, and one of the 
most distinguished orators in the reigns of Tiberius, 
Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, but he sacrificed his 
character by conducting accusations for the govern- 
ment. He was consul siiffectus in a.'d. 39, and 
died in 60. Quintilian mentions several works of 
his on oratory, which are all lost. 

Aframus. 1. L. A Roman comic poet, flourished 
about B. c. 100. His comedies described Roman 
scenes and manners (Comoediae togatae\ and the 
subjects were mostly taken from the life of the 
lower classes. {Comoediae tabernariae.) They were 
frequently polluted with disgraceful amours ; but 
he depicted Roman life with such accuracy, that he 
is classed with Menander (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 57). 
His comedies continued to be acted under the 
empire. The names and fragments of between 
20 and 30 are still preserved.— 2. L., a person 
of obscure origin, and a faithful adherent of Pom- 
pey. He served under Pompey against Sertorius 
and Mithridates, and was, through Pompey's in- 
fluence, made consul, b. c. 60. When Pompey 
obtained the provinces of the two Spains in his 
second consulship (b. c. 55), he sent Afranius 
and Petreius to govern them, while he himself re- 
mained in Rome. In b. c. 49, Afranius and Pe- 
treius were defeated by Caesar in Spain. Afranius 
thereupon passed over to Pompey in Greece ; was 
present at the battle of Pharsalia, b. c. 48 ; and 
subsequently at the battle of Thapsus in Africa, 
B.C. 46. He then attempted to fly into Maure- 
tania, but was taken prisoner by P. Sittius, and 
killed. 

AMca ('A^piKTj : Africanus), was used by the 
ancients in two senses, (1) for the whole continent 



of Africa, and (2) for the portion of N. Africa 
which constituted the territory of Carthage, and 
which the Romans erected into a province, under 
the name of Africa Propria. — 1. In the more 
general sense the name was not used by the Greek 
writers ; and its use by the Romans arose from the 
extension to the whole continent of the name of a 
part of it. The proper Greek name for the con- 
tinent is Libya (Ai§vr]). Considerably before the 
historical period of Greece begins, the Phoenicians 
extended their commerce over the Mediterranean, 
and founded several colonies on the N. coast of 
Africa, of which Carthage was the chief. [Car- 
thago.] The Greeks knew very little of the 
country until the foundation of the Dorian colony 
of Cyrene (b. c. 620), and the intercourse of Greek 
travellers Avith Egypt in the 6th and 5th centuries ; 
and even then their knowledge of all but the part 
near Cyrene was derived from the Egyptians and 
Phoenicians, who sent out some remarkable ex- 
peditions to explore the country. A Phoenician 
fleet sent by the Egyptian king Pharaoh Necho 
(about B. c. 600), was said to have sailed from 
the Red Sea, ro\md Africa, and so into the Medi- 
terranean : the authenticity of this story is still 
a matter of dispute. We still possess an authentic 
account of another expedition, which the Cartha- 
ginians despatched under Hanno (about B. c. 510), 
and which reached a point on the W. coast nearly, 
if not quite, as far as lat. 1 0° N. On the opposite 
side of the continent, the coast appears to have 
been very little known beyond the S. boundary of 
Egypt, till the time of the Ptolemies. In the in- 
terior, the Great Desert {Sahara) interposed a for- 
midable obstacle to discovery ; but even before the 
time of Herodotus the people on the northern coast 
told of individuals who had crossed the Desert and 
had reached a great river flowing towards the E., 
with crocodiles in it, and black men living on its 
banks ; Avhich, if the story be true, was probably 
the Niger in its upper course, near Timbudoo. 
That the Carthaginians had considerable intercourse 
with the regions S. of the Sahara, has been inferred 
from the abundance of elephants they kept. Later 
expeditions and inquiries extended the knowledge 
which the ancients possessed of the E. coast to 
about 10° S. lat., and gave them, as it seems, some 
further acquaintance with the interior, about Lake 
Tchad, but the southern part of the continent was 
so totally unknown, that Ptolemy, who finally 
fixed the limits of ancient geographical science, re^ 
curred to the old notion, which seems to have pre- 
vailed before the time of Herodotus, that the S. 
parts of Africa met the S.E. part of Asia, and that the 
Indian Ocean was a vast lake. The greatest geo- 
graphers who lived before Ptolemy, namely, Era- 
tosthenes and Strabo, had accepted the tradition 
that Africa was circumnavigable. The shape of 
the continent they conceived to be that of a right- 
angled triangle, having for its hypotenuse a line 
drawn from the Pillars of Hercules to the S. of the 
Red Sea ; and, as to its extent, they did not sup- 
pose it to reach nearly so far as the Equator, Pto- 
lemy supposed the W. coast to stretch N. and S. 
from the Pillars of Hercules, and he gave the con- 
tinent an indefinite extent towards the S. There 
were also great difi'erences of opinion as to the 
boundaries of the continent. Some divided the 
whole world into only two parts, Europe and Asia, 
and they were not agreed to which of these two jji 
Libya (i, e. Africa) belonged ; and those who ' 



AFRICA. 



AGAMEDES. 



'23 



recognised three divisions differed again in plac- 
ing the boundary between Lib\'a and Asia either 
on°the W, of Egypt, or along the Nile, or at 
the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea : the last 
opinion gradually prevailed. As to the subdi- 
vision of the country itself, Herodotus distributes 
it into Aegyptus, Aethiopia (i. e. all the regions 
S. of Egypt and the Sahara), and Libya, pro- 
perly so called ; and he subdivides Libya into three 
parts, according to their physical distinctions, 
namely, (1) the Inhabited Country along the Me- 
diterranean, in which dwelt the Nomad Libyans 
(ot ■Kapada\d(T(riOL twv vofxd^cav Ai€vciou : the Bar- 
bary States) ; (2) the Country of Wild Beasts {rj 
8>7ipid>5rjs), S. of the former, that is, the region be- 
tween the Little and Great Atlas, which still 
abounds in wild beasts, but takes its name from its 
prevailing vegetation (Beled-el-Jerid, i. e. the Coun- 
try of Palms), and (3) the Sandy Desert (tj i//a/i- 
uos ; the Sahara), that is, the table land bounded 
by the Atlas on the N. and the margin of the Nile- 
valley on the E., which is a vast tract of sand 
broken only by a few habitable islands, called 
Oases. As to the people, Herodotus distinguishes 
four races, two native, namely, the Libyans and 
Ethiopians, and two foreign, namely, the Phoeni- 
cians and the Greeks. The Libyans, however, 
were a Caucasian race : the Ethiopians of Herodo- 
tus correspond to our Negro races. The Phoenician 
colonies were planted chiefly along, and to the W. 
of, the great recess in the middle of the N. coast, 
which formed the two Syrtes, by far the most 
important of them being Carthage ; and the Greek 
colonies were fixed on the coast along and beyond 
the E. side of the Syrtes ; the chief of them was 
Gyrene, and the region was called Cyrenaica. 
Between this and Egypt were Libyan tribes, and 
the whole region between the Carthaginian domi- 
nions and Egypt, including Cyrenaica, was called 
by the same name as the whole continent, Libya. 
The chief native tribes of this region were the 
Adyrmachidae, Marmaridae, Psylli, and 
Nasamones. The last extended into the Car- 
thaginian territory. To the W. of the Carthaginian 
possessions, the country was called by the general 
names of Numidia and Mauretania, and was 
possessed partly by Carthaginian colonies on the 
coast, and partly by Libyan tribes under various 
names, the chief of which were the Numidae, 
Massylii, Massaesylii, and Mauri, and to the 
S. of them the Gaetuli. The whole of this north- 
ern region fell successively under the power of 
Rome, and was finally divided into provinces as 
follows : — (1) Aegypt ; (2) Libya, including (a) 
Libyae Nomos or Libya Exterior, (&) Marmarica, 
(c) Cyrenaica ; (3) Africa Propria, the former em- 
pire of Carthage (see below, No. 2) ; (4) Numidia; 
(5) Mauretania, divided into (a) Sitifensis, (6) 
Caesariensis, (c) Tingitana: these, with (6) 
Aethiopia, make up the whole of Africa, according 
to the divisions recognised by the latest of the 
ancient geograpliers. The northern district was 
better known to the Romans than it is to us, and 
was extremely populous and flourishing ; and, if 
we may judge by the list of tribes in Ptolemy, the 
interior of the country, especially between the 
Little and Great Altars, must have supported many 
more inhabitants than it does at present. Further 
information respecting the several portions of the 
country will be found in the separate articles. — 2. 
Africa Propria or Provincia, or simply Africa, 



was the name under which the Romans, after the 
Third Punic War (b. c. 146), erected into a pro- 
vince the whole of the former territory of Carthage. 
It extended from the river Tusca, on the W., 
which divided it from Numidia, to the bottom of 
the Syrtis Minor, on the S. E. It was divided into 
two districts (regiones), namely, ( 1 ) Zeugis or Zeu* 
gitana, the district round Carthage, (2) Byzacium 
or Byzacena, S. of Zeugitana, as fiir as the bottom 
of the Syrtis Minor. It corresponds to the modern 
regency of Tunis. The province was full of flou- 
rishing towns, and was extremely fertile, especially 
Byzacena : it furnished Rome with its chief sup- 
plies of corn. The above limits are assigned to the 
province by Pliny : Ptolemy makes it extend from 
the river Ampsaga on the W., to the borders of 
Cyrenaica, at the bottom of the Great Syrtis, on 
the E., so as to include Numidia and Tripolitana. 

Africanus, a surname given to the Scipios on 
account of their victories in Africa. [SciPio.] 

Africanus. 1. Sex. Caecilius, a Roman juris- 
consult, lived under Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138—- 
161), and wrote Lihri IX. Quaestionum, from which 
many extracts are made in the Digest.— 2. Julius, 
a celebrated orator in the reign of Nero, is much 
praised by Quintilian, who speaks of him and 
Domitius Afer as the best orators of their time.— 
3. Sex. Julius, a learned Christian writer at the be- 
ginning of the 3rd century, passed the greater part 
of his life at Emmaus in Palestine, and afterwards 
lived at Alexandria. His principal work was a 
Chronicon in five books, from the creation of the 
world, which he placed in 5499 B.C., to a. d. 221. 
This work is lost, but part of it is extracted by 
Eusebius in his Chronicon, and many fragments of 
it are preserved by Georgius Syncellus, Cedrenus, 
and in the Paschale Chronicon. There was another 
work written by Africanus, entitled Cesti (KecTTOt), 
that is, embroidered girdles, so called from the 
celebrated Cestus of Aphrodite (Venus). It treated 
of a vast variety of subjects — medicine, agriculture, 
natural history, the military art, &c. The work 
itself is lost, but some extracts from it are pub- 
lished by Thevenot in the Mathematiei Veteres, 
Paris, 1693, and also in the Geoponica. 

Africus (All// by the Greeks), the S. W. Avind, 
so called because it blew from Africa, frequently 
brought storms with it (creberque procellis A fricus^ 
Virg. Ann. i. 85). 

Agamede ('Aya/xr]^-^), daughter of Augias and 
wife of Mulius, who, according to Homer (11. xi. 
739), was acquainted with the healing powers of 
all the plants that grow upon the earth. 

Agamedes {^Aya/xTiSris), commonly called son 
of Erginus, king of Orchomenus, and brother of 
Trophonius ; though his family connexions are 
related differenth' by different Avriters. Agamedes 
and Trophonius distinguished themselves as archi- 
tects : they built a temple of Apollo at Delphi, and 
a treasury of Hyrieus, king of Hyria in Boeotia. 
The story about this treasury resembles the one 
which Herodotus (ii. 121) relates of the treasury 
of the Egyptian king Rhampsinitus. In the con- 
struction of the treasury of Hyrieus, Agamedes 
and Trophonius contrived to place one stone in 
such a manner, that it could be taken away out- 
side, and thus formed an entrance to the treasury, 
without any body perceiving it. Agamedes and 
Trophonius now constantly robbed the treasury ; 
and the king, seeing that locks and seals were un- 
injured while his treasures were constantly de- 

G 4 



24 AGAMEMNON, 
creasing, set traps to catch the thief. Agamedes 
was tlius ensnared, and Trophonius cut off his head 
to avert the discovery. After this Trophonius was 
immediately swallowed up by the earth. On this 
spot there was afterwards, in the grove of Lebadea, 
the cave of Agamedcs with a column by the side 
of it. Here also was the oracle of Trophonius, and 
those who consulted it first offered a ram to Aga- 
medes and invoked him. A tradition mentioned 
by Cicero (Tuse. Quaest. i. 47) states that Aga- 
ra'edes and Trophonius, after building the temple of 
Apollo at Delphi, prayed to the god to grant them 
in reward for their labour what was best for men. 
The god promised to do so on a certain day, and 
when the day came, the two brothers died. 

Agamemnon ('AyajjLefivuu), son of Plisthenes 
and Aerope or Eriphyle, and grandson of Atreus, 
king of Mycenae ; but Homer and others call him 
a son of Atreus and grandson of Pelops. Aga- 
memnon and his brother Menelaus were brought up 
together with Aegisthus, the son of Thyestes, in 
the house of Atreus. After the murder of Atreus 
by Aegisthus and Thyestes, who succeeded Atreus 
in the kingdom of Mycenae [Aegisthus], Aga- 
memnon and jMenelaus went to Sparta, where 
Agamemnon married Clytemnestra, the daughter 
of Tyndareus, by whom he became the father of 
Iphianassa (Iphigenia), Chrysothemis, Laodice 
(Electra), and Orestes. The manner in which 
Agamemnon obtained the kingdom of Mycenae, is 
differently related. From Homer, it appears as if 
he had peaceably succeeded Thyestes, while, ac- 
cording to others, he expelled Thyestes, and 
usurped his throne. He now became the most 
powerful prince in Greece. A catalogue of his do- 
minions is given in the Iliad (ii. 569, &c.). When 
Homer attributes to Agamemnon the sovereignty 
over all Argos, the name Argos signifies Pelopon- 
nesus, or the greater part of it, for the city of 
Argos was governed by Diomedes. When Helen, 
the wife of IMmelaus, was carried off by Paris, 
and the Greek chiefs resolved to recover her by 
force of arms, Agamemnon was chosen their com- 
mander in chief. After two years of preparation, 
the Greek army and fleet assembled in the port of 
Aulis in Boeotia. At this place Agamemnon 
killed a stag which was sacred to Artemis, who in 
return visited the Greek army with a pestilence, 
and produced a calm v.-hich prevented the Greeks 
from leaving the port. In order to appease her 
wrath, Agamemnon consented to sacrifice his 
daughter Iphigenia ; but at the moment she was 
to be sacrificed, she was carried oft' by Artemis 
herself to Tauris and another victim was sub- 
stituted in her place. The calm now ceased, and 
the arm}' sailed to the coast of Troy. Agamemnon 
alone had 100 ships, independent of 60 which 
he had lent to the Arcadians. In the tenth 
year of the siege of Troy we find Agamemnon in- 
volved in a quarrel with Achilles respecting the 
possession of Briseis, whom Achilles was obliged to 
give up to Agamemnon. Achilles withdrew from 
the field of battle, and the Greeks were visited by 
successive disasters. The danger of the Greeks at 
last induced Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, to take 
part in the battle, and his fall led to the reconcilia- 
tion of Achilles and Agamemnon. [Achilles.] 
Agamemnon, although the chief commander of the 
Greeks, is not the hero of the Iliad, and in chival- 
rous spirit, bravery, and character, altogether in- 
ferior to Achilles. But he nevertheless rises above | 



AGATHARCHUS. 

all the Greeks by his dignity, power, and majesty ; 
his eyes and head are likened to those of Zeus, his 
girdle to that of Ares, and his breast to that of 
Poseidon. The emblem of his power is a sceptre, 
the work of Hephaestus, which Zeus had once 
given to Hermes, and Hermes to Pelops, from 
whom it descended to Agamemnon. At the cap- 
ture of Troy he received Cassandra, the daughter 
of Priam, as his prize. On his return home he 
was murdered by Aegisthus, who had seduced 
Clytemnestra during the absence of her husband. 
The tragic poets make Clytemnestra alone murder 
Agamemnon : her motive is in Aeschylus her jea- 
lousy of Cassandra, in Sophocles and Euripides her 
wrath at the death of Iphigenia. 

Agamemnonides Kyaj-uixvovihris), the son of 
Agamemnon, i. e. Orestes. 

Aganippe hyavLinvri)^ a nymph of the well of 
the same name at the foot of Mount Helicon, in 
Boeotia, which was considered sacred to the Muses 
(who were hence called Aganippi(Ies\ and which 
was believed to have the power of inspiring those 
who drank of it. The fountain of Hippocrene has 
the epithet Aganippis (Ov. Fast. v. 7), from its 
being sacred to the Muses, like that of Aganippe. 

Agapenor {^hya-rr-^vunp), son of Ancaeus king 
of the Arcadians, received 60 ships from Aga- 
memnon, in which he led his Arcadians to Troy, 
On his return from Troy he was cast by a storm ou 
the coast of Cj'prus, where he founded the to\vn of 
Paphus, and in it the famous temple of Aphrodite. 

Agarista {'Ky apiary)). 1. Daughter of Clis- 
thenes, tyrant of Sicyon, wife of Megacles, and 
mother of Clisthenes who divided the Athenians 
into ten tribes, and of Hippocrates.— 2. Daughter 
of the above-mentioned Hippocrates, and grand- 
daughter of No. 1, wife of Xanthippus, and mother 
of Pericles. 

Agasias hyacriai)., son of Dositheus, a sculp- 
tor of Ephesus, probably a contemporary of Alex- 
ander the Great (b. c. 330), sculptured the statue 
known by the name of the Borghese gladiator, 
which is still preserved in the gallery of the 
LouATe. This statue, as well as the Apollo Bel- 
videre, was discovered among the ruins of a palace 
of the Roman emperors on the site of the ancient 
Antium {Capo iCAnzo). From the attitude of the 
figure it is clear, that the statue represents not a 
gladiator, but a warrior contending with a mounted 
combatant. Perhaps it was intended to represent 
Achilles fighting with Penthesilea. 

Agasicles, Agesicles, or Hegesicles (A-yaai- 
KXrjs, 'AyrjaiKXris, 'HyriaiKXTis), king of Sparta, 
succeeded his father Archidamus I., about B.C. 600 
or 590. 

Agatharcliides Ay ad apx'^Srjs) or Agathar- 
clius {'Ayddapxos), a Greek grammarian, bom at 
Cnidos, lived at Alexandria, probably about B. c. 
130. He wrote a considerable number of geogra- 
phical and historical works ; but we have only an 
epitome of a portion of his work on the Erj'thraean 
sea, which was made by Photius : it is printed in 
Hudson's Geogr. Script. Gr. Minores. 

Agatharchus Ay ddapxos)^ an Athenian artist, 
said to have invented scene painting, and to have 
painted a scene for a tragedy which Aeschylus ex- 
hibited. It was probably not till towards the end 
of Aeschj'lus's career that scene-painting was in- 
troduced, and not till the time of Sophocles that it 
was generally made use of ; which may account 
for Aristotle's assertion {Poet. iv. 16) that scene- 



AGATHEMERUS. 



AGDISTIS. 



25 



painting was introduced by Sophocles. — 2. A 
Greek painter, a native of Samos, and son of Eu- 
demus. He was a contemporary of Alcibiades and 
Zeuxis, and must not be confoimded with the con- 
temporary of Aeschylus. 

Agathemerus {' Ay ad-qfiepos)^ the author of " A 
sketch of Geography in epitome" (ttjs yewypacp'ias 
viroTvirwaeis iv eTTiTo^jj), probably lived about the 
beginning of the 3rd century after Christ. The 
work consists chiefly of extracts from Ptolemy and 
other earlier writers. It is printed in Hudson's 
Geogr. Script. Gr. Mmores. 

Agathias ('A7a0i'as), a Byzantine writer, bom 
about A. D. 536 at Myrina in Aeolia, practised as 
an advocate at Constantinople, whence he obtained 
his surname Sckolasticus (which word signified an 
advocate in his time), and died, about A. D. 582. 
He wrais many poems, of which several have come 
down to us ; but his principal work was his History 
in five books, which is also extant, and is of consi- 
derable value. It contains the history from A. d. 
553 — 558, a period remarkable for important events, 
such as the conquest of Italy by Narses and the 
exploits of Belisarius over the Huns and other bar- 
barians. The best edition is bv Niebuhr, Bonn, 
J828. 

Agatlioclea ('Ayae6K\€ia), mistress of Pto- 
lemy IV. Philopator, king of Egypt, and sister of 
his minister Agathocles. She and her brother 
were put to death on the death of Ptolemy (b. c. 
205). 

Agathocles ('Aya6oK\rjs). 1. A Sicilian, raised 
himself from the station of a potter to that of tyrant 
of Syracuse and king of Sicily. Born at Thermae, 
a town of Sicily subject to Carthage, he is said to 
have been exposed when an infant, by his father, 
Carcinus of Rhegium, in consequence of a succes- 
sion of troublesome dreams, portending that he 
would be a source of much evil to Sicily. His 
mother, however, secretly preserved his life, and 
at 7 years old he was restored to his father, who 
had long repented of his conduct to the child. By 
him he was taken to Syracuse and brought up as 
a potter. His strength and personal beauty re- 
commended him to Damas, a noble Syracusan, who 
drew him from obscurity, and on whose death he 
married his rich widow, and so became one of the 
wealthiest citizens in Syracuse. His ambitious 
schemes then developed themselves, and he Avas 
driven into exile. After several changes of fortune, 
he collected an army which overawed both the Sy- 
racusans and Carthaginians, and was restored under 
an oath that he would not interfere with the de- 
mocracy, which oath he kept by murdering 4000 
and banishing 6000 citizens. He was immediately 
declared sovereign of Syracuse, under the title of 
Autocrator, b. c. 317. In the course of a few 
years the whole of Sicily, which was not under the 
dominion of Carthage, submitted to him. In b. c. 
310 he was defeated at Himera by the Car- 
thaginians, under Hamilcar, who straightway laid 
siege to Syracuse ; whereupon he formed the bold 
design of averting the ruin which threatened him, 
by carrying the war into Africa. His successes 
were most brilliant and rapid. He constantly de- 
feated the troops of Carthage, but was at length 
summoned from Africa by the affairs of Sicily, 
where many cities had revolted from him, b. c. 307. 
These he reduced, after making a treaty with the 
Carthaginians. He had previously assumed the 
title of king of Sicily. He afterwards plun- 



dered the Lipari isles, and also carried his arms 
into Italy in order to attack the Bruttii. But his 
last days were embittered by family misfortunes. 
His grandson Archagathus murdered his son Aga- 
thocles, for the sake of succeeding to the crown, 
and the old king feared that the rest of his fa- 
mily would share his fate. He accordingly sent 
his wife Texena and her two children to Egypt, 
her native country ; and his own death followed 
almost immediately, B. c. 289, after a reign of 28 
years, and in the 72nd year of his age. Other 
authors relate an incredible story of his being poi- 
soned by Maeiio, an associate of Archagathus. 
The poison, we are told, was concealed in the quill 
with which he cleaned his teeth, and reduced him 
to so frightful a condition, that he was placed on 
the funeral pile and burnt while yet living, being 
unable to give any signs that he was not dead.— 
2. Of Pella, father of Lysimachus.— 3. Son of 
Lysimachus, was defeated and taken prisoner by 
Dromichaetis, king of the Getae, about b. c. 292, 
but was sent back to his father with presents. 
In 287, he defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes. At 
the instigation of his stepmother, Arsinoe, Lysi- 
machus cast him into prison, where he was mur- 
dered (284) by Ptolemaeus Ceraunus.— 4. Brother 
of Agathoclea.— 5. A Greek historian, of un- 
certain date, wrote the history of Cyzicus, which 
was extensively read in antiquity, and is referred 
to by Cicero {de Div. i. 24). 

Agathodaemon {'AyaQoWiixoiv or ''AyaQls ^^hs). 
1. The " Good Deity," in honour of whom the 
Greeks drank a cup of unmixed wine at the end 
of every repast.— 2. Of Alexandria, the designer 
of some maps to accompany Ptolemy's Geography. 
Copies of these maps are found appended to several 
MSS. of Ptolemy. 

Agathon i^AyaQ(t}v)^ an Athenian tragic poet, 
born about B. c. 447, of a rich and respectable fa- 
mily, was a friend of Euripides and Plato. He 
gained his first victory in 416 : in honour of which 
Plato represents the Symposium to have been given, 
which he has made the occasion of his dialogue so 
called. In 407, he visited the court of Archelaus, 
king of Macedonia, where his friend Euripides was 
also a guest at the same time. He died about 400, 
at the age of 47. The poetic merits of Agathon 
were considerable, but his compositions were more 
remarkable for elegance and flowery ornaments than 
force, vigour, or sublimity. In the Thesmophoria- 
zusae of Aristophanes he is ridiculed for his effe- 
minacy, being brought on the stage in female dress. 

Agathyrna, Agatliyrnum QAyddvpva, -ov : 
' AyaQvpvouos : Agatha)^ a town on the N. coast of 
Sicily.^ 

Agatliyrsi QAyaQvpaoC), a people in European 
Sarmatia, on the river Maris (Marosch) in Tran- 
sylvania. From their practice of painting or tatoo- 
ing their skin, they are called by Virgil (Aen. iv. 
146) picti Agathyrsi. 

Agave i^AyavT])^ daughter of Cadmus, wife of 
Echion, and mother of Pentheus. When Pen- 
theus attempted to prevent the women from cele- 
brating the Dionysiac festivals on mount Cithaeron, 
he was torn to pieces there by his ovm mother 
Agave, who in her frenzy believed him to be a 
wild beast. [Pentheus.] — One of the Nereids, 
one of the Danaids, and one of the Amazons were 
also called Agavae. 

Agbatana. [Ecbatana.] 

Agdistis ('A75iVTts), an androgynous deity, the 



26 AGELADAS. 

offspring of Zeus and Earth, connected with the 

Phrvpian worship of Attes or Atys. 

Ageladas ('A7eXa5as), an eminent statuary of 
Ar'os, tlie instructor of the three great masters, 
Phidias, Mvron, and Polycletus. Many modem 
-vvTiters suppose that there were two artists of this 
name ; one an Argive, the instructor of Phidias, born 
about B. c. 540, the other a native of Sicj'on, who 
flourished about B. c. 43"2. 

Agelaus {' Ay 4Kaos). 1. Son of Hercules and 
Omphale, and founder of the house of Croesus. 
—2. Son of Damastor and one of the suitors of Pe- 
nelope, slain by Ulysses.— 3. A slave of Priam, 
who exposed the infant Paris on mount Ida, in con- 
sequence of a dream of his mother. 

Agendicum or Agedicum (Sens), the chief 
town of the Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Agenor {'Aynvcop). 1. Son of Poseidon and 
Libva, king of Phoenicia, twin-brother of Belus, 
and' father of Cadmus, Phoenix, Cylix, Thasus, 
Phineus, and according to some of Europa also. 
Virgil {A en. i. 338) calls Carthage the city of 
Agenor, since Dido was descended from Agenor. 
—2. Son of .Jasus, and father of Argus Panoptes, 
king of Argos.— 3. Son and successor of Triopas, 
in the kingdom of Argos.— 4. Sou of Pleuron and 
Xanthippe, and grandson of Aetolus.— t). Son of 
Phegeus, king of Psophis, in Arcadia. He and 
his brother Pronous slew Alcmaeon, when he 
wanted to give the celebrated necklace and poplus 
of Harmonia to his second wife Calirrhoe. [Phe- 
geus.] The two brothers were afterwards- killed 
by Amphoterus and Acarnan, the sons of Alcmaeon 
and Callirrhoe. — 6. Son of the Trojan Antenorand 
Theano, one of the bravest among the Trojans, 
was wounded by Achilles, but rescued by Apollo. 

Agenorides (^AyrjvopLO-ns), a descendant of an 
Agenor, such as Cadmus, Phineus, and Perseus. 

Agesander, a sculptor of Rhodes, who, in con- 
junction with Polydorus and Athenodorus, sculp- 
tured the group of Laocoon, one of the most perfect 
specimens of art. This celebrated group was dis- 
covered in the year 1506, near the baths of Titus 
on the Esquiline hill : it is now preserved in the 
museum of the Vatican. The artists probably lived 
in the reign of Titus, and sculptured the group 
expressly for that emperor. 

Agesflaus {'AyT^a-iXaos), kings of Sparta. 1. 
Son of Doryssus, reigned 44 years, and died about 
B. c. 886. He was contemporary with the legis- 
lation of Lycurgus. — 2. Son of Archidamus II., 
succeeded his half-brother Agis II., b. c. 398, ex- 
cluding, on the ground of spurious birth, and by 
the interest of Lysander, his nephew Leotychides. 
From 396 to 394 he carried on the war in Asia 
Minor with great success, and was preparing to ad- 
vance into the heart of the Persian empire, when he 
was summoned home to defend his country against 
Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, which had been in- 
duced by Artaxerxes to take up arms against 
Sparta. Though full of disappointment, he promptly 
obeyed ; and in the course of the same year (394), 
he met and defeated at Coronea in Boeotia the 
allied forces. During the next 4 years he regained 
for his country much of its former supremacy, till 
at length the fatal battle of Leuctra, 371, over- 
threw for ever the power of Sparta, and gave the 
supremacy for a time to Thebes. For the next 
few years Sparta had almost to struggle for its 
existence amid dangers without and within, and it 
was chiefly owing to the skill, courage, and pre- 



AGIS. 

sence of mind of Agesilaus that she weatheied 
the storm. In 361 he crossed with a body of 
Lacedaemonian mercenaries into Egj-pt. Here, 
after displaying much of his ancient skill, he 
died, while preparing for his voyage home, in the 
winter of 361 — 360, after a life of above 80 
years and a reign of 38. His body was em- 
balmed in wax, and splendidly buried at Sparta. 
In person Agesilaus was small, mean-looking, and 
lame, on which last ground objection had been 
made to his accession, an oracle, curiously fulfilled, 
having warned Sparta of evils awaiting her under 
a lame sovereignty." In his reign, indeed, her 
fall took place, but not through him, for he was 
one of the best citizens and generals that Sparta 
ever had. 

Agesipolis CAynaiTroXis), kings of Sparta. 1. 
Succeeded his father Pausanias, while yet a minor^ 
in B. c. 394, and reigned 14 years. As soon 
as his minority ceased, he took an active part in 
the wars in which Sparta was then engaged with 
the other states of Greece In 390 he invaded 
Argolis with success ; in 385 he took the city 
of Mantinea ; in 381 he went to the assist- 
ance of Acanthus and Apollonia against the Olyn- 
thians, and died in 380 during this war in the 
peninsula of Pallene. — 2. Son of Cleombrotus, 
reigned one year b. c. 371.— 3. Succeeded Cleo- 
menes in B. c. 220, but was soon deposed by his 
colleague Lycurgus : he afterwards took refuge with 
the Romans. 

Agetor {'AyTjTcvp), " the leader," a surname of 
Zeus at Lacedaemon, of Apollo, and of Hermes, 
who conducts the souls of men to the lower world. 

Aggenus Urbicus, a -uTiter on the science of 
the Agrimensores, may perhaps have lived at the 
latter part of the 4th century of our era. His works 
are printed in Goesius, Rei Agrariae Auctores. 

Aggrammes or Xandrames ( EavSpd/xris), the 
ruler of the Gangaridae and Prasii in India, when 
Alexander invaded India, B. c. 327. 

Agias ('A7i'os), a Greek epic poet, erroneously 
called Augias, a native of Troezen, flourished about 
B. c. 740, and was the author of a poem called 
Nosti (NScttoi)^ i. e. the history of the return of 
; the Achaean heroes from Troy. 

Aginnum (Agen), the chief to^vn of the Nitio- 
briges in Gallia Aquitanica. 

Agis Q' Ay IS ), kings of Sparta. 1. Son of Eurys- 
thenes, the founder of the family of the Agidae.— 2. 
Son of Archidamus II., reigned B. c. 427 — 398. He 
took an active part in the Peloponnesian war, and 
invaded Attica several times. While Alcibiades 
was at Sparta he was the guest of Agis, and is 
said to have seduced his wife Timaea ; in conse- 
quence of which Leotychides, the son of Agis, was 
excluded from the throne as illegitimate.— 3. Son 
of Archidamus III., reigned B. c. 338—330, at- 
tempted to overthrow the Macedonian poAvcr in 
Europe, while Alexander the Great was in Asia, 
but v,-as defeated and killed in battle by Antipater 
in 330.-4. Son of Eudamidas II., reigned B.C. 
244 — 240. He attempted to re-establish the in- 
stitutions of Lycurgus, and to effect a thorough 
reform in the Spartan state ; but he was resisted 
by his colleague Leonidas II. and the wealthy, was 
throwTi into prison, and was there put to death by 
command of the ephors, along with his mother 
Agesistrata, and his grandmother Archidamia. 

Agis, a Greek poet of Argos, a notorious flat- 
terer of Alexander the Great. 



AGLAIA. 



AGRIPPA. 



27 



Aglaia ('AyAata), " the bright one." 1. One of 
the Charites or Graces.—- 2. Wife of Charopus 
i and mother of Nireus, who came from the island 
of Sime against Troy. 
Aglaopheme. [Sirenes.] 
Aglaophon ('AyAao^wj/). 1, Painter of Thasos, 
i father and instructor of Polygnotus and Aristo- 
i phon, lived about B. c. 500.— 2. Painter, lived 
j about B. c. 420, probably grandson of No. 1. 
I Aglaus ('AyXaos), a poor citizen of Psophis 
: in Arcadia, whom the Delphic oracle declared hap- 
pier than Gyges king of Lydia, on account of his 
contented disposition. Pausanias places him in th^ 
time of Croesus, 
i Agnodic© (^Ayvo^'iKT)), an Athenian maiden, Avas 
: the first of her sex to learn midwifery, which a law 
at Athens forbade any woman to learn. Dressed as 
a man, she obtained instruction from a physician 
I named Hierophilus, and afterwards practised her art 
; with success. Summoned before the Areopagus by 
the envy of the other practitioners, she was obliged 
; to disclose her sex, and was not only acquitted, but 
' obtained the repeal of the obnoxious law. This 
tale, though often repeated, does not deserve much 
: credit, as it rests on the authority of Hyginus 
■ alone. 

Agnonides ("'Ayveavi^ris), an Athenian dema- 
gogue, induced the Athenians to sentence Phocion 
to death (b. c. 318), but was shortly afterwards 
put to death himself by the Athenians. 

Agoracritus ('A7opa/fpiTos), a statuary of Paros, 
flourished B. c. 440 — 428, and was the favourite 
pupil of Phidias. His greatest work was a statue 
of Aphrodite, which he changed into a statue of 
Nemesis, and sold it to the people of Rhamnus, 
because he was indignant that the Athenians had 
given the preference to a statue by Alcamenes, who 
was another distinguished pupil of Phidias. 

Agoraea and Agoraeus {'Ayopaia and 'Ayo- 
paios), epithets of several divinities Avho were con- 
sidered as the protectors of the assemblies of the 
people in the agora, such as Zeus, Athena, Artemis, 
and Hermes. 

Agraei {'Aypaloi), a people of Aetolia on the 
Achelous. 

Agraule CAypavXr} and "'AypvXt] : 'AypuAeus), 
an Attic demus of the tribe Erechtheis, named 
after Agraulos, No. 2. 

Agraulos (^AypavXos, also "AyXavpos). 1. 
Daughter of Actaeus, first king of Athens, and 
wife of Cecrops.— 2. Daughter of Cecrops and 
Agraulos, is an important personage in the legends 
of Attica, and there were three different stories 
about her. 1. According to some writers Athena 
gave Erichthonius in a chest to Agraulos and her 
sister Herse, with the command not to open it ; 
but unable to control their curiosity, they opened 
it, and thereupon were seized with madness at the 
sight of Erichthonius, and threw themselves do^vn 
from the Acropolis. 2. According to Ovid {Met. 
ii. 710) Agraulos and her sister survived opening 
the chest, but Agraulos was subsequently punished 
by being changed into a stone by Hermes, because 
she attempted to prevent the god from entering the 
house of Herse, when he had fallen in love with 
the latter. 3. The third legend relates that Athens 
was once involved in a long-protracted war, and that 
Agraulos threw herself do^vn from the Acropolis 
because an oracle had declared that the Athenians 
would conquer if some one would sacrifice himself 
for his country. The Athenians in gratitude built 



her a temple on the Acropolis, in which it became 
customary for the young Athenians, on receiving 
their first suit of armour, to take an oath that they 
would always defend their country to the last. 
One of the Attic demi (Agraule) derived its name 
from this heroine, and a festival and mysteries 
{Agraulia) were celebrated at Athens in honour of 
her. 

Agreus QAyp^vs), a hunter, a surname of Pan 
and Aristaeus. 

Agri Decumates, tithe lands, the name given 
by the Romans to a part of Germany, E. of the 
Rhine and N. of the Danube, which they took 
possession of when the Germans retired eastward, 
and which they gave to Gauls and subsequently 
to their own veterans on the pa3Tnent of a tenth of 
the produce (dectima). Towards the end of the 
first or the beginning of the second century after 
Christ, these lands were incorporated in the Roman 
empire. 

Agricola, Ca. Julius, born June 13th, a. d. 
37, at Forum Julii {Frtjus in Provence), was the 
son of Julius Graecinus, who was executed by Ca- 
ligula, and of Julia Procilla. He received a careful 
education ; he first served in Britain, A. d. 60, 
under Suetonius Paulinus ; was quaestor in Asia 
in 63 ; was governor of Aquitania from 74 to 76 ; 
and was consul in 77, when he betrothed his 
daughter to the historian Tacitus, and in the fol- 
lowing year gave her to him in marriage. In 
78 he received the government of Britain, which 
he held for 7 years, during which time he sub- 
dued the whole of the country with the exception 
of the highlands of Caledonia, and by his wise 
administration introduced among the inhabitants 
the language and civilization of Rome. He was 
recalled in 85 through the jealousy of Domitian, 
and on his return lived in retirement till his death 
in 93, which according to some was occasioned by 
poison, administered by order of Domitian. His 
character is drawn in the brightest colours by his 
son-in-law Tacitus, whose Life of Agricola has come 
down to us. 

Agrigentum (^AKpo.yas : ' AKpayavrivos, Agri- 
gentinus : Girgenti), a town on the S. coast of Sicily, 
about 21 miles from the sea, between the rivers 
Acragas {Fiume di S. Biagio), and Hypsas (Fiume 
Drago). It was celebrated for its wealth and 
populousness, and till its destruction by the Car- 
thaginians (B.C. 405) was one of the most splendid 
cities of the ancient world. It was the birthplace 
of Empedocles. It was founded by a Doric colony 
from Gela, about b. c. 579, was under the govern- 
ment of the cruel tyrant Phalaris (about 560), 
and subsequently under that of Theron (488 — 
472), whose praises are celebrated by Pindar. 
After its destruction by the Carthaginians, it was 
rebuilt by Timoleon, but it never regained its 
former greatness. After undergoing many vicissi- 
tudes it at length came into the power of the 
Romans (210), in whose hands it remiained. 
There are still gigantic remains of the ancient citj'-, 
especially of the Olympieum, or temple of the 
Olympian Zeus. 

Agrinium {*AypivLQv\ a iovm in Aetolia, per- 
haps near the sources of the Thermissus. 

Ag^ippa, first a praenomen,and afterwards a cog- 
nomen among the Romans, signifies a child pre- 
sented at its birth with its feet foremost. 

Agrippa, Herodes. 1. Called " Agrippa the 
Great," son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grand- 



28 AGRIPPA. 

son of Herod the Great. He was educated at Rome 
with tlic future emperor Claudius, and Drusus the son 
of Tiberius. Having given offence to Tiberius he was 
thrown into prison ; but Caligula, on his accession 
(a. I). 37), set him at liberty, and gave him the 
tetnirchies of Abilene, Batanaea, Trachonitis, and 
Auranitis. On the death of Caligula (41), Agrippa, 
who was at the time in Rome, assisted Claudius in 
gaining possession of the empire. As a reward for 
his services, Judaea and Samaria were annexed to 
his dominions. His government was mild and 
gentle, and he was exceedingly popular amongst the 
Jews. It was probably to increase his popularity 
with the Jews that he caused the apostle James to 
be beheaded, and Peter to be cast into prison 
(44). The manner of his death, which took 
place at Caesarea in the same year, is related in 
Jcis xii. By his wife Cypres hei had a son 
Agrippa, and three daughters, Berenice, Mari- 
amne, and Drusilla.— 2. Son of Agrippa I., was 
educated at the court of Claudius, and at the time 
of his father's death was 17 years old. Claudius 
kept him at Rome, and sent Cuspius Fadus as pro- 
curator of the kingdom, which thus again became 
a Roman province. On the death of Herodes, 
king of Chalcis (48), his little principality was 
given to Agrippa, who subsequently received an 
accession of territory. Before the outbreak of the 
war with the Romans, Agrippa attempted in vain 
to dissuade the Jews from rebelling. He sided 
with the Romans in the war ; and after the cap- 
ture of Jerusalem, he went with his sister Berenice 
to Rome, and died in the 70th year of his age, 
A. D. 100. It was before this Agrippa that the 
apostle Paul made his defence, a. d. 60 (ActsxxY. 
xxvi.). 

Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, born in b. c. 63, of 

an obscure family, studied with j^ouiig Octavius 
(afterwards the emperor Augustus) at Apollonia 
in lUyria ; and upon the murder of Caesar in 
44, was one of the friends of Octavius, who ad- 
vised him to proceed immediately to Rome. In 
the civil Avars which followed, and which ter- 
minated in giving Augustus the sovereignty of the 
Roman world, Agrippa took an active part ; and 
his military abilities, combined with his prompti- 
tude and energy, contributed greatly to that result. 
In 41 Agrippa, who was then praetor, commanded 
part of the forces of Augustus in the Perusinian 
war. In 38 he obtained great successes in Gaul 
and Germany ; in 37 he was consul ; and in 
36 lie defeated Sex. Pompey by sea. In 33 he 
was aedile, and in this office expended immense 
sums of money upon great public works. He re- 
stored old aqueducts, constructed a new one, to 
which he gave the name of the Julian, in honour 
of Augustus, and also erected several public 
buildings. In 31 he commanded the fleet of Au- 
gustus at the battle of Actium ; was consul a 
second time in 28, and a third time in 27, when 
he built the Pantheon. In 21 he married Julia, 
daughter of Augustus. He had been marred twice 
before, first to Pomponia, daughter of T. Pom- 
ponius Atticus, and next to Marcella, niece of Au- 
gustus. He continued to be emploved in various 
military commands in Gaul, Spain, Syria, and 
Pannonia, till his death in b. c. 12. By his first 
wife Pomponia, Agrippa had Vipsania, married to 
Tiberius, the successor of Augustus ; and by his 
third wife, Julia, he had 2 daughters, Julia, mar- 
ried to L. Aemilius Paulus, and Agrippina, married 



AGYRIUM. 

to Germanicus, and 3 sons, Caius Caesar, Lucius 
Caesar [Caesar], and Agrippa Postumus, who 
was banished by Augustus to the island of Planasia, 
and was put to death by Tiberius at his accession, 
A. D. 14. 

Agrippina. 1. Daughter of M. Vipsanius 
Agrippa and of Julia, the daughter of Augustus, 
married Germanicus, by whom she had nine chil- 
dren, among whom was the emperor Caligula, and 
Agrippina, the mother of Nero. She was distin- 
guished for her virtues and heroism, and shared all 
the dangers of her husband's campaigns. On his 
death in a. D. 17 she returned to Italy ; but the 
favour with Avhich she was received by the people 
increased the hatred and jealousy which Tiberius 
and his mother Livia had long entertained towards 
her. For some years Tiberius disguised his hatred, 
but at length under the pretext that she was fonn- 
ing ambitious plans, he banished lier to the island 
of Pandataria (a. d. 30), Avhere she died 3 
5'ears afterwards, a. d. 33, probably by voluntary 
starvation.— 2. Daughter of Germanicus and Agrip- 
pina [No. 1.], and mother of the emperor Nero, 
was born at Oppidum Ubiorum, afterwards called 
in honour of her Colonia Agrippina, now Cologne. 
She was beautiful and intelligent, but licentious, 
cruel, and ambitious. She was first married to 
Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus (a. d. 28), by Avhora 
she had a son, afterwards the emperor Nero ; next 
to Crispus Passienus ; and thirdly to the emperor 
Claudius (49), although she was his niece. In 
50, she prevailed upon Claudius to adopt her 
son, to the prejudice of his own son Britannicus ; 
and in order to secure the succession for her 
son, she poisoned the emperor in 54. Upon 
the accession of her son Nero, who was then 
only 17 years of age, she governed the Roman 
empire for a few years in his name. The young 
emperor soon became tired of the ascendency of 
his mother, and after making several attempts to 
shake off her authority, he caused her to be assas- 
sinated in 59. 
Agrippmenses. [Colonia Agrippina.] 
Agnus ("Aypios)., son of Porthaon and Euryte, 
and brother of Oeneus, king of Calydon in Aetolia : 
his six sons deprived Oeneus of his kingdom, and 
gave it to their father ; but Agrius and his sons 
were afterwards slain by Diomedes, the grandson 
of Oeneus. 

Agroecius or Agroetius, a Roman gramma- 
rian, probably lived in the 5th century after Christ, 
and wrote an extant work De Ortliograplda et Dif- 
ferentia Sermonis, which is printed in Putschius, 
Grammaiicae Laiinae Axictores Antiqui^ pp. 2266 
—2275. 

Agron (^'Kypuv). 1. Son of Ninus, the first ot 
the Lydian dynasty of the Heraclidae.— 2. Son 
of Pleuratus, king of lUyria, died B.C. 231, and 
was succeeded by his wife Teuta, though he left a 
son Pinnes or Pinneus by his first wife, Triteuta, 
whom he had divorced. 

Agrotera ('AypoTepa), the huntress, a surname 
of Artemis, There was a festival celebrated to 
her honour at Athens under this name. (See Diet, 
of Antiq.) 

Agryle. [Agraule,] 

Agyieus ('Ayvi^vs), a surname of Apollo, as the 
protector of the streets and public places. 

Agylla (*'A7i;AAa), the ancient Greek name of 
the Etruscan town of Caere. 

Agyrium (^Ayvpiov : ''Ayupiyaios, Agyrinensis : 



AGYRRHIUS. 



AIUS. 



29 



S. Filipo d'Argiro), a town in Sicily on the Cya- 
mosorus, N. W. of Centuripae and N. E. of Enna, 
the birth-place of the historian Diodorus. 

Agyrrhms CAyuppios), an Athenian, after being 
in prison many years for embezzlement of public 
money, obtained about B. c. 395 the restoration of 
the Theoricon, and also tripled the pay for attend- 
ing the assembly : hence he became so popular, that 
he was appointed general in 389. 

Ahala, Servilius, the name of several distin- 
' guished Romans, Avho held various high offices in 
the state from B. c. 478 to 342. Of these the best 
known is C. Servilius Ahala, magister equitum in 
439 to the dictator L. Cincinnatus, when he slew 
Sp. Maelius in the fonim, because he refused 
to appear before the dictator. Ahala was after- 
: wards brought to trial, and only escaped con- 
j: damnation by a voluntary exile. 
1 Aharna, a town in Etruria, N. E. of Volsinii. 
j Ahenobarbus, Domitius, the name of a distin- 
! guished Roman family. They are said to have 
obtained the surname of Ahenobarbus, i. e. " Brazen- 
Beard" or " Red-Beard," because the Dioscuri an- 
nounced to one of their ancestors the victory of the 
Romans over the Latins at lake Regillus (b. c. 
: 496), and, to confirm the truth of what they said, 
i stroked his black hair and beard, which imme- 
, diately became red,— 1. Cn., plebeian aedile B.C. 
I' 196, praetor 194, and consul 192, when he fought 
against the Boii.— 2. Cn., son of No. 1, consul 
suffectus in 162.— 3. Cel., son of No. 2, consul 
i 122, conquered the Allobroges in Gaul, in 121, at 
I the confluence of the Sulga and Rhodanus. He 
I was censor in 115 with Caecilius Metellus. The 
: Via Domitia in Gaul was made by him.— 4. Cn., 
son of No. 3, tribune of the plebs 104, brought 
i forward the law (Lex Domitia), by which the 
I election of the priests was transferred from the col- 
! legia to the people. The people afterwards elected 
i him Pontifex Maximus out of gratitude. He was 
j consul in 96, and censor in 92, with Licinius 
I Crassus, the orator. In his censorship he and his 
colleague shut up the schools of the Latin rhetori- 
! cians : but otherwise their censorship was marked 
by their violent disputes.— 5. L., brother of No. 
I 4, praetor in Sicily, probably in 96, and consul in 
I 94, belonged to the party of Sulla, and was mur- 
! dered at Rome in 82, by order of the younger 
Marius.— 6. Cn., son of No. 4, married Cornelia, 
daughter of L. Cinna, consul in 87, and joined the 
Marian party. He was proscribed by Sulla in 82, 
and fled to Africa, where he was defeated and 
I killed by Cn. Pompey in 81.— 7. L., son of No. 
i 4, married Porcia, the sister of M. Cato, and was 
I a stanch and courageous supporter of the aristocra- 
I tical party. He was aedile in 61, praetor in 58, 
and consul in 54. On the breaking out of the 
I civil war in 49 he threw himself into Corfinium, 
but was compelled by his own troops to surrender 
to Caesar. He next went to Massilia, and, after 
the surrender of that town, repaired to Pompey in 
I Greece: he fell in the battle of Pharsalia (48), 
[ where he commanded the left wing, and, according 
j to Cicero's assertion in the second Philippic, by the 
I hand of Antony.— 8. Cn., son of No. 7, was taken 
I with his father at Corfinium (49), was present at 
I the battle of Pharsalia (48), and returned to Italy 
; in 46, when he was pardoned by Caesar. After 
Caesar's death in 44, he commanded the republican 
fleet in the Ionian sea. He afterwards became 
reconciled to Antony, whom he accompanied in his 



campaign against the Parthians in 36. He was 
consul in 32, and deserted to Augustus shortly be- 
fore the battle of Actium.— 9. L., son of No. 8, 
married Antonia, the daughter of Antony by Oc- 
tavia ; was aedile in 22, and consul in 16 ; and 
after his consulship, commanded the Roman army 
in Germany and crossed the Elbe. He died a. d. 
25.-10. Cn., son of No. 9, consul a. d. 32, mar- 
ried Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, and was 
father of the emperor Nero. [Agrippina.] 

Ajas (Alfas). 1. Son of Telamon, king of Sa- 
lamis, by Periboea or Eriboea, and grandson of 
Aeacus. Homer calls him Ajax the Telamonian, 
Ajax the Great, or simply Ajax, whereas the other 
Ajax, son of O'ileus, is always distinguished from 
the former by some epithet. He sailed against 
Troy in 12 ships, and is represented in the Iliad 
as second only to Achilles in bravery, and as the' 
hero most worthy, in the absence of Achilles, to- 
contend with Hector. In the contest for the ar- 
mour of Achilles, he was conquered by Ulysses, 
and this, says Homer, was the cause of his death. 
(Od. xi. 541, seq.) Homer gives no further par- 
ticulars respecting his death ; but later poets relate 
that his defeat by Ulysses threw him into an awful 
state of madness ; that he rushed from his tent and 
slaughtered the sheep of the Greek army, fancying 
they were his enemies ; and that at length he put 
an end to his own life. From his blood there 
sprang up a purple flower bearing the letters al on 
its leaves, which were at once the initials of his 
name and expressive of a sigh. Homer does not 
mention his mistress Tecmessa. Ajax was wor- 
shipped in Salamis, and was honoured with a fes- 
tival (AlavTe7a). He was also worshipped at 
Athens, and one of the Attic tribes (Aeantis) wag 
called after him.— 2. Son of Oileus, king of the 
Locrians, also called the lesser Ajax, sailed against 
Troy in 40 ships. He is described as small of 
stature, and wears a linen cuirass (Kivodwprj^), but 
is brave and intrepid, skilled in throwing the spear, 
and, next to Achilles, the most swift-footed among 
the Greeks. On his return from Troy his vessel was 
wrecked on the Whirling Rocks (Tvpai irerpai) ; 
he himself got safe upon a rock through the as- 
sistance of Poseidon ; but as he boasted that he 
would escape in defiance of the immortals, Poseidon 
split the rock with his trident, and Ajax was swal- 
lowed up by the sea. This is the account of Homer, 
but his death is related somewhat differently by 
Virgil and other writers, who also tell us that the 
anger of Athena was excited against him, because, on 
the night of the capture of Troy, he violated Cas- 
sandra in the temple of the goddess, where she had 
taken refuge. The Opuntian Locrians worshipped 
Ajax as their national hero. 

Aides ('AiS-ns). [Hades.] 

Aidoneus {'Aidwuevs). 1. A lengthened form 
of A'ides. [Hades.] —2. A mythical king of the 
Molossians in Epirus, husband of Persephone, and 
father of Core. When Theseus and Pirithous at- 
tempted to carry olf Core, Aidoneus had Pirithous 
killed by Cerberus, and kept Theseus in captivity 
till he was released by Hercules. 

Aius Lociitius or Loquens, a Roman divinity. 
A short time before the Gauls took Rome (b. c. 
390) a voice was heard at Rome in the Via nova, 
during the silence of night, announcing that the 
Gauls were approaching. No attention was at the 
time paid to the warning, but the Romans after- 
wards erected on the spot where the voice had been 



30 . ALABANDA. 

heard, an altar with a sacred enclosure around it, 

to Aius Locutius, or the " Announcing Speaker." 

AlabaJlda (t) 'A\d§avSa or ra 'AXdSavBa : 
A\a§av8fvs or 'A\d§ai'dos : Arahissar), an inland 
town of Caria, near the Marsyas, to the S. of the 
Macandcr, was situated between two hills : it was 
a prosperous place, but one of the most corrupt 
and luxurious Xo\vy\s in Asia Minor. Under the 
Romans it was the seat of a conventus juridicus. 

Alabon (^'A\a§wv), a river and town in Sicily, 
N. nt' Syracuse. 

Alagonia {'AKayouia), a town of the Eleuthero- 
Laconians on the frontiers of Messenia. 

Alalcomenae ('AAaX/co,uei'ai : 'A\a\Koixevaios, 
'AAaAKo.uez/ievs). 1. (Sulinari), an ancient to^vn 
of Boeotia, E. of Coronea, with a temple of 
Athene, who is said to have been bom in the 
town, and who Avas hence called Alalcomeneis 
(A\a\KOfxevriis, idos). The name of the town 
was derived either from Alalcomenia, a daughter 
of Ogyges, or from the Boeotian hero Alalcomenes. 
—2. "a town in Ithaca, or in the island Asteria, 
between Ithaca and Cephallenia. 

Alalia. [Aleria.] 

Alani ('AAai/oi, 'AXawoi, i. e. mountaineers, 
from the Sarmatian word aZa), a great Asiatic 
people, included under the general name of Scy- 
thians, but probably a branch of the Massagetae. 
They were a nation of warlike horsemen. They 
are first found about the E. part of the Caucasus, 
in the country called Albania, which appears to be 
only another form of the same name. In the reign 
of Vespasian they made incursions into Media and 
Armenia ; and at a later time they pressed into 
Europe, as far as the banks of the Lower Danube, 
where, towards the end of the 5th century, they 
were routed by the Huns, who then compelled them 
to become their allies. In a. d. 406, some of the 
Alani took part with the Vandals in their irruption 
into Gaul and Spain, where they gradually disap- 
pear from history. 

Alaricus, in German Al-ric, i. e. "All-rich," 
elected king of the Visigoths in A. D. 398, had 
previously commanded the Gothic auxiliaries of 
Theodosius. He twice invaded Italy, first in a. d. 
402 — 403, when he was defeated by Stilicho at 
the battle of Pollentia, and a second time in 408 — 
410 ; in his second invasion he took and plundered 
Rome, 24th of August, 410. He died shortly 
afterwards at Consentia in Bruttium, while pre- 
pariiiLT to invade Sicily. 

Alastor CAXdarTwp). 1. A surname of Zeus 
as the avenger of evil, and also in general any 
deity who avenges wicked deeds.— 2. A Lycian, 
and companion of Sarpedon, slain by Ulysses. 

Alba Silvius, one of the mythical kings of Alba, 
son of Latinus, reigned 39 j-ears. 

Alba. 1. (Abla), a town of the Bastitani in 
Spain.— 2. (Alvarma), a town of the Barduli in 
Spain.— 3. Augusta (Aulps, nr. Durance), a 
town of the Elicoci in Gallia Narbonensis.— 4. 
Fucentia or Fucentis (Albenses: Alba or AIM), 
a town of the Marsi, and subsequently a Roman 
colony, was situated on a lofty rock near the lake 
Fucinus. It was a strong fortress, and was used 
by the Romans as a state prison.— 5. Longa 
(Albani), the most ancient town in Latiiun, is said 
to have been built by Ascanius, and to have 
founded Rome. It was called Longa, from its 
stretching in a long line down the Alban 
Mount towards the Alban Lake, perhaps near the 



ALBINUS. 

modem convent of Palazzolo. It was destroyed 
by Tullus Hostilius, and was never rebuilt: its 
inhabitants were removed to Rome. At a later 
time the surrounding country, which was highly 
cultivated and covered with vineyards, was studded 
with the splendid villas of the Roman aristocracy 
and emperors (Pompey's, Doniitian's, &c.), each 
of which was called Albanum, and out of which a 
new town at length grew, also called Albanum 
{Albano), on the Appian road, rains of which are 
extant.— 6. Pompeia (Albenses Pompeiani : Alha)^ 
a town in Liguria, founded by Scipio Africanus I., 
and colonized by Pompeius Magnus, the birth- 
place of the emperor Pertinax. 

Albania ('AAgavia : 'A\§auoi,Albdni; Scldrwan 
and part of Daghestan, in the S.E. part of Georgia), 
a country of Asia on the W. side of the Caspian, 
extending from the rivers Cyrus and Araxes on 
the S. to M. Ceraunius (the E. part of the Cau- 
casus) on the N., and bounded on the W. by 
Iberia. It was a fertile plain, abounding in pasture 
and vineyards ; but the inhabitants were fierce and 
warlike. They were a Scythian tribe, probably a 
branch of the Massagetae, and identical with the 
Alam. The Romans first became acquainted with 
them at the time of the Mithridatic war, when 
they encountered Pompey with a large army. 

Albanum. [Alba, No. 5.] 

Albanus Lacus {Lago di Albano), a small lake 
about 5 miles in circumference, W. of the Mons 
Albanus between Bovillae and Alba Longa, is the 
crater of an extinct volcano, and is many himdred 
feet deep. The emissarium which the Romans 
bored through the solid rock during the siege of 
Veil, in order to carry off the superfluous water of 
the lake, is extant at the present day. 

Albanus Mons {ISIonte Cavo or Albano), was, 
in its narrower signification, the mountain in La- 
tium on whose declivity the town of Alba Longa 
was situated. It was the sacred mountain of the 
Latins, on which the religious festivals of the 
Latin League were celebrated {Feriae Latinae\ 
and on its highest summit was the temple of Jupi- 
ter Latiaris, to which the Roman generals ascended 
in triumph, when this honour was denied them in 
Rome. The Mons Albanus in its wider significa- 
tion included the Mons Algidus and the moun- 
tains about Tusculum. 

Albi Montes, a lofty range of mountains in the 
W. of Crete, 300 stadia in length, covered with 
snow the greater part of the year. 

Albici ('AAgi'oi/coi, 'AAgtets), a warlike Gallic 
people, inhabiting the mountains north of Massilia. 

Albingaunum. [Albium Ingaunum.] 

Albinovanus, C. Pedo, a friend of Ovid, who 
addresses to him one of his Epistles from Pontus 
(iv. 10). Three Latin elegies are attributed to 
Albinovanus, printed by Wemsdorf, in his Pottae 
Latini Minores, vol. iii. iv., and by Meinecke, Qued- 
linburg, 1819. 

Albinovanus, P. Tullius, belonged to the Ma- 
rian party, was proscribed in B. c. 87, but was 
pardoned bj' Sulla in 81, in consequence of his put- 
ting to death many of the officers of Norbanus, 
whom he had invited to a banquet at Ariminum. 

Albinus or Albus, Postunuus, the name of a 
patrician family at Rome, many of the members of 
which held the highest offices of the state from the 
commencement of the republic to its dowTifal.— 1. 
A,, sumamed Begillensis^ dictator B. c. 498, when 
he conquered the Latins in the great battle near 



ALBINUS. 



ALCAMENES. 



31 



lake Regillus, and consul 496, in whicli year some 
of the annals placed the battle.— 2. Sp., consul 
466, and a member of the first decemvirate 451.-— 
3. Sp., consul 344, and again 321. In the latter 
year he marched against the Samnites, but was de- 
feated near Caudiura, and obliged to surrender with 
his whole army, who were sent under the yoke. 
The senate, on the advice of Albinus, refused to 
ratify the peace which he had made with the Sam- 
nites, and resolved that all persons who had sworn 
to the peace should be given up to the Samnites, 
but they refused to accept them.— 4. L., consul 
234, and again 229. In 216 he was praetor, and 
was killed in battle by the Boii.— 5. Sp., consul 
in 186, when the senatusconsultum was passed, 
which is extant, for suppressing the worship of 
Bacchus in Rome. He died in 179.— 6. A., con- 
sul 1 80, when he fought against the Ligurians, and 
censor 174. He was subsequently engaged in 
many public missions. Livy calls him Luscus, from 
which it would seem that he was bhnd of one eye. 
—7. L., praetor 180, in Further Spain, where he 
remained two years, and conquered the Vaccaei and 
Lusitani. He was consul in 173, and afterwards 
served under Aemilius Paulus in Macedonia in 
168. — 8. A., consul 151, accompanied L.Mummius 
into Greece in 146. He was well acquainted with 
Greek literature, and wrote in that language a poem 
and a Roman history, which is censured by Poly- 
bius. — 9. Sp., consul 110, carried on war against 
Jugurtha in Numidia, but effected nothing. When 
Albinus departed from Africa, he left his brother 
Aulus m command, who was defeated by Jugurtha. 
Spiu-ius was condemned by the Mamilia Lex, as 
guilty of treasonable practices with Jugurtha.— 10. 
A., consul B. c. 99, with M. Antonius, is said by 
Cicero to have been a good speaker. 

Albinus ('AAgiVos), a Platonic philosopher, 
lived at Smyrna in the 2nd century after Christ, 
and wrote an Introduction to the Dialogues of Plato, 
which contains hardly any thing of importance. — 
Editions. In the first edition of Fabricius's Bibl. 
Graec. vol. ii., aud prefixed to Etwall's edition of 
three dialogues of Plato, Oxen. 1771 ; and to 
Fischer's four dialogues of Plato, Lips. 1783. 

Albinus, C15dius, whose full name was Decimus 
Clodius Cdonius Sepiimius Albinus, was born at 
Adrumetum in Africa. The emperor Commodus 
made him governor of Gaul and afterwards of 
Britain, where he was on the death of Commodus 
in A. D. 1 92. In order to secure the neutrality of 
Albinus, Septimius Severus made him Caesar ; but 
after Severus had defeated his rivals, he turned his 
arms against Albinus. A great battle was fought 
between them at Lugdunum (Lyons), in Gaul, the 
19th of February, 197, in which Albinus was de- 
feated and killed. 

Albion or Alebion QhXSiwv, 'AMSiuv), son of 
Poseidon and brother of Dercynus or Bergion, 
with whom he attacked Hercules, when he passed 
through their country (Liguria) with the oxen of 
Geryon. They were slain by Hercules. 

Albion, another name of Britannia, the white 
land, from its white cliffs ouposite the coast of 
Gaul. 

Albis (Elbe), one of the great rivers in Germany, 
the most easterly which the Romans became ac- 
quainted with, rises according to Tacitus in the 
country of the Hermunduri. The Romans reached 
the Elbe for the first time in B. c. 9 under Drusus, 
and crossed it for the first time in B. c. 3 under 



Domitius Ahenobarbus. The last Roman general 
who saw the Elbe was Tiberius in a. n. 5. 

Albium Ingaunum or Albingaunum (Al- 
bengo), a town of the Ingauni on the coast of Li- 
guria, and a municipium. 

Albium Intemelium or Albintemelium ( Vin- 
timiglia), a town of the Intemelii on the coast of 
Liguria, and a municipium. 

T. Albucius or Albutius, studied at Athens, 
and belonged to the Epicurean sect ; he was well 
acquainted with Greek literature, but was satirized 
by Lucilius on account of his affecting on every 
occasion the Greek language and philosophy. He 
was praetor in Sardinia in B. c. 105 ; and in 103 
was accused of repetundae by C. Julius Caesar, and 
condemned. He retired to Athens and pursued 
the study of philosophy. 

Albula, an ancient name of the river Tiber. 
Albiilae Aquae [Albunea.] 
Albunea or Albuna, a prophetic nymph or 
Sybil, to .vhom a grove was consecrated in the 
neighbourhood of Tibur (Tivoli), with a fountain 
and a temple. This fountain was the largest of 
the Albulae aquae, still called Acque Albule, 
sulphureous springs at Tibur, which flow into the 
Anio. Near it was the oracle of Faunus Fati- 
dicus. The temple is still extant at Tivoli. 

Alburnus Mons, a mountain in Lucania, co- 
vered with wood, behind Paestum. 

Alcaeus (^AXkoIos), son of Perseus and Andro- 
meda, and father of Amphitryon and Anaxo. 

Alcaeus. 1. Of Mytilene in Lesbos, the earliest 
of the Aeolian lyric poets, began to flourish about 
B. c. 61 1. In the war between the Athenians and 
Mytilenaeans for the possession of Sigeum (b. c. 
606) he incurred the disgrace of leaving his arms 
on the field of battle : these arms were hung up 
as a trophy by the Athenians in the temple of 
Pallas at Sigeum. Alcaeus took an active part in 
the struggles between the nobles and people of 
Mytilene : he belonged by birth to the nobles and 
was driven into exile with his brother Antimeni- 
das, when the popular party got the upper hand. 
He attempted by force of arms to regain his 
country ; but all his attempts were frustrated by 
PiTTACUS, who had been chosen by the people 
Aesymnetes or dictator for the purpose of resisting 
him and the other exiles. Alcaeus and his brother 
afterwards travelled into various countries : the 
time of his death is uncertain. Some fragments of 
his poems which remain, and the excellent imita- 
tions of Horace, enable us to understand something 
of their character. Those which have received the 
highest praise are his warlike odes, in which he 
tried to rouse the spirits of the nobles, the Alcaei 
minaces Camenae of Horace (Carm. iv. 9. 7). In 
others he described the hardships of exile, and his 
perils by sea (dura navis, dura fugae mala, dura 
belli, Hor. Carm. ii. 13. 27). Alcaeus is said to 
have invented the well-knowTi Alcaic metre. — ■ 
Editions. By Matthiae, Alcaei Mytilenaei reliquiae. 
Lips. 1827 ; and by Bergk, in Poetae Lyrid Graeci, 
Lips. 1843.— 2. A comic poet at Athens, flourished 
about b. c. 388, and exhibited plays of that mixed 
comedy, which formed the transition between the 
old and the middle— 3. Of Messene, the author of 
22 epigrams in the Greek anthology, written be- 
tween B. c. 219 and 196. 

Aleamenes ('A\/ca^6V7js). 1. Son of Teleclus, 
king of Sparta, from b. c. 779 to 742.-2. A sta- 
tuary of Athens flourished from b. c. 444 to 400 



32 ALCANDER. 

and was the most famous of the pupils of Phidias. 
His greatest work was a statue of Aphrodite, 

Alcander {"AAicavSpos), a young Spartan, who 
thrust out one of the eyes of Lycurgus, when his 
fellow-citizens were discontented with the laws he 
proposed, Lycurgus pardoned the outrage, and 
thus converted Alcander into one of his warmest 
friends. 

Alcathoe or Alcithoe {'A\Ka96ri or 'A.\Kie6r]), 
daughter of Minyas, refused with her sisters Leu- 
cippe and Arsippe to join in the worship of Diony- 
sus when it was introduced into Boeotia, and were 
accordingly changed by the god into bats, and their 
work into vines. See Did. of A7it. art. Agrionia. 

Alcathous {'AKKaOoos). 1. Son of Pelops and 
Hippodamia, brother of Atreus and Thyestes, ob- 
tained as his wife Euaechme, the daughter of Me- 
gareus, by slaying the Cithaeronian lion, and suc- 
ceeded his father in-law as king of Megara. He 
restored the walls of Megara, in which work he was 
assisted by Apollo. The stone upon which the 
god used to place his lyre while he was at work, 
was believed, even in late times, to give forth a 
sound, when struck, similar to that of a lyre (Ov. 
Met. viii. 15).— '2, Son of Aesyetes and husband 
of Hippodamia, the daughter of Anchises and 
sister of Aeneas, was one of the bravest of the 
Trojan leaders in the war of Troy, and was slain 
by Idomeneus. 

Alcestis or Alceste ("AXK-naTi^ or 'AA/ceVrT/), 
daughter of Pelias and Anaxibia, wife of Admetus, 
died in place of her husband. [Admetus;] 

Alcetas {'AXKeras), two kings of Epirus. L 
Son of Tharypus, was expelled from his kingdom, 
and was restored by the elder Dionj'sius of Syra- 
cuse. He was the ally of the Athenians in B. c. 
373.-2. Son of Arymbas, and grandson of Al- 
cetas I., reigned B.C. 313 — 303, and was put to 
death by his subjects. 

Alcetas. 1. King of Macedonia, reigned 29 
years, and was father of Amyntas I.— 2. Brother 
of Perdiccas and son of Orontes, was one of Alex- 
ander's generals. On the death of Alexander, he 
espoused his brother's party, and upon the murder 
of the latter in Egypt in 321, he joined Eumenes. 
He killed himself at Termessus in Pisidia in 320, 
to avoid falling into the hands of Antigonus. 

Alcibiades CA\KtgidBris), son of Clinias and 
Dinoniache, was born at Athens about b. c. 450, 
and on the death of his father in 447, was brought 
up by his relation Pericles. He possessed a beau- 
tiful person, transcendent abilities, and great 
■wealth, which received a large accession through 
his marriage with Hipparete, the daughter of Hip- 
ponicus. His youth was disgraced by his amours 
and debaucheries, and Socrates, who saw his vast 
capabilities, attempted to win him to the paths of 
virtue, but in vain. Their intimacy was strength- 
ened by mutual services. At the battle of Potidaea 
(b. c. 432) his life was saved by Socrates, and at 
that of Delium (424) he saved the life of Socrates. 
He did not take much part in public affairs till 
after the death of Clcon (422), but he then became 
one of the leading politicians, and the head of the 
war party in opposition to Nicias. Enraged at the 
affront put upon him by the Lacedaemonians, 
who had not chosen to employ his intervention 
in the negotiations which ended in the peace of 
421, and had preferred Nicias to him, he induced 
the Athenians to form an alliance with Argos, 
Mnntinea, and Elis, and to attack the allies of 



ALCIDAMAS. 

Sparta. In 415 he was foremost among the advo- 
cates of the Sicilian expedition, which he believed 
would be a step towards the concjuest of Ital}', Car- 
thage, and Peloponnesus. While the preparations for 
the expedition were going on, there occurred the 
mysterious mutilation of the Hermes-busts, which 
the popular fears connected in some unaccountable 
manner with an attempt to overthrow the Athenian 
constitution. Alcibiades Avas charged with being 
the ringleader in this attempt. He had been al- 
ready appointed along with Nicias and Lamachus 
as commander of the expedition to Sicily, and he 
now demanded an investigation before he set sail. 
This, however, his enemies would not grant ; as 
they hoped to increase the popular odium against 
him in his absence. He was therefore obliged to 
depart for Sicily ; but he had not been there long, 
before he was recalled to stand his trial. On his 
return homewards, he managed to escape at Thurii, 
and thence proceeded to Sparta, where he acted as 
the avowed enemy of his country. At Athens 
sentence of death was passed upon him, and his 
property was confiscated. At Sparta he rendered 
himself popular by the facility with which he 
adopted the Spartan manners ; but the machina- 
tions of his enemy Agis II. induced him to 
abandon the Spartans and take refuge with Tis- 
saphemes (412), whose favour he soon gained. 
Through his influence Tissaphernes deserted the 
Spartans and professed his willingness to assist the 
Athenians, who accordingly recalled Alcibiades 
from banishment in 411. He did not immediately 
return to Athens, but remained abroad for the next 
4 years, during which the Athenians under his 
command gained the victories of Cynossema, Aby- 
dos, and Cyzicus, and got possession of Chalcedon 
and Byzantium. In 407 he returned to Athens, 
where he was received with great enthusiasm, and 
was appointed commander-in-chief of all the land 
and sea forces. But the defeat at Notium, occa- 
sioned during his absence by the imprudence of 
his lieutenant, Antiochus, furnished his enemies 
with a handle against him, and he was superseded 
in his command (b. c. 406), He now went into 
voluntary exile to his fortified domain at Bisanthe 
in the Thracian Chersonesus, where he made war 
on the neighbouring Thracians, Before the fatal 
battle of Aegos-Potami (405), he gave an in- 
effectual warning to the Athenian generals. After 
the fall of Athens (404), he was condemned to 
banishment, and took refuge with Pharnabazus ; ; 
he was about to proceed to the court of Arta- j; 
xerxes, when one night his house was surrounded 
by a band of armed men, and set on fire. He 
rushed out sword in hand, but fell, pierced with, 
arrows (404). The assassins were probably either 
emploj^ed by the Spartans, or by the brothers of a | 
lady whom Alcibiades had seduced. He left a son 
by his wife Hipparete, named Alcibiades, who 
never distinguished himself. It was for him that 
Isocrates wrote the speech Ile/Ji rov Zevyovs. 

Alcidamas ('AA/ci5a^as), a Greek rhetorician, of 
Elaea in Aeolis, in Asia Minor, was a pupil of Gorgias, 
and resided at Athens between B. c. 432 and 411. 
His works were characterised by pompous diction 
and the extravagant use of poetical epithets and 
phrases. There are two declamations extant which 
bear his name, entitled Ulysses, and On the So- \. 
phists, but they were probably not written by him. ; 
Editiom. — In Reiske's Oratores Graeci, vol. viii.. 
and in Bekker's Oratores Attici, vol. vii. 



TEMPLE AT AEGINA AND AEGINETAN SCULPTUEES. 




Ajax. (Aegina Marbles . ) 



Hector. (Aegina Marbles.) 

[To /ace i). 32. 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. ABACAENUM — AETOLIA. 




ALCIDAS. 



ALCMENE. 



33 



Alcidas ('AXKtSas Dor. = 'AAk ei'Srjs), a Spartan 
commander of the fleet in the Peloponnesian war, 
B. c. 428 — 427. In the former year he was sent 
to Mytilene, and in the latter to Corcyra. 

Alcides ('A\KeiSris), a name of Amphitryon, 
the son of Alcaeus, and more especially of Hercules, 
the grandson of Alcaeus. 

Alcimede ('AA/ciMeSi?), daughter of Phylacus 
and Clymene, wife of Aeson, and mother of Jason. 

Alcimus (Avitus) Alethius, the writer of 7 
short poems, a rhetorician in Aquitania, in Gaul, is 
spoken of in terms of praise by Sidonius Apol- 
linaris, and Ausonius. — Editions. In Meier's Antho- 
logia Latina., ed, 254 — 260, and in Wernsdorf's 
Po'itae Latini Minores, vol. vi. 

Alcmous CAXk'ivoos). 1. Son of Nausithous, 
and grandson of Poseidon, is celebrated in the storj'- 
of the Argonauts, and still more in the Odyssey. 
Homer represents him as the happy ruler of the 
Phaeacians in the island of Scheria, Avho has by 
Arete five sons and one daughter, Nausicaa. The 
way in which he received Ulysses, and the stories 
which the latter related to the king about his 
wanderings, occupy a considerable portion of the 
Odyssey (books vi. to xiii.).— 3. A Platonic philo- 
sopher, who probably lived under the Caesars, 
wrote a work entitled Epitome of the Doctrines of 
Plato.— Editions. By Fell, Oxon. 1667, and by 
J. F. Fischer, Lips. 1783, 8vo. 

Alcipliroii (' A\Kl(j)pwv\ the most distinguished 
of the Greek epistolary writers, was perhaps a con- 
temporary of Lucian, about A. D. 180. The letters 
(113 in number, in 3 books) are written by ficti- 
tious personages, and the language is distinguished 
by its purity and elegance. The new Attic comedy 
was the principal source from Avhich the author de- 
rived his information respecting the characters and 
manners which he describes, and for this reason 
they contain much valuable information about the 
private life of the Athenians of that time. — Edi- 
tions. By Bergler, Lips. 1715, and by AVagner, 
Lips. 1798. 

Alcithoe. [Alcathoe.] 

Alcmaeon (jA\KiJ.a'ia}v). 1. Son of Araphiaraus 
and Eriphyle, and brother of Amphilochus. His 
mother was induced by the necklace of Harmonia, 
which she received from Polynices, to persuade her 
husband Amphiaraus to take part in the expedition 
against Thebes ; and as he knew he should perish 
there, he enjoined his sons to kill their mother as 
soon as they should be grown up. Alcmaeon took 
part in the expedition of the Epigoni against Thebes, 
and on his return home after the capture of the 
city, he slew his mother according to the injunction 
of his father. For this deed he became mad, and 
was haunted by the Erinnyes. He went to Phe- 
geus in Psophis, and being purified by the latter, 
he married his daughter Arsinoe or Alphesiboea, to 
whom he gave the necklace and peplus of Har- 
monia. But as the land of this country ceased to 
bear on account of its harbouring a matricide, he 
left Psophis and repaired to the country at the 
mouth of the river Achelous. The god Achelous 
gave him his daughter Callirrhoe in marriage ; and 
as the latter wished to possess the necklace and 
peplus of Harmonia, Alcmaeon went to Psophis 
and obtained them from Phegeus, under the pre- 
text of dedicating them at Delphi ; but when 
Phegeus heard that the treasures were fetched for 
Callirrhot', he caused his sons to murder Alcmaeon. 
Alcmaeon was worshipped as a hero at Thebes, 



and at Psophis his tomb was shown, surrounded 
with cypresses.— 2. Son of Megacles, was greatly 
enriched by Croesus. — 3. Of Crotona in Italy, 
said to have been a pupil of Pythagoras, though 
this is very doubtful. He is said to have been the 
first person who dissected animals, and he made 
some important discoveries in anatomy and natural 
philosophy. He wrote several medical and philo- 
sophical works, which are lost. 

Alcmaeomdae {'AKicfxaicovidai), a noble family 
at Athens, members of which fill a space in Grecian 
history from b. c. 750 to 400. They were a branch 
of the family of the Nelidae, who were driven out 
of Pylus in Messenia by the Dorians, and settled 
at Athens. In consequence of the way in which 
Megacles, one of the I'amily, treated the insurgents 
under Cylon (b. c. 612), they brought upon them- 
selves the guilt of sacrilege, and were in consequence 
banished from Athens, about 595. About 560 
they returned from exile, but were again expelled 
by Pisistratus. In 548 they contracted with the 
Amphictyonic council to rebuild the temple of 
Delphi, and obtained great popularity throughout 
Greece by executing the work in a style of mag- 
nificence which much exceeded their engagement. 
On the expulsion of Hippias in 510, they were 
again restored to Athens. They now joined the 
popular party, and Clisthenes, Avho was at that time 
the head of the family, gave a new constitution to 
Athens. [Clisthenes.] 

Alcman ('AA/c^ai/, also called 'AXk/jlu'iuv), the 
chief lyric poet of Sparta, by birth a Lydian of 
Sardis, was brought to Laconia as a slave, when 
very young, and was emancipated by his master, 
who discovered his genius. He probably flourished 
about B. c. 631, and most of his poems were com- 
posed after the conclusion of the second Messenian 
war. He is said to have died, like Sulla, of the 
morbus pedicularis. Alcman's poems were com- 
prised in 6 books : many of them were erotic, 
and he is said by some ancient writers to have 
been the inventor of erotic poetry. His metres 
were very various. The Cretic hexameter was 
named Alcmanic, from his being its inventor. His 
dialect was the Spartan Doric, with an intermixture 
of the Aeolic. The Alexandrian grammarians placed 
Alcman at the head of their canon of the 9 lyric 
poets. The fragments of his poems are edited by 
Welcker, Giessen, 1815 ; and by Bergk, in Poetae 
Lyrid Graeci, 1843. 

Alcmene {'AXK/jL-fivn), daughter of Electryon, 
king of Mycenae, by Anaxo or Lysidice. The 
brothers of Alcmene were slain by the sons of Pte- 
relaus ; and their father set out to avenge their 
death, leaving to Amphitryon his kingdom and 
his daughter Alcmene, whom Amphitryon was to 
marry. But Amphitryon having unintentionally 
killed Electryon before the marriage, Sthenelus ex- 
pelled both Amphitryon and Alcmene, who went 
to Thebes. But here, instead of marrying Amphi- 
tryon, Alcmene declared that she would only marry 
the man who should avenge the death of her bro- 
thers. Amphitryon undertook the task, and invited 
Creon of Thebes to assist him. During his absence, 
Zeus, in the disguise of Amphitryon, visited 
Alcmene, and, pretending to be her husband, re- 
lated in what way he had avenged the death of 
her brothers. Amphitryon himself returned the 
next day ; Alcmene became the mother of Hercules 
by Zeus, and of Iphicles by Amphitryon. [Her- 
cules.] After the death of Amphitryon, Alcmene 

D 



34 ALCYONE, 
married Rhadamanthys, at Ocalui in Boeotia. 
When PTcrcules was raised to the rank of a god, 
Alcmene, fearing Eurystheus, fled with the sons of 
Hercules to Alliens. 

Alcyone or Halcyone {'A\Kv6yri). 1. A Pleiad, 
daughter of Atlas and Pleione,and beloved by Po- 
seidon. —2. Daughter of Aeolus and Enarete or 
Aegiale, and wife of Ceyx. They lived so happily 
that they were presumptuous enough to call each 
other Zeus and Hei-a, for which Zeus metamor- 
phosed them into birds, alci/07t and ceijx. Others 
relate that Ceyx perished in a shipv/reck, that Al- 
cyone for grief threw herself into the sea, and that 
the gods, out of compassion, changed the two into 
birds. It was fabled, that during the seven days 
before, and as many after, the shortest day of the 
year, while the bird alcf/on was breeding, there 
always prevailed calms at sea. 

Alcyoneus {'A\Kvovevs), a giant, killed by Her- 
cules at the Isthmus of Corinth. 

Alcyonium Mare (•>? 'AXkvovIs BdAacraa), the 
E. part of the Corinthian gulf. 

Alea ('AAe'a), a surname of Athena, under which 
she was worshipped at Alea, ]\Iantinea, and Tegea. 
Her temple at the latter place was one of the most 
celebrated in Greece. It is said to have been built 
by Aleus, son of Aphidas, king of Tegea, from 
whom the goddess is supposed to have derived this 
surname. 

Alea ('AAe'a: 'AAeus), a town in Arcadia, E. of 
the Stymphalian lake, with a celebrated temple of 
Athena, the ruins of which are near Pidli. 

Alebion. [Albion.] 

AleOtO. [EUMENIDES.] 

Alemanni or Alamanni or Alamani (from the 
German alle M'dnnci\ all men), a confederacy of 
German tribes, chiefly of Suevic extraction, be- 
tween the Danube, the Rhine, and the Main, 
though Ave subsequently find them extending their 
territories as far as the Alps and tlie Jura. The 
different tribes of the confederacy were governed 
by their own kings, but in time of war they obeyed a 
common leader. Thej'- were brave and warlike, and 
proved formidable enemies to the Romans. They 
first came into contact with the Romans in the reign 
of Caracalla, who assumed the surname of Aleman- 
nicus on account of a pretended victory over them 
(a. D. 214). They were attacked by Alexander 
Severus (234), and by Maximin (237). They 
invaded Italy in 270, but were driven back by 
Aurelian, and were again defeated by Probus in 
282. After this time they continually invaded 
the Roman dominions in Germany, and, though 
defeated by Constantius I., Julian (357), Valen- 
linian, and Gratian, they gradually became more 
Rud more powerful, and in the fifth centurj^ were 
bi possession of Alsace and of German Switzerland. 

Aleria ('AAepta : 'AXaXia in Herod.), one of the 
chief cities of Corsica, on the E. of the island, on 
the S. bank of the river Rhotanus (Tarigncmo) 
near its mouth. It was founded by the Phocaeans 
B. c. 564, was plundered by L. Scipio in the first 
Punic war, and was made a Roman colony by Sulla. 

Alesa. [Hales A.] 

Alesia ('AAeo-t'a), an ancient town of the Man- 
dubii in Gallia Lugdunensis, said to have been 
founded by Hercules, and situated on a high hill 
(now Auxois), which Avas washed by the two 
rivers Lutosa {Oze) and Osera (Ozerain). It was 
taken and destroyed by Caesar, in b. c. 52, after a 
memorable siege, but was afterwards rebuilt. 



ALEXANDER. 

Alesiae ('AAeo-tat), a town in Laconia, W. of 

Sparta, on the road to Pherao. 

Alesium ('AAei'trioj/), a town in Elis, not far 
from Olympia, afterwards called A/esiaeum. 

Alesius Mons (t^ "'AXtjo-iou opoj), a mountain 
in Arcadia, with a temple of Poseidon Hippius 
and a grove of Demeter. 

Aletes (V.A7)TT?s), son of Hippotes and a de- 
scendant of Hercules, is said to have taken posses- 
sion of Corinth, and to have expelled the Sisyphids, 
30 years after the first in^rsion of Peloponnesus 
by the Heraclids. His family, called the Aletidae, 
maintained themselves at Corinth down to the time 
of Bacchis. 

Aletium (Aletinus), a town of Calabria. 

Aletxium or Alatrium (Aletrinas, -atis : Ala- 
in), an ancient town of the Hernici, subsequently a 
municipium and a Roman colony, W. of Sora and 
E. of Anagnia. 

Aleuadae. [Aleuas.] 

Aleiias ('AAeuay), a descendant of Hercules, was 
the ruler of Larissa in Thessaly, and the reputed 
founder of the celebrated family of the Aleuadae. Be- 
fore the time of Pisistratus (B.C. 560), the famil}- of 
the Aleuadae appears to have become divided into 
two branches, the Aleuadae and the Scopadae. The 
Scopadae inhabited Crannon and perhaps Pharsalus 
also, while the main branch, the Aleuadae, re- 
mained at Larissa. The influence of the families, 
however, was not confined to these towns, but ex- 
tended more or less over the greater part of Thes- 
saly. They formed in reality a powerful aristocratic 
party in opposition to the great body of the Thes- 
salians. In the invasion of Greece by Xerxes (480), 
the Aleuadae espoused the cause of the Persians, 
and the family continued to be the predominant 
one in Thessaly for a long time afterwards. But 
after the end of the Peloponnesian war (404), 
another Thessalian family, the djuasts of Pherae, 
gradually rose to power and influence, and gave a 
great shock to the power of the Aleuadae. The 
most formidable of these princes was Jason of 
Pherae, who succeeded, after various struggles, in 
raising himself to the dignity of Tagus, or supreme 
ruler of Thessaly, [Jason,] 

Aleus. [Alea,] 

Alez or Halex (Alece), a small river in S. j 
Italy, was the boundary between the territory of 
Rhegium and of the Locri Epizephyrii. 

Alexander ('AAe|aj/5pos), the usual name of 
Paris in the Iliad. 

Alexander Severns. [Severus.] 

Alexander. I. Minor Historical Persons. 

1. Son of Aeropus, a native of the Macedonian i 
district called Lyncestis, whence he is usually called 
Alexander Lyncestes. He was an accomplice in 
the murder of Philip, B. c. 336, but Avas pardoned 
by Alexander the Great. He accompanied Alex- ■. 
ander to Asia ; but in 334 he was detected in | 
carrying on a treasonable correspondence Avith Da- ,•; 
rius, Avas kept in confinement and put to death in j 
330.— 2. Son of Antonius the triumvir, and 
Cleopatra, born vv'ith his twin-sister Cleopatra, B.C. 
40. After the battle of Actium they were taken 
to Rome by Augustus, and Avere generously edu- 
cated by Octavia, the Avife of Antonius, Avith her 
oAvn children. "=-3. Eldest son of Aristobulus II., 
king of Judaea, rose in arms in B. c. 57, against ■ 
Hyrcanus, who AA-as supported by the Romans. ,; 
Alexander Avas defeated by the Romans in 56 and : 
55, a! id AA\as put to death by Pompey at Antiocli i 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



35 



jn 49.-4. Third son of Cassander, king of 
Macedonia, by Thessalonica, sister of Alexander 
the Great.. In his quarrel with his elder brother 
Antipater for the government [AntipatkrI, he 
called in the aid of Pyrrhus of Epinis and Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes, by the latter of whom he was 
murdered e. c 294.-— 5. Jannaeus, the son of 
.Joannes Hyrcanus, and brother of Aristobulus I., 
king of the Jews B.C. 104 — 77. At the com- 
mencement of his reign he was engaged in war 
v/ith Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of Cyprus ; and sub- 
sequently he" had to carry on for six years a dan- 
gerous struggle with his own subjects, to whom he 
had rendered himself obnoxious by his cruelties and 
by opposing the Pharisees. Pie signalized his 
victory by the most frightful butchery of his sub- 
jects.— 6. Surnamed Isius, the chief commander 
of the Aetolians, took an active part in opposing 
Philip of Macedonia (b.c. 198, 197), and in the 
various negotiations with the Romans.— 7. Tyrant 
of Pherae, was a relation of Jason, and succeeded 
either Polydorus or Polyphron, as Tagus of Thes- 
saly, about B. c. 369. In consequence of his ty- 
rannical government the Thessalians applied for 
aid first to Alexander II., king of Macedonia, and 
next to Thebes. The Thebans sent Pelopidas into 
Thessaly to succour the malcontents ; but having 
ventured incautiously within the power of the 
tyrant, he was seized by Alexander, and thrown 
into prison B. c. 368. The Thebans sent a large 
army into Thessaly to rescue Pelopidas, but they 
were defeated in the first campaign, and did not 
obtain their object till the next year, 367. In 364 
Pelopidas again entered Thessaly with a smnll 
force, but was slain in battle by Alexander. The 
Thebans now sent a large army against the tyrant, 
and compelled him to become a dependent ally 
of Thebes. We afterwards hear of Alexander 
, making piratical descents on many of the Athenian 
dependencies and even on Attica itself. He was 
murdered in 367, by his wife Thebe, with the as- 
sistance of her three brothers.— 8. Son of Poly- 
sperchon, the Macedonian, was chiefly employed 
by his father in the command of the armies which 
lie sent against Cassander. Thus he was sent 
against Athens in B.C. 318, and was engaged in 
military operations during the next year in various 
I parts of Greece. But in 315 he became reconciled 
to Cassander, and we find him in 314 commanding 
on behalf of the latter. He was murdered at Si- 
cyon in 314.— 9. Ptolemaeus. [Ptoiemaeus.] 
—10. Tiberius, bom at Alexandria, of Jewish 
parents, and nephew of the writer Philo. He 
deserted the faith of his ancestors, and was re- 
warded for his apostacy by various public appoint- 
ments. In the reign of Claudius he succeeded 
t Fadius as procurator of Judaea (a. n. 46), and 
[was appointed by Nero procurator of Egypt. He 
i was the first Roman governor who declared in 
favour of Vespasian ; and he accompanied Titus in 
the war against Judaea, and was present at the 
taking of Jerusalem. 

II. Kings of Epir^s. 

1. Son of Neoptolemus and brother of Olympias, 
the mother of Alexander the Great. Philip made 
;him king of Epirus in place of his cousin Aeacides, 
iand gave him his daughter Cleopatra in marriage 
1 (b. c. 336). In 332, Alexander, at the request of 
the Tarentines, crossed over into Italy, to aid them 
; against the Lucanians and Bnittii. After meeting 



with considerable success, he was defeated and 
slain in battle in 326, near Pandosia, on the banks 
of the Acheron in Southern Italy. —2. Son of 
Pyrrhus and Lanassa, daughter of the Sicilian 
tyrant Agathocles, succeeded his father in B. c. 272, 
and drove Antigonus Gonatas out of Macedonia. 
Pie was- shortly afterwards deprived of both Mace- 
donia and Epirus by Demetrius, the son of Anti- 
gonus ; but he recovered Epirus by the aid of the 
Acarnanians. 

III. Kings of Macedonia. 

1. Son of Amyntas I., distinguished himself in 
tlie life-time of his father by killing the Persian 
ambassadors who had come to demand the sub- 
mission of Amyntas, because they attempted to 
offer indignities to the ladies of the court, about 
B. c. 507. He succeeded his father shortly after- 
wards, was obliged to submit to the Persians, and 
accompanied Xerxes in his invasion of Greece (b.c. 
480). He gained the confidence of Mardonius, 
who sent him to Athens to propose peace to the 
Athenians, which was rejected. He was secretly 
inclined to the cause of the Greeks, and informed 
them the night before the battle of Plataeae of the 
intention of Mardonius to fight on the followhig 
day. He died about b. c. 455, and was suc- 
ceeded by Perdiccas II.— 2. Son of Amyntas II., 
whom he succeeded, reigned b. c. 369 — 367. A 
usurper of the name of Ptolemy Alorites, having 
risen against him, Pelopidas, Avho was called in to 
mediate between them, left Alexander in possession 
of the kingdom, but took with him to Thebes se- 
veral hostages ; among whom was Philip, the 
youngest brother of Alexander, afterwards king of 
Macedonia. Alexander was shortly afterwards 
murdered by Ptolemy Alorites.— 3. Surnamed the 
Great, son of Philip II. and Olj^mpias, was born at 
Pella, b. c. 356. His early education was com- 
mitted to Leonidas and Lysiraachus ; and he was. 
also placed under the care of Aristotle, who ac- 
quired an influence over his mind and character,, 
which was manifest to the latest period of his life. 
At the age of 1 6 Alexander was entrusted with 
the government of Macedonia by his father, while 
he was obliged to leave his kingdom to march 
against Byzantium. He first distinguished himself, 
however, at the battle of Chaeronea (338), where 
the victory was mainly owing to his impetuosity 
and courage. On the murder of Philip (336), 
Alexander ascended the throne, at the age of 20, 
and found himself surrounded by enemies on every 
side. He first put down rebellion in his own king- 
dom, and then rapidly marched into Greece. His 
unexpected activity overawed all opposition ; Thebes, 
which had been most active against him, submitted 
when he appeared at its gates ; and the assembled 
Greeks at the Isthmus of Corinth, with the sole 
exception of the Lacedaemonians, elected him to 
the command against Persia, which had previously 
been bestowed upon his father. He now directed 
his arms against the barbarians of the north, 
marched (early in 335) across mount Haemus, 
defeated the Triballi, and advanced as far as 
the Danube, which he crossed ; and on his re- 
turn subdued the Illyrians and Taulantii. A 
report of his death having reached Greece, the 
Thebans once more took up arms. But a terrible 
r^Tnishment awaited them. He advanced into 
I Boeciia by rapid marches took Thebes by assault, 
I destroyed all the buildings, with the exception of 

D 2 



.•56 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER 



the house of Pindar, killed most of the inhabitants, 
and sold the rest as slaves. Alexander now pre- 
pared for his great expedition against Persia. Jn 
the spring of 334, he crossed the Hellespont, with 
about 35,000 men. Of these 30.000 were foot and 
.5000 horse ; and of the former only 12,000 were 
Macedonians. Alexander's first engagement with 
the Persians was on the river Granicus in IMysia 
(May 334), where they were entirely defeated by 
him. This battle was followed by the capture or 
submission of the chief towns on the W. coast 
of Asia Minor. Halicarnassus was not taken till 
late in the autumn, after a vigorous defence by 
Memnon, the ablest general of Darius, and whose 
death in the following year (333) relieved Alex- 
ander from a formidable opponent. He now marched 
along the coast of Lycia and Pamphylia, and then 
N. into Phrj'gia and to Gordium, where he cut 
or initied the celebrated Gordian knot, which, 
it was said, was to be loosened only by the con- 
queror of Asia. In 333, he marched from Gor- 
dium through the centre of Asia Minor into Cilicia, 
where he nearly lost his life at Tarsus by a fever, 
brought on by his great exertions, or through throw- 
ing himself, when heated, into the cold waters of 
the Cydnus. Darius meantime had collected an army 
of 500,000 or 600,000 men, with 30,000 Greek mer- 
cenaries, whom Alexander defeated in the narrow 
plain of Issus. Darius escaped across the Euphrates 
by the ford of Thapsacus ; but his mother, wife, and 
children fell into the hands of Alexander, who 
treated them with the utmost delicacy and respect. 
Alexander now directed his arms against the cities 
of Phoenicia, most of which submitted ; but Tyre 
was not taken till the middle of 332, after an ob- 
stinate defence of seven months. Next followed 
the siege of Gaza, which again delaj-ed Alexander 
two months. Afterwards, according to Josephus, 
he marched to Jerusalem, intending- to punish the 
people for refusing to assist him, but he was di- 
verted from his purpose by the appearance of the 
high priest, and pardoned the people. This story 
is not mentioned by Arrian,and rests on questionable 
evidence. — Alexander next marched into Egypt, 
which willingly submitted to him, for the Egyptians 
had ever hated the Persians. At the beginning of 
331, Alexander founded at the mouth of the W. 
branch of the Nile, the city of Alexandrla, 
and about the same time visited the temple of 
Jupiter Amnion, in the desert of Libya, and was 
saluted by the priests as the son of Jupiter Amnion. 
— In the spring of the same year (331), Alexander 
set out to meet Darius, who had collected another 
.inny. He marched through Phoenicia and Syria 
to the Euphrates, which he crossed at the iford 
of Thapsacus ; thence he proceeded through Me- 
sopotamia, crossed the Tigris, and at length met 
with the immense hosts of Darius, said to have 
amounted to more than a million of men, in the 
plains of Gaugamela. The battle was fought in the 
month of October, 331, and ended in the complete 
defeat of the Persians. Alexander pursued the 
fugitives to Arbela (Erbil), Avhich place has given 
its name to the battle, though distant about 50 
miles from the spot where it was fought. Da- 
rius, who had left the field of battle earlv in the 
day, fled to Ecbatana {Ilamaclan)^ in Media. 
Alexander was now the conqueror of Asia, and 
began to adopt Persian habits find customs, bv 
which he conciliated the affections of his new sub- 
jects. From Arbela he marched to Babylon, Susa. 



and Persepolis, all of which surrendered to him. He 
is said to have set fire to the palace of Persepolis, 
and, according to some accounts, in the revelry of a 
banquet, at the instigation of Thais, an Athenian 
courtezan. — At the beginning of 330 Alexander 
marched from Persepolis into Media, in pursuit of 
Darius, whom he followed through Rhagae and the 
passes of the Elburz mountains, called by the 
ancients the Caspian Gates, into the deserts of 
Parthia, where the unfortunate king was murdered 
by Bessus, satrap of Bactria, and his associates. 
Alexander sent his bodj' to Persepolis, to be buried 
in the tombs of the Persian kings. Bessus escaped 
to Bactria, and assumed the title of king of Persia. 
Alexander was engaged during the remainder of 
the year in subduing the N. provinces of Asia 
between the Caspian and the Indus, namely, Hyr- 
cania, Parthia, Aria, the Drangae and Sarangae. 
It was during this campaign that Philot.as, his 
father Parmenion, and other Macedonians, were 
executed on the charge of treason. In 329 Alex- 
ander crossed the mountains of the Paropaniisus 
(the Hindoo KoosJi), and marched into Bactria 
against Bessus, whom he pursued across the Oxus 
into Sogdiana. In this country Bessus was be- 
trayed to him, and was put to death. From the 
Oxus he advanced as far as the Jaxartes (the Sir)^ 
which he crossed, and defeated several Scythian 
tribes N. of that river. After founding a city 
Alexandria on the Jaxartes, he retraced his steps, 
and returned to Zariaspa or Bactra, where he spent 
the winter of 329. It was here that he killed 
his friend Clitus in a drunken revel. — In 328, 
Alexander again crossed the Oxus to complete the 
subjugation of Sogdiana, but was not able to effect 
it in the year, and accordingly went into winter 
quarters at Nautaca, a place in the middle of the 
province. At the beginning of 327, he took a 
mountain fortress, in which Oxyartes, a Bactrian 
prince, had deposited his wife and daughters. The 
beauty of Roxana, one of the latter, captivated the 
conqueror, and he accordingly made her his wife. 
This marriage with one of his Eastern subjects 
was in accordance with the whole of his policy. 
Having completed the conquest of Sogdiana, he 
marched S. into Bactria, and made preparations for 
the invasion of India. While in Bactria another 
conspirac}' was discovered for the murder of the 
king. The plot was formed by Hermolaus with a 
number of the royal pages, and Callisthenes, a 
pupil of Aristotle, was involved in it. All the 
conspirators were put to death. Alexander did not 
leave Bactria till late in the spring of 327, and 
crossed the Indus, probably near the modem 
Attock. He met with no resistance till he reached 
the Hydaspes, where he was opposed by Porus, an 
Indian king, whom he defeated after a gallant re- 
sistance, and took prisoner, Alexander restored to 
him his kingdom, and treated him with distin- 
guished honour. He founded two towns, one on 
each bank of the Hydaspes : one called Bucephala, 
in honour of his horse Bucephalus, who died here, 
after carr3ang him through so many victories ; and 
the other Nicaea, to commemorate his victor}'. 
From thence he marched across the Acesines (the 
Chinub) and the Hydraotes (the Ravee), and pe- 
netrated as far as the Hyphasis (Garra). This was 
the furthest point which he reached, for the Macedo- 
nians, worn out by long service, and tired of the war, 
refused to advance further ; and Alexander, not- 
withstanding his entreaties and prayers, was obliged 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



87 



to lead them back. He returned to the Hydaspes, 
where he had previously given orders for the building 
of a fleet, and then sailed down the river with about 
fJOOO men, while the remainder marched along the 
banks in two divisions. This was late in the au- 
tumn of 327. The people on each side of the 
river submitted without resistance, except the Malli, 
in the conquest of one of whose places Alexander 
was severely wounded. At the confluence of the 
Acesines and the Indus, Alexander founded a city, 
and left Philip as satrap, with a considerable body 
of Greeks. Here he built some fresh ships, and 
continued his voyage down the Indus, founded a 
city at Pattala, the apex of the delta of the Indus, 
and sailed into the Indian ocean, which he reached 
about the middle of 326. Nearchus was sent with 
the fleet to sail along the coast to the Persian gulf 
[Nearchus] ; and Alexander marched with the 
rest of his forces through Gedrosia, in which country 
his army suffered greatly from want of water and 
provisions. He reached Susa at the beginning of 
325. Here he allowed liimsclf and his troops 
some rest from their labours ; and anxious to form 
his European and Asiatic subjects into one people, 
he assigned to about 80 of his generals Asiatic 
wives, and gave with them rich dowries. He him- 
self took a second wife, Barsine, the eldest daughter 
of Darius, and according to some accounts, a third, 
Parysatis, the daughter of Ochus. About 10,000 
Macedonians followed the example of their king 
and generals, and married Asiatic women. Alex- 
ander also enrolled large numbers of Asiatics 
among his troops, and taught them the Macedonian 
tactics. He moreover directed his attention to the 
increase of commerce, and for this purpose had the 
Euphrates and Tigris made navigable, by removing 
the artificial obstructions which had been made in 
the river for the purpose of irrigation. The Mace- 
donians, who were discontented with several of the 
new arrangements of the king, rose in mutiny 
against him, which he quelled with some difficulty. 
Towards the close of the same year (325) he went 
to Ecbatana, where he lost his great favourite He- 
PHAESTiON. From Ecbatana he marched to Ba- 
bylon, subduing in his way the Cossaei, a mountain 
tribe ; and before he reached Babylon he was met 
by ambassadors from almost every part of the 
known world. Alexander entered Babylon in the 
spring of 324, about a year before his death, not- 
withstanding the warnings of the Chaldaeans, who 
predicted evil to him if he entered the city at 
that time. He intended to make Babylon the 
capital of his empire, as the best point of com- 
munication between his eastern and western do- 
minions. His schemes were numerous and gigantic. 
His first object was the conquest of Arabia, which 
was to be followed, it was said, by the subjuga- 
tion of Italy, Cartilage, and the West. But his 
views were not confined merely to conquest. He 
ordered a fleet to be built on the Caspian, in order 
to explore that sea. He also intended to improve 
the distribution of waters in tlie Babylonian plain, 
and for that purpose sailed down the Euphrates to 
inspect the canal called Pallacopas. On his return 
to Babylon he was attacked by a fever, probably 
brought on by his recent exertions in the marshy 
districts around Babylon, and aggravated by the 
quantity of wine he had drunk at a banquet given 
to his principal officers. He died after an illness of 
11 days, in the month of May or June B.C. 323, at 
the age of 32, after a reign of 12 years and 8 months. 



He appointed no one as his successor, but just before 
his death he gave his ring to Perdiccas. Roxana was 
with child at the time of his death, and afterwards 
bore a son wha is known by the name of Alexan- 
der Aegus. — The history of Alexander forms an 
important epoch in the history of mankind. Unlike 
other Asiatic conquerors, his progress was marked 
by something more than devastation and ruin ; at 
every step of his course the Greek language and 
civilization took root and flourished ; and after his 
death Greek kingdoms were formed in all parts of 
Asia, which continued to exist for centuries. By 
his conquests the knowledge of mankind was in- 
creased ; the sciences of geography, natural history 
and others, received vast additions ; and it was 
through him that a road was opened to India, and 
that Europeans became acquainted with the products 
of the remote East.— -4. Aegus, son of Alexander 
the Great and Roxana, was born shortly after the 
death of his father, in B. c. 323, and was acknow- 
ledged as the partner of Philip Arrhidaeus in the 
empire, under the guardianship of Perdiccas, An- 
tipater, and Polysperchon in succession. Alexander 
and his mother Roxana were imprisoned by Cas- 
sander, when he obtained possession of Macedonia 
in 31 6, and remained in prison till 311, when they 
were put to death by Cassander. 

IV. Kings of Syria. 

1. Surnamed Balas, a person of low origin, pre- 
tended to be the son of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, 
and reigned in Syria B. c. 150 — 146. He defeated 
and slew in battle Demetrius I. Soter, but was 
afterwards defeated and dethroned by Demetrius 
II. Nicator.— 2. Surnamed Zebina or Zabinas, 
son of a merchant, was set up by Ptolemj' Physcon 
as a pretender to the throne of Syria, shortly after 
the return of Demetrius II. Nicator from his cap- 
tivity among the Parthians, b c. 128. He defeated 
Demetrius in 125, but was afterwards defeated by 
Antiochus Grypus, by whom he was put to death, 
122. 

V. Literary. 

1. Of Aegae, a peripatetic philosopher at Rome 
in the first century after Christ, was tutor to the 
emperor Nero.— 2. The Aetolian, of Pleuron iu 
Aetolia, a Greek poet, lived in the reign of Ptole- 
maeus Philadelphus (b. c. 285 — 247), at Alex- 
andria, where he was reckoned one of the seven 
tragic poets who constituted the tragic pleiad. He 
also wrote other poems besides tragedies. His 
fragments are collected by Capellmann, Alexandri 
Aetoli Fragmenta, Bonn, 1829.-— 3. Of Aphro- 
disias, in Caria, the most celebrated of the com- 
mentators on Aristotle, lived about A. D. 200. 
About half his voluminous works were edited and 
translated into Latin at the revival of literature ; 
there are a few more extant in the original Greek, 
which have never been printed, and an Arabic 
version is preserved of several others. His most 
important treatise is entitled De Fato, an inquiry 
into the opinions of Aristotle on the subject of 
Fate and Freewill : edited by Orelli, Zurich, 1824. 
— 4. Cornelius, surnamed Polyhistor, a Greek 
writer, was made prisoner during the war of Sulla 
in Greece (b. c. 87 — 84), and sold as a slave to 
Cornelius Lentulus, who took him to Rome, made 
him the teacher of his children, and subsequently 
restored him to freedom. The surname of Pol}--- 
histor was given to him on account of his prodigious 

D 3 



58 



ALEXANDRIA. 



ALEXANDRIA 



learning. He is said to iiave Tv-ritten a vast numter 
of works, all of which have perished : the most 
important of them was one in 42 boolcs, containing 
historical and geographical accourfts of nearly all 
countries of the ancient world. -== 5. Surnamed 
Lydmus, of Ephesus, a Greek rhetorician and 
poet, lived about b. c. 30. A few fragments of 
his geographical and astronomical poems are ex- 
tant. 6. Of ISyndus, in Caria, a Greek writer 
on zoology of uncertain date.-=7. Kiimenius, a 
Greek rhetorician^ who lived in the second cen- 
tury of the Christian aera. Tv.-o works are as- 
cribed to him, one De Figuris Stnteriiiarum ei 
ElocutioJiis, from which Aquila Romanus took his 
materials for his work on the same subject ; and 
the other On SIioiv- speeches ; which was written 
by a later grammarian of the name of Alexander. 
Edited in Walz"s Rhetores Graeci, vol. viii. 

— 8. The PapMagonian, a celebrated impostor, 
who flourished about the beginning of the second 
century after Christ, of whom Lucian has given an 
amusing account, chiefl}' of the various contrivances 
by which he established and maintained the credit 
of an oracle. The influence he attained over the 
populace seems incredible ; indeed, the narrative 
of Lucian would appear to be a mere romance, were 
it not confimed by some medals of Antoninus and 
M. Aurelius.— 9. Surnamed Peloplaton, a Greek 
rhetorician of Seleucia in Cilicia, was appointed 
Greek secretary to M. Antoninus, about a. d. 174. 
At Athens he conquered the celebrated rhetorician 
Herodes Atticus, in a rhetorical contest. All per- 
sons, however, did not admit his abilities ; for a 
Corinthian of the name of Sceptes said that he had 
found in Alexander " the clay (XlTyAos), but not 
Plato." This saying gave rise to the surname of 
Peloplaton.-— 10. Philaletlies, an ancient Greek 
physician, lived probably towards the end of the 
first century B. c, and succeeded Zeuxis as head 
of a celebrated Hcrophilean school of medicine, 
established in Phrygia between Laodicea and 
Carura.==-ll. Of Tralles in Lydia, an eminent 
physician, lived in the 6th century after Christ, 
and is the author of two extant Greek works : 

— 1. Lihri Duodechn de Re 2\[cdica ; 2. De Lum- 
hricis. 

Alexandria, oftener -la, rarely -&a ("AXe^aV- 
Zpeia: ''AXe^avbp^vs, Alexandrinus), the name of i 
several cities founded by, or in memory of Alex- 
ander the Great. -^-l. {Ahxandria, Arab. Iskan- 
deria), the capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, 
ordered by Alexander to be founded in B. c. 332. 
It was built on the narrow neck of land between 
the Lake Mareotis and the Mediterranean, opposite 
to the I. of Pharos, Avhich was joined to the city j 
by an artificial dyke, called Heptastadium, which 
formed, with the island, the two harbours of the 
city, thnt on the N. E. of the dyke being named the 
Great Harbour (now the New Port), that on the 
S.W. Eunostos (evvoa-ros, the Old Port). These 
harbours communicated with each other by tv/o 
channels cut through the Heptastadium, one at ; 
each end of it ; and there was a canal from the 
Eunostos to the Lake Mareotis. The city was 
built on a regular plan^ and was intersected by two 
principal streets, above 100 feet wide, the one ex- 
tending 30 stadia from E. to W., the other across 
this, from the sea towards the lake, to the length 
of 10 stadia. At the E. extremity of the city was 
the royal quarter, called Bruchium, and at the other 
pnd of the chief street, outside of the city, the Ne- 



cropolis or cemetery. A great lighthouse was 
built on the I. of Pliaros in the reign of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus (b. c. 283). Under the care of the 
Ptolemies, as the capital of a great kingdom and 
of the most fertile country on the earth, and com- 
manding by its position all the commerce of Europe 
with the East, Alexandria soon became the most 
wealthy and splendid city of the known world. 
Greeks, Jews, and other foreigners flocked to it ; 
and its population probably amounted to three 
quarters of a million. But a still greater distinction 
v.-as conferred upon it through the foundation, by 
the first two Ptolemies, of the Museum, an esta- 
blishment in which men devoted to literature were 
maintained at the public cost, and of the Library, 
which contained 90,000 distinct works, and 400,000 
volumes, and the increase of which made it neces- 
sar}' to establish another library in the Serapeum 
(Temple of Serapis), which reached to 42,800 
volumes, but which was destroyed by the bishop 
Theophilus, at the time of the general overthrow 
of the heathen temples under Theodosius (a. d. 
389). The Great Library suffered severely- by 
fire when Julius Caesar was besieged in Alex- 
dria, and was finally destroyed by Amrou, the 
lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, in a. d. 651. These 
institutions made Alexandria the chief centre of 
literary activity. When Egypt became a Roman 
province [Aegyptus], Alexandria was made the 
residence of the Praefectus Aegypti. It retained 
its commercial and literary importance, and became 
also a chief seat of Christianity and theological 
learning. Its site is now covered hy a mass of 
ruins, among which are the remains of the cisterns 
by which the Avhole city was supplied with water, 
house by house ; the two obelisks (vulg. Cleopatra's 
Needles), which adorned the gatewaj' of the royal 
palace, and, outside the Avails, to the S., the co- 
lumn of Diocletian (vulg. Pomp)ey''s Pillar). The 
modern city stands on the dyke uniting the island 
of Pharos to the mainland. = 2. A. Troas, also 
Troas simph- (A. 77 Tpads : Eskidamboul, i. e. 
the Old Citt/), on the sea-coast S.W, of Troy, 
was enlarged by Antigonus, hence called Anti- 
gonia. but afterwards it resumed its first name. It 
flourished greatly, both under the Greeks and the 
Romans ; it was made a colonia ; and both Julius 
Caesar and Constantine thought of establishing the 
seat of empire in it. —3. A. ad Issum (A. icaTO. 
"laaov : Iskenderoon, Scanderoun, Alexandrette), a 
sea-port at the entrance of Syria, a little S. of 
Issus.— 4. In Susiana, aft. Antiochia., aft. Charax 
Spasini (Xdpa^ JJacTLVou or 2-7racr.), at the mouth 
of the Tigris, built by Alexander ; destroyed by a 
flood ; restored by Antiochus Epiphanes : birth- 
place of Dionysius Periesgetes and Isidorus Chara- 
cenus. — 5. A. Ariae (A. 77 eu 'Apiois: Herat), 
founded by Alexander on the river Arius, in the 
Persian province of Aria, a very flourishing city, 
on the great caravan road to India. — 6. A. Ajach.0- 
siae or Alszandropolis {Kandahar ?), on the river 
Arachotus. was probably not founded till after the 
time of Alexander. — 7. A. Bactriana ('A, Kara 
BaKTpa : prob, Khnoloom., Ru.), E. of Bactra 
(Z^a/M). — 8. A. ad Caucasum, or apud Paropa- 
misidas ("A. iu IlapoirauLadSaLs), at the foot of 
j\I, Paropamisus {Hmdoo Koosh), probably near 
Cuhool. — 9. A, Ultima or Alesandrescata ('A. 
77 iaxdrri : Kokaiid in Sogdiana, on the Jax- 
artes, a little E, of Cyropolis or Cyreschata, marked 
the furthest point reached by Alexander in his 



ALEXICACUS. 



ALPES. 



39 



Scythian expedition. — These are not all the cities 
of the name. 

Alexicacus ('AXe^LKUKos), the averter of evil, a 
surname of several deities, but particularly of Zeus, 
Apollo, and Hercules. 

Alesmus {'AXe^ivos), of Elis, a philosopher of 
the Dialectic or Megarian school, and a disciple of 
Eubulides, lived about the beginning of the 3rd 
century b. c. 

Alexis {"AAe^Ls). 1. A comic poet, born at 
Thurii in Italy, and an Athenian citizen. He was 
the uncle and instructor of Menander, was born 
about B. c. 394, and lived to the age of 106. 
Some of his plays, of which he is said to have writ- 
ten 245, belonged to the Middle, and others to the 
New Comedy. — 2. A sculptor and statuarj"-, one 
of the pupils of Polycletus. 

Alfenus Varus. [Varus.] 

Algidum or Algidus (nr. Cava ?), a small but 
strongly fortified town of the Aequi on one of the 
hills of M. Algidus, of which all trace has now 
disappeared. 

Algidus Mons, a range of mountains in La- 
tium, extending S. from Praeneste to M. Alba- 
nus, cold, but covered with wood, and containing 
good pasturage (gelido Algido, Hor. Carm. i. 21. 
6 ; nigrae feraci frondis in Algido, Id. iv. 4. 
58). It was an ancient seat of the worship of 
Diana. From it the Aequi usually made their in- 
cursions into the Roman territory. 

Alienus Caecina. [Cakcina.] 

Alimentus, L. Cincius, a celebrated Roman an- 
nalist, antiquary, and jurist, was praetor in Sicily, 
B. c. 209, and wrote several works, of which the 
best known was his Annales^ which contained an 
account of the second Punic war. 

Alinda (ra "AXiv^a : 'AAtvSeus), a fortress and 
small town, S.E. of Stratonice, where Ada, queen 
of Caria, fixed her residence, when she was driven 
•out of Halicarnassus (b. c. 340). 

Aliphera ('AXiipeipa, 'AXi^rjpa: 'AXL^eipa7os, 
AMcpripevs : nr. Nerovitza^ Ru.), a fortified town 
in Arcadia, situated on a mountain on the borders 
of Elis, S. of the Alpheus, said to have been founded 
by the hero Alipherus, son of Lycaon. 

Alipherus. [Aliphera.] 

Aliso {Ebeii), a strong fortress built by Drusus 
B, c. 11, at the confluence of the Luppia {Lippe) 
and the Eliso (Alme). 

Alisontia (Alsitz), a river flowing into the Mo- 
seUa (Mosel). 

Allectus, the chief officer of Carausius in Bri- 
tain, whom he murdered in a. d. 293. He then 
assumed the imperial title himself, but was de- 
feated and slain in 296 by the general of Constan- 
tius. 

Allia or more correctly Alia, a small river, which 
rises about 11 miles from Rome, in the neighbour- 
hood of Crustumerium, and flows into the Tiber 
about 6 miles from Rome. It is memorable by the 
defeat of the Romans by the Gauls on its banks, 
July 16th, B. c. 390 ; which day, dies AUiensis, 
was hence marked as an unlucky day in the Roman 
calendar. 

A. Allienus. 1. A friend of Cicero, was the 
legate of Q. Cicero in Asia, b. c. 60, praetor in 49, 
and governor of Sicily on behalf of Caesar in 48 
and 47. —2. A legate of Dolabella, by whom he 
was sent into Egypt in 43. 

Allifae or Aiifae (Allifanus: AlU/e), a town of 
Saranium, on the Vulturnus, in a fertile country. 



It was celebrated for the manufacture of its large 
drinking-cups {Allifana sc. pocula, Hor. Sat. ii. 8. 
39). 

Allobroges (Nom. Sing. Allobrox: 'AXX6€poyes., 
'AXXoSpvyss, 'AXXoSpiyes ; perhaps from the Celtic 
f«7/, " rock" or " mountain," and brog, " dwelling," 
consequently " dwellers in the mountains"), a 
powerful people of Gaul dwelling between the 
Rhodanus {Rhojie) and the Isara (Lere), as far as 
the L. Lemannus (Lake of Geneva), consequently 
in the modern Dauphine and Savoy. Their chief 
tovm was Vienna on the Rhone. They are first 
mentioned in Hannibal's invasion, b. c. 218. They 
were conquered, in B, c. 121, by Q. Fabius Maxi- 
mus Allobrogicus, and made subjects of Rome, but 
they bore the yoke unwillingly, and were always 
disposed to rebellion. In the time of Ammianus 
the eastern part of their country was called Sapau- 
dia, i. e. Savor/. 

Almo {Ahnone), a small river, rises near Bo- 
villae, and flows into the Tiber S. of Rome, in 
which the statues of Cybele Avere washed an- 
nually, 

Aknopes ('AA^wTres), a people in Macedonia, 
inhabiting the district Almopia between Eordaea 
and Pelagonia. 

Aloeus ('AAcoevs), son of Poseidon and Canace, 
married Iphimedia, the daughter of Triops. His 
wife was beloved by Poseidon, by whom she had 
two sons, Otus and Ephialtes, who are usually 
called the Aloidae, from their reputed father Aloeus- 
They were renoAvned for their extraordinary strength 
and daring spirit. When they were 9 years 
old, each of their bodies measured 9 cubits in 
breadth and 27 in height. At this early age, 
they threatened the Olympian gods with war, 
and attempted to pile Ossa upon Olympus, and 
Pelion upon Ossa. They would have accomplished 
their object, says Homer, had they been allowed 
to grow up to the age of manhood ; but Apollo 
destroyed them before their beards began to ap- 
pear (Oc?. xi. 305, seq.). They also put the god 
Ares in chains, and kept him imprisoned for 
1 3 months. Other stories are related of them by 
later writers. 

Aloidae. [Aloeus.] 

Alonta ('AAoVra : Tereh)., a river of Albania, in 
Sarmatia Asiatica, flowing into the Caspian. 

Alope ('AAo'tttj), daughter of Cercyon, became 
by Poseidon the mother of Hippothous. She was 
put to death by her father, but her body was 
changed by Poseidon into a well, which bore the 
same name. 

Alope ('AAouTj : 'AAoTreuy, ' AXoiririqs) . 1. A 
town in the Opuntian Locris, opposite Euboea. 
—-2. A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly (//. ii. 
682). 

A15pece ('AAwTreK'/? and 'AXwTreKa'i : 'AXwire- 
ic€vs), a demus of Attica, of the tribe Antiochis, 
11 stadia E. of Athens, on the hill Anchesmus. 

Alopeconnesus ('AAwTreKoVi'Tjo-os : ^AXwireKoy- 
uTjcTLot: Alexi?), a town in the Thracian Cher- 
son esus, founded by the Aeolians. 

Alpenus ('AAtttj^^os, 'AX-m-ji/OL), a town of the 
Epicnemidii Locri at the entrance of the pass of 
Thermopylae. 

Alpes (at "AXireis, tj "AXttls, rb, 'AX-rreLvh opT)^ 
TO. "AXireia opt] • probably from the Celtic Alb or 
Alp, "a height"), the mountains forming the 
boundary of northern Italy, are a part of the 
great mountain-chain, which extends from the 

D 4 



40 ALPES. 

OuK of Genoa acroM Kuto\u: to the Black Sea, 
of which the Ap«-nnin. d aiul the mountains of the 
Cr«ian peninsula may be rejrnrdcd as olT-shoots. 
Of the Alp« prop«T, the Greeks had very little 
knowledge, and includiHl them under the peneral 
name of the Hhipean mountiiins. The Romans 
lir»l obtained some knouled-e of them by Ilanni- 
JmU's pa»safje across them: this knowledge was 
gradually extended by their various wars with the 
inhabit;inls of the mountains, who were not finally 
subdued till the reiirn of Augustus. In the time 
of the emperors the ditferent parts of the Alps 
were distinguished by the following names, most 
of which are still retained. We enumerate them 
in order from \V. to E. 1. Alpes Maritimae, 
the Maritime or Liijuriau Alps, from Genua (6'e- 
noa\ where the Apennines bt^'in. run W. as 
far as the river Varus {Vur) and M. Ccma (/a 
CaUUe), and then N. to M. Vesulus (Mo/ile 
Vuo\ one of the highest points of the Alps. — 
2. Alpes Cotti.\k or Cotti.anae, the Coliian 
Alps (so called from a king Cottius in the time of 
Augustus), from Monte Viso to Mont Cenis, con- 
tained M. .Matrona, afterwards called M. Janus or 
Janua (Mimt d'enerre), across which Cottius con- 
structed a road, which became the chief means of 
communication between Italy and Gaul : this road 
leads from the valley of the Durance in France 
to S'gusio (Stisa) and the valley of the Dora in 
Piedmont. The pass over ^lont Cenis, now one 
of the most frei|uentcd of the Alpine passes, appears 
to have been unknown in antiquity. — 3. Alpes 
Graiae, also .SaUus (,'raius (the name i? probably 
Celtic, and has nothing to do with Greece), the 
(t'raian Alps, from Mont Cenis to the Little St. 
Bernard inclusive, contained the Jugum Cremonis 
{UCmmont) and the Ccntronicae Alpes, apparently 
the Little St Bernard and the surrounding moun- 
tains. The Little St. Bernard, which is sometimes 
called Alpis Graia, is probably the pass by which 
Hannibal crossed the Alps ; the road over it, 
which was improved by Augustus, led to Au- 
gusta (Aoshi) in the territory of the Salassi. — 
4. Alpes Penmnae, the Pcnuinc Alpf, from the 
Great St Bernard to the Siniplon inclusive, the 
highest portion of the chain, including Mont Blanc, 
Monte Rosa, and Mont Ccrvin. The Great St 
Bernard was called M. Pennlnus, and on its sum- 
mit the inhal)itants worshipped a deity, whom tlie 
Romans called Jupiter Penninus. The name is 
probably derived from the Celtic ;.cn, a height." 
— 5. Alpes Lepontioru.m or Lepontiae, the 
IjqMiitian or Ilelvetiun Al|)S, from the Siinplon to 
the St Gothard. — 6. Alpes Bhaeticae, the 
Hhaetian Alps, from the St Gothard to the Or- 
tcler by the pass of the Stelvio. M. Adula is 
usually supposed to be the St Gothard, but it must 
be another name for the whole range, if Strabo 
is right in stating that both the Rhine and the 
Adda rise in M. Adula. The Romans were ac- 
fjuainU'd with two passes across the Rhaetian Alps, 
connecting Curia (Cone) and Milan, one across 
the SpUigen and the other across Mont Septimer, 
and both meeting at Clavenna {Cliiuvcnna). — 7. 
Alpes Tridentinae, the mountains of southern 
Tyrol, in which the Athesis {Adi,je) rises, with the 
I ass of the Brenner. — Jl. Alpes Noricae, the 
Noric Alps, N. E. of the Tridcntine Alps, com- 
prismg the raount-iins in the neighbourhood of 
Salrburg. — 9. Alpes Carnicab, the CanncAlps, 
E. of the Tridentine, and S. of the Noric, to Mount 



ALTINUM. 

Terglu. — 10. Alpes Juliae, the Julian Alps, 
from Mount Terglu to tlie commencement of the 
Illyiian or Dalmatian mountains, which are kno\vn 
by the name of the Alpes Dalmaticae, further north 
by the name of the Alpes Pannonicae. The Alpes 
Juliae were so called because Julius Caesar or 
Augustus constructed roads across them : they arc 
also called Alpes Vcnetae. 

Alphenus Varus. [Varus.] 

Alphesiboea CAK(pe<n§o7a). 1. Mother of Ado- 
nis. [Adonis.] —2. Daughter of Phegeus, who 
married Aicmaeon. [Alcmaeon.] 

Alpheus Mytilenaeus (^A\(peios MvTi\riva7os), 
the author of about 12 epigrams in the Greek 
Anthology, was probably a contemporary of the 
emperor Augustus. 

Alpheus {'A\(p€i6s: Dor. 'A\(p€6s ; Alfeo, Ro- 
fco, Rvfo, Rnfca), the chief river of Peloponnesus, 
rises at Phylace in Arcadia, sliortly afterwards 
sinks under ground, appears again near Asea, and 
then mingles its v.aters with those of the Eurotas. 
After flowing 20 stadia, the two rivers disappear 
under ground: the Alpheus again rises at Pegae 
in Arcadia, and increased by many affluents, flows 
N. W. through Arcadia and Elis, not far from 
Olympia, and falls into the Ionian sea. The sub- 
terranean descent of the river, which is confirmed 
by modern travellers, gave rise to the story about 
the river-god Alpheus and the nymph Arethusa. 
The latter, pursued by Alpheus, was changed by 
Artemis into the fountain of Arethusa in the island 
of Ortygia at Syracuse, but the god continued to 
pursue her under the sea, and attempted to mingle 
his stream with the fountain in Ortygia. Hence 
it was said that a cup thrown into the Alpheus 
would appear again in the fountain of Arethusa in 
Ortygia. Other accounts related that Artemis her- 
self was beloved by Alpheus : the goddess was 
v.-orshipped, under the name of Alpheuea, both in 
Elis and Ortygia. 

AlpMus Avitus. [A VITUS.] 

Alpinus, a name which Horace gives in ridicule 
to a bombastic poet He probably means Biba- 

CCLUS. 

Alsium (Alsiensis : Palo), one of the most an- 
cient Etruscan towns on the coast near Caere, and 
a Roman colony after the 1st Punic war. In its 
neighbourhood Porapey had a countrj-- seat (villa 
Alsiensis). 

Althaea ('AAfat'a), daughter of the Aetolian king 
Thestius and Eurythemis, married Oeneus, king of 
Calydon, by whom she became the mother of several 
children, and among others of Meleager, upon 
whose death she killed herself. 

Althaea, the chief to\\Ti of the Olcades in the 
country of the Oretani in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Althemenes ('A\dr}iJ.4vr]s or 'A\daiixevr]s). son 
of Catreus, king of Crete. In consequence of an 
oracle, that Catreus would lose his life by one of 
his children, Althemenes quitted Crete and went 
to Rhodes. There he unwittingly killed his father, 
who had come in search of his son. 

Altinnm (Altinas: Allino), a wealthy muni- 
cipium in the land of the Veneti in the N. of Italy, 
at the mouth of the river Silis and on the road 
from Patavium to Aquileia, was a wealthy manu- 
facturing town, and the chief emporium for all the 
goods which were sent from southern Italy to the 
countries of the north. Goods could be brought 
from ^ Ravenna to Altinum through the Lagoons 
and the numerous canals of the Po, safe from storms 



ALTIS. 

and pirates. Tliere were many "beautiful villas 
I around the town. (Mart. iv. 25.) 

Altis ("AAtzs), the sacred grove of Zeus at 
Olympia. 

Aluntium or Haluntium {'AKovvtiov), a town 
on the N. coast of Sicily on a steep hill, celebrated 
I' for its wine. 

i! Alus or Halus ("AXos, "AXos : 'AXevs : nr. Ke- 
l falosi, Ru.), a town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, at 
!' the extremity of M. Othrys, built by the hero 
Athamas, 

Alyattes ('AAuaxTT]?), king of Lydia, B.C. 617 
— 560, succeeded his father Sadyattes, and was 
jj himself succeeded by his son Croesus. He carried 
on war with Miletus from 617 to 612, and with 
Cyaxares, king of Media, from 590 to 585 ; an 
eclipse of the sun, which happened in 585 during a 
|| battle between Alyattes and Cyaxares, led to a peace 
between them. Alyattes drove the Cimmerians out 
of Asia and took Smyrna. The tomb of Alyattes, 
N. of Sardis, near the lake Gygaea, which consisted 
of a large mound of earth, raised upon a foundation 
of great stones, still exists. Mr. Plamilton says 
that it took him about ten minutes to ride round 
its base, which would give it a circumference of 
nearly a mile. 

Alyba ('AAugT?), a town on the S. coast of the 
Euxine. (Hom. 11. ii. 857.) 

Al3rpillS ('AXvirios), of Alexandria, probably 
lived in the 4th century of the Christian aera, 
and is the author of a Greek musical treatise en- 
titled "Introduction to Music" (elaayuyf) ixovaiKr)), 
printed by Meibomius in A?itiquae Mnsicae Auc- 
tores Sepiem, Amstel. 1 652. 

Alyzia or Alyzea ('AAu^i'a, 'AXvC^ia : 'AAv^aTos ; 
Ru. in the valley of Ka?idiH), a town in Acarnania 
near the sea opposite Leucas, with a harbour and 
a temple both sacred to Hercules. The temple 
contained one of the works of Lysippus represent- 
ing the labours of Hercules, which the Romans 
carried off. 

Amadocus ('Ajj-dSoKos) or Medocus (M-fjSoicos). 
1. King of the Odrysae in Thrace, when Xenophon 
visited the country in b. c. 400. He and Seuthes, 
who were the most powerful Thracian kings, were 
frequently at variance, but were reconciled to one 
another by Thrasybulus, the Athenian commander, 
in 390, and induced by him to become the allies of 
Athens. — 2. A ruler in Thrace, who, in conjunc- 
tion with Berisades and Cersobleptes, succeeded 
Cotys in 358. 
Amag-etobria. [Magetobria.] 
Amalthea CA/xaxeeia). 1. The nurse of the 
infant Zeus in Crete. According to some traditions 
Amalthea is the goat who suckled Zeus, and who 
was rewarded by being placed among the stars. 
[Aega.] According to others, Amalthea was a 
nymph, daughter of Oceanus, Helios, Haemonius, 
or of the Cretan king Melisseus, who fed Zeus with 
the milk of a goat When this goat broke off one 
of her horns, Amalthea filled it with fresh herbs 
and gave it to Zeus, who placed it among the stars. 
According to other accounts Zeus himself broke off 
one of the horns of the goat Amalthea, and gave it 
to the daughters of Melisseus, and endowed it with 
the wonderful power of becoming filled with what- 
ever the possessor might wish. This is the story 
about the origin of the celebrated horn of Amal- 
thea, commonly called the horn of plenty or cornu- 
copia, which was used in later times as the symbol 
of plenty in general. — 2. One of the Sibyls, iden- 



AMASTRIS. 4i 

tified with the Cumaean Sibyl, who sold to king 
Tarquinius the celebrated Sibylline books. 

Amaltheum or Amalthea, a villa of Atticus 
on the river Thyamis in Epirus, was perhaps ori- 
ginally a shrine of the nymph Amalthea, which 
Atticus adorned with statues and bas-reliefs, and 
converted into a beautiful summer retreat. Cicero, 
in imitation, constructed a similar retreat on his 
estate at Arplnum. 

Amantia ('A^avTi'a : Amantinus, Amantianus, 
or Amantes, pi. : Nivitza), a Greek town and dis- 
trict in Illyricum : the town, said to have been 
founded by the Abantes of Euboea., lay at some 
distance from the coast, E. of Oricum. 

Amanus (o ^A/xavos, rh 'A/uavov : 'Afiaviriqs, 
Amaniensis : Jlmadogh), a branch of Mt. Taurus, 
which runs from the head of the Gulf of Issus N.E. 
to the principal chain, dividing Sj^ria from Cilicia 
and Cappadocia. There were two passes in it ; 
the one, called the Syrian Gates {ai 2i/pi'ai irvkai, 
Syriae Portae : Bylan) near the sea ; the other, 
called the Amanian Gates Ai-Lavi^ts or ^Ajxavucal 
TTvXai : Amanicae Pylae, Portae Amani Montis : 
Demir Kapu, i. e. the Iron Gate), further to the N. 
The former pass was on the road from Cilicia to 
Antioch, the latter on that to the district Comma- 
gene ; but, on account of its great difficulty, the 
latter pass was rarely used, nntil the Romans made 
a road through it. The inhabitants of Amanus 
were wild banditti. 

Amardi or Mardi ("Afxapdoi, MdpSoi), a power- 
ful, warlike, and predatory tribe who dwelt on the 
S. shore of the Caspian Sea. 

Amardus or Mardus ("AjuapSos, Mdpdos : Kizil 
Ozien), a river flowing through the country of the 
Mardi into the Caspian Sea. 

Amarjmceus {'A/j.apvyicevs), a chief of the 
Eleans, is said by some writers to have fouglit 
against Troy ; but Homer only mentions his son 
D lores {Amaryncides) as taking part in the Trojan 
war. 

Amaryntlms {'A/ndpvvBos : 'AixapvvQios), a town 
in Euboea 7 stadia from Eretria, to which it be- 
longed, with a celebrated temple of Artemis, Avho 
wfis hence called Amaryvthia or Amarysia, and in 
whose honour there was a festival of this name 
both in Euboea and Attica. (See Diet of Antiq. 
art. Amaryntliia.') 

Amasenus (Amaseno), a river in Latium, rises 
in the Volscian mountains, flows by Privernum, and 
after being joined by the Ufens (Ufente), which 
flows from Setia, falls into the sea between Circeii 
and Terracina, though the greater part of its waters 
are lost in the Pontine marshes. 

Amasia or -ea ('A/jLd<Teia : 'Afxaaevs: AmasiaJi), 
the capital of the kings of Pontus, was a strongly 
fortified city on both banks of the river Iris. It 
was the birthplace of Mithridates the Great and 
of the geographer Strabo. 

Amasis ("AfiaaLs). 1. King of Egypt, b.c. 570 — 
526, succeeded Apries, whom he dethroned. During 
his long reign Egypt was in a very prosperous con- 
dition ; and the Greeks were brought into much 
closer intercourse with the Egyptians than had 
existed previously. Amasis married Ladice, a 
Cyrenaic lady, contracted an alliance with Cyrene 
and Polycrates of Samos, and also sent presents to 
several of the Greek cities. -— 2. A Persian, sent 
in the reign of Cambyses (b. c. 525) against Cyrene, 
took Barca, but did not succeed in taking Cyrene. 

Amastris ("Ajuaa-rpts, Ion. "Af-t-rjaTpis). 1. Wife 



42 AMASTRIS. 
pfXcrxc^and r. Mhcr of Artaxcrx.s I., was of a 
^el and vindictive character. - 2. Also called 
A>^. ' W niece of Darius, the last king of I ersia 
She .nar-cd, 1. CrateriKs ; 'J. Dionysius tyrant of 
Hen.clca :•. nithynia, B.C. 322 ; and 3. Lysi- 
ninchus B.C. ..«IJ. Having been abandoned by 
Lvsimachu. upon his nmrriage with Arsinoe, she 
retired to Ileraciea, where she rei-ncu, and was 
drownrfl l.v her tno sons al>out 2!;;i.^ 

Amastris ( "An^^-rTpis: 'Aixatrrpiavo, : Auiasera), 
n largr and b-autiful city, with two lu.bours, on 
the coast of Pnphlaponia, built by Amastns^after 
her neiKiration from Lysimachus (about B. t. 300), 
on the site of the old town of Sesamus, which 
name the citadel retained. The new city was 
built and peopled by the inhabitants of Cytorus 
and Cronina. 

Amata, wife of king Latinus and mother of La- 
rinia, opposed Lavinia being given in marriage to 
Aeneas, bei-ause she had already promised her to 
Tumufl. When she heard that Turnus had fallen 
in l)attle, f^hc hung herself. 

Amathua, -untia {'AfiaOovs^ -ovm-os : 'AixaOov- 
<r«ov : Liinasol)^ an ancient to\vn on the S. coast of 
Cyprus, with a celebrated temple of Aphrodite, who 
was hence called Amathusla. There were copper- 
mines in the neighbourhood of the town {fecundam 
Amathuuta iitclalli, Ov. Met. x. 220). 

Amatlos, suniamed Pseudomarius, pretended to 
be either the son or grandson of the great Marius, 
and was put to death by Antony in B. c. 44. Some 
call him Ilcrophilus. 

Amazones (^Aua^Svis), a mythical race of war- 
like females, are said to have come from the Cau- 
casus, and to have settled in the country about the 
river Thermodon, where they founded the city 
Theraiscyra, in the neighbourhood of the modern 
Trebizond. Their country was inhabited only 
by the Amazons, who were governed by a queen : 
but in order to propagate their race, they met 
once a year the Oargareans in Mount Caucasus. 
The children of th,- female sex were brought up 
by thi- Amazons, and each had h.er right breast cut 
off ; the male children were sent to the Gargareans 
or put to death. The foundation of several towns 
in Asia Minor and in the islands of the Aegean is 
ascribed to them, e. (j. of Ephcsus, Smyrna, Cyme, 
Myrina, and Paphos. The Greeks believed in 
their existence as a real historical race down to a 
late period ; and hence it is said that Thalestris, 
the queen of the Amazons, hastened to Alexander, 
in order to become a mother by the conqueror of 
Aaia- This belief of the Greeks may have arisen 
from the peculiar way in which the women of some 
of the Caucasian districts lived, and performed the 
duties which in other countries devolve upon men, 
as well as from their bravery and courage, which 
are noticed as remarkable even by modern travel- 
lers. Vague and obscure reports about them pro- 
bably reached the inhabitants of western Asia and 
the Greeks, and these reports were subsequently 
worked out and embellished by popular tradition 
and poetry. The following are 'the chief mythical 
adventures with which the Amazons are connected : 
— they arc said to have invaded Lycia in the reio-n 
of loljates, but were destroyed by BcUcrophontcs, 
who happ«>ned to be staying at the king's court, 
f Bellerophontes ; Lao.medon.] Tlicyalso in- 
vaded Phrygia, and fought with the Phrygians and 
Trojans when Priam was a young man. The ninth 
tajong the labours imposed upon Hercules bv 



AMBRONES. 
Enrysthcus, was to take from Hippolyte, the queen 
of the Amazons, her girdle, the ensign of lier kingly 
power, which she had received as a present from 
Ares. [Hercules.] In the reign of Theseus 
they invaded Attica. [Theseus.] Towards the 
end of the Trojan war, the Amazons, under their 
queen Penthesilea, came to the assistance of Priam ; 
but she was killed by Achilles. The Amazons and 
their battles are frequently represented in the re- 
mains of ancient Greek art. 

Amazomci or -lus Hons, a mountain range pa- 
mllel and near to the coast of Pontus, containing 
the sources of the Thermodon and other streams 
which water the supposed country of the Amazons. 

Ambarri, a people of Gaul, on the Arar 
(Saouc) E. of the Aedui, and of the same stock 
as the hatter. 

Ambiani, a Belgic people, between the Bello- 
vaci and Atrebates, conquered by Caesar in b.c. 57. 
Their chief town was Samarobriva afterwards 
called Ambiani, now Amiens. 

Ambiatmus Vicus, a place in the country of 
the Treviri near Coblentz, where the emperor Ca- 
ligula was born. 

Ambibari, an Armoric people in Gaul, near 
the modern Amhieres in Nonuandy. 

Ambiliati, a Gallic people, perhaps in Brittany. 

Ambiorix, a chief of the Eburones in Gaul, cut 
to pieces, in conjunction with Cativolcus, the Ro- 
man troops under Sabinus and Cotta, who were 
stationed for the winter in the territories of the 
Eburones, B. c. 54. He failed in taking the camp 
of Q. Cicero, and was defeated on the arrival of 
Caesar, who was unable to obtain possession of the 
person of Ambiorix, notwithstanding his active 
pursuit of the latter. 

Ambivareti, the clientes or vassals of the Aedui, 
probably dwelt N. of the latter. 

Ambivariti, a Gallic people, W. of the Maas, in 
the neighbourhood of Numur. 

Ambivius Turpio. [Turpio.] 

Amblada (ja "AniKaha : 'A^^AaSeus), a town 
in Pisidia, on the borders of Caria ; famous for its 
wine. 

Ambracia ('AjuTrpa/ci'a, afterwards 'AfxipaKlo. : 
'Augpa/ftwTTjs, 'AiJL€paKievs, Ambraciensis: Arta), a 
town on the left bank of the Arachthus, 80 stadia 
from the coast, N. of the Ambracian gulf, was 
originally included in Acarnania, but afterwards in 
Epirus. It was colonised by the Corinthians about 
B. c. 660, and at an early period acquired wealth 
and importance. It became subject to the kings 
of Epii-us about the time of Alexander the Great. 
Pyrrhus made it the capital of his kingdom, and 
adorned it with public buildings and statues. At 
a later time it joined the Aetolian League, was 
taken by the Romans in B. c. 189, and stripped of 
its works of art. Its inhabitants were transplanted 
to the new city of Nicopolis, founded by Augustus 
after the battle of Actiura, B. c. 31. South of Am- 
bracia on the E. of the Arachthus, and close to the 
sea was the fort Amhracus. 

Ambracius Sinus {'AfnrpaKivhs or 'Afi§paKiKhs 
icSKttos : G. of A rta), a gulf of the Ionian sea be- 
tween Epirus and Acarnania, said by Polybius to 
be 300 stadia long and 100 wide, and with an 
entrance only 5 stadia in width. Its real length 
is 25 miles and its width 10: the narrowest part 
of the entrance is only 700 yards, but its general 
width is about half a mile. 

Ambrones CA^gpwves), a Celtic people, who 



AMBROSIUS. 

I joined the Cimbri and Teutoni in their invasion of 
the Roman dominions, and were defeated by Ma- 
rius near Aquae Sextiae (Jix) in B. c. 102. 

Ambrosius, usuallj'- called St. Ambrose, one of 
the most celebrated Christian fathers, was born in 

A. D. 340, probably at Augusta Trevirorum (Treves). 

; After a careful education at Rome, he practised 
I with great success as an advocate at Milan ; and 
I about A. D. 370 was appointed prefect of the pro- 
|: vinces of Liguria and Aemilia, whose seat of go- 
I vernment was Milan. On the death of Auxentius, 
j bishop of Milan, in 374, the appointment of his 
[: successor led to an op'-n conflict between the Arians 
and Catholics. Ambrose exerted his influence to 
jl restore peace, and addressed the people in a conci- 
liatory speech, at the conclusion of which a child in 
the further part of tlie crowd cried out " Avihrosius 
episcopus.'''' The words were received as an oracle 
from heaven, and Ambrose was elected bishop by 
thft acclamation of the whole multitude, the bishops 
of both parties uniting in his election. It was in 
vain that he adopted the strangest devices to alter 
the determination of the people ; nothing could 
make them change their mind ; and at length he 
3'ielded to the express conmiaud of the emperor 
1 (Valentinian I.), and was consecrated on the eighth 

iday after his baptism, for at the time of his election 
he was only a catechumen. Ambrose Avas a man 
of eloquence, firmness, and ability, and distinguished 
I himself by maintaining and enlarging the authority 
of the church. He was a zealous opponent of the 
l> Arians, and thus came into open conflict with Jus- 
tina, the mother of Valentinian II., who demanded 
! the use of one of the churches of Milan for the 
Arians. Ambrose refused to give it ; he was sup- 
ported by the people ; and the contest was at 
length decided by the miracles which are reported 
i to have attended the discovery of the reliques of 
two martyrs, Gervasius and Protasius. Although 
these miracles were denied by the Arians, the im- 
pression made by them upon the people in general 
was so strong, that Justina thought it prudent to 
give way. The state of the parties was quite al- 
tered by the death of Justina in 387, when Valen- 
tinian became a Catholic, and still more completely 
by the victory of Theodosius over Maximus (388). 
This event put the whole power of the empire into 
the hands of a prince who was a firm Catholic, and 
over whom Ambrose acquired such influence, that, 
after the massacre at Thessalonica in 390, he re- 
fused Theodosius admission into the church of 
Milan for a period of 8 months, and only restored 
him after he had performed a public penance. The 
best edition of the works of Ambrose is that of 
the Benedictines, Paris, 1686 and 1690. 

Ambrysus or Amphrysus {"Aimgpva-os : 'A^- 
Spvaevs : nr. Dhisiomo), a town in Phocis strongly 
fortified, S. of M. Parnassus : in the neighbour- 
hood were numerous vineyards. 

Ambustus, Fabius. 1. M., pontifex maximus 
in the year that Rome was taken by the Gauls, 

B. c. 390. His three sons, Kaeso, Numerius, and 
Quintus, Avere sent as ambassadors to the Gauls, 
when the latter were besieging Clusium, and took 
part in a sally of the besieged against the Gauls 
(b. c. 391). The Gauls demanded that the Fabii 
should be surrendered to them for violating the law 
of nations ; and upon the senate refusing to give up 
the guilty parties, they marched against Rome. 
The three sons were in the same year elected con- 
sular tribunes. — 2. M., consular tribune in b. c. 



AMMTANUS 43 

301 and 369, and censor in 363, had two daughters, 
of whom the elder was married to Ser. Sulpicius, 
and the younger to C. Licinius Stolo, the author of 
the Licinian Rogations, According to the story 
recorded by Livy, the younger Fabia induced her 
father to assist her husband in obtaining the con- 
sulship for the plebeian order, into which she had 
married. — 3. M,, thrice consul, in B. c. 360, when 
he conquered the Hemici, a second time in 356, 
when he conquered the Falisci and Tarquinienses, 
and a third time in 354, when he conquered the 
Tiburtes. He was dictator in 351. He was the 
father of the celebrated Q. Fabius Maximus Rul- 
lianus. [Maximus.] 

Amenanus {'AfxeuauSs, Dor. 'AjueVas), a river 
in Sicily near Catana, only flowed occasionally 
{nunc JlidU interdum suppressis foniibus aret, Ov. 
Met. xv.^280). 

Anieria (AmerTnus : Amelia)^ an ancient town 
in Urabria, and a municipium, the birth-place of 
Sex. Roscius defended by Cicero, was situate in a 
district rich in vines (Virg. Georg. i. 265). 

Ameriola, a town in the land of the Sabines, 
destroyed by the Romans at a very early period. 

Amestratus (Amestratinus : Mistretta\ a town 
in the N. of Sicily not far from the coast, the 
same as the Myttistratum of Polybius, and the 
Amastra of Silius Italicus, taken by the Romans 
from the Carthaginians in the first Punic v/ar. 

Amestris. [Amastris.] 

Amida (j] "AjxiBa: Diarhehr), a town in So- 
phene (Armenia Major) on the upper Tigris. 
Amilcar. [Hamilcar.] 

Aminias ('A^etj/tas), brother of Aeschylus, dis- 
tinguished himself at the battle of Salamis (b. c. 
480) : he and Eumenes were judged to have been 
the bravest on this occasion among all the Athe- 
nians. 

Amipsias ('Ay-erijl/ias), a comic poet of Athens, 
contemporary with Aristophanes, whom he twice 
conquered in the dramatic contests, gaining the 
second prize with his Connus when Aristophanes 
was third with the Clouds (b. c. 423), and the 
first with his Comastae when Aristophanes gained 
the second with the Birds (b. c. 414). 

Amisia or Amisins {Ems), a river in northern 
Germany well known to the Romans, on which 
Drusus had a naval engagement with the Bructeri, 
B. c. 12. f 

Amisia {Emden ?), a fortress on the left bank 
of the river of the same name. 

Amisodarus ('A/ztcrwSapos), a king of Lycia, 
said to have brought up the monster Chimaera: 
his sons Atymnius and Maris v/ere slain at Troy 
by the sons of Nestor. 

Amisus (^Aixicros : 'Afxiarivds., Amisenus : Sam- 
sun), a large city on the coast of Pontus, on a bay 
of the Euxine Sea, called after it (Amisenus Sinus). 
Mithridates enlarged it, and made it one of his 
residences. 

Amiternum (Amiterninus : A^natrica or Torre 
d'Aviiterno)., one of the most ancient towns of the 
Sabines, on the Atemus, the birth-place of the 
historian Sallust. 

Am mi amis {'AfxfxiavSs), a Greek epigramma- 
tist, but probably a Roman by birth, the author of 
nearly 30 epigrams in the Greek Anthology, lived 
under Trajan and Hadrian, 

Ammianus Marcellinus, by birth a Greek, and 
a native of Syrian Antioch, was admitted at an 
early age among the imperial body guards. He 



44 



•erved m.inT Tears 

grv. ■ ' ■ < 



En 

Ci>in; 

3HU. 



AMMON. 

under Ursicinus, one of 



the 

West and East, 
emperor Julian 
. . .IIS (A. D. 363). 
■ d iiiniselt at Homf, where he 
. ,!id was alive at least as late as 
llu hisu-rv, written in Latin, extended from 
the ftcwMion of 'Sc^^^ a. d. f)G, the point at which 
the hUtnrie* of I ; .inated, to the death of 

Valens, a. D. 37 i Period of -282 years. 

It was divided 1 of which the first 13 

arc loit The ren»ainin>f IJJ embrace the acts of 
CoiuUntius from A. D. 353, the 17th year of his 
rrijrn, ti>gether with the whole career of Callus, 
Juiianus, Jovianus, Valentinianus, and Valcns. 
The portion presened was the more important 
part of the wtjrk, .is he was a contcmporan.- of the 
events described in these books. The style of 
Aromianus is harsh and inflated, but his accuracy, 
fidelity, and impartiality, deserve praise. — Edi- 
tioHt. ' By Gn'novius, Lugd. Bat. 1693; by Emesti, 
Lips. 1773 ; by Watnier and Erfurdt, Lips. \W6. 

Aaundll ('Au^i'>, orieinally an Aethiopian or 
Libyan, afterwards an Egyptian divinity. The 
real Egj-ptian name was Amun or Ammun ; the i 
Grcf-ks called him Zeus Ammon, the Rom«ir.s 
Jupiti-r Ammon, and the Hebrews Amon. The 
must ancient seat of his worship was Meroe, where , 
he had an oracle : thence it was introduced into j 
Ep-pt, where the worship took the firmest root at ' 
Thebes in Upper Ep}-pt, which was therefore fre- 
quently called by the Greeks Diospolis, or the 
city of Zeus. Another famous seat of the god, 
with a celebrated oracle, was in the oasis of 
Ammonium (Shrah) in the Libyan desert ; the 
worship was also established in Cyrenaica. The 
srod was represented either in the form of a ram, 
or as a human being with the head of a ram; 
but there are some representations in which he 
appear? altogether as a human being with only the 
horns of a ram. It seems clear that the original 
idea of Ammon was that of a protector and leader 
of the flocks. The Aethiopians were a nomad 
people, flocks of sheep constituted their principal 
wealth, and it is perfectly in accordance with the 
notions of the Aethiopians as well as Egyptians to 
worship the animal which is the leader and pro- 
tector of the flock. This view is supported by the 
various st ri. s related about Ammon, 
Ammonium. [Oasis.] 
Ammonius {^\u)juivioi\ \. Grammaticus, of 
Alexandria, left this city on the overthrow of the 
heathen temples in a. d. 389, and settled at Con- 
stantinople. He wTote, in Greek, a valuable work. 
On thf Differences of Words of like Signification 
(»»pl buoluv Kol iia(^6pwv Xi^iwv). — Editions. 
By Valrkenaer. Lugd. Bat. 1 739 ; bv Schafer. Lips. 
1822. — 2. Son of Hermeas, studied at Aihei;s ; 
under Proclus (who died a. d. 484), and was the 
master of Simplicius, Damascius, and others. He 
wrote numerous commentaries in Greek on the 
works of the earlier philosophers. His extant ! 
works are Commentaries on Vie Isaqoge of Por- ' 
/lAyry, or the Five Predicates, first' published at i 
Venice in 1500 ; and fJn the Categories of Aris- ! 
totle and De Intrrpretutione, published bv Brandis ' 
in his edition of the ikhoiia on .Aristotle' — 3. Of 
Lamprae in Attica, a Peripatetic philosopher. \ 
lived in the first centurj- of the Christian aera, and 
the instructor of Plutarch. — 4. Surnamed 
or sack-carrier, because his employnicut ' 



AMPHIARAUS. 

was carrying the com, landed at Alexandria, as a 
public porter, was bom of Christian parents. Some 
writers assert, and others deny, that he apostatized 
from the faith. At any rate he combined the 
study of philosophy with Christianity, and is re- 
irard'ed by those who maintain his apostasy as the 
founder of the later Platonic School. Among his 
disciples were Longinus, Herenniiis, Plotinus, and 
Oriuen. He died a. d, 243, at the age of more 
than 80 years. 

Amnisus CAfivia^os), a tov.Ti in the X. of Crc: . 
and the harbour of Cnossus, situated on a river oi 
tlie same name, the nymphs of which, called 
Jmnlsiddes, were in the service of Artemis. 

Amor, the god of love, had no place in the reli- 
gion of the Romans, who only translate the Greek 
na::ie Eros into Amor. [Eros.] _ 

Amorgns ("Aixopyos: 'Ajxopy7vos : Amorgo),za 
island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the Spo- 
rades, the birth-place of Simonides, and under the 
Roman emperors a place of banishment. 

Amorinm (AuSpiov), a city of Phrygia Major or 
Galatia. on tiie river Sangarius ; the reputed birth- 
phce of Aesop. 

Ampe ("A/iTnj, Herod.) or Ampelone (Plin. , 
a town at the mouth of the Tigris, where Darius L 
planted the Milesians whom he removed from their 
own city after the Ionian revolt (b.c. 494 ). 

L. Ampelius, the author of a small work, entitled 
Liier Memorialis, probably lived in the 2nd or 3rd 
centur}- of the Christian aera. His work is a sort 
of comraon-place-book, containing a meagre sum- 
mary of the most striking natural objects and of 
the most remarkable events, divided into 50 chap- 
ters. It is generally printed with Florus, and has 
been published separately by Beck, Lips. 1 826. 

Ampelns (AixTreXos), a promontory at the ex- 
tremity of the peninsula Sithonia in Chalcidice in 
Macedonia near Torone. 

Ampelusia ('AuTreKovala : C. Espariel), the 
promonton.- at the "W. end of the S. or African 
coast of the Fretura Gaditanum (Straits of Gi- 
hraUar). The natives of the country called it Cotes 

{al K«T€£S). 

Ampliaxitis ('A.ud)a|?T(s), a district of Myg- 
donia in ^Macedonia, at the mouths of the Axius 
and Echedorus. 

Amphea {"AfKbua : 'A/i^eus), a small town of 
Messenia on the borders of Laconia and Messenia, 
conquered by the Spartans in the first Messenian 
war. 

Amphiaraus C A}i(piapaos\ son of Oicles and 
Hyperranestra, daughter of Thestius, was de- 
scended on his father's side from the famous seer 
Melampus, and was himself a great prophet and 
a ^reat hero at Argos. By his wife Eriphyle, the 
sister of Adrastus. he was the father of Alcmaeon, 
Amphilochus, Eurydice,and Demonassa. He took 
part in the hunt of the Calydonian boar, and in 
the .Aigonautic voyage. He also joined Adiastus 
in the expedition against Thebes, although he fore- 
saw its fatal termination, throush the persuasions 
of his wife Eriphyle, who had been induced to 
persuade her husband by the necklace of Harmonia 
which Polynices had given her. On leaving Argos, 
however, he enjoined his sons to punish their mo- 
ther for his death. During the war against Thebes, 
Ajnphiaraus fought bravely, but could not escape 
his fate. Pursued by Penclymenus, he fled to- 
wards the river Ismenius, and the earth swallowed 
him up together with his chariot, before he wa^ 



AMPHICAEA. 



AMPHISSA. 



45 



-jvertaken by his enemy. Zeus made him immor- 
tal, and henceforth he was worshipped as a hero, 
first at Oropiis and afterwards in all Greece. His 
oracle between Potniae and Thebes, where he Avas 
said to have been swallowed up, enjoyed great 
celebrity. {See Diet, of Ant. art. Oraculuni.) His 
son, Alcmaeon, is called Ampliiar aides. 

Amphicaea or AmpMclea {'Afj.<p'iKaia, 'Afj.(pi- 
nKeia: 'Afxcp.icauvs : Dhadhi or Oglunitza?), a 
town in the N. of Phocis, with an adytum of 
Dionysus, was called for a long time Ophitea 
{'OcpiTeia) by command of tlie Amphictyons. 

Amphictyon {'AfxcpiKrvwu), a son of Deucalion 
and Pyrrha. Others represent him as a king of 
Attica, who expelled from the kingdom his father- 
in-law Cranaus, ruled for 12 years, and was 
then in turn expelled by Erichthonius. Many 
writers represent him as the founder of the 
amphictyony of Thermopylae ; in consequence 
of this belief a sanctuary of Amphictyon was 
built in the village of Anthela on the Asopus, 
which was the most ancient place of meeting of this 
amphictyony. 

Ampiiidilmas ('A/i^i5a/xas), son, or, according 

1 to others, brother of Lycurgus, one of the Ar- 

{ gonauts. ^ 

I Amphilochia ('A/jLcpiXox^a), the country of the 
Amphilochi ('A/x(^tAoxoO» Epirot race, at the 
E. end of the Ambracian gulf, usually included in 
Acamania. Their chief town was Argos Amphi- 

■ LOCHICUM. 

Amphilochus {^Aficp'iXoxos), son of Amphiaraus 
and Eriphyle, and brother of Alcmaeon, He took an 
active part in the expedition of the Epigoni against 
Thebes, assisted his brother in the murder of their 
mother [Alcmaeon], and afterwards fought against 
Troy. On his return from Troy, together with 
Mopsus, who was like himself a seer, he founded 
the town of Mallos in Cilicia. Hence he proceeded 
to his native place, Argos, but returned to Mallos, 
where he was killed in single combat by Mopsus. 
Others relate (Thuc. ii. 68), that after leaving Ar- 
gos, Amphilochus founded Argos Amphilochium on 
the Ambracian gulf. He was worshipped at Mallos 
in Cilicia, at Oropus, and at Athens. 

Amphilytus ('AfxcplAvros), a celebrated seer in 
the time of Pisistratus (b. c. 559), is called both 
an Acarnanian and an Athenian : he may have 
been an Acarnanian who received the franchise at 
Athens. 

Ampliimachus ('AfKp'i/xaxos). 1. Son of Cteatus, 
grandson of Poseidon, one of the four leaders of the 
Epeans against Troy, was slain by Hector. 2. 
Son of Noraion, with his brother Nastes, led the 
Carians to the assistance of the Trojans, and was 
slain by Achilles. 

AmpMinalla (r'a 'Afj.<pi!xa\}^a), a town on the 
N. coast of Crete, on a bay called after it (G. of 
Armiro). 

Amphimedon {'AiJL(pifx45wv), of Ithaca, a guest- 
friend of Agamemnon, and a suitor of Penelope, 
was slain by Telemachus. 

AmpMon {'Ap-cpiwi^). 1. Son of Zeus and An- 
tiope, the daughter of Nycteus of Thebes, and 
twin-brother of Zethus. {Ow Met. vi. 110, seq.) 
Ampliion and Zethus Avere born either at Eleuthe- 
rae in Boeotia or on Mount Cithaeron, Avhither 
their mother had fled, and grew up among the 
shepherds, not knowing their descent. Hermes 
(according to others, Apollo, or the Muses) gave 
Amphion a lyre, who henceforth practised song 



and music, while his brother spent his time in 
hunting and tending the flocks. (Hor. Ep. i. 18. 
41.) Having become acquainted with their origin 
they marched against Thebes, where Lycus reigned, 
the husband of their mother Antiope, whom he had 
repudiated, and had then married Dirce in her stead. 
They took the city, and as Lycus and Dirce had 
treated their mother with great cruelty, the two 
brothers killed them both. They put Dirce to death 
by tying her to a bull,who dragged her about till she 
perished; and they then threw her body into a well, 
which was from this time called the well of Dirce. 
After they had obtained possession of Thebes, they 
fortified it by a Avail. It is said, that A\'hen Amphion 
played his lyre, the stones mo\'ed of their oaa^u ac- 
cord and formed the wall (movit Ampliion lapides 
canendo, Hor. Carm. iii. 11). Amphion afterwards 
maiTied Niobe, Avho bore him many sons and 
daughters, all of whom Avere killed by Apollo. His 
death is differently related : some say, that he 
killed himself from grief at the loss of his children 
(Ov. Met. vi, 270), and others tell us that he was 
killed by Apollo because he made an assault on 
the Pythian temple of the god. Amphion and his 
brother Avere buried at Thebes. The punishment 
inflicted upon Dirce is represented in the celebrated 
Farnese bull, the work of Apollonius and Tau- 
riscus, AA'hich was discoA'ered in 1546, and placed 
in the palace Farnese at Rome. — 2. Son of Jasus 
and father of Chloris. In Homer, this Amphion, 
king of Orchomenos, is distinct from Amphion, the 
husband of Niobe ; but in earlier traditions they 
seem to have been regarded as the same person. 

Amphipolis {'AjmcpLTroXis ; 'AiJ.(pL-!ro\LT7}S : Neok- 
ho7-io, in Turkish Jeni-Ketd), a toAvn in Macedonia 
on the left or eastern bank of the Strymon, just 
below its egress from the lake Cercinitis, and about 
3 miles from the sea. The Strymon floAved almost 
round the town, nearly forming a circle, Avhence its 
name Amphi-polis. It Avas originally called "Efj/ect 
oSo'i, " the Nine Ways," and belonged to the Edo- 
nians, a Thracian people. Aristagoras of Miletus 
first attempted to colonize it, but Avas cut off Avith 
his folloAvers by the Edonians in B. c. 497. The 
Athenians made a next attempt Avith 10,000 colo- 
nists, but they were all destroyed by the Edonians 
in 465. In 437 the Athenians Avere more suc- 
cessful, and drove the Edonians out of the " Nine 
Ways," which was henceforth called Amphipolis, 
It AA'as one of the most important of the Athenian 
possessions, being advantageously situated for trade 
on a navigable river in the midst of a fertile coun- 
try, and near the gold mines of M. Pangaeus. 
Hence the indignation of the Athenians when it 
fell into the hands of Brasidas (b. c. 424) and of 
Philip (358). Under the Romans it Avas a free 
city, and the capital of Macedonia prima : the 
Via Egnatia ran through it. The port of Amphi- 
polis Avas EiON, 

Amphis {"Afj-fpis), an Athenian comic poet, of 
the middle comedy, contemporary Avith the philo- 
sopher Plato, We have the titles of 26 of his 
plays, and a few fragments of them. 

AmpMssa ("A/jLtpiaa-a : 'A/ncpLcrcTevs, 'Au(pi(r- 
cra7os : Salo?ia), one of the chief toAA-ns of the Locri 
Ozolae on the borders of Phocis, 7 miles from 
Delphi, said to haA-e been named after Amphissa, 
daughter of Macareus, and beloA^ed by Apollo. In 
consequence of the Sacred War declared against 
Amphissa by the Amphictyons, the toAvn Avas de- 
stroyed by Philip, B. c. 338, but it Avas soon after- 



46 AMPHISTRATUS 

wards rebuilt, and under the Romans was a free 

stole. , , . , u 

Amphistr&tns ('A;i<;)i'<rrpaToj) and his brother 
Rhecai, the charioteers of the Dioscuri, were said 
to have taken prt in the expedition of Jason to 
Colchis, and to have occupied a part of that coun- 
tr>' which was called after ihem HeniocJiia, as Jte- 
niochus {"fivioxoi) signifies a charioteer. 

AmphitxiW ('A.u^jtpi'tt;), a Nereid or an 
Oceania, wife of Poseidon and goddess of the sea, 
especially of the Mediterranean. In Homer Ain- 
phitrite is raerelv the name of the sea, and she first 
occurs as a goddess in Hcsiod. Later poets again 
use the word as cqui%alent to the sea in general. 
She became by Poseidon the mother of Triton, 
Rhode or Rhodns. and Benthcsicyme. 

Am phi trope {^htupnp&mi : 'A,u</)iTpoTrai€us), an 
Atlic dcnius hrlonging to the triVie Antiochis, in 
the neighbourhood of the silver-mines of Laurium. 

Amphitxyon or Ampliitruo {'Afxtpirpvwv)^ son 
of Alcaeus, king of Tirvns, and Hipponorae. Al- 
caeus had a brother Electry-on, w^ho reigned at 
:Mycenae. Between Electrj-on and Pterelaus, king 
(if "the Taphians, a furious war raged, in which 
Electr}-on lost all his children except Licymnius, 
and was robbed of his oxen. Amphitryon recovered 
the oxen, but on his return to Mycenae accident- 
ally killed his uncle Electrj-on. He was now e.x- 
jMjUed from Mycenae, together with Alcmene the 
daughter of Electni-on, by Sthenelus the brother of 
Electryon, and went to Thebes, where he was pu- 
rified by Creon. In order to win the hand of 
Alcmene, Amphitrj-on prepared to avenge the 
death of Alcmene's brothers on the Taphians, and 
conqueri-d them, after Comaetho, the daughter of 
Pterelaus, through her love for Amphitrj'on, cut 
oiT the one golden hair on her fathers head, which 
rendered him immortal. During the absence of 
Amphitr}-on from Thebes, Jupiter visited Alcmene, 
who became by the god the mother of Hercules ; 
the latter is called Ampliitryoniades in allusion to 
his reputed father. Amphitr}-on fell in a war 
against Erginus, king of the Minyans. The comedy 
of Plautus, called Amphitruo, is a ludicrous repre- 
sentation of the visit of Zeus to Alcmene in the 
disguise of her lover .^mphitrj'on. 

Amphotems ('Aju^ortpos). [Acarnan.] 

Amphrysus {'AiJ.(t)pva6s). 1. A small river in 
Thessaly which flowed into the Pagasaean gulf, on 
the banks of which Apollo fed the herds of Ad- 
ir.etus (pastor ah Amphryso^ Virg. Georg. iii. 2). 
—2. See .-Vmbrysus. 

Ampsaga ( Wud-el-Kahir^ or Su/jimar), a river 
of N. Africa, which divided Numidia from Maure- 
tania Sitifensis. It flows past the town of Cirta 
{Consiatiiiau). 

Ampsanctns or Amsanctms Lacus (Laoo 
d^Ansanti or Mti/lti), a small lake in Samnium 
near Aeculannm, from which mephitic vapours 
arose. Near it was a chapel of the god Mephitis 
with a caveni from which mephitic vapours also 
rame, and which was therefore regarded as an en- 
trance to the lower world. (Virg. Aen. vii. 563. 
seq.) 

Ampsivarii [Ansibauii.] 

Ampycus {"AfiirvKos). L Son of Pelias, hus- 
band of Chloris, and father of the famous seer 
Mopsus. who is hence caWcd A mpicides. Pausanias 
calls him Ampyx. — 2. Son of Japetus, a bard 
and priest of Ceres, killed by Pettalus at the mar- 
riage of Perseus. 



AMYNTAS. 

Ampyx. [Ampycus.] 

Amiilius. [Romulus.] 

Amyclae. 1. {'A/j-vuKai: 'A/j-vicKaievs, 'Afiv- 
K\aios: SklavokAori or Aia Kt/riaki 9), an ancient 
town of Laconia on the Eurotas, in a beautiful 
country, 20 stadia S. E. of Sparta. It is mentioned 
in the* Iliad (ii. 584), and is said to have been 
founded by the ancient Lacedaemonian king Am)-- 
clas, father of Hyacinthus, and to have been the 
abode of T\-ndarus, and of Castor and Pollux, who 
are hence 'called Amydaei Fratres. After the 
conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, the 
Achaeans maintained themselves in Amyclae for a 
long time ; and it v.as only shortly before the first 
Messenian war that the town was taken and de- 
stroyed by the Lacedaemonians under Teleclus. 
The tale ran that the inhabitants had been so often 
alarmed by false reports of the approach of the 
enemy, that they passed a law that no one should 
speak of the enemy ; and accordingly when the 
Lacedaemonians at last came, and no one dared to 
announce their approach, " Amyclae perished 
through silence : " hence arose the proverb Amy- 
clis ipsis taciturnior. After its destruction by the 
Lacedaemonians Amyclae became a village, and 
was only memorable by the festival of the Hya- 
cinthia (see Diet, of Ant. s.v.) celebrated at the 
place annually, and by the temple and colossal 
statue of Apollo, who was hence called Amyclaeiis. 
—2. (Amyclanus), an ancient town of Latium, E. 
of Terracina, on the Sinus Amyclanus, was, accord- 
ing to tradition, an Achaean colony from Laconia. 
In the time of Augustus the town had disappeared ; 
the inhabitants were said to have deserted it on 
account of its being infested by serpents ; whence 
Virgil {Aen. x. 564) speaks of tacitae Amyclae, 
though some commentators suppose that he transfers 
to this town the epithet belonging to the Amyclae 
in Laconia [No. 1]. Near Amyclae was the Spe- 
luiica (Sperlonga)^ or natural grotto, a favourite 
retreat of the emperor Tiberius. 

Amyclas. [Amyclae.] 

Amyclides, a name of Hyacinthus, as the son 
of Amyclas. 

Amycus ("Aixvkos), son of Poseidon and Bithy- 
nis, king of the Bebrj-ces, was celebrated for bis 
skill in boxing, and used to challenge strangers to 
box with him. When the Argonauts came to his 
dominions, Pollux accepted the challenge and 
killed him. 

Amjmione ('AjUv/ictSj/Tj), one of the daughters of 
Danaus and Elephantis. When Danaus arrived 
in Argos, the coimtr}- was suffering from a drought 
and Danaus sent out AmjTnone to fetch water. 
She was attacked by a satyr, but w'as rescued from 
his violence by Poseidon, who appropriated her to 
himself, and then showed her the wells at Lerr.a. 
According to another account he bade her draw 
his trident from the rock, from which a threefold 
spring gushed forth, which was called after her the 
well and river of Amyraone. Her son bv Posei- 
don was called Nauplius. 

Amynander (AiJ.vuc.vdpos), king of the Atha- 
manes in Epirus, an ally of the Romans in their 
war with Philip of ^Macedonia, about B. c. 198, 
but an ally of Antiochus, b. c. 109. 

Amyntas ('Auui/ras). 1. I. King of Macedo- 
nia, reigned from about b. c. 540 to 500, and was 
succeeded by his son Alexander I. — 2. II. Kinjr 
of Macedonia, son of Philip, the brother of Per 
1 diccas II., reigned b. c. 393—369, and obuaine 



AMYNTOR. 



ANAMARI. 



47 



the crowii by the murder of the usurper Pausanias. ! 
Soon after his accession he was driven from Mace- ' 
donia by the Illvrians, but was restored to his j 
kingdom by the Thessalians. On his return he j 
was engiiged in war with the Olynthians, in 
which he was assisted by the Spartans, and by 
their aid Olynthus was reduced in 379. AmjTitas 
united himself also with Jason of Pherae, and 
carefully cultivated the friendship of Athens. 
Amyntas left by his wdfe Eurydice three sons, 
Alexander, Perdiccas, and the famous Philip. 
— 3. Grandson of Amj-ntas II., was excluded by 
Philip from the succession on the death of his father 
Perdiccas III. in b. c. 360. He was put to death 
in the first year of the reign of Alexander the 
Great, 336, for a plot against the king's life. -—4. 
A Macedonian officer in Alexander's army, son of 
Andromenes. He and his brothers were accused 
of being privy to the conspiracy of Philotas in 330, 
but were acquitted. Some little time after he w^as 
killed at the siege of a village.— 5. A Macedonian 
traitor, son of Antiochus, took refuge at the court 
of Darius, and became one of the commanders of 
the Greek mercenaries. He was present at the 
battle of Issus (b. c. 333), and afterwards fled to 
Egypt, where he Avas put to death by Mazaces, 
the Persian governor, — 6. A king of Galatia, 
supported Antony, and fought on his side against 
Augustus at the battle of Actium (b. c. 31). He 
feirin an expedition against the town of Homonada 
or Homona. — 7. A Greek Avriter of a Avork en- 
titled Stathmi (Stradixol), probably an account of 
the different halting-places of Alexander the Great 
in his Asiatic expedition. 

Amyntor {'Af-ivvrtop), son of Ormenus of Eleon 
in Thessaly, where Autolycus broke into his house, 
and father of Phoenix, whom he cursed on ac- 
count of unlawful intercourse with his mistress. 
According to Apollodorus he was a king of Orme- 
nium, and was slain by Hercules, to whom he re- 
fused a passage through his dominions, and the 
hand of his daughter AstybamIa. According to 
Ovid (Met. xii. 364) he was king of the Dolopes. 

Amyrtaeus ('A,uupTaios), an Egyptian, assumed 
the title of king, and joined Inarus the Libyan in 
the revolt against the Persians in B. c. 460, They 
at first defeated the Persians [Achaemenes], but 
were subsequently totally defeated, 455, Amyrtaeus 
escaped, and maintained himself as king in the 
marshj' districts of Lower Egj'pt till about 414, 
when the Egyptians expelled the Persians, and 
Amyrtaeus reigned 6 years, 

Amyms ("Afxvpos), a river in Thessaly, with a 
town of the same name upon it, flowing into the 
lake Boebeis : the country around was called the 
'AijLvpiKhu Tt^Zlov. 

Amythaon ('A,uu9acoi'), son of Cretheus and 
TjTo, father of Bias and of the seer Melampus, who 
is hence c?i\\eA. Ainythdonms (Virg, (reor^. iii, 550). 
He dwelt at Pylus in Messenia, and is mentioned 
among those to whom the restoration of the Olym- 
pian games was ascribed. 

Anabon ('Ataeo);/), a district of the Persian 
province of Aria, S. of Aria Proper, containing 4 
towns, w^hich still exist, Phra {Ferrah), Bis {Beesi 
or Bost)., Gari (Ghore), Nii (Nek). 

Anaces {"AyuKes). [Anax, No. 2,] 

Anacliarsis ('Avaxapcis), a Scythian of princely 
rank, left his native country to travel in pursuit of 
knowledge, and came to Athens, about B. c. 594. 
He became acquainted with Solon, and by his ta- 



lents and acute observations, he excited general 
admiration. The fame of his wisdom was such, 
that he was even reckoned by some among the seven 
sages. He was killed by his brother Saulius on 
his return to his native country, Cicero {Tusc. 
Disp. V. 32) quotes from one of his letters, of which 
several, but spurious, are still extant. 

Anacreon (^AvaKp4wv), a celebrated lyric poet, 
born at Teos, an Ionian city in Asia Minor. He 
removed from his native city, with the great body 
of its inhabitants, to Abdera, in Thrace, Avhen Teos 
Avas taken by the Persians (about B. c. 540), but 
lived chiefly at Samos, under the patronage of 
Polycrates, in whose praise he wrote many songs. 
After the death of Polycrates (522), he went 
to Athens at the invitation of the tyrant Hippar- 
chus, where he became acqiiainted with Simonides 
and other poets. He died at the age of 85, pro- 
bably about 478, but the place of his death is 
uncertain. The universal tradition of antiquity re- 
presents Anacreon as a consummate voluptuary ; 
and his poems prove the truth of the tradition. He 
sings of love and Avine Avith hearty good Aviil ; and 
Ave see in him the luxury of the Ionian inflamed by 
the fervour of the poet. The tale that he loved 
Sappho is very improbable. Of his poems only a 
few genuine fragments have come doAvn to us ; for 
the " Odes" attributed to him are noAv admitted to 
be spurious. — Editions: by Fischer, Lips. 1793 ; 
Bergk, Lips. 1834. 

Anactorinm (^AvaKropiov ; 'AvaKTopios), a toAvn 
in Acarnania, built by the Corinthians, upon a 
promontory of the same name (near La Madonna) 
at the entrance of the Ambracian gulf. Its in- 
habitants Avere removed by Augustus after the 
battle of Actium (b. c. 31) to Nicopolis. 

Anadyomene (^Ava^voixivn)., the goddess rising 
out of the sea, a surname given to Aphrodite, in 
allusion to the story of her being born from the 
foam of the sea. This surname had not much cele- 
brity before the time of Apelles, but his famous 
painting of Aphrodite Anadyomene excited the 
emulation of other artists, painters as Avell as sculp- 
tors, [Apelles.] 

Anagnia (Anagnmus : Anagni), an ancient toAvn 
of Latium, the chief toAvn of the Hernici, and sub- 
sequently both a municipium and a Roman colony. 
It lay in a very beautiful and fertile country on a 
hill, at the foot of Avhich the Via Lavicana and 
Via Praenestina united {Compitum Anagninum). 
In the neighbourhood Cicero had a beautiful estate, 
Anagninum (sc. praedium). 

Anagyriis (^Avo.'yvpovs, -ovvros : ^Avayvpdcrios, 
'AvayvpovPToOeu : nr. Vari, Ru.), a demus of At- 
tica, belonging to the tribe Erectheis, not, as some 
say, Aeantis, S. of Athens, near the promontory 
Zoster, 

Anaitiea {'AvaiTiK-l]), a district of Armenia, in 
which the goddess Anaitis Avas worshipped ; also 
called Acilisene, 

Anaitis {'Ava7ris), an Asiatic divinit}-, Avhose 
name is also Avritten^?2am, Aneitis, Tana'is, ov Na- 
naea. Her worship preA^ailed in Armenia, Cappadocia, 
Assyria, Persis, &c., and seems to have been a part 
of the worship so common among the Asiatics, of 
the creative powers of nature, both male and female. 
The Greek writers sometimes identif}-- Anaitis Avith 
Artemis, and sometimes with Aphrodite. 

Anamari or -res, a Gallic people in the plain of 
the Po, in AA'hose land the Romans founded Pla- 
ccntia. 



4C ANANES. 

Anincs, a (Jnllic jieople, W. of the Trcbia, be- 
tween t!u' Po and the Apennines. 

Ananlufl ('AfoVioj), a Greek iambic poet, con- 
t*mp«»nirv uith Hipponax, about n c. .540.^ 

Anaphe CAvd<pv: 'Afacpalo^: Aruiphi, Nanfio)^ 
A imall island in the S. of the Aegean sea, E. of 
Thern, with a temple of Apollo A egletes, who was 
hence calli'J Amiphtus. ^ 

AnaphlystUS hya<p\vaTos \ 'Avacphvanos : 
Jnar>/su), ;in Attic denuis of the tribe Antiochis 
on the .S. \V. roast of Attica, opposite the island 
Eleussa, called after Anaphlystus, son of Poseidon. 

Anipus ("Avanos). 1. A river in Acarnania, 
flowing into the Achelous. — 2. {Anapo), a river 
in Sicily, flowing into the sea S. of Syracuse 
through the marshes of LysimeUa. 

Anartes or -ti, a people of Dacia, N. of the 
Th<is5. 

Anas ("Afoj; Guadiatia), one of the chief rivers 
of Spjiin, rises in Celtiberia in the mountains near 
Laminiiim, forms the boundary between Lusitania 
and Haeiica, and flows into the ocean by two mouths 
(now only oneV 

Anatoilus. 1. Bishop of Laodicea, a. d. 270, 
an Alexandrian by birth, was the author of several 
mathematical and arithmetical works, of which 
some fragments have been preserved. — 2. An emi- 
nent jurist, was a native of Berytus, and afterwards 
P. P. {jmtrfectus pvadorio) of Illyricum. He died 
A. D. 301. A work on agriculture, often cited in 
the Geoponica, and a treatise concarning Sympathies 
and Anlipni/iies, are assigned by many to this Ana- 
tolius. The latter work, however, was probably 
written by Anatolius the philosopher, who was the 
master of lamblichus, and to whom Porphyry ad- 
dressed Homeric Questions. -^3. Professor of law 
at Berytus, is mentioned by Justinifin among those 
who were employed in compiling the Digest. He 
wrote notes on the Digest, and a xery concise 
commentary on Justinian's Code. Both of these 
works are cited in the Basilica. He perished a. d. 
557, in an earthquake at Byzantium, whither he 
had removed from Berj'tus. 

Anaurus ('Araypoj), a river of Thessaly flowing 
into tlie Pauasaean gulf. 

Anava ("Ai^auo), an ancient, but early decayed, 
city of Great Phrygia, on the salt lake of the same 
name, between Celaenae and Colossae {Hagee 
Ghiuul). 

Anaz ("Aval). 1. A giant, son of Uranus and 
Gaea, and father of Asterius. — 2. An epithet of 
the gods in general, characterising them as the 
rulers of the world ; but the plural forms, "AvoKcy, 
or "AvdKTfs^ or "AvaKis TroTSes, Avere used to desig- 
nate the Dioscuri. 

Anaxagdras Avai,ay6pas\ a celebrated Greek 
philosopher of the Ionian school, was born at Clazo- 
menae in Ionia, B.C. .500. He gave up his property 
to his relations, as he intended to devote his life to 
higher ends, and went to Athens at the age of 20; 
here he remained 30 years, and became the inti- 
mate friend and teacher of the most eminent men 
of the time, such as Euripides and Pericles. His 
doctrines gave oifence to the religious feelings of 
the Athenians; and ihe enemies of Pericles availed 
themselves of this circumstance to accuse him of 
impiety, B.C. 4.50. It was only through the elo- 
quence of Pericles that he was not put" to death ; 
but he was sentenced to pay a fine of 5 talents 
and to quit Athens. He retired to Lampsacus, 
where he died in 42U, at the age of 72. Anaxa- 



ANAXIMANDER. 

goras was dissatisfied with the systems of his pre- 
decessors, the Ionic philosophos. and struck into a 
now path. The Ionic philosophers had endeavoured 
to explain nature and its various phenomena by re- 
garding matter in its different forms and modifica- 
tions as the cause of all things. Anaxagoras, on 
the other hand, conceived the necessity of seeking 
a higher cause, independent of matter, and this 
cause hi' considered to be nous (voOs), tliat is, mind, 
thought, or intelligence. 

Anaxander ('AvalavS/jos), king of Sparta, son 
of Eurycrates, fought in the 2nd Messenian war, 
about B. c. con. 

Anaxandrides Avalavopihr\s). 1. Son of Theo- 
pompue, king of Sparta. — 2. King of Sparta, son 
of Leon, reigned from about B. c. 5G0 to 520. 
Having a barren wife whom he would not divorce, 
the ephors made him take with her a second. By 
her he had Cleomencs ; and after this by his first 
wife Dorieus, Leonidas, and Cleombrotus. — 3, An 
Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy, a na- 
tive of Camirns in Rhodes, began to exhibit come- 
dies in B.C. 376. Aristotle held him in high esteem. 

Anaxarchus ('A</a|apxo^)? ^ philosopher of 
Abdera, of the school of Democritus, accompanied 
Ale.xandcr into Asia (b. c. 334), and gained his 
favour by flattery and wit. After the death of 
Alexander (323), Anaxarchus was thrown by 
shipwreck into the power of Nicocreon, king of 
Cyprus, to whom he had given mortal offence, and 
who had him pounded to death in a stone mortar. 

Anaxarete ('Am|apeTTj), a maiden of Cyprus, 
remained unmoved by the love of Iphis, who at 
last, in despair, hung himself at her door. She 
looked with indifference at the funeral of the 
youth, but Venus changed her into a stone statue. 

Anaxibia ('Afa|igta), daughter of Plisthenes, 
sister of Agamemnon, Avife of Strophius, and mo- 
ther of Pylades. 

Anaxibius ('Aj/a^i'§ios), the Spartan admiral 
stationed at Byzantium on the return of the Cyreau 
Greeks from Asia, b. c. 400. In 389 he succeeded 
Dercyllidas in the command in the Aegaean, but 
fell in a battle against Iphicrates, near Antandrus. 
in 388. 

Anaxidamus ('Avali'Sa/ios), king of Sparta, son 
of Zeuxidamiis, lived to the conclusion of the 2nd 
Messenian war, b. c. 668. 

Anaxilaus (^Ava^iXaos) or Anaxilas ('Aj/o|f- 
Acis). 1. Tyrant of Rhegium, of Messenian origin, 
took possession of Zancle in Sicily about b. c. 
494, peopled it with fresh inhabitants, and changed 
its name into Messene. He died in 476.-2. Of 
Byzantium, surrendered Byzantium to the Athe- 
nians in B.C. 408. — 3. An Athenian comic poet of 
the middle comedy, contemporary with Plato and 
Demosthenes. We have a few fragments, and the 
titles of 19 of his comedies. —4. A physician and 
Pythagorean philosopher, born at Larissa, was 
banished by Augustus from Italy, B. c. 28, on tlie 
charge of magic. 

Anaximander {^Avaliixavhpos), of Miletus, was 
born B. c. 610 and died 547, in his 64th year. He 
was one of the earliest philosophers of the Ionian 
school, and the immediate successor of Thales, its 
first founder. He first used the word a.px>) to 
denote the origin of things, or rather the material 
out of which they were formed: he held that this 
a-pxh was the infinite (rb ^Tretpof), everlasting, 
and divine, though not attributing to it a spiritual 
or intelligent nature; and that it was the sub- 



COINS OF PERSONS. ALEXANDER — ANTIOCH US. 




Alexander Zebina, King of Syria, B.C. 128—122. Page 37. 




Amastris, Queen of Heracleia, ob. b.c. 288. Page 42. 






Antigonus Gonatas, King of Macedonia, e.c. 283- 
Page 64. 



Arayntas II., King of Macedonia, b.c. 393—369. Page 46. 



Antigonus, King of Asia, ob. B.C. 301. Page 54. 




Antiochus III. the Great, King of Syria, B.C. 223—187. 
Page 55. 




Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, King of Syria, B.C. 175—164. 
Page 55. 



ITofacep. 



COINS OF PERSONS. ANTIOCHUS — ANTONINUS. 




Antiochus V. Eupator, Kin? of Syria, B. c. 1C4 — 1G2. 
Page 56. 




Antiochus VI. Theos, King of Syria, b. c. 144 — 142. 
Page 5<5. 




Antiochus VII. Sidetes, King of Srria, B.C. 137—128. 
Page 5G. 




Antiochus YIII. Grypns, King of Syria, B.C. 125 — 96. 
Page 56. 




Antiochu!) IX. Cyzicenus, King of Syria, B.C. 112- 
Page 56. 




Antiochus X. Eusebes, King of Syria, b. c. 0.5. Page 56. 

{Tojnr. p. 40. 




Antiochus XI. Epiphanes, King of Syria. Page 56. 




Antiochus XII. Dionysus, King of Syria. Page 56. 




Antiochus XIII. Asiaticus, King of Syria, b. c. 69 — 65. 
Page 56. 




Antiochus IV., King of Commagene, a. d. 38 — 72. Page 56. 




Antonia Minor, mother of Gennanicus. Page 58. 




Antoninus Pius, Roman Emperor, a. d 



ANAXIMENES. 



ANCYRA. 



49 



Btance into which all things were resolved on tlieir 
dissolution. He was a careful observer of nature, 
and was distinguished by his astronomical, mathe- 
matical, and geographical knowledge : he is said to 
have introduced the use of the Gnomon into Greece. 

Anaximenes ('Ai'a|i/.i6j/7jy). 1. Of Miletus, 
the third in the series of Ionian philosophers, 
flourished about B. c. 544 ; but as he was the 
teacher of Anaxagoras B. c. 480, he must have 
lived to a great age. He considered air to be the 
first cause of all things, the primary form, as it 
were, of matter, into which the other elements of 
the universe were resolvable. — 2. '^f Lampsacus, 
accompanied Alexander tlie Great to Asia (b. c. 
334), and wrote a history of Philip of Macedonia; 
a history of Alexander the Great; and a history of 
Greece in 12 books, from the earliest mythical 
ages down to the death of Epaminondas. He also 
enjoyed great reputation as a rhetorician, and is 
the author of a scientific treatise on rhetoric, the 
'PrfTopiKr] Trphs 'AXe^avSpou, usually printed among 
the works of Aristotle. He was an enemy of 
Theophrastus, and published under the name of 
the latter a work calumniating Sparta, Athens, 
and Thebes, which produced great exasperation 
against Theophrastus. 

Anazarbus or -a (Ava^ap§6'; or -d : 'Ava^ap- 
ffeus, Anazarbenus : Anasarha or Kavcrsa, Ru.), 
a considerable city of Cilicia Campestris, on the 
left bank of the river Pyramus, at the foot of a 
mountain of the same name. Augustus conferred 
upon it the name of Caesarea (ad Anazarbum) ; 
and, on the division of Cilicia into the two pro- 
vinces of Prima and Secunda, it was made the ca- 
pital of the latter. It was almost destroyed hj 
earthquakes in the reigns of Justinian and Justin. 

Aicaeus ('AyKa7os). 1. Son of the Arcadian 
Lycurgus and Creophile or Eurynorae, and father 
of Agapenor. He was one of the Argonauts, and 
took part in the Calydonian hunt, in which he was 
killed by the boar.— 2. Son of Poseidon and Asty- 
palaea or Alta, king of the Leleges in Samos, hus- 
band of Samia, and father of Perilaus, Enodos, 
Samos, Alitherses, and Parthenope. He seems to 
have been confounded by some mythographers 
with Ancaeus, the son of Lycurgus. The son of 
Poseidon is also represented as one of the Argo- 
nauts, and is said to have become the helmsman of 
the ship Argo after the death of Tiphys. A well- 
known proverb is said to have originated with this 
Ancaeus. He had been told by a seer that he 
would not live to taste the wine of his vineyard ; 
and when he was afterwards on the point of drink- 
ing a cup of wine, the growth of his own vineyard, 
he laughed at the seer, who, however, answered, 
TToAAa [MSTa^v kvXikos re Ka\ p^etAewy aKpwy, 
" There is many a slip between the cup and the 
lip." At the same instant Ancaeus was informed 
that a wild boar was near. He put down his cup, 
went out against the animal, and was killed by it. 

Ancalites, a people of Britain, probably a part 
of the Atrebates. 

Q. Ancharius, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 59, 
took an active part in opposing the agrarian law 
of Caesar. He was praetor in 56 ; and succeeded 
L. Piso in the province of Macedonia. 

Anchesmus ('A7xfO'iLtos), a hill not far from 
Athens, with a temple of Zeus, who was hence 
called Anchesmius. 

AncMale and -lus ('A7x«aAr]). 1. (Aklali), a 
town in Thrace on the Black Sea, on the borders 



of Moesia.— 2. Also AncMalos, an ancient city 
of Cilicia, W. of the Cydnus near the coast, said to 
have been built by Sardanapalus. 

Anckises {' Ay x'^aris), son of Capys and Themis, 
the daughter of Ilus, king of Dardanus on Mount 
Ida. In beauty he equalled the immortal gods, 
and was beloved by Aphrodite, by whom he be- 
came the father of Aeneas, who is hence called 
Ancldsiades. The goddess warned him never to 
betra}' the real mother of the child ; but as on one 
occasion he boasted of his intercourse with the 
goddess, he was struck by a flash of lightning, 
which according to some traditions killed, but 
according to others only blinded or lamed him. 
Virgil in his Aeneid makes Anchises survive the 
capture of Troy, and Aeneas carries his father on 
his shoulders from the burning c\ty. He further 
relates that Anchises died soon after the first ar- 
rival of Aeneas in Sicily, and was buried on 
mount Eryx. This tradition seems to have been 
believed in Sicily, for Anchises had a sanctuary at 
Egesta, and the funeral games celebrated in Sicily 
in his honour continued down to a late period. 

Anchisia ('A7xi(rta), a mountain in Arcadia, 
N. W. of Mantinea, where Anchises is said to have 
been buried, according to one tradition. 

Ancon (A^vKoavpwv ^Ajkcov), a harbour and 
town at the mouth of the river Iris {YesJiil-ermark ) 
in Pontus. 

Ancona or Ancon (^Ayx'^v : Anconitanus : An- 
cona)^ a tow. in Picenum on the Adriatic sea, 
lying in a bend of the coast between two promon- 
tories, and hence called Ancon or an "■ elbow." It 
was built by the Syracusans, who settled there about 
B. c. 392, discontented wdth the rule of the elder 
Dionysius ; and under the Romans, who made it a 
colony, it became one of the most important sea- 
ports of the Adriatic. It possessed an excellent 
harbour, completed by Trajan, and it carried on an 
active trade with the opposite coast of Illyricum. 
The town was celebrated for its temple of Venus 
and its purple dye : the surroxmding country pro- 
duced good wine and wheat. 

Ancorarins Mons, a mountain in Mauretania 
Caesariensis, S. of Caesarea, abounding in citron 
trees, the wood of which was used by the Romans 
for furniture. 

Ancore. [Nicaea.] 

Ancus Marcius, fourth king of Rome, reigned 
24 years, B. c. 640 — 616, and is said to have been 
the son of Numa's daughter. He conquered the 
Latins, took many Latin towns, transported the 
inhabitants to Rome, and gave them the Aventine 
to dwell on: these conquered Latins formed the 
original Plebs. He also founded a colony at Ostia, 
at the mouth of the Tiber ; built a fortress on the 
Janiculum as a protection against Etmria, and 
united it with the city by a bridge across the 
Tiber ; dug the ditch of tlie Quirites, which was a 
defence for the open ground between the Caelian 
and the Palatine ; and built a prison. He was 
succeeded by Tarquinius Priscus. 

Ancyra ('AyKvpa : 'Ayicvpavos, Ancyranus). 1. 
{Angora)^ a city of Galatia in Asia Minor, in 
39° 56' N. lat. In the time of Augustus, Avhen 
Galatia became a Roman province, Ancyra was the 
capital : it was originally the chief city of a Gallic 
tribe named the Tectosages, who came fron\ the S. 
of France. Under the Roman empire it had the 
name of Sebaste, which in Greek is equivalent to 
Augusta in Latin. When Augustus recorded the 



60 



ANDANIA. 



ANDROMACHE. 



chief events of his life on bronze tablets at Rome, 
the citizens of Ancyra had a copy made, whicli 
was cut on marble blocks and placed at Ancyra in 
a temple dedicated to Augustus and Rome. This 
inscription is called the Monumcnium Ancwanum. 
The Latin inscription Avas first copied by Tourne- 
fort in 1701, and it has been copied several times 
since. One of the latest copies has been made by 
Mr. Hamilton, who also copied as much of tlie 
Greek inscription as is legible. — 2. A town in 
Phrvgia Epictetus on the borders of Mysia. 

Andania (^hv^avia: 'Ai'Sas'teus, ' Av'5a.vLos)^ a 
town in Messenia, between Megalopolis and Mes- 
sene, the capital of the kings of the race of the 
Lei egos, abandoned by its inhabitants in the se- 
cond Messenian war, and from that time only a 
village. 

Andecavi, Andegavi, or Andes, a Gallic people 
N. of the Loire, witli a toAvn of the same name, 
ais.T called Juliomagus, now A7igers. 

Andematunnum. [Lingones.] 

Andera (ra "hvZeipa 'Avheipriyos), a cit}" of 
Mysia, celebrated for its temple of Cybele sur- 
named *Av'8eipT]V'q. 

Anderitum. (Anteriettx), a town of the Gabali 
in Aquitania. 

Andes. 1. See Andecavi.— 2. (Pietola), a 
village near INIantua, the birth-place of Virgil. 

Andocides {'AvSoKiSrjs), one of the ten Attic 
orators, son of Leogoras, Avas born at Athens in 
B. c. 467. He belonged to a noble family, and 
was a supporter of the oligarchical party at Athens. 
In 436 he was one of the commanders of the fleet 
sent by the Athenians to the assistance of the 
Corcyreans against the Corinthians. In 415 he 
became involved in the charge brought against 
Alcibiades for having profaned the mysteries and 
mutilated the Hermae, and was thrown into prison ; 
but he recovered his liberty by promising to revenl 
the names of the real perpetrators of the crime. He 
is said to have denounced his own father among 
others, but to have rescued him again in the hour 
of danger. But as Andocides was unable to clear 
himself entirely, he was deprived of his rights as 
a citizen, and left Athens. He returned to Athens 
on the establishment of the government of the Four 
Hundred in 411, but was soon obliged to fly again. 
In the following year he ventured once more to 
return to Athens, and it was at this time that he 
delivered the speech still extant, On his Return^ in 
which he petitioned for permission to reside at 
Athens, but in vain. He was thus driven into 
exile a third time, and went to reside at Elis. In 
403 he again returned to Athens upon the over- 
throw of the tyranny of the Thirty by Thrasybulus, 
and the proclamation of the general amnesty. He 
was now allowed to remain quietly at Athens for 
the next 3 years, but in 400 his enemies ac- 
cused him of having profaned the mysteries : he 
defended himself in the oration still extant. On the 
Mi/steries, and was acquitted. In 394 he was sent 
as ambassador to Sparta to conclude a peace, and 
on his return in 393 he was accused of illegal con- 
duct during his embassy {-TvapairpeaSeias) ; he 
defended himself in the extant speech On the 
Peace with Lacedaemon^ but was found guilty, and 
sent into exile for the fourth time. He seems to 
have died soon afterv/ards in exile. Besides the 
three orations already mentioned there is a fourth 
against Alcibiades, said to have been delivered in 
415, but which is in all probability spurious. — 



Editions. In the collections of the Greek orators: 
also separately by Baiter and Sauppe, ZUrich, 1 838. 

Andra,emon ('AfSpatVcoi'). 1. Husband of Gorge, 
daughter of Oeneus king of Calydon, in Actolia, 
whom he succeeded, and father of Thoas. wlio is 
hence called A7idraemomdes.'^2, Son of Oxylus, 
and husband of Drj-ope, who v/as mother of Am- 
phissus by Apollo. 

Andriscus ('AvSpiV/fos), a man of low origin, 
who pretended to bo a natural son of Perseus, king 
of Alacedonia, was seized by Demetrius, king of 
Syria, and sent to Rome. He escaped from Rome, 
assumed the name of Philip, and obtained possession 
of Macedonia, B.C. 149. He defeated the praetor 
Juventius, but Avas conquered by Caecilius Metel- 
lus, and taken to Rome to adorn the triimiph of 
the latter, 148. 

Androeles (AvZpoKXris), an Athenian dema- 
gogue and orator. He Avas an enemy of Alcibiades ; 
and it Avas chiefly owing to his exertions that Al- 
cibiades Avas banished. After this CA'ent, Androeles 
Avas for a time at the head of the democratical 
party ; but in B.C. 411 he Avas put to death by 
the oligarchical government of the Four Hundred. 

Androclus, the slave of a Pioman consular, Avas 
sentenced to be exposed to the Avild beasts in the 
circus ; but a lion which Avas let loose upon him, 
instead of springing upon his victim, exhibited 
signs of recognition, and began licking him. Upon 
inquiry it appeared that Androclus had been com- 
pelled bj' the severity of his master, Avhile in 
Africa, to run aAvay from him. Having one daj- 
taken refuge in a cave from the heat of the sun, a 
lion entered, apparently in great pain, and seeing 
him, Avent up to him and held out his paw, An- 
droclus found that a large thorn had pierced it, 
Avhich he drcAv out, and the lion was soon able to 
use his paw again. They liA'ed together for some 
time in the cave, the lion catering for his benefac- 
tor. But at last, tired of this savage life, Androclus 
left the cave, Avas apprehended by some soldiers, 
brought to Rome, and condemned to the Avild 
beasts. He AA^as pardoned, and presented with the 
lion, Avhich he used to lead about the city. 

Androgeos ('At'Spdyews), son of Minos and 
Pasiphae, or Crete, conquered all his opponents in 
the games of the Panathenaea at Athens. This ex- 
traordinary good luck, hoAvever, became the cause 
of his destruction, though the mode of his death is 
related difPerenth'. According to some accounts 
Aegeus sent the man he dreaded to fight against 
the Marathonian bull, Avho killed him ; according 
to others, he Avas assassinated by his defeated rivals 
on his road to Thebes, Avhither he Avas going to 
take part in a solemn contest. A third account 
related that he Avas assassinated by Aegeus him- 
self. Minos made war on the Athenians in 
consequence of the death of his son, and imposed 
upon them the shameful tribute, from which they 
Avere delivered by Theseus. He A\'as Avorshipped 
in Attica as a hero, and games were celebrated in 
his honour every year in the Ceramicus. {Did. 
of Ant. art. Androgsonia.) 

Andromache ('Avopo,uax7?), daughter of Eetion, 
king of the Cilician Thebes, and one of the noblest 
and most amiable female characters in the Iliad. 
Her father and her 7 brothers Avere slain by 
Achilles at the taking of Thebes, and her mother, 
Avho had purchased her freedom by a large ransom, 
was killed by Artemis. She Avas married to Hector, 
by Avhom she had a son Scamandrius (Astyanax), 



ANDROMACHUS. 



ANICETUS. 



51 



Hud for whom she entertained the most tender 
love. On the taking of Troy her son was hurled 
from the wall of the city, and she herself fell to 
the share of Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus), the son of 
Achilles, who took her to Epirus, and to whom 
she bore 3 sons, Molossus, Pielus, and Pergamus. 
She afterwards married Helenas, a brother of 
Hector, who ruled over Chaonia, a part of Epirus, 
and to whom she bore Cestrinas. After the deatli 
of Helenus, she followed her son Pergamus to Asia, 
where an heroum was erected to her. 

Andromachus (^AvopSixaxos). 1. Ruler of Tau- 
romenium in Sicily about b. c 344, and father of 
the historian Timaeus.--=-2. Of Crete, physician to 
the emperor Nero, A. D. 54 — 68 ; was the first 
person on whom the title of Arcliiater was con- 
ferred, and was celebrated as the inventor of a 
famous compound medicine and antidote called 
Theriaca AndromacM, which retains its place in 
some foreign Pharmacopoeias to the present day. 
Andromachus has left the directions for making 
this mixture in a Greek elegiac poem, consisting of 
174 lines, edited by Tidicaeus, Tiguri, 1607, and 
Leinker, Norimb. 1754. 

Andromeda {'AvSpofxeSri), daughter of the 
Aethiopian king, Cepheus and Cassiopea. Her 
mother boasted that the beauty of her daughter 
surpassed that of the Nereids, who prevailed on 
Poseidon to visit the country by an inundation, and 
XI sea-monster. The oracle of Ammon promised 
deliverance if Andromeda was given up to the 
monster ; and Cepheus, obliged to yield to the 
wishes of his people, chained Andromeda to a rock. 
Here she was found and saved by Perseus, Avho 
slew the monster and obtained her as his wife. 
Andromeda had previously been promised to Phi- 
neus, and this gave rise to the famous fight of 
Phineus and Perseus at the wedding, in which the 
former and all his associates were slain. (Ov. Met. 
v. 1, seq.) After her death, she was placed among 
the stars. 

Andromcus {'AvdpouiKos). 1. Cjnrliestes, so 

called from his native place, Cyrrha, probably lived 
about B. c. 100, and built the octagonal tower 
at Athens, vulgarly called " the tower of the 
winds" (see Did. of Ant. p. 616, 2d ed., where 
a drawing of the building is given). 2. Livius 
Andronicus, the earliest Roman poet, was a 
Greek, probably a native of Tarentum, and the 
slave of M. Livius Salinator, by whom he was 
manumitted, and from whom he received the 
Roman name Livius. He obtained at Rome a 
perfect knowledge of the Latin language. He 
wrote both tragedies and comedies in Latin, and 
we still possess the titles and fragments of at least 
14 of his dramas, all of v/hich were borrowed 
from the Greek : his first drama was acted in b. c. 
240. He also wrote an Odyssey in the Saturnian 
verse and Hymns. (See Duntzer, Livii AndrGnici 
Fragmenta collecta, d^e. Berlin, 1835.) — 3. Of 
Bhodes, a Peripatetic philosopher at Rome, about 
B. c. 58. He published a new edition of the works 
of Aristotle and Theophrastus, which formerly be- 
longed to the library of Apellicon, and which were 
brought to Rome by Sulla with the rest of Apelli- 
con's library in b. c. 84. Tyrannio commenced 
this task, but apparently did not do much, towards 
it. The arrangement which Andronicus made of 
Aristotle's v>Titings seems to be the one which 
forms the basis of our present editions. He wrote 
many commentaries upon the works of Aristotle ; 



but none of these is extant, for the paraphrase of 
the Nicomachean Ethics, which is ascribed to An- 
dronicus of Rhodes, was written b^y some one else, 
and may have been the work of Andronicus Cal- 
listus of Thessalonica, who was professor in Italj-, 
in the latter half of the 15th century. 

Andropolis {'Avdpwv -rroAis: Chabur), a city of 
Lower Egj'^pt, on the W. bank of fche Canopic 
branch of the Nile, was the capital of the Nomos 
Andropolites, and, under the Romans, the station of 
a legion. 

Andros CAvdpos : "Ai^dpLos : Andro), the most 
northerly and one of the largest islands of the Cy- 
clades, S. E. of Euboea, 21 miles long and 8 broad, 
earlj attained importance, and colonized Acanthus 
and Stagira about b. c. 654. It was taken by 
the Persians in their invasion of Greece, was after- 
wards subject to the Athenians, at a later time to 
the Macedonians, and at length to Attains III., 
king of Pergamus, on whose death (b. c. 133) it 
passed with the rest of his dominions to the Ro- 
mans. It was celebrated for its wine, whence the 
whole island was regarded as sacred to Dionysus. 
Its chief town, also called Andros, contained a 
celebrated temple of Dionysus, and a harbour of the 
name of Gaureleon, and a fort Gaurion. 

Androtion ('AvdpoTiwv). 1. An Athenian ora- 
tor, and a contemporary of Demosthenes, against 
whom the latter delivered an oration, which is still 
extant. — - 2. The author of an Atthis, or a Avork 
on the history of Attica. 

Anemorea, afterwards Anemolea {Wuefxcvpeta, 
'Ai/efiwAeia : 'Ai^e^ucopieus), a town on a hill on the 
borders of Phocis and Delphi. 

Anemurium (^Av^uovpLov : A7iamur, Ru.), a 
town and promontory at the S. point of Cilicia, op- 
posite to Cyprus. 

Angerona or Angeroma, a Roman goddess, re- 
specting whom we have different statements, some 
representing her as the goddess of silence, others 
as the goddess of anguish and fear, that is, the god- 
dess who not only produces this state of mind, but 
also relieves men from it. Her statue stood in the 
temple of Volupia, with her mouth bound and 
sealed up. Her festival, Angero7ialia, Avas cele- 
brated 3' early on the 12th of December. 

Ang'ites ('A77tT7js : AfigJdsta), a river in Ma- 
cedonia, flowing into the Strymon. 

Angitia or Anguitia, a goddess worshipped by 
the Marsians and Marrubians, who lived about the 
shores of the lake Fucinus. 

Angli or Anglii, a German people of the race 
of the Suevi, on the left bank of the Elbe, after- 
wards passed over with the Saxons into Britain, 
which was called after them England. [Saxones.] 
A portion of them appear to have settled in An- 
geln in Schleswig. 

.ftjigrivarii, a German people dwelling on both 
sides of the Visurgis (IFeser), separated from the 
Cherusci by an agger or mound of earth. The 
name is usually derived from Angern, that is, mea- 
dows. They were generally on friendly terms 
with the Romans, but rebelled in A. d. 16, and 
were subdued. Towards the end of the first cen- 
tury they extended their territories southwards, 
and in conjunction with the Chamavi, took pos- 
session of part of the territory of the Bnicteri, S. 
and E. of the Lippe, the Angaria or Engern of the 
middle ages. 

Anicetus, a freedman of Nero, and formerly his 
tutor, was employed by the emperor in the execu- 

E 2 



52 



ANICIUS. 



ANTARADUS. 



tion of niany of his crimes: he was afterwards 
banished to Sardinia where he died. 

Anicius Gallus. [Gall us.] 

AnigTUS {"Aviypos : Mavro-Potamo), a small 
river in the Triphylian Elis, the Minyeius (Mi- 
vvr;ios) of Homer (IL xi. 721), rises in M. Lapi- 
thas, and flows into the Ionian sea near Samicinn : 
its waters have a disagreeable smell, and its fish 
are not eatable. Near Samicum was a cave sacred 
to the Nymphs Anigriiles {'AvtypiBss or 'Aviypid- 
5es), where persons with cutaneous diseases were 
cured by the waters of the river. 

Anio, anciently Anien (hence Gen. Anienis : 
Teverone or VAniene), a river, the most celebrated 
of the tributaries of the Tiber, rises in the moun- 
tains of the Hernici near Treba (Trevi), flows first 
N.W. and then S.W. through narrow mountain- 
valleys, receives the brook Digentia {Licenza) 
above Tibur, forms at Tibur beautiful water-falls 
(hence praeceps Anio, Hor. Carm. i. 7. 13), and 
flows, forming the boundary between Latiura and 
the land of the Sabines, into the Tiber, 3 miles 
above Rome, where the town of Antemnae stood. 
The water of the Anio Avas conveyed to Rome by 
two Aqueducts, the A7iio vetus and Anio novus. 
(See Did. of Ant. pp. ] 10, 1 11, 2d ed.) 

Anms (^Avios), son of Apollo by Creiisa, or 
Rhoeo, and priest of Apollo at Delos. By Dryope 
he had three daughters, Oeno, Spermo, and Elais, 
to whom Dionysus gave the power of producing at 
will any quantity of wine, corn, and oil, — whence 
they were called Oenotropae. With these neces- 
saries they are said to have supplied the Greeks 
during the first 9 years of the Trojan war. After 
the fall of Troy, Aeneas was kindly received by 
Anius. 

Anna, daughter of Belus and sister of Dido. 
After the death of the latter, she fled from Carthage 
to Italy, where she was kindly received b}' Aeneas. 
Here she excited the jealousy of Lavinia, and 
being warned in a dream by Dido, she fled and 
threw herself into the river Numicius. Henceforth 
she was worshipped as the nymph of that river 
under the name of Anna Perenna. There are 
various other stories respecting the origin of her 
worship. Ovid relates that she was considered by 
some as Luna, by others as Themis, by others as 
Jo, daughter of Inachus, by others as the Anna of 
Bovillae, who supplied the plebs with food, when 
they seceded to the Mons Sacer. (Ov. Fast. iii. 
523.) Her festival was celebrated on the 15th of 
March. She was in reality an old Italian divinity, 
who was regarded as the giver of life, health, and 
plenty, as the goddess whose powers were most 
manifest at the return of spring when her festival 
was celebrated. The identification of this goddess 
with Anna, the sister of Dido, is undoubtedly of 
late origin. 

Anna Comnena, daughter of Alexis I. Comne- 
nus (reigned a. d. lOol — 1118), wrote the life of 
her father Al >xis in 15 books, which is one of the 
most interesting and valuable histories of the By- 
zantine literature. — Editions. By Possinus, Paris, 
1651 ; by Schopen, Bonn, 1839. 

Annalis, a coornonien of the Villia Gens, first 
acquired by L. Villius, tribune of the plebs, in 
B.C. 179, because he introduced a law fixing the 
3^ear {annus) at which it was lawful for a person 
to be a candidate for each of the public offices. 

M. Anneius, legate of M. Cicero during his 
government of Cilicia, b. c. 51. 



T. Annianus, a Roman poet, lived in the time 
of Trajan and Hadrian, and wrote Fescennine 
verses. 

Anniceris {'AvviKepis), a Cyrenaic philosopher, 
of whom the ancients have left us contradictory 
accounts. Many modern writers have supposed 
that there were two philosophers of this name, the 
one contemporary with Plato, whom he is said to 
have ransomed for 20 minae from Dionysius of 
Syracuse, and the other with Alexander the Great. 

Annius Cimber. [Cimber.] 

Annius Iililo. [Milo.] 

Anser, a poet of the Augustan age, a friend of 
the triumvir M. Antonius, and one of the detractors 
of Virgil. Hence Virgil plays upon his nam.e (Ed. 
ix. '.)6). Ovid {Trist. ii. 435) calls him procax. 

Ansibarii or Ampsivarii, a German people, 
originallj- dwelt S. of the Bructeri, between the 
sources of the Ems and the Weser: driven out of 
their country by the Chauci in the reign of Nero 
(a. d. 59), thev asked the Romans for permission 
to settle in the Roman territory between the Rhine 
and the Yssel, but when their request was refused 
they wandered into the interior of the country to 
the Cherusci, and were at length extirpated, accord- 
ing to Tacitus. We find their name, however, 
among the Franks in the time of Julian. 

Antaeopolis {'Avraiowokis : nr. Gau-el-KeUr), 
an ancient city of Upper Egypt (the Thebais), on 
the E. side of the Nile, but at some distance from 
the river, was the capital of the Nomos Antaeopo- 
lites, and one of the chief seats of the worship of 
Osiris. 

Antaeus (^Avraios), son of Poseidon and Ge, a 
mighty giant and wrestler in Libya, whose strength 
was invincible so long as he remained in contact 
with his mother earth. The strangers who came 
to his country were compelled to wrestle with him ; 
the conquered were slain, and out of their skulls he 
built a house to Poseidon. Hercules discovered 
the source of his strength, lifted him from the earth, 
and crushed him in the air. The tomb of Antaeus 
{Antaei coUis), which formed a moderate hill in 
the shape of a man stretched out at full length, 
was shown near the town of Tingis in Mauretania 
down to a late period. 

Antagoras {'Avrayopas), of Rhodes, flourished 
about B. c. 270, a friend of Antigonus Gonatas 
and a contemporaiy of Aratus. He wrote an epic 
poem entitled Tliehais, and also epigrams of Avhich 
specimens are still extant. 

Antalcidas ( AvraXidZas), a Spartan, son of 
Leon, is chiefly known by the celebrated treaty 
concluded with Persia in B. c. 387, usually called 
the peace of Antalcidas, since it was the fruit of 
his diplomacy. According to this treaty all the 
Greek cities in Asia Minor, together with Clazo- 
menae and Cyprus, were to belong to the Persian 
king: the Athenians were allowed to retain only 
Lcmnos, Imbros, and Scyros ; and all tlie other 
Greek cities were to be independent. 

Antander ("AvravSpos), brother of Agathocles, 
king of Syracuse, wrote the life of his brother. 

Antandrus ("Ai/Taj/Spos : 'Avrdv^pios: Antau' 
dro), a city of Great Mysia, on the Adramyttian 
Gulf, at the foot of Mount Ida ; an Aeolian colony. 
Virgil represents Aeneas as touching here after 
leaving Troy {Aen. iii. 106). 

Antaradus ('AfrapaSos : Tortosa)^ a town on 
the N. border of Phoenicia, opposue the island of 
Arudus. 



ANTEA. 



ANTIGONEA. 



53 



Autea or Antia ("AyTeia), daugliter of the Ly- 
cian king lobates, wife of Proetus of Argos. She 
is also called Stheneboea. Respecting her love for 
Bellerophontes, see Bellerophontks. 

Antenmae ( Antemnas, -atis), an ancient Sabine 
town at the junction of the Anio and the Tiber, 
destroyed by the Romans in the earliest times. 

Antenor ('AvT-rjfap). 1. A Trojan, son of Ae- 
syetes and Cleomestra, and husband of Theano. 
According to Homer, he was one of the wisest 
among the elders at Troy : he received Menelaus 
and Ulysses into his house when they came to 
Troy as ambassadors, and advised his fellow-citizens 
to restore Helen to Menelaus. Thus he is repre- 
sented as a traitor to his country, and when sent to 
Agamemnon, just before the taking of Troy, to 
negotiate peace, he concerted a plan of delivering 
the city, and even the palladium, into the hands of 
the Greeks. On the capture of Troy Antenor was 
spared by the Greeks. His history after this event 
is related differently. Some Avriters relate that he 
founded a new kingdom at Troy ; according to 
others, he embarked with Menelaus and Helen, 
was carried to Libya, and settled at Cyrene ; while 
a third account states that he went with the Heneti 
to Thrace, and thence to the Avestern coast of the 
Adriatic, where the foundation of Patavium and 
several tov/ns is ascribed to him. The sons and 
descendants of Antenor Avere called Antenondae. 
•—2. Son of Euphranor, an Atlienian sculptor, 
made the first bronze statues of Harraodius and 
Aristogiton, which the Athenians set up in the 
Ceramicus, B. c. 509. These statues were carried 
off to Susa by Xerxes, and their place was supplied 
by others made either by Callias or by Praxiteles. 
After the conquest of Persia, Alexander the Great 
sent the statues back to Athens, where they were 
again set up in the Ceramicus. 

Anteros. [Eros.] 

Antevorta, also called Porrima or Prorsa, to- 
gether with Postvorta, are described either as the 
two sisters or companions of the Roman goddess 
Carmenta ; but originally they were only two at- 
tributes of the one goddess Carmenta, the former 
describing her knowledge of the future, and the 
latter that of the past, analogous to the two-headed 
Janus. 

Anthedon {^AvdrjSui^ : 'AvOrjdovios : Lukisi ?), 
a town of Boeotia with a harbour, on the coast of 
the Euboean sea, at the foot of M. Messapius, said 
to have deri^-ed its name from a nymph Anthedon, 
or from Anthedon, son of Glaucus, who was here 
changed into a god. (Ov. Met. vii. 232, xiii. 905.) 
The inhabitants chiefly lived by fishing. 

Anthemius, emperor of the West, a. d. 467 — 
472, was killed on the capture of Rome by Ricimer, 
who made Olybrius emperor. 

Anthemus (^AvQ^i^ovs -ovvtos • ^AvOefio^iaios), 
a Macedonian town in Chalcidice. 

Anthemusia or Antliemus ('A;'C'€jiiou(n'a), a 
city of Mesopotamia, S.W. of Edessa, and a little 
E. of the Euphrates. The surrounding district 
was called by the same name, but was generally 
included under the name of Osrhoene. 

Anthene ('AvOrjvr]), a place in Cynuria, in the 
Peloponnesus. 

Anthylla ("AfSi'AAa), a considerable city of 
Lower Egj'pt, near the mouth of the Canopic branch 
of the Nile, below Naucratis, the revenues of which, 
under the Persians, were assigned to the Avife of 
the satrap of Egypt, to provide her with shoes. 



Antlas, Q. Valerius, a Roman historian, flou- 
rished about B. c. 80, and Avrote the history of Rome 
from the earliest times doAvn to those of Sulla. He 
is frequently referred to by Livy, Avho speaks of 
him as the most lying of all the annalists, and sel- 
dom mentions his name without terms of reproach : 
there can be little doubt that Liv3-'s judgm.ent is 
correct. 

Anticlea {'AvTiKXeia), daughter of Autolycus, 
wife of Laertes, and mother of Ulysses, died of 
grief at the long absence of her son. It is said 
that before marrying Laertes, she lived on intimate 
terms Avith Sisyphus ; Avhence Euripides calls 
Ulysses a son of Sisyphus. 

Anticlides ('A^/TjKAei'Srjs), of Athens, lived after 
the time of Alexander the Great, and w^as the 
author of several Avorks, the most important of 
Avhich Avas entitled Nosti (NodToi), containing an 
account of the return of the Greeks from their mj-- 
thical expeditions. 

Anticyra, more anciently Anticirrha ('Avt'i- 
Ki^pa, or 'AvTucvpa : 'AvriKvpevs, ' AvriKvpcuos). 
1. (Aspra Spitia), a toAvn in Phocis, Avith a harbour 
on a peninsula on the W. side of the Sinus Anticy- 
ranus, a bay of the Crissaean gulf, called in ancient 
times Cyparissus. It continued to be a place of 
importance under the Romans.— 2. A toAA'u in 
Thessaly, on the Spercheus, net far from its mouth. 
Both towns were celebrated for their hellebore, the 
chief remedy in antiquity for madness : hence the 
proverb, 'AuriKippas <r€ Set, Avhen a person acted 
senselessl}', and ISfaviget Anticyram. (Hor. Sat. ii. 
3. 166.) ^ 

Antlgenes (^Avnyivris), a general of Alexander 
the Great, on Avhose death he obtained the satrapy 
of Susiana, and espoused the side of Eumenes. On 
the defeat of the latter in B. c. 316, Antigenes fell 
into the hands of his enemy Antigonus, and was 
burnt aliA'e by him. 

Antigenidas ('A//Ti7ei'i5as), a Theban, a cele- 
brated flute-player, and a poet, lived in the time of 
Alexander the Great. 

Antigone (^AvTiyovri)^ daughter of Oedipus by 
his mother .Jocaste, and sister of Ismene, and of 
Eteocles and Polynices. In the tragic story of 
Oedipus Antigone appears as a noble maiden, Avith 
a truly heroic attachment to her father and brothers. 
When Oedipus had blinded himself, and was ob- 
liged to quit Thebes, he Avas accompanied by An- 
tigone, who remained Avith him till he died in Co- 
lonus, and then returned to Thebes. After her 
tAvo brothers had killed each other in battle, and 
Creon, the king of Thebes, would not allow Poly- 
nices to be buried, Antigone alone defied the ty- 
rant, and buried the body of her brother. Creon 
thereupon ordered her to be shut up in a subterra- 
neous cave, where she killed herself. Haemon, 
the son of Creon, Avho Avas in love Avith her, killed 
himself by her side. 

Antigonea and -ia ('Avrr/oVeia, ^Avnyovla). 
1. {Tepeleni), a toAvn in Epirus (Illyricum), at the 
junction of a tributary with the Aous, and near a 
narroAV pass of the Acroceraunian mountains. — 2. 
A Macedonian toAvn in Chalcidice.— 3. See Man- 
tinea.— 4. A toAvn on the Orontes in Syria, 
founded by Antigonus as the capital of his empire 
(b. c. 306), but most of its inhabitants Avere trans- 
ferred by Seleucus to Antiochia, which was built 
in its neighbourhood.— 5. A town in Bithynia, 
afterwards Nicaea. — 6. A town in the Troas. 
[Alexandria, No. 2.J 

B 3 



54 



ANTIGONUS. 



ANTIOCHIA. 



Antlgonus ('Avriyovos). 1. Kinj^ of AsiA, 
gumamed the Hno-ej-ed, son of Philip of Elymiotis, 
and fathi;! of Demetrius Poliorcctcs by Stra- 
tonlce. He was one of the genemls of Alexander 
the Great, and in the division of the empire after 
the death of the latter (b. c. 323), he received the 
provinces of the Greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pam- 
phylia. On the death of the regent Antipater in 
319, he aspired to the sovereignty of Asia. In 
316 he defeated and put Eumencs to death, after 
a struggle of nearly 3 years. From 315 to 311 
he carried on war, with varying success, against 
Seleucus, Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus. 
By the peace made in 311, Antigonus was allowed 
to have the government of all Asia ; but peace did 
not last more than a year. After the defeat of 
Ptolemy's fleet in 306, Antigonus assumed the title 
of king, and his example was followed by Ptolemy, 
Lysimachus, and Seleucus. In the same year 
Antigonus invaded Egj-pt, but was compelled to 
retreat. His son Demetrius carried on the war with 
success against Cassander in Greece ; but he Avas 
compelled to return to Asia to the assistance of his 
father, against whom Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, 
and Lysimachus, had formed a fresh confederacy. 
Antigonus and Demetrius were defeated by Lysi- 
machus at the decisive battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in 
301. Antigonus fell in the battle in the 81st 3-ear 
of his age. — 2. Gonatas, son of Demetrius Po- 
liorcetes, and grandson of the preceding. He as- 
sumed the title of king of Macedonia after his father's 
death in Asia in b. c. 283, but he did not obtain 
possession of the throne till 277. Pie was driven 
out of his kingdom by Pyrrhus of Epirus in 273, but 
recovered it in the following year : he was again 
expelled by Alexander, the son of Pyrrhus, and 
again recovered his dominions. He attempted to 
prevent the formation of the Achaean league, and 
died in 239. He was succeeded by Demetrius 11. 
His surname Gonatas is usually derived from Gon- 
nos or Gonni in Thessaly ; but some think that 
Gonatas is a IMacedonian word, signifying an iron 
plate protecting the knee. — 3. Doson (so called 
because he was always about to give but never 
did), son of Demetrius of Cyrene, and grandson of 
Demetrius Poliorcetes. On the death of Deme- 
trius II. in B. c. 229, he was left guardian of his 
son Philip, but he married the widow of Demetrius, 
and became king of INIacedonia himself. He sup- 
ported Aratus and the Acliaean league against 
Cleomenes, king of Sparta, whom he defeated at 
Sellasia in 221, and took Sparta. On his return 
to Macedonia, he defeated the lUyrians, and died a 
few days afterwards, 220.— » 4. King of Judaea, 
son of Aristobulus II., was placed on the throne by 
the Parthians in B. c. 40, but was taken prisoner 
by Sosius, the lieutenant of Antony, and was put 
to death by the latter in 37. —-5. Of Carystus, 
lived at Alexandria about b. c. 250, and wrote 
a work still extant, entitled Historiue Mirabiles, 
which is only of value from its preserving extracts 
from other and better works. — Ediiions. By J. 
Beckmann, Lips. 1791, and by Westermann in 
liis Purci'loaographi, Bruns. 1839. 

AntDibanus {'AuTi\'i§avos : Jebel-es-SIieikh or 
Anti-Lebanon), a mountain on the confines of Pa- 
lestine, Phoenicia, and Syria, parallel to Libanus 
(Lebanon), which it exceeds in height. Its highest 
summit is ^l. Hermon (also Jebel-cs-Slieikh). 

Antiloclius ('AirfAoxos), son of Nestor and 
Anaxibia or Eur\'dice, accompanied his father to 



Troj', and distinguished himself by his bravery 
He was slain before Troy In* Memnon the Ethio- 
pian, and was buried by the side of his friends 
Achilles and Patroclus. 

Antimaclius (^^Kvrlixaxo':). 1. A Trojan, per- 
suaded his countrymen not to surrender Helen to 
the Greeks. He had three sons, two of whom 
were put to death by Menelaus. — 2. Of Claros or 
Colophon, a Greek epic and elegiac poet, was 
probably a native of Claros, but was called a Co- 
lophonian, because Claros belonged to Colophon. 
{Clarius ■pacta, Ov. Trist. i. 6. 1.) He flourished 
towards the end of the Peloponnesian war ; his 
chief w^ork was an epic poem of great length called 
Thebais (QriSais). Antimachus was one of tlie 
forerunners of the poets of the Alexandrine school, 
who wrote more for the learned than for the public 
at large. The Alexandrine grammarians assigned 
to him the second place among the epic poets, and 
the emperor Hadrian preferred his works even to 
those of Homer. He also wrote a celebrated ele- 
giac poem called Lt/de, which was the name of his 
wife or mistress, as well as other works. There 
was likewise a tradition that he made a recension 
of the text of the Homeric poems. 

Antinoopolis {'Autipoov ttoKis or 'Avnvoeia : 
Enseneh, Ru.), a splendid city, built by Hadrian, 
in memory of his favourite Axtinous, on the E. 
bank of the Nile, upon the site of the ancient Bcsn, 
in Middle Egypt (Heptanomis). It was the capi- 
tal of the Nomos Antino'ites, and had an oracle of 
the goddess Besa. 

iiiitinous i^Avrivoos). 1. Son of Eupithes of 
Ithaca, and one of the suitors of Penelope, vvas 
slain by Ulysses. -—2. A youth of extraordinary 
beauty, born at Claudiopolis in Bithynia, was the 
favourite of the emperor Hadrian, and his com- 
panion in all his journeys. He was drowned in 
the Nile, a. d. 122, whether accidentally or on 
purpose, is uncertain. The grief of the emperor 
knew no bounds. He enrolled Antinous amongst 
the gods, caused a temple to be erected to him at 
Mantinea, and founded the city of Antinoopolis 
in honour of him. A large number of works of art 
of all kinds were executed in his honour, and many 
of them are still extant. 

AntiocMa and -ea {^Avriox^io. : 'Kvtiox,^vs . 
and -6x^i'0s, fem. 'Aj/tjoxi's and ■ ©X'O'o'a, Antioche- 
nus), the name of several cities of Asia, 16 of 
which are said to have been built by Seleucus I. 
Nicator, and named in honour of his father An- 
tiochus. 1. A. Epidaphues, or ad Daphnem, or 
ad Orontem ('A. eVI £^a(pv^ : so called from a 
neighbouring grove: 'A. iid ^OpouTrj : Antakia, 
Ru.), the capital of the Greek kingdom of Sj-ria, 
and long the chief city of Asia and perhaps of the 
world, stood on the left bank of the Orontes, about 
20 miles (geog.) from the sea, in a beautiful valley, 
about 10 miles long and 5 or 6 broad, enclosed by 
the ranges of Amanus on the N.W. and Casius o^ 
the S.E. It was built by Seleucus Nicator, abou' 
B. c. 300, and peopled chiefly from the neighbour 
ing city of Antigonia. It flourished so rapidly 
as soon to need enlargement ; and other addition 
were again made to it by Seleucus II. Callinicus 
(about B. c. 240), and Antiochus IV. Epiphane 
(about B. c. 170). Hence it obtained the name o 
Tetrapolis {r^TpaTzSKis, i.e. 4 cities). Beside 
being the capital of the greatest kingdom of th 
world, it had a considerable commerce, the Oront 
being navigable up to the city, and the high road b 



ANTIOCHUS. 

tvvcen Asia and Europe passing through it. Under 
the Romans it was the residence of the procon- 
suls of Syria ; it was favoured and visited hj 
emperors ; and was made a colonia with the Jus 
Italicum by Antoninus Pius. It was one of the 
earliest strongholds of the Christian faith ; the first 
place where the Christian name was used (Acts, 
xi. 26) ; the centre of missionary efforts in the 
Apostolic age ; and the see of one of the four chief 
bishops, who were called Patriarchs. Though far 
inferior to Alexandria as a seat of learning, yet it 
derived some distinction in this respect from the 
teaching of Libanius and other sophists ; and its 
eminence in art is attested by the beautiful gems 
and medals still found among its ruins. It was 
destroyed by the Persian king Chosroes (a. d. 540), 
but rebuilt by Justinian, who gave it the new name 
of Theupolis (OeoviroAis). The ancient walls 
w-hich still surround the insignificant modern town 
are probably those built by Justinian. The name 
of Antiochia was also given to the surrounding 
district, i. e. the N.W. part of Syria, which bor- 
dered upon Cilicia. — 2. A. ad Maeandrum ('A. 
vphs Ma'iaudpco : nr. Yenislielir^ Ru.), a city of 
Caria, on the Maeander, built by Antiochus I. 
Soter on the site of the old city of Pythopolis. — 
3. A. Pisidiae or ad Pisidiam ('A. UKTiZias or 
irphs Uia-io'ia), a considerable city on the borders of 
Phrygia Paroreios and Pisidia ; built by colonists 
from Magnesia ; declared a free city by the Ro- 
mans aftor their victory over Antiochus the Great 
(B.C. 189) ; made a colony under Augustus, and 
called Caesarea. It was celebrated for the wor- 
ship and the great temple of Men Ai'caeus (MV 
'ApKa7os, the Phrygian j\Ioon-god), which the 
Romans suppressed. — 4. A. Margiana (A. Map- 
yiavT] : Meru Shah-Jehan ?), a city in the Persian 
province of Margiana, on the river jNIargus, founded 
by Alexander, and at first called Alexandria ; de- 
stroyed by the bra-barians, rebuilt by Antiochus I. 
Soter, and called Antiochia. It was beautifully 
situated, and was surrounded by a wall 70 stadia 
(about 8 miles) in circuit. Among the less im- 
portant cities of the name were : (6. ) A. ad Tan- 
rum in Commagene ; (6.) A. ad Cragum, and 
(7.) A. ad Pyramum, in Cilicia. The following 
Antiochs are better known by other names : A. ad 
Sarum [Adana] ; A. Ckaracenes [Charax] ; 
A. Callirrhoe [Edessa] ; A. ad Ilippum [Ga- 
dara] ; A. Mygdoniae [Nisibis] ; in Cilicia 
[Tarsus] ; in Caria or Lydia [Tralles]. 

AntlOClms {'Avtloxos). I. Kings of Syria. 

1. Soter (reigned b. c. 280 — 261), was the 
son of Seleucus I., the founder of the Syrian king- 
dom of the Seleucidae. He married his step- 
mother Stratonice, with Avhom he fell violently in 
love, and whom his father surrendered to him. He 
fell in battle against the Gauls in 261. — 2. Tlieos 
(b. c. 261 — 246), son and successor of No. 1. The 
Milesians gave him his surname of Tlieos^ because 
he delivered them from their tyrant, Timarchus. 
He carried on war with Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
king of Egypt, v/hich was brought to a close by 
his putting away his wife Laodice, and marrying 
Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy. After the death 
of Ptolemy, he recalled Laodice, but in revenge for 
the insult she had received, she caused Antiochus 
and Berenice to be murdered. During the reign of 
Antiochus, Arsaces founded the Parthian empire 
(250), and Theodotus established an independent 
kingdom at Bactria. He v/as succeeded by his 



ANTIOCHUS. 55 

son Seleucus Callinicus. His younger son Antiochus 
Hierax also assumed the crown, and carried on 
war some years with his brother. [Seleucus II.] 
= 3. The Great (b. c. 223 — 187), second son 
of Seleucus Callinicus, succeeded to the throne on 
the death of his brother Seleucus Ceraunus, when 
he was only in his 15th year. After defeating 
(220) Melon, satrap of Media, and his brother Alex- 
ander, satrap of Persis, who had attempted to make 
themselves independent, he carried on war against 
Ptolemy Philopator, king of Egypt, in order to 
obtain Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, but 
was obliged to cede these provinces to Ptolemy, in 
consequence of his defeat at the battle of Raphia 
near Gaza, in 217. He next marched against 
Achaeus, who had revolted in Asia Minor, and 
whom he put to death, when he fell into his hands 
in 214. [Achaeus.] Shortly after this he was 
engaged for 7 years (212 — 205) in an attempt 
to regain the E. provinces of Asia, which had 
revolted during the reign of Antiochus 11. ; but 
though he met with great success, he found it 
hopeless to effect the subjugation of the Parthian 
and Bactrian kingdoms, and accordingly concluded 
a peace with them. In 205 he renewed his war 
against Egypt with more success, and in 198 con- 
quered Palestine and Coele-Syria, which he after- 
wards gave as a dowry with his daughter Cleopatra 
upon her marriage with Ptolemy Epiphanes. In 
196 he crossed over into Europe, and took posses- 
sion of the Thracian Chersonese.' This brought 
him into contact with the Romans, who commanded 
him to restore the Chersonese to the Macedonian 
king ; but he refused to comply with their demand ; 
in which resolution he was strengthened by Han- 
nibal, who arrived at his court in 1 95. Hannibal 
urged him to invade Italy v/ithout loss of time ; 
but Antiochus did not follow his advice, and it 
was not till 1S2, that he crossed over into Greece. 
In 191 he was defeated by the Romans at Ther- 
mopylae, and compelled to return to Asia : his fleet 
was also vanquished in two engagements. In 190 
he was again defeated by the Romans under L. 
Scipio, at Mount Sipylus, near Magnesia, and 
compelled to sue for peace, Avhich was granted in 
188, on condition of his ceding all his dominions 
E. of Mount Taurus, paying 15,000 Euboic 
talents within 12 years, giving up his elephants 
and ships of war, and surrendering the Roman 
enemies ; but he allowed Hannibal to escape. In 
order to raise the money to pay the Romans, he 
attacked a wealthy temple in Elj^mais, but was 
killed by the people of the place (187). He was 
succeeded by his son Seleucus Philopator. -= 4. 
Epiphanes (b.c. 175 — 164), son of Antiochus III., 
was given as a hostage to the Romans in 188, 
and was released from captivity in 175 through 
his brother Seleucus Philopator, whom he suc- 
ceeded in the same year. He carried on war 
against Egypt from 171 — 168 with great success, 
in order to obtain Coele-Syria and Palestine, which 
had been given as a dov/ry with his sister, and he 
was preparing to lay siege to Alexandria iii 168, 
when the Romans compelled him to retire. He 
endeavoured to root out the Jewish religion and to 
introduce the worship of the Greek divinities ; but 
this attempt led to a rising of the Jewish people, 
under j\Iattathias and his heroic sons the Macca- 
bees, Avhich Antiochus was unable to put down. 
He attempted to plunder a temple in Elymais in 164, 
but he was repulsed, and died shortly afterwards 

E 4 



56 



ANTIOCHUS. 



in a state of raving madness, whicli the Jews and 
Greeks equally attributed to his sacrilegious crimes. 
His subjects gave him the name oiEpimanes (" the 
madman") in parody of Epiphanes.-^b. Eupa- 
tor (B.C, 164 — 162), son and successor of Epi- 
phanes, was 9 years old at his father's death, and 
reigned under the guardianship of Lysias. He 
was dethroned and put to death by Demetrius 
Soter, the con of Seleucus Philopator, who had 
hitherto lived at Rome as a hostage. — 6. Theos, 
son of Alexander Balas. He was brought forward 
as a claimant to the crown in 144, against Deme- 
trius Nicator by Tryphon, but he was murdered by 
the latter, who ascended the throne himself in 142. 

— 7. Sidetes (b. c. 137 — 128), so called from 
Side in Pamphylia, where he was brought up, 
younger son of Demetrius Soter, succeeded Try- 
phon. He married Cleopatra, wife of his elder 
brotlier Demetrius Nicator, who was a prisoner 
with the Parthians. He carried on war against 
the Parthians, at first with success, but was after- 
wards defeated and slain in battle in 128. — 8. 
Grypus, or Hook-nosed (b. c. 125 — 96), second 
son of Demetrius Nicator and Cleopatra. He was 
placed upon the throne in 125 by his mother Cleo- 
patra, who put to death his eldest brother Seleu- 
cus, because she wished to have the power in 
her own hands. He poisoned his mother in 
120, and subsequently carried on war for some 
years with his half-brother A. IX. Cyzicenr.s. 
At length, in 112, the two brothers agreed to share 
the kingdom between them, A. Cyzicenus having 
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, and A. Grypus the re- 
mainder of the provinces. Grypus was assassinated 
in 96.-9. Cyzicenus, from Cyzicus, where he 
was brought up, son of A. VII. Sidetes and Cleo- 
patra, reigned over Coele-Syria and Phoenicia from 
112 to 96, but fell in battle in 95 against Seleucus 
Epiphanes, son of A. VIIT. Grypus. — 10. Euse- 
bes, son of A. IX. Cyzicenus, defeated Seleucus 
Epiphanes, who had slain his father in battle, and 
maintained the throne against the brothers of Se- 
leucus. He succeeded his father Antiochus IX. 
in 95.-11, Epiphanes, son of A. VIII. Gry- 
pus and brother of Seleucus Epiphanes, carried on 
war against A. X. Eusebes, but was defeated by 
the latter, and drowned in the river Orontes. 

— 12. Dionysus, brother of No. 11, held the 
crown for a short time, but fell in battle against 
Aretas, king of the Arabians. The Syrians, worn 
out with the civil broils of the Seleucidae, offered 
the kingdom to Tigranes, king of Armenia, who 
united Syria to his own dominions in 83, and held 
it till his defeat by the Romans in 69.-13. 
Asiaticus, son of A. X. Eusebes, became king 
of Syria on the defeat of Tigranes by Lucullus in 
69 ; but he was deprived of it in 65 by Pompey, 
who reduced Syria to a Roman province. In this 
year the Seleucidae ceased to reign. 

II. Kings of Commagene. 
1. Made an alliance with the Romans, about 
B. c. 64. He assisted Pompey with troops in 49, 
and was attacked by Antony in 38. He was 
succeeded by -Nlithridates 1. about 31. — 2. Suc- 
ceeded Mithridates I., and was put to death at 
Rome by Augustus in 29. — 3. Succeeded Mith- 
ridates il., and died in a. d. 17. Upon his death, 
Commagene became a Roman province, and 
remained so till a. d. 38.-4. Surnamed Epi- 
phanes, apparently a son of Antiochus III., 



ANTI PATER, 
received his paternal dominion from Caligula in 

A, D. 38. He was subsequently deposed by Cali- 
gula, but regained his kingdom on the accession 
of Claudius in 41. He was a faithful ally of 
the Romans, and assisted them in their wars 
against the Parthians under Nero, and against the 
Jews under Vespasian. At length in 72, he was 
accused of conspiring with the Parthians against 
the Romans, was deprived of his kingdom, and 
retired to Rome, where he passed the remainder of 
his life. 

III. Literary. 

1. OfAegaein Cilicia, a sophist, or,a3 he himself 
I pretended to be, a Cynic philosopher. He flourished 
I about A. D. 200, during the reign of Severus and 
Caracalla. During the war of Caracalla against the 
j Parthians, he deserted to the Parthians together 
j with Tiridates. He was one of the most distin- 
■ guished rhetoricians of his time, and also acquired 
some reputation as a writer. — 2. Of Ascalon, the 
i founder of the fifth Academy, was a friend of Lu- 
I cuilus and the teacher of Cicero during his studies 
j at Athens (b. c. 79) ; but he had a school at Alex- 
andria also, as well as in Syria, where he seems to 
have ended his life. His principal teacher was 
Philo, who succeeded Plato. Arcesilas, and Car- 
neades, as the founder of the fourth Academy. He 
is, however, better known as the adversary than 
the disciple of Philo ; and Cicero mentions a trea- 
j tise called Sosiis, written by him against his master, 
! in which he refutes the scepticism of the Academics. 
— 3. Of Syracuse, a Greek historian, lived about 

B. c. 423, and wrote histories of Sicily and Italy. 
Antiope CAvtiSttt}). 1. Daughter of Nycteus 

and Pclyxo. or of the river god Asopus in Boeotia, 
became by Zeus the mother of Amphion and Ze- 
thus. [A.AiPHiox.] Dionysus threw her into a 
state cf madness on account of the vengeance whicli 
her sons had taken on Dirce. In this condition 
s'ne wandered through Greece, until Phocus, the 
grandson of Sisyphus, cured and married her. — 
2. An Amazon, sister of Hippolyte, wife of The- 
seus, and mother of Hippolytus. 

Antipater CAvTLiraTpos). 1. The Macedonian, 
an officer greatly trusted by Philip and Alexander 
the Great, was left by the latter regent in Mace- 
donia, when he crossed over into Asia in b. c. 334. 
In consequence of dissensions between Olympias 
and Antipater, the latter was summoned to Asia in 
324, and Craterus appointed to the regency of Ma- 
cedonia, but the death of Alexander in the follow- 
ing year prevented these arrangements from taking 
effect. Antipater now obtained Macedonia again, 
and in conjunction with Craterus, who was asso- 
ciated with him in the government, carried on war 
against the Greeks, who endeavoured to establish 
their independence. This war, usually called the 
Lamian war, from Lamia, where Antipater was be- 
sieged in 323, was terminated by Antipater's vic- 
tory over the confederates at Crannon in 322. 
This was follov/ed by the submission of Athens and 
the death of Demosthenes. In 321 Antipater 
crossed over into Asia in order to oppose Perdiccas ; 
but the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt put an end 
to this war, and left Antipater supreme regent. 
Antipater died in 319, after appointing Polysper- 
chon regent, and his own son Cassander, to a 
subordinate position. — 2. Giandson of the pre- 
ceding, and second son of Cassander and Thessalo- 
mca. After the death of his elder brother Philip 



ANTIPATER. 



ANTISTHENES. 



57 



IV. (b.. 0. 295), great dissensions ensued between 
Antipater and his younger brother Alexander, for 
the kingdom of Macedonia. Antipater, believing 
that Alexander was favoured by his mother, put 
her to death. The younger brother upon this ap- 
plied for aid at once to Pyrrhus of Epirus and 
Demetrius Poliorcetes. The remaining history is 
related differently : but so much is certain, that 
both Antipater and Alexander were subsequently 
put to death, either by Demetrius or at his insti- 
gation, and that Demetrius became king of Mace- 
donia.— 3. Father of Herod the Great, son of a 
noble Idumaean of the same name, espoused the 
cause of Hyrcanus against his brother Aristobulus. 
He ingratiated himself with the Romans, and in 
B, c. 47 was appointed by Caesar procurator of 
Judaea, which appointment he held till his death 
in 43, when he was carried off" by poison which 
Malichus, whose life he had twice saved, bribed 
the cup-bearer of Hyrcanus to administer to him. 

— 4. Eldest son of Herod the Great by his first 
Avife, Doris, brought fibout the death of his two 
half-brothers, Alexander and Aristobulus, in b. c. 
6, but was himself condemned as guilty of a con- 
spiracy against his father's life, and was executed 
five days before Herod's death. ~ 5. Of Tarsus, 
a Stoic philosopher, the successor of Diogenes 
and the teacher of Panaetius, about B. c. 144. 

— 6. Of Tyre, a Stoic philosopher, died shortly 
before B. c. 45, and wrote a work on Duties (de 
Officiis).-^7. Of Sidon, the author of several epi- 
grams in the Greek Anthology, flourished about 
B.C. 108 — 100, and lived to a great age.— 8. Of 
Thessalonica, the author of several epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology, lived in the latter part of the 
reign of Augustus. 

Antipater, L. Caelius, a Roman jurist and 
iiistorian, and a con temporary' of C. Gracchus (b. o. 
123) and L. Crassus, the orator, wrote Annales^ 
which were epitomized by Brutus, and which con- 
tained a valuable account of the 2nd Punic war. 

Antipatria {'AprnrdTpia : Berat ?), a town in 
lUyricum on the borders of Macedonia, on the left 
bank of the Apsus. 

Antiphanes {'AvTKpduT)^). 1. A comic poet of 
the middle Attic comedy, born about b. c. 404, 
and died 330. He wrote 365, or at the least 260 
plays, which were distinguished by elegance of 
language.— 2. Of Berga in Thrace, a Greek writer 
on marvellous and incredible things.— 3. An epi- 
grammatic poet, several of whose epigrams are still 
extant in the Greek Anthology, lived about the 
reign of Augustus. 

Antiphates ('AvTi^aTTjs), king of the mythical 
Laestrygones in Sicily, who are represented as 
plants and cannibals. They destroyed 11 of the 
ships of Ulysses, who escaped with only one vessel. 

Antiphellus ('Ai'Ti'^eAAos : Antiphiio), a town 
on the coast of Lycia, between Patara and Aperlae, 
originally the port of Phellus. 

Antiphemus {'AvTLcpri/uos), the Rhodian, founder 
of Gela in Sicily, b. c. 690. 

Antiphilus {'Avr'KpiXos). 1. Of Byzantium, 
an epigrammatic poet, author of several excellent 
epigrams in the Greek Anthology, was a contem- 
porary of the emperor Nero. — 2. Of Egypt, a 
distinguished painter, the rival of Apelles, painted 
lor Philip and Alexander the Great. 

Antiphon {'AvnOwv). 1. The most ancient of 
ttie 10 orators in the Alexandrine canon, was a 
son of Sophilus the Sophist, and born at Pthamnxis 



in Attica, in b. c. 480. He belonged to the oli- 
garchical party at Athens, and took an active part 
in the establishment of the government of the Four 
Hundred (b. c 411), after the overthrow of which 
he was brought to trial, condemned, and put to death. 
The oratorical powers of Antiphon are highly praised 
by the ancients. He introduced great improvements 
in public speaking, and was the first who laid 
down theoretical laws for practical eloquence ; he 
opened a school in Avhich he taught rhetoric, and 
the historian Thucydides is said to have been one 
of his pupils. The orations which he composed 
were written for others ; and the only time that he 
spoke in public himself was when he was accused 
and condemned to death. This speech, which was 
considered in antiquity a master-piece of eloquence, 
is now lost. (Thuc. viii. 68 ; Cic. Brut. 12.) We 
still possess 15 orations of Antiphon, 3 of which 
were written by him for others, and the remaining 
12 as specimens for his school, or exercises on fic- 
titious cases. They are printed in the collections 
of the Attic orators, and separately, edited by 
Baiter and Sauppe, Zurich, 1838, and Matzner, 
Berlin, 1838.-2. A tragic poet, Avhom many 
writers confound with the Attic orator, lived at 
Syracuse, at the court of the elder Dionysius, by 
whom he was put to death. — 3. Of Athens, a 
sophist and an epic poet, wrote a work on the in- 
terpretation of dreams, which is referred to by 
Cicero and others. He is the same person as the 
Antiphon who was an opponent of Socrates. (Xen. 
Me)n. i, 6.) 

Antiphus C Apt i^os). 1. Son of Priam and 
Hecuba, slain by Agamemnon. — 2. Son of Thes- 
salus, and one of the Greek heroes at Troy. 

Antipolis {' AvTiTToKis : Antibes, pronounced by 
the inhabitants Antiboul)^ a town in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis on the coast, in the territory of the De- 
ciates, a few miles W. of Nicaea, was founded by 
Massilia ; the muria, or salt pickle made of fish, 
prepared at this town, was very celebrated. 

Antirrliiiiin {'Avrippiop : Castello di Romelia), 
a promontory on the borders of Aetolia and Locris, 
opposite Rhium (Castello di Morea) in Achaia, 
with which it formed the narrow entrance of the 
Corinthian gulf: the straits are sometimes called 
the Little Dardanelles. 

Antissa (^Avnaaa \ 'AvricraaiQS : Kalas Liin- 
neonas)^ a town in Lesbos with a harbour, on the 
W. coast between Methymna and the promontory 
Sigrium, was originally on a small island opposite- 
Lesbos, which was afterwards united with Lesbos. 
It was destroyed by the Romans, b. c. 168, and its 
inhabitants removed to Methymna, because they 
had assisted Antiochus. 

Antisthenes {'AvrLaOevrjs), an Athenian, founder 
of the sect of the Cynic philosophers. His mother 
was a Thracian. In his youth he fought at Ta- 
nagra (b. c. 426), and was a disciple first of Gorgias, 
and then of Socrates, whom he never quitted, and 
at whose death he was present. He died at Athens, 
at the age of 70. He taught in the Cynosarges, a 
gymnasium for the use of Athenians born of foreign 
mothers ; whence probably his followers were 
called Cynics (kwiko'l)^ though others derive their 
name from their dog-like neglect of all forms and 
usages of society. His writings were very nu- 
merous, and chiefly dialogues ; his style was pure 
and elegant ; and he possessed considerable powers 
of wit and sarcasm. Two declamations of his are 
preserved, named Ajax and Ulysses, which are 



ANTISTIUS. 
purely rhetorical. He was an enemy to all specu- 
lation, and tlius was opposed to Plato, whom he 
attacked f\iriously in one of his dialogues. His 
philosophical system was confined almost entirely 
to ethics, and lie taught that virtue is the sole thing 
necessary. He showed his contempt of all the 
luxuries and outward comforts of life by his mean 
clothing and hard fare. From his school the Stoics 
subsequently sprung. In one of his works entitled 
FIiT/sicux, he contcn^ded for the Unity of the Deity. 
(Cic. de Nut. Deor. i. 13.) 

Antistius, P., tribune of the plebs, b. c. 88, a 
distinguished orator, supported the party of Sulla, 
and was put to death by order of young Marius in 
82. His daughter Antistia was married to Pom- 
pcius Magnus. 

Antistius Labeo. [Labeo.] 

Antistius Yetus. [Vetus.] 

Antitaurus ('Aj/TtVauoos : AH-Dagh), a chain 
of mountains, which strikes off N.E. from the main 
chain of the Taurus on the S. border of Cappadocia, 
in the centre of which district it turns to the E. 
and runs parallel to the Tam-us as far as the Eu- 
phrates. Its average height exceeds that of the 
Taurus ; and one of its summits, JMount Argaeus, 
near Mazaca, is the loftiest mountain of Asia Minor. 

Antium (Antias : Torre or Forto rf' Anzo)^ a 
very ancient town of Latium on a rocky promontory 
running out some distance into the Tyrrhenian sea. 
It was founded by Tyrrhenians and Pelasgians, and 
in earlier and even later times was noted for its 
piracy. Although united by Tarquinius Superbus 
to the Latin League, it generally sided with the 
Volscians against Rome. It was taken by the 
Romans in B. c. 46'8, and a colony was sent thither, 
but it revolted, was taken a second time by the 
Romans in B. c. 338, was deprived of all its ships, 
the beaks of which {Rosira) served to ornament the 
platform of the speakers in the Roman forum, was 
forbidden to have any ships in future, and received 
another Roman colony. But it gradually recovered 
its former importance, was allowed in course of 
time again to be used as a seaport, and in the latter 
times of the republic and under the empire, became 
a favourite residence of many of the Roman nobles 
and emperors. The emperor Nero was born here, 
and in the remains of his palace the celebrated 
Apollo Belvedere was found. Antium possessed a 
celebrated temple of Fortune (0 Diva^ grahtm quae 
regis Antium, Hor. Carm. i. 35), of Aesculapius, 
and at the port of Ceno, a little to the E. of Antium, 
a temple of Neptune, on which account the place 
is now called Netluno. 

Antius Restio. [Restio.] 

Antonia. 1. Major, elder daughter of An- 
tonius and Octavia, husband of L. Domitius Aheno- 
barbus, and mother of Cn. Domitius, the father of 
the emperor Nero. Tacitus calls this Antonia the 
younger daughter. — 2. Mi7ior, younger sister of 
the preceding, husband of Drusus, the brother of 
the emperor Tiberius, and mother of Germanicus, 
the father of the emperor Caligula, of Livia or Li- 
villa, and of the emperor Claudius. She died a. d. 
38, soon after the accession of her grandson Cali- 
gula. She was celebrated for her beauty, virtue, 
and chastity. — 3. Daughter of the emperor Clau- 
dius, married first to Pompeius Magnus, and after- 
wards to Faustus Sulla. Nero wished to marrv 
her after the death of his wife Poppaea, a. d. 66"; 
and on her refusal he caused her to be put to death 
on a charge of treason. 



ANTONIUS. 

Antonia Turris, a castle on a rock at the N.W. 
corner of the Temple at Jerusalem, which com- 
manded both the temple and the city. It was at 
first r'alled Baris : Herod the Great changed its 
name in honour of M. Antonius. It contained the 
residence of the Procurator Judaeac. 

Antonini Itinerarium, the title of an extant 
work, which is a very valuable itinerary of the 
whole Roman empire, in which both the principal 
and the cross-roads are described by a list of all 
the places and stations upon them, the distances 
from place to place being given in Roman miles. 
It is usually attributed to the emperor M. Aurelius 
Antoninus, but it appears to have been commenced 
by order of Julius Caesar and to have been com- 
pleted in the reign of Augustus ; though it is pro- 
bable that it received important additions and 
revision under one or both of the Antonines. — Edi- 
tions : bv Wesseling, Amst. 1735 ; by Parthev 
and Pinder, Berlin, 1848. 

Antoninopolis (Pi-vruvivoiroKis : -i'ttjs, anus), a 
city of Mesopotamia, between Edessa and Dara, 
aft. !Maximianopolis, and aft. Constantia. 

Antoninus, M. Aurelius. [M. Aurelius,] 

Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor, a, d. 138 — 
161. His name in the early part of his life, at 
full length, was Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boio^iius 
Arrius Antoninus. His paternal ancestors came 
from Nemausus {Nismes) in Gaul ; but Antoninus 
himself was born near Lanuvium, September 19th, 
A. D. 86. From an early age he gave promise or 
his future worth. In 120 he was consul, and 
subsequently proconsul of the province of Asia : 
on his return to Rome he lived on terms of the 
greatest intimacy with Hadrian, Vv^ho adopted him 
on Februarys 25th, 138. Henceforward he bore tlis 
name of T. Aelius Hadrianiis Anto7ii7ius Caesar, 
and on the death of Hadrian, July 2nd, J 38, he 
ascended the throne. The senate conferred upon 
him the title of Pius, or the dutifully affectionate, 
because he persuaded them to grant to his father 
Hadrian the apotheosis and the other honours 
usually paid to deceased emperors, which they 
had at first refused to bestow upon Hadrian. The 
reign of Antoninus is almost a blank in history — 
a blank caused by the suspension for a time of war, 
violence, and crime. He was one of the best princes 
that ever mounted a throne, and all his thoughts 
and energies were dedicated to the happiness of his 
people. No attempt was made to achieve new 
conquests, and various insurrections among the 
Germans, Dacians, Jews, Moors, Egyptians, and 
Britons, were easily quelled by his legates. In all 
the relations of private life the character of Anto- 
ninus v.-as without reproach. He was faithful to 
his wife Faustina, notwithstanding her profligate 
life, and after her death loaded her memory with 
honours. He died at Lorium, March 7th, 161, in 
his 75th year. Pie was succeeded by M. Aurelius, 
whom he had adopted, when he himself was adopted 
by Hadrian, and to whom he gave his daughter 
Faustina in niarriage. 

Antoninus Liberalis, a Greek grammarian, 
probably lived in the reign of the Antonines, about 
A. D. 1 47, and -wTote a work on Metamorphoses 
{M€Tauop(pai(recov awaywyri) in 41 chapters, which 
is extant. — Editions : by Verheyk, Lugd. Bat. 
1774 ; by Koch, Lips. 1832 ; by Westermann, 
in his Faradoxographi, Brunsv. 1839. 

Antonius. 1. M., the orator, born B.C. 143; 
quaestor in 113 ; praetor in 104, when he fought 



ANTONIUS. 
against the pirates in Cilicia ; consul in 99 ; and 
censor in 97. He belonged to Sulla's party, and 
was put to death by Marius and Cinna when they 
entered Rome in 87 : his head was cut olF and 
placed on the Rostra. Cicero mentions him and L. 
Crassus as the most distinguished orators of their 
age ; and he is introduced as one of the speakers 
[ in Cicero's De Oraiore.-^2, M., surnamed Cre- 
j Ticus, elder son of the orator, and father of the 
: triumvir, was praetor in 75, and received the com- 
, mand of the fleet and all the coasts of the Medi- 
, terranean, in order to clear the sea of pirates ; but 
! he did not succeed in his object, and used his power 
to plunder the provinces. He died shortly after- 
: wards in Crete, and was called Creiicus in derision. 
— 3. C, younger son of the orator, and uncle of 
the triumvir, was expelled the senate in 70, and 
was the colleague of Cicro in the praetorship (65) 
and consulship (63). He was one of Catiline's 
conspirators, but deserted the latter by Cicero's 
I promising him the province of Macedonia. He 
; had to lead an army against Catiline, but unwilling 
j to fight against his former friend, he gave the com- 
[ mand on the day of battle to his legate, M. Petreius. 
1' At the conclusion of the war Antony went into his 
province, which he plundered shamefully ; and on 
his return to Rome in 59 was accused both of 
taking part in Catiline's conspiracy and of extortion 
in his province. He was defended by Cicero, but 
was condemned, and retired to the island of Ce- 
phallenia. He was subsequently recalled, probably 
by Caesar, and was in Rome at the beginning of 
44.—- 4. M., the Triiimvir, was son of No, 2. and 
Julia, the sister of L. Julius Caesar, consul in 64, 
and was born about 83. His father died while he 
was still young, and he was brought up by Cornelius 
Lentulus, who married his mother Julia, and v>^ho 
was put to death by Cicero in 63 as one of Cati- 
line's conspirators : whence he became a personal 
enemy of Cicero. Antony indulged in his earliest 
youth in every kind of dissipation, and his affairs 
soon became deeply involved. In 58 he went to 
Syria, where he served with distinction under A. 
Gabinius. He took part in the campaigns against 
Aristobulus in Palestine (57, 56), and in the re- 
storation of Ptolemy Auletes to Egypt in 55. In 
54 he went to Caesar in Gaul, and by the influence 
of the latter was elected quaestor. As quaestor 
(52) he returned to Gaul, and served under Caesar 
for the next two years (52, 51). He returned to 
Rome in 50, and became one of the most active 
partizans of Caesar. He was tribune of the plebs 
in 49, and in January fled to Caesar's camp in 
Cisalpine Gaul, after putting his veto upon the de- 
cree of the senate which deprived Caesar of his 
command. He accompanied Caesar in his victo- 
rious march into Ital3% and was left by Caesar in 
the command of Ital}^, while the latter carried on 
the war in Spain. In 48 Antony was present at 
the battle of Pharsalia, Avhere he commanded the 
left wing ; and in 47 he was again left in the com- 
mand of Italy during Caesar's absence in Africa. 
In 44 he was consul v/ith Caesar, Avhen he offered 
him the kingly diadem at the festival of the Luper- 
oalia. After Caesar's murder on the 15th of 
March, Antony endeavoured to succeed to his 
power. He therefore used every means to appear 
as his representative ; he pronounced the speech 
over Caesar's body and read his will to the people ; 
and he also obtained the papers and private pro- 
perty of Caesar. But he found a new and unex- 



ANTONIUS. 59 

pected rival in young Octavianus, the adopted son 
and great-nephew of the dictator, who came from 
Apollonia to Rome, assumed the name of Caesar, 
and at first joined the senate in order to crush 
Antony. Towards the end of the year Antony 
proceeded to Cisalpine Gaul, v»rhich had been 
previously granted him by the senate ; but Dec, 
Brutus refused to surrender the province to An- 
tony and threw himself into Mutina, where he was 
besieged by Antony. The senate approved of the 
conduct of Brutus, declared Antony a public enemj-, 
and entrusted the conduct of the war against him 
to Octavianus. Antony was defeated at the battle 
of Mutina, in April 43, and was obliged to cross 
the Alps. Both the consuls, however, had fallen, 
and the senate now began to show their jealousy 
of Octavianus. Meantime Antony was joined by 
Lepidus with a powerful array : Octavianus be- 
came reconciled to Antony ; and it was agreed 
that the government of the state should be vested 
in Antony, Octavianus, and Lepidus, under the 
title of Triumviri Reipublicae Constituendae, for the 
next 5 years. The mutual enemies of each were 
proscribed, and in the numerous executions that 
followed, Cicero, who had attacked Antony in 
the most unmeasured manner in his Philippic 
Orations, fell a victim to Antony. In 42 Antony 
and Octavianus crushed the republican party by 
the battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius 
fell. Antony then went to Asia, which he had 
received as his share of the Roman world. In 
Cilicia he met with Cleopatra, and followed her to 
Egypt, a captive to her charms. In 41 Fulvia, the 
wife of Antony, and his brother L. Antonius, made 
war upon Octavianus in Italy. Antony prepared 
to support his relatives, but the v/ar was brought 
to a close at the beginning of 40, before Antony 
could reach Italy. The opportune death of Fulvia 
facilitated the reconciliation of Antony and Octa- 
vianus, which was cemented by Antony marrying 
Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. Antony re- 
mained in Italy till 39, when the triumvirs con- 
cluded a peace with Sext. Pompey, and he after- 
wards v/ent to his provinces in the East, In this 
year and the following Ventidius, the lieutenant 
of Antony, defeated the Parthians. In 37 Antony 
crossed over to Italy, when the triumvirate was 
renewed for 5 years. He then returned to 
the East, and shortly afterwards sent Octavia 
back to her brother, and surrendered himself en- 
tirely to the charms of Cleopatra. In 36 he in- 
vaded Parthia, but he lost a great number of his 
troops, and was obliged to retreat. He was more 
successful in his invasion of Armenia in 34, for he 
obtained possession of the person of Artavasdes, 
the Armenian king, and carried him to Alexandria. 
Antony now laid aside entirely tlie character of a 
Roman citizen, and assimied the pomp and cere- 
mony of an Eastern despot. His conduct, and the 
unbounded influence Avhich Cleopatra had acquired 
over him, alienated many of his friends and sup- 
porters ; and Octavianus thought that the time had 
noAv come for crushing his rival. The contest Avas 
decided by the memorable sea-fight off Actium, 
September 2nd, 31, in which Antony's fleet was 
completely defeated. Antony, accompanied by 
Cleopatra, fled to Alexandria, where he put an 
end to his own life in the following year (30), 
when Octavianus appeared before the c\tj.-^ b. 
C, brother of the triumvir, was praetor in Mace- 
donia in 44, fell into the hands of M. Brutus in 



60 



ANTONIUS. 



APAMEA. 



43, and was put to death l»y Brutus in 42, to re- | 
venge the murder of Cicero. — 6. L., youngest 
brother of the triumvir, was consul in 41, when ho 
engaged in war against Octavianus at the instiga- 
tion of Fulvia, his brother's wife. He was unable 
to resist Octavianus, and threw liimself into the 
town of Pcrusia, which he was obliged to surrender 
in the following year : hence the war is usually 
called that ot Perusia. His life was spared, and 
he was afterwards appointed by Octavianus to the 
command of Iberia. Cicero draws a frightful pic- 
ture of Lucius' character. He calls him a gladiator 
and a robber, and heaps upon him every tenn of 
reproach and contempt. Much of this is of 
course exaggeration. — 7. M., called by the 
Greek writers Antyllus, which is probably only a 
corrupt form of Antonillus (young Antonius), elder 
son of the triumvir by Fulvia, was executed by 
order of Octavianus, after the death of his father 
in 30. — 8. Julus, younger son of the triumvir by 
Fulvia, was brought up by his step-mother Octavia 
at Rome, and received great marks of favour from 
Augustus. He was consul in B. c. 10, but was put 
to death in 2, in consequence of his adulterous in- 
tercourse Avith Julia, the daughter of Augustus. 

Antonius Felix. [Felix.] 

Antonius Musa. [Musa.] 

Antdnius Primus. [Pri.mus.] 

Antron ('Afrpa'v and cl ''Avrpaves: 'AvTpu>uios: 
Fano), a town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, at the en- 
trance of the Sinus Maliacus. 

Antunnacum (Andemach), a town of the Ubii 
on the Rhine. 

Anubis {"AvovSit)^ an Egyptian divinity, wor- 
shipped in the form of a human being with a dog's 
head. He was originally worshipped simply as 
the representative of the dog, wliich animal, like 
the cat, was sacred in Egypt ; but his worship was 
subsequently mixed up with other religious systems, 
and Anubis thus assumed a sjTubolical or astrono- 
mical character, at least with the learned. His 
worship prevailed throughout Egypt, but he was 
most honoured at Cynopoiis in middle Egypt. Later 
myths relate that Anubis was the son of Osiris and 
Nephthys, born after the death of his father ; and 
that Isis brought him up, and made him her guard 
and companion, who thus performed to her the 
same service that dogs perform to men. In tlie 
temples of Egypt Anubis seems to have been re- 
presented as the guard of other gods, and the place 
in the front of a temple was particularly sacred to 
him. The Greeks identified him with their own 
Hermes, and thus speak of Hermanuphis in the 
same manner as of Zeus Ammon. His worship 
was introduced at Rome towards the end of the re- 
public, and under the empire spread very Avidely 
both in Greece and at Rome. 

Anxur. [Tarr.acixa.] 

Anxurus, an Italian divinity, who was wor- 
shipped in a grove near Anxur (Tarracina) together 
with Feronia. He was regarded as a youthful Ju- 
piter, and Feronia as Juno. On coins his name 
appears as Axur or Anxur. 

Anysis {"Awais), an ancient king of Egypt, in 
whose r ign Egypt was invaded by the Ethiopians 
under their king Sabaco. 

Anyte ('Avuttj), of Tcgea, the authoress of se- 
veral epigrams in tiie Greek Antholog\-, flourished 
about B. c. 700, and not 300, as is usually sup- 
posed. The epigrams are for the most part in the 
style of the ancient Doric choral songs. j 



I Anytus CAi^vtos), a wealthy Athenian, son of 
Anthemion, the most influential and formidable of 
the accusers of Socrates, B. c. 399 (hence Socrates 
is called A7it/ti reus, Hor. Sat. ii. 4. 3). He was a 
leading man of the democratical party, and took au 
active part, along with Thrasybulus, in the over- 
throw of the 30 Tyrants. The Athenians, having 
repented of their condemnation of Socrates, sent 
Anj'tus into banishment. 

Aon CAcjov), son of Poseidon, and an ancient 
Boeotian hero, from whom the Aones, an ancient 
race in Boeotia, were believed to have derived 
their name. Aonia was the name of the part of 
Boeotia, near Phocis, in which were Mount Helicon 
and the fountain Aganippe {Aoniae aquae, Ov. 
Fast. iii. 456). The Muses are also called Aonides, 
since they frequented Helicon and the fountain of 
Aganippe. (Ov. Met. v. 333.) 
Aonides. [Aox.] 

Aorsi {"Aopaoi) or Adorsi, a powerful people of 
Asiatic Sarmatia, who appear to have had their 
original settlements on the N.E. of the Caspian, but 
are chiefly found between the Palus Maeotis {Sea 
of Azof ) and the Caspian, to the S.E. of the river 
Tana'is {Don), whence they spread far into Euro- 
pean Sarmatia. They carried on a considerable 
traffic in Babylonian merchandise, which they 
fetched on camels out of ]\Iedia and Armenia. 

Aous or Aeas (Awos or Atas; Viosa, Viussa, 
or Fovussa), the principal river of the Greek part 
of Illyricum, rises in M. Lacmon, the N. part of Pin- 
dus, and flows into the Ionian sea near ApoUonia. 

Apamea or -la ('ATra^em : 'Airaui^vs, Apameus, 
-enus, -ensis), the name of several Asiatic cities, 
three of which were founded by Seleucus I. Nica- 
tor, and named in honour of his wife Apama. 1. 
A. ad Orontem {Famiah), the capital of the Sy- 
rian province Apamene, and, under the Romans, of 
Syria Secunda, was built by Seleucus Nicator on 
the site of the older city of Pella, in a very strong 
position on the river Orontes or Axius, the citadel 
being on the left (W.) bank of the river, and the 
city on the right. It was surrounded by rich pas- 
tures, in which Seleucus kept a splendid stud of 
horses and 500 elephants. —2. In Osroene in 
^Mesopotamia {Dalasir), a town built by Seleucus 
Nicator on the E. bank of the Euphrates, opposite 
to Zeugma, with which it was connected by a 
bridge, commanded b}' a castle, called Seleucia. 
In Pliny's time (a. D. 77) it was only a ruin. — 

3. A. Cibotus or ad Maeandrum (*A, 77 VLiSwros, 
or TTphs 'iAalavZpov), a great city of Phrygia, on 
the Maeander, close above its confluence with the 
I\Larsyas. It was built by Ant ochus I. Soter, 
who named it in honour of his mother Apama, and 
peopled it with the inhabitants of the neighbouring 
Celaenae. It became one of the greatest cities of 
Asia within the Euphrates ; and under the Romans 
it was the seat of a Conventus Juridicus. The 
surrounding country', watered by the Maeander 
and its tributaries, was called Apamena Regio. — 

4. A. Myrleon, in Bithynia. [Myrlea.] — 5. A 
town built by Antiochus Soter, in the district of 
Assyria called Sittacene, at the junction of the 
Tigris with the Royal Canal which connected the 
Tigris with the Euphrates, and at the N. extremity 
of the island called ]\Iesene, which was formed by 
this canal and the 2 rivers. — 6. A. Mesenes 
{Ko7-na), in Babylonia, at the S. point of the same 
island of Mesene, and at the junction of the Tigris 

I ;ind Euphrates. — 7. A. Rhagiana ('A. 77 Trphs 'Pa- 



APELLES. 



APHRODITE. 



61 



yois), a Greek city in the district of Choarene in 
i Parthia (formerly in Media), S. of the Caspian 
Gates. 

Apelles ('A7reA.A7}s), the most celebrated of 
Grecian painters, was born, most probably, at 
Colophon in Ionia, though some ancient writers 
call him a Coan and others an Ephesian. He was 
i the contemporary and friend of Alexander the 
j Great (b. c. 336 — 3"23), whom he probably ac- 
j companied to Asia, and who entertained so high 
; an opinion of him, that he was the only person 
whom Alexander would permit to take his por- 
trait. After Alexander's death he appears to htwe 
I travelled through the western parts of Asia. Behij^ 
: driven by a storm to Alexandria, after the as- 
stmiption of the regal title by Ptolemy (b. c, 306), 
whose favour he had not gained while he was 
with Alexander, his rivals laid a plot to ruin him, 
which he defeated by an ingenious use of his skill 
in drawing. We are not told when or where he 
died. Throughout his life Apelles laboured to 
improve himself, especially in drawing, which he 
: never spent a day without practising. Hence the 
I proverb Nulla dies sine lima. A list of his works 
i is given by Pliny (xxxv. 36). They are for the 
most part single figures, or groups of a very few 
figures. Of his portraits the most celebrated was 
that of Alexander wielding a thunderbolt ; but the 
most admired of all his pictures was the " Venus 
Anadyomene " {r\ ava8vofx4vri 'A((>podiT7])^ or Venus 
rising out of the sea. The goddess was wringing 
her hair, and the falling drops of water formed a 
! transparent silver veil around her form. He com- 
menced another picture of Venus, which he in- 
tended should surpass the Venus Anadyomene, but 
which he left unfinished at his death. 

ApelHcon {'AireWiKwu), of Teos, a Peripatetic 
philosopher and great collector of books. His va- 
luable library at Athens, containing the autographs 
of Aristotle's works, was carried to Rome by Sulla 
(b. c. 83) : Apellicon had died just before. 

Apenninus Mons (J 'Airewiuos and to 'Attc;/- 
vLyov opos, probably from the Celtic Pe?i " a 
height "), the Apennines^ a chain of mountains 
which runs throughout Italy from N. to S., and 
forms the backbone of the peninsula. It is a con- 
tinuation of the Maritime Alps [Alpes], begins 
near Genua, and ends at the Sicilian sea, and 
throughout its whole course sends olf numerous 
branches in all directions. It rises to its greatest 
■ height in the country of the Sabines, Avhere one of 
its points (now Monte Corno) is 9521 feet above 
the sea ; and further S., at the boundaries of 
' Samnium, Apulia, and Lucania, it divides into two 
main branches, one of which runs E. through Apu- 
lia and Calabria, and terminates at the Salentine 
promontor}--, and the other W. through Bruttium, 
terminating apparently at Rhegium and the straits 
of Messina, but in reality continued throughout 
Sicily. The greater part of the Apennines is com- 
posed of limestone, abounding in numerous caverns 
and recesses, which in ancient as well as modern 
times were the resort of numerous robbers : the 
highest points of the mountains are covered with 
snow, even during most of the summer {nivali ver- 
tice se attollens Apetininus, Virg. Aen. xii. 703). 

M. Aper, a Roman orator and a native of Gaul, 
rose by his eloquence to the rank of quaestor, tri- 
bune, and praetur, successively. He is one of the 
speakers in the Dialogue de Oraioribus, attributed 
to Tacitus. 



Aper, Arrms, praetorian prefect, and scn-in- 
law of the emperor Numerian, whom he was said 
to have murdered : he was himself put to death by 
Diocletian on his accession in A. d. 284. 

Aperantia, a town and district of Aetolia near 
the Achelous, inhabited by the Aperantii. 

Apesas ('ATreVas: Fuka?), a mountain on the 
borders of Phliasia and Argolis, with a temple of 
Zeus, who was hence called Jpesaniius, and to 
whom Perseus here first sacrificed. 

Aphaca (ra "'AcpaKa : Afta ?), a to-wn of Coele- 
Syria, between Heliopolis and Byblus, celebrated 
for the worship and oracle of Aphrodite Aphacitis 
{'AcpaKTris). 

Aphareus ('Acpapevs), son of the Messenian 
king Perieres and Gorgophone, and founder of the 
town of Arene in Messenia, which he called after 
his wife. His two sons Idas and Lynceus, the 
Apharetidae {Aphar eta proles, Ov. Met. viii. 304), 
are celebrated for their fight with the Dioscuri, 
which is described by Pindar. {Nem. x. 111.) 
—2. An Athenian orator and tragic poet, flourished 
B. c. 369 — 342. After the death of his father, his 
mother married the orator Isocrates, who adopted 
Aphareus as his son. He wrote 35 or 37 tragedies, 
and gained 4 prizes. 

Aphetae (^Acperai and 'At^erat : 'A^eraTos), a 
sea-port and promontory of Thessaly, at the en- 
trance of the Sinus Maliacus, from which the ship 
Argo is said to have sailed. 

ApMdas ('A^eiSas), son of Areas, obtained 
from his father Tegea and the surrounding terri- 
tory. He had a son, Aleus. 

Aphidna ( "Acpidva and "AcpiSuai : 'AtpiduaTos}, 
an Attic demus not far from Decelea, originally be- 
longed to the tribe Aeantis, afterwards to Leontis, 
and last to Hadrianis. It was in ancient times one 
of the 12 towns and districts into which Cecrops is 
said to have divided Attica : in it Theseus con- 
cealed Helen, but her brothers Castor and Pollux 
took the place and rescued their sister. 

Aphrodisias {'AcppoSLa-ia^ ■ 'Acppodiaievs : Aphro- 
disiensis), the name of several places famous for 
the worship of Aphrodite. 1. A. Cariae (Gheira, 
Ru.), on the site of an old town of the Leleges-, 
named Ninoe : under the Romans a free city 
and asylum, and a flourishing school of art. — 2. 
Veneris Oppidum (Porto Cavaliere), a town, har- 
bour, and island, on the coast of Cilicia, opposite 
to Cyprus. — 3. A town, harbour, and island, on 
the coast of Cyrenaica in N. Africa. — 4. See 
Gades. 

Aphrodite ('A^poStTTj), one of the great divinitie-s 
of the Greeks, the goddess of love and beauty. In 
the Iliad she is represented as the daughter of 
Zeus and Dione, and in later traditions as a daughter 
of Cronos and Euonyme, or of Uranus and He- 
mera ; but the poets most frequently relate that 
she was sprung from the foam {afpos) of the sea, 
whence they derive her name. She is commonly 
represented as the wife of Hephaestus ; but she 
proved faithless to her husband, and was in love 
with Ares, the god of war, to whom she bore 
Phobos, Deimos, Harmonia, and, according to later 
traditions, Eros and Anteros also. She also loved 
the gods Dionysus, Hermes, and Poseidon, and the 
mortals Anchises, Adonis, and Butes. She sur- 
passed all the other goddesses in beauty, and hence 
received the prize of beauty from Paris. She like- 
wise had the power of granting beauty and invincible 
charms to others, and whoever wore her magic girdle, 



62 APHRODITOPOLIS. 

immediately became an object of love and desire. 
In the vegetable kingdom the myrtle, rose, apple, 
poppy, &c., were sacred to her. The animals sacred 
to her, which are often mentioned as drawing her 
chariot or serving as her messengers, are the spar- 
row, the dove, the swan, the swallow, and a bird 
called i^-nx. The planet Venus and the spring- 
month of April were likewise sacred to her. The 
principal places of her worship in Greece were the 
islands of Cyprus and Cythera. The sacrifices 
offered to her consisted mostly of incense and gar- 
lands of flowers, but in some places animals were 
sacrificed to her. Respecting her festivals, see 
Diet, of Antiq. art. Adonia, Anagogia, Aphro- 
disia, Catagogia. Her worship was of Eastern ori- 
gin, and probably introduced by the Phoenicians 
to the islands of Cyprus, Cythera, and others, from 
v.'hence it spread all over Greece. She appears to 
liave been originally identical with Astarte, called 
by the Hebrews Ashtoreth, and her connection 
with Adonis clearly points to Syria. Respecting 
the Roman goddess Venus, see Venl's. 

Apliroditopolis i^hcppoo'nris rroXis), the name 
of several ciiies in Eg}-pt. 1. In Lower Egypt : 
(1) In the Nomos Leontopolites, in the Delta, be- 
tween Arthribis and Leontopolis : (2) {Chvhin-el- 
Koum) in the Nomos Prosopites, in the Delta, on 
a navigable branch of the Nile, between Naucratis 
and Sais ; probably the same as Atarbechis, which 
is an Egyptian name of the same meaning as the 
Greek Aphroditopolis. — 2. In Middle Egypt or 
Heptanomis, (Atfgh) a considerable city on the E. 
bank of the Nile ; the chief city of the Nomos 
Aphroditopolites. — = 3. In Upper Egypt, er the 
Thebais : (1) Veneris Oppidum (Tac/tto), a little 
way from the W. bank of the Nile ; the chief city 
of the Nomos Aphroditopolis : (2) In the Nomos 
Hermonthites {Deb; N.W. of Esneh), on the W. 
bank of the Nile. 

Aphthomus ('Ad)0oVtos), of Antioch, a Greek 
rhetorician, lived about A. D, 315, and vrrote the 
introduction to the study of rhetoric, entitled Pro- 
gymnasmata {TTpoyv}xvd<jfxa.Ta). It was constructed 
on the basis of the Progymnasmaia of Hermogenes, 
and became so popidar that it was used as the 
common school-book in this branch of education 
i'or several centuries. On the revival of letters it 
recovered its ancient popularity, and during the 
16 th and 17th centuries was used everj-where, but 
more especially in Germany, as the text-buok for 
rhetoric. The number of editions and translations 
which were published during that period is greater i 
than that of any other ancient writer. The best 
edition is in Walz's Rhetores Graeci, vol. i. Aph- 
tbonius also vrrote some Aesopic fables, which are 
estant. 

Aphytis {'AcpvTts : Aihyto), a town in the pen- 
insula Pallene in Macedonia, with a celebrated 
temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon. 

Apia ('Attig, sc. 7^), the Apia7i land, an ancient 
name of Peloponnesus, especially Argolis, said to 
have been so called from Apis, a mvthical king cf 
.irgos. _ 

Apicata, wife of Sejanus, was divorced by him, 
A. D. 23, after she had borne him three children, 
and put an end to her gaati life on the execution of 
Sejanus in 31. 

Apicius, the name of three notorious gluttons. 
—1. The first lived in the time of Sulla, and is 
said to have procured the condemnation of Rutilius 
Rufus, B. c. 92.—^. The second and most re- 



APIS. 

nowned, M. Gahius Apicius, flourished under Ti- 
berius. After squandering upwards of 800,000 
pounds upon his stomach, he found that little more 
than 80,000 remained ; upon which, despairing of 
being able to satisfy the cravings of hunger from 
such a pittance, he forthwith hanged himself. But 
he v/as not forgotten. Sundry cakes (Apicia) and 
sauces long kept alive his memory ; Apion, the 
grammarian, composed a work upon his luxurious 
labours, and his name passed into a proverb in all 
matters connected with the pleasures of the table. 
— 3. A contemporary of Trajan, sent to this em- 
peror, when he was in Parthia, fresh oysters, pre- 
served by a skilful process of his own. — The trea- 
tise we now possess, bearing the title Caelii 
Apicii de Opsoniis et Condimentis, sive de Re Culi- 
naria, Lihri decern, is a sort of Cook and Confec- 
tioner's Manual, containing a multitude of receipts 
for cookerj-. It was probably compiled at a late 
period by some one who prefixed the name of 
Apicius, in order to insure the circulation of his 
book. — Editions. By Almeloveen, Amstelod. 1709, 
and by Bernhold, Ansbach. 1800. 

Apidanus ('ATTiSayos, Ion. 'HTTiSai/oy), a river 
in Thessaly, w^hich flows into the Enipeus near 
Pharsalus. 

Apiolae, a town of Latium, destroyed by Tar- 
quinius Prisciis. 

Apion ('ATTicoj'), a Greek grammarian, and a 
native of Oasis in Egypt, studied at Alexandria, 
and taught rhetoric at Rome in the reigns of Ti- 
berius and Claudius. In the reign of Caligula he 
left Rome, and in A. D. 38 he was sent by the in- 
habitants of Alexandria at the bead of an embassy 
to Caligula to bring forward complaints against the 
Jews residing in their city. Apion was the author 
of many works, all of which are now lost. Of 
these the most celebrated were upon the Homeric 
poems. He is said not only to have made the 
best recension of the text of the poems, but to 
have written explanations of phrases and words in 
the form of a Dictionary (Ae|eis 'OyUTjpiKai'). He 
also Avrote a work on Egypt in 5 books, and a 
work against the Jews, to which Josephus replied 
in his treatise Against Apion. 
Apion, Ptolemaens. [Ptolemaeus, Apion.] 
Apis ("^ATTis). 1. Son of Phoroneus and Lao- 
dice, king of Argos, from whom Peloponnesus was 
called Apia : he ruled tvrannically, and was killed 
by Thelxion and Telchis.— 2. The Bull of Mem- 
phis, worshipped with the greatest reverence as a 
I god among the Egyptians. The Egyptians believed 
that he was the offspring of a young cow, fructified 
by a raj' from heaven. There were certain signs 
by which he was recognised to be the god. It was 
requisite that he should be quite black, have a 
Vv-hite square mark on the forehead, on his back a 
figure similar to that of an eagle, have two kinds of 
hair in his tail, and on his tongue a knot resembling 
an insect called cantharus. When all these signs 
were discovered, the animal was consecrated with 
great pomp, and was conveyed to Memphis, where 
he had a splendid residence, containing extensive 
walks and courts for his amusement. His birth- 
day, which was celebrated every year, was his 
most solemn festival ; it was a day of rejoicing for 
all Egypt. The god was allowed to live only a 
certain number of years, probably 25. If he had 
not died before the expiration of that period, 
he was killed and buried in a sacred well, the 
place of which was unknown except to the initiated. 



APIS. 



APOLLODORUS. 



63 



But if he died a natural death, he was burled pub- 
licly and solemnly ; and as his birth filled all Egypt 
with joy and festivities, so his death threw the 
whole country into grief and mourning. The wor- 
ship of Apis was originally nothing but the simple 
worship of the bull ; but in the course of time the 
bull, like other animals, was regarded as a symbol, 
and Apis is hence identified with Osiris or the 
Sun. 

Apis CAttis), a city of Egjpt, on the coast of 
the Mediterranean, on the border of the country 
towards Libya, about 1 stadia W. of Paraetonium ; 
celebrated for the worship of the god Apis. 

Apobathmi ('A7ro'§a0/uoi), a place in Argolis 
on the sea not far from Thyrea, where Danaus is 
said to have landed. 

Apodoti and Apodeotae ('A-TroduToi and 'Atto- 
SoTOi), a people in the S.E. of Aetolia, between the 
Evenus and Hylaethus. 

Apollinaris, Sidonms. [Sidonius.] 

Apollinis Pr. ('AttoAAwi/os uKpou : C. Ziheeh or 
G. Farina), a promontory of Zeugitana in N. Africa, 
forming the W. point of the Gulf of Carthage, 

Apollo (Atto'AAwi'), one of the great divinities 
of the Greeks, son of Zeus and Leto and twin bro- 
ther of Artemis, was born in the island of Delos, 
whither Leto had fled from the jealous Hera, 
[Leto.] After 9 days' labour, the god was 
born under a palm or olive tree at the foot of 
mount Cynthus, and was fed by Themis with am- 
brosia and nectar. The powers ascribed to Apollo 
are apparently of different kinds, but all are con- 
nected with one another, and may be said to be 
only ramifications of one and the same, as will 
be seen from the following classification. He is — 
1. TJie god who punishes, whence som.e of the an- 
cients derived his name from aTroWvfjLi, destroy. 
(Aesch. Agam. 1081.) As the god who punishes 
he is represented with bow and arrows, the gift of 
Hephaestus ; whence his epithets, e/faros, kicd^pyos, 
eKaTr,§6Kos, /fAuTOTo|os, and apyvporo^os, arcite- 
nens, &c. All sudden deaths were believed to be 
the effect of the arrows of Apollo ; and with them he 
sent the plague into the camp of the Greeks. — 2. 
The god who affords help and wards off evil. As 
he had the power of punishing men, so he was also 
able to deliver men, if duly propitiated : hence his 
epithets, aneaios, aK^cnwp, aXe^LKaicos, acoTTip, airo- 
rpoiraios, iiriKovpios, laTpo/j.di/Tis, opi/er, sahitifer, 
&c. From his being the god who afforded help, he is 
the father of Aesculapius, the god of the healing art, 
and was also identified in later times with Paeeon, 
the god of the healing art in Homer, [Paeeon,] 
— 3. The god of prophecy. Apollo exercised this 
power in his numerous oracles, and especially in 
that of Delphi. (Diet, of Ant. art. Oraculum.) He 
had also the power of communicating the gift of 
prophecy both to gods and men, and all the ancient 
seers and prophets are placed in some relationship 
to him. — 4. The god of song and music. We find 
him m the Iliad (i, 603) delighting the immortal 
gods Avith his phorminx ; and the Homeric bards 
derived their art of song either from Apollo or the 
Muses, Later traditions ascribed to Apollo even 
the invention of the flute and lyre, while it is more 
commonly related that he received the lyre from 
Hermes, Respecting his musical contests, see 
Marsyas, Midas. — 5. The god who protects the 
fioclcs and cattle {vop-ios b&hs, from voixos or vojxni, 
a meadow or pasture land). There are in Homer 
only a few allusions to this feature in the character 



of Apollo, but in later writers ' it assumes a very 
prominent form, and in the story of Apollo tending 
the flocks of Admetus at Pherae in Thessaly. the 
idea reaches its height. — 6. The god who delights 
in the foundation of towns and the establishment of 
civil constitutions. Hence a town or a colony was 
never founded by the Greeks without consulting an 
oracle of Apollo, so that in every case he became, as 
it were, their spiritual leader. — 7. Tlie god of the Sun. 
In Plomer, Apollo and Helios, or the Sun, are perfect] 3' 
distinct, and his identification with the Sun, though 
almost universal among later writers, was the result 
of later speculations and of foreign, chiefly Egyptian, 
influence, — Apollo had more influence upon the 
Greeks than any other god. It may safely be as- 
serted, that the Greeks would never have become 
what they Avere, without the worship of Apollo : in 
him the brightest side of the Grecian mind is re- 
flected. Respecting his festivals, see Diet, of Ant. art, 
Apollonia, Thargelia, and others. — In the religion 
of the early Romans there is no trace of the wor- 
ship of Apollo. The Romans became acquainted 
with this divinity through the Greeks, and adopted 
all their notions and ideas about him from the 
latter people. There is no doubt that the Romans 
knew of his worship among the Greeks at a very 
early time, and tradition says that they consultea 
his oracle at Delphi even before the expulsion of 
the kings. But the first time that Ave hear of his 
Avorship at Rome is in b. c. 430, Avhen, for the pur- 
pose of averting a plague, a temple Avas raised to 
him, and soon after dedicated by the consul, C. 
Julius. A second temple Avas built to him in 
350, During the second Punic AA^ar, in 212, th.e 
ludi Apollinares Avere instituted in his honour, 
{Diet, of Ant. art. Ludi AjMllinares.) His Avorship, 
hoAvever, did not form a very prominent part in 
the religion of the Romans till the time of Augus- 
tus, Avho, after the battle of Actium, dedicated to 
him a portion of the spoils, built or embellished his 
temple at Actium, and founded a neAV one at Rome 
on the Palatine, and instituted quinquennial games 
at Actium, — The most beautiful and celebrated 
among the extant representations of Apollo are the 
Apollo Belvedere at Rome, which Avas discovered 
in 1503 at Rett'jno and the Apollino at Florence, 
In the Apollo Belvedere, the god is represented 
Avith commanding but serene majesty ; sublime in- 
tellect and physical beauty are combined in the 
most Avonderful manner, 

Apollocrates ('ATroAAo/cpaTTjs), elder son of 
Dionysius, the Younger, Avas left by his father in 
command of the island and citadel of Syracuse, but 
Avas compelled by famine to surrender them to 
Dion, about b. c, 354, 

Apollodorus ('A7roAAo5cDpos). — l. Of Amplii- 
polis, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, 
Avas intrusted in b. c. 331, together with Menes, 
Avith the administration of Babylon and of all the 
satrapies as far as Cilicia, ■=■-2, Tyrant of Cas- 
sandrea (formerly Potidaea) in the peninsula of 
Pallene, obtained the supreme poAver in B, c, 379, 
and exercised it with the utmost cruelty. He Avas 
conquered and put to death by Antigonus Gonatas. 
—3. Of Carystus, a comic poet, probably lived 
B. c, 200 — 260, and was one of the most distin- 
guished of the poets of the new Attic comedy. It 
was from him that Terence took his Hecyra and 
Phomiio. — 4, Of Gela in Sicily, a comic poet 
and a contemporary of Menander, lived b, c. 340 — ■ 
290. He is frequently confounded Avith Apollodtv 



64 



APOLLONIA. 



APOLLONIUS. 



riis of Carvstus. — 5. A Grammarian of Athens, 
son of Ascicpiados, :ind pupil of Aristarchus and 
Panaetius, Honrishcd about u. c. 140. He wrote a 
threat number of works, all of which liave perished 
with the exception of his Bibliotkeca. This work 
consists of 3 books, and is by far the best among 
the extant works of the kind. It contains a well- 
arranged account of the mythology and the heroic 
age of Greece : it begins with the origin of the 
gods, and goes down to the time of Theseus, when 
the work suddenly breaks off. — Editions. By 
Heyne, Giittingen, 18U3, 2d ed. ; by Clavier, Paris, 
1805, with a French translation ; and by Wester- 
mann in the Mi/t/iograp/n, Brunswick, 1843. Of the 
many other works of Apollodorus, one of the most im- 
portant was a chronicle in iambic verses, comprising 
the history of 1040 years, from the destruction of 
Troy (11 84) down to'his own time, B.C. 143.— 6. Of 
Pergamus, a Greek rhetorician, taught rhetoric at 
Apollonia in his advanced age, and had as a pupil the 
young Octavius, afterwards the emperor Augustus. 
—7. A painter of Athens, flourished about B. c. 
408, with whom commenced a new period in the 
history of the art. He made a great advance in 
colouring, and invented chiaroscuro. — 8. An ar- 
chitect of Damascus, lived under Trajan and Ha- 
drian, by the latter of whom he was put to death. 

Apoll5llia {'AiroWcDvla : 'ATroAAwviaTTjs). 1. 
{Pollina or Pollona), an important town in lUyria 
or New Epirus, not far from the mouth of the Aous, 
and 60 stadia from the sea. It was founded by 
the Corinthians and Corcyraeans, and was equally 
celebrated as a place of commerce and of learning ; 
many distinguished Romans, among others the 
young Octavius. afterwards the emperor Augustus, 
pursued their studies here. Persons travelling from 
Italy to Greece and the E., usually landed either at 
Apollonia or Dyrrhachium ; and the Via Egnatia, 
the great high road to the East, commenced at 
Apollonia or, according to others, at Dyrrhachium. 
[Egnatia Via.] —2. (Polina), a town in Mace- 
donia, on the Via Egnatia, between Thessalonica 
and Amphipolis, and S. of the lake of Bolbe. — 3. 
(SizeboH), a town in Thrace on the Black Sea, with 
two harbours, a colony of Miletus, afterwards called 
Sozopolis, whence its modern name : it had a ce- 
lebrated temple of Apollo, from which Lucullus 
carried away a colossus of this god, and erected it 
on the Capitol at Rome. — 4. A castle or fortified 
town of the Locri Oz;)lae, near Naupactus. — 5. A 
town in Sicily, on the N. coast, of uncertain site. 
— 6. {Ahulfio?i/e), a town in Bithynia on the 
lake Apolloniatis, through which the river Rhjm- 
dacus flows. — 7. A town on the borders of Mysia 
and Lydia, between Pergamus and Sardis, — 8, 
A town in Palestina, between Caesarca and 
Joppa. — 9. A town in Assyria, in the district 
of Apolloniatis, through which the Delas or Durus 
(Diu/a) flows.— 10. {Marza Susa), a town in Cy- 
renaica and the harbour of Cj'rene, one of the 5 
towns of the Pentapolis in Libya: it was the birth- 
place of Eratosthenes. 

Apollonis ('ATToWwi/ts), a city in Lydia, be- 
tween Pergamus and Sardis, named after Apollonis, 
the mother of king Eumenes. It was one of the 
12 cities of Asia, which were destroyed by an 
earthquake in the reign of Tiberius (a. d. 17). 

Apollonius {"ATToWoivLos). 1. Of Alabanda 
in Caria, a rhetorician, taught rhetoric at Rhodes, 
about B. c. 100. He Avas a very distinguished 
teacher of rhetoric, and used to ridicule and despise 



philosophy. He was sumamed 6 MaAoK^y, and 
must be distinguished from the following. — 2. 
Of Alabanda, surnamed Molo, likewise a rheto- 
rician, taught rhetoric at Rhodes, and also dis- 
tinguished himself as a pleader in the courts of 
justice. In b. c. 81, when Sulla was dictator, 
Apollonius came to Rome as ambassador of the 
Rhodians, on which occasion Cicero heard him ; 
Cicero also received instruction from Apollonins 
at Rhodes a few years later. — 3. Son of Arche- 
bulus, a grammarian of Alexandria, in the first 
century of the Christian aera, and a pupil of Didy- 
mus. He wrote an Homeric Lexicon, Ayhich is 
still extant, and though much interpolated, is a 
work of great value. — Editions. By Villoison, 
Paris, 1773; by H. ToUius, Lugd. Bat. 1788; 
and by Bekker, Berlin, 1833.-4. Surname^ 
Dyscolus, " the ill-tempered," a grammarian a 
Alexandria, in the reigns of Hadrian and Ante 
ninus Pius (a. D. 117 — 161), taught at Rome a 
well as Alexandria. He and his son Herodianu 
are called by Priscian the greatest of all grammr 
rians. Apollonius was the first who reduced grnm 
mar to any thing like a system. Of his numero 
works only 4 are extant. 1. Uepl crvvTci^ews to- 
Xoyov fj.€pu>y, " de Constructione Orationis," o 
" de Ordinatione sive Constructione Dictionum," i 
4 books ; edited by Fr. Sylburg, Frankf. 1590 
and by I. Bekker, Berlin, 1817. 2. Uepl av 
Twvvjjiias^ " de Pronomine ;" edited by I. Bekker 
Berlin, 1814. 3. Uepi avv^4(Tij.uu, "• de Con 
junctionibus," and 4. Uepl iirippriiJidruiv, " de Ad 
verbiis," printed in Bekker's Anecdot. ii. p. 477 
&c. Among the works ascribed to Apollonius b 
Suidas there is one Trepi /faTeil/eucr/xeVTjs IcTTopias 
on fictitious or forged histories : this has been e" 
roneously supposed to be the same as the extan 
Avork 'IcTTopiai bavixaaiai., which purports to b 
written by an Apollonius (published by Wester 
mann, Paradoccogmphi, Brunswick, 1839) ; but i 
is now admitted that the latter work was writte 
by an Apollonius who is otherwise unknown. 
5. Pergaeus, from Perga in Pamphylia, one o 
the greatest mathematicians of antiquity, commonl 
called the " Great Geometer," was educated a 
Alexandria under the successors of Euclid, and 
flourished about B. c. 250 — 220. His most im- 
portant work Avas a treatise on Conic Sections in 
8 books, of which the first 4, with the com- 
mentary of Eutocius, are extant in Greek ; and 
all but the eighth in Arabic. We have also 
introductory lemmata to all the 8, by Pappus. 
Edited by Halley, " Apoll. Perg. Conic, lib. viii., 
&c.," Oxon. 17iO, fol. The eighth book is a 
conjectural restoration founded on the introduc- 
tory lemmata of Pappus. — 6. Rhodius, a poet and 
grammarian, son of Silleus or llleus and Rhode, 
was born at Alexandria, or, according to one state- 
ment, at Naucratis, and flourished in the reigns of 
Ptolemy Philopator and Ptolemy Epiphanes (b. c. 
222 — 181). In his youth he was instructed by 
Callimachus ; but they afterwards became bitter 
enemies. Their tastes Avere entirely different ; for 
Apollonius admired and imitated the simplicity of 
the ancient epic poets, and disliked and despised 
the artificial and learned poetry of Callimachus. 
When Apollonius read at Alexandria his poem on 
the Argonautic expedition (Argonautica), it did 
not meet with the approbation of the audience : he 
attributed its failure to the intrigues of Callima- 
chus, and revenged himself by Avriting a bitter epi- 



ADONIS. ALCESTIS. AMAZONS. AMPHION. ANDROMEDA. 




Zethus and Amphion. ^v^s:^-^ 
(From a Bas-relief at Romeo Page 45. Amazons. crromBroiizesofSirisintheBritishMuseum.)Page42. 




Amazons. (From a Sarcophagus in the Capitol at Rome"). Page 42. 

iTofacep. 64. 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. AGRIGENTUM — ANDKOS. 




^grigentum. Page 27. 




Agyrium in Sicily. Page 28. 




Aluntium in Sicily. Page 41. 




Alyzia in Arcarnania. Page 4\ 




APOLLONIUS. 
gram on Callimachus which is still extant. {Anth. 
Graec. xi. 275.) Callimachus in return attacked 
ApoUonius in his Ibis, which was imitated by Ovid 
' in a poem of the same name, Apollonius now left 
j Alexandria and went to Rhodes, where he taught 
rhetoric with so much success, that the Rhodians 
honoured him with their franchise: hence he was 
called the " Rhodian." He afterwards returned 
j to Alexandria, where he read a revised edition of 
j; his Argonautica with great applause. He succeeded 
I Eratosthenes as chief librarian at Alexandria, in 
I the reign of Ptolemy Epiphanes, about B. c. 194, 
! and appears to have held this office till his death. 
The Argonautica, which consists of 4 books, and 
is still extant, gives a straightforward and simple 
1 description of the adventures of the Argonauts : it 
j is a close imitation of the Homeric language and 
style, but exhibits marks of art and labour, and 
thus forms, notwithstanding its many resemblances, 
a contrast with the natural and easy flow of the 
Homeric poems. Among the Romans the work was 
much read, and P. Terentius Varro Atacinus acquired 
great reputation by his translation of it. The Argo- 
\ nautica of Valerius Flaccus is only a free imitation of 
it. — Editions. By Brunck, Argentorat. 1780 ; by 
G. Schaefer, Lips. 1810—13 ; by Wellauer, Lips. 
1 828. Apollonius wrote several other works which 
j are now lost. — 7. Tyanensis or Tyanaeus, i. e. 
' of Tyana in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
I was born about 4 years before the Christian aera. 
! At a period when there was a general belief in 
; magical powers, it would appear that Apollonius 
obtained great influence by pretending to them ; and 
we may believe that his Life by Philostratus gives 
a just idea of his character and reputation, how- 
ever inconsistent in its facts, and absurd in its 
marvels. Apollonius, according to Philostratus, 
! was of noble ancestry, and studied first under Eu- 
thydemus, of Tarsus ; but, being disgusted at the 
luxury of the inhabitants, he retired to the neigh- 
bouring town of Aegae, where he studied the whole 
circle of the Platonic, Sceptic, Epicurean, and Peri- 
patetic philosophy, and ended by giving his pre- 
ference to the Pythagorean. He devoted himself to 
I the strictest asceticism, and subsequently travelled 
! throughout the East, visiting Nineveh, Babylon, 
and India. On his return to Asia Minor, we first 
i hear of his pretensions to miraculous power, founded, 
1 as it would seem, on the possession of some divine 
knowledge derived from the East. From Ionia he 
I crossed over into Greece, and from thence to Rome, 
i where he arrived just after an edict against magi- 
I cians had been issued by Nero. He accordingly 
i remained only a short time at Rome, and next 
went to Spain and Africa ; at Alexandria he was 
of assistance to Vespasian, who was preparing to 
seize the empire. The last journey of Apollonius 
was to Ethiopia, whence he returned to settle in 
j the Ionian cities. On the accession of Domitian, 
{ Apollonius was accused of exciting an insurrection 
against the tyrant : he voluntarily surrendered 
himself and appeared at Rome before the emperor : 
but as his destruction seemed impending, he escaped 
; by the exertion of his supernatural powers. The 
last years of his life were spent at Ephesus, where 
\ he is said to have proclaimed the death of the ty- 
\ rant Domitian at the instant it took place. Many 
of the wonders, which Philostratus relates in con- 
nection with Apollonius, curiously coincide with 
the Christian miracles. The proclamation of the 
birth of Apollonius to his mother by Proteus, and 

I 



APPIANUS. 65 

the incarnation of Proteus himself, the chorus of 
swans which sang for joy on the occasion, the cast- 
ing out of devils, raising the dead, and healing the 
sick, the sudden disappearances and reappearances 
of Apollonius, his adventures in the cave of Tro- 
phonius, and the sacred voice which called him at 
his death, to which may be added his claim as a 
teacher having authority to reform the world — 
cannot fail to suggest the parallel passages in the 
Gospel history. We know, too, that Apollonius 
was one among many rivals set up by the Eclectics 
to our Saviour, an attempt renewed by the English 
freethinkers Blount and Lord Herbert. Still it 
must be allowed that the resemblances are very 
general, and on the whole it seems probable that 
the life of Apollonius was not written with a con- 
troversial aim, as the resemblances, although real, 
only indicate that a few things were borrowed, and 
exhibit no trace of a systematic parallel. [Philo- 
stratus.] — 8. Of Tyre, a Stoic philosopher, 
who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Auletes, wrote 
a history of the Stoic philosophy from the time 
of Zeno. — 9. Apollonius and Tauriscus of 
Tralles, were two brothers, and the sculptors of 
the group which is commonly known as the Fai'- 
nese bull, representing the punishment of Dirce by 
Zethus and Amphion. [Dirce.] It was taken 
from Rhodes to Rome by Asinius Pollio, and after- 
wards placed in the baths of Caracalla, where it 
was dug up in the sixteenth century, and deposited 
in the Farnese palace. It is now at Naples. Apol- 
lonius and Tauriscus probably flourished in the 
first century of the Christian aera. 

ApoUophanes {'ATro\Xo<pdi/r}s), a poet of the 
old Attic comedy, of whose comedies a few frag- 
ments are extant, lived about B. c. 400. 

Aponiis or Aponi Fons (Abano), warm medi- 
cinal springs, near Patavium, hence called Aquae 
Patavinae, Avere much frequented by the sick. 

Appia or Apia ('ATTTrta, 'A-n-ia), a city of Fhiy- 
gia Pacatiana. 

Appia Via, the most celebrated of the Roman 
roads (regina viaruvi, Stat. Silv. ii. 2. 12), was 
commenced by Ap. Claudius Caecus, when censor, 
B. c. 312, and v/as the great line of communication 
between Rome and southern Italy. It issued from 
the Porta Capena, and passing through Aricia, 
Tres Tabernae^ Appii Forum, Tarracina, Fundi, 
Formiae, Minturnae, Sinuessa, and Casilinum, ter- 
minated at Capua, but was eventually extended 
through Calatia and Caudium to Beneventum, and 
finally thence through Venusia, Tarentum,and. Uria, 
to Brundusium. 

Appianus ('KinnavQs), the Roman historian, 
was born at Alexandria, and lived at Rome during 
the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. 
He wrote a Roman history (^VcofidiKa, or Vu/j-aiK^ 
t(TTopia), in 24 books, arranged not synchronisti- 
cally, iDut ethnographically, that is, he did not 
relate the history of the Roman empire as a whole 
in chronological order ; but he gave a separate 
account of the aifairs of each country, till it was 
finally incorporated in the Roman empire. The 
subjects of the different books were : 1. The kingly 
period. 2. Italy. 3. The Samnites. 4. The Gauls 
or Celts. 5. Sicily and the other islands. 6. Spain. 
7. Hannibal's wars. 8. Libya, Carthage, and Nu- 
midia. 9. Macedonia. 10. Greece and the Greek 
states in Asia Minoi;. 11. Syria and Parthia. 
12. The war with Mithridates. 13—21. The civil 
wars, in 9 books, from those of Marius and Sulla 

F 



66 



APPIAS. 



APULIA. 



to tlie battle of Actium. 22. 'E«aTovToeTm, com- 
prised the history of a hundred years, from the 
battle of Actium to the beginning of Vespasian's 
reign. 23. The wars with lUyria. 24. Those with 
Arabia. We possess only 1 1 of these complete ; 
namely, the 6th, 7th, 8th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 
1.5th, 16th, 17th, and 23rd: there are fragments 
of several of the others. The Parthian histon.-, 
which has come down to us as part of the 11th 
book, is not a work of Appian, but merely a com- 
pilation from Plutarch's Lives of Antony and 
Crassus. Appian's work is a compilation. His 
style is clear and simple ; but he possesses few 
merits as an historian, and he frequently makes the 
most absurd blunders. Thus, for instance, he 
places Saguntum on the N. of the Iberus, and 
states that it takes only half a day to sail from 
Spain to Britain. The best edition is that of 
Schweighauser, Lips. 1785. 

Appias, a nymph of the Appian well, which 
\^as situated near the temple of Venus Genetrix in 
the forum of Julius Caesar. It was surrounded by 
statues of nymphs, called Appiades. 

Appii Forum. [Forum Appii.] 

Appuleius or Apiileius, of Madura in Africa, 
was born about ^.d. 130, of respectable parents. 
He received the first rudiments of education at 
Carthage, and afterwards studied the Platonic phi- 
losophy at Athens. He next travelled extensively, 
visiting Italy, Greece, and Asia, and becoming 
initiated in most mysteries. At length he returned 
home, but soon afterwards undertook a new journey 
to Alexandria. On his way thither he was taken 
ill at the tov/n of Oea, and was hospitably received 
into the house of a young man, Sicinius Pontianus, 
whose mother, a very rich widow of the name of 
Pudentilla, he married. Her relatives, being in- 
dignant that so much wealth should pass out of the 
famil}', impeached Appuleius of gaining the affec- 
tions of Pudentilla by charms and magic spells. The 
cause was heard at Sabrata before Claudius Maxi- 
mus, proconsul of A&ica, a. d. 173, and the defence 
spoken by Appuleius is still extant. Of his subse- 
quent career we know little : he occasionally de- 
claimed in public with great applause. The most 
important of the extant works of Appuleius are : 
I. Metamorphoseon seu de Asiyio Aureo Lihri XI. 
This celebrated romance, together with the Asinus 
of Lucian, is said to have been founded upon a 
work bearing the same title by a certain Lucius 
of Patrae. It seems to have been intended simply 
as a satire upon the hypocrisy and debaucherj' of 
certain orders of priests, the frauds of juggling pre- 
tenders to supernatural powers, and the general 
profligacy of public morals. There are some, how- 
ever, who discover a more recondite meaning, and 
especially bishop Warburton, in his Divine Lega- 
tion of Moses, Avho has at great length endeavoured 
to prove, that the Golden Ass was written with 
the viev/ of recommending the Pagan religion in 
opposition to Christianity, and especially of incul- 
cating the importance of initiation into the purer 
mysteries. The well-known and beautiful episode 
of Cupid and Psj-che is introduced in the 4th, 5th, 
and 6th books. This, whatever opinion we may 
form of the principal narrative, is evidently an 
aliegor}', and is generally understood to shadow 
forth the progress of the soul to perfection. II. 
Floridorum Libri 1 V. An Anthologj-, containing 
select extracts from various orations and disserta- 
tions, collected probably by some admirer. III. De 



Deo Socratis Liber. IV. De Dogmaie Plaioni$ 
Lihri ires. The first book contains some account 
of the specidalive doctrines of Plato, the second of 
his morals, the third of his loyic. V. De Mundo 
Liber. A translation of the work Trepi K6a-/u.ov, at 
one time ascribed to Aristotle. VI. Apologia sive 
De Magia lAher. The oration described above, 
delivered before Claudius Maximus. The best 
edition of the whole works of Appuleius is by 
Hildebrand, Lips. 1842. 
Appuleius Satuminus. [Saturninus.] 
Apries ('ATrpiTjy, 'Airpi'as), a king of Egypt, 
the Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, succeeded his fa- 
ther Psammis, and reigned b. c. 595 — 570. After 
an unsuccessful attack against Cyrene he was de- 
throned and put to death by Am-asis. 

Apronius. 1. Q., one of the worst instruments 
of Verres in oppressing the Sicilians.— 2. L., served 
imder Drusus (a. d. 14) and Germanicus (15) in 
Germany. In 20 he was proconsul of Africa, and 
praetor of Lower Germany, where he lost his life 
in a war against the Frisii. Apronius had two 
daughters : one of whom was married to Plautius 
Silvanus ; the other to Lentulus Gaetulicus, consul 
in 26. 

Apsilae ('Ai|/i'Aai), a Scj-thian people in Col- 
chis, N. of the river Phasis. 

Apsines ('Ai|/iV77s), of Gadara in Phoenicia, a 
Greek sophist and rhetorician, taught rhetoric at 
Athens about A. D. 235. Two of his Avorks are 
extant : riepl tu>v jxipuv rod ttoXltikov \6yov 
"''^X^V, which is much interpolated ; and Ilepl twv 
iaxv/^cLTLaiiieucci' irpo§K7}fxdT(it)u^ both of which are 
printed in Walz. Rhetor. Grace. 

Apsus (Crevasia), a river in Ilh'ria (Nova Epi- 
rus), which flows into the Ionian sea. 

Apsyrtus. [Absyrtus.] 

Apta Julia (Apt), chief town of the Vulgientes 
in Gallia Narbonensis, and a Roman colony. 

Aptera CA-Trrepa : 'ATTTepoTos : Palaeokastron 
on the G. of Suda), a town on the W. coast of 
Crete, 80 stadia fi:om Cydonia. 

Apuani, a Ligurian people on the jNIacra, were 
subdued by the Romans after a long resistance and 
transplanted to Samnium, b, c. 180. 

Apuleius. [Appuleius.] 

Apulia (Apulus), included, in its widest signi- 
fication, the whole of the S.E. of Italy from the 
river Frento to the promontory lapygium, and 
was bounded on the N. by the Frentani, on the E. 
by the Adriatic, on the S. by the Tarentine gulf, 
and on the W. by Samnium and Lucania, thus in- 
cluding the modern provinces of Bari, Otranio, 
and Capitanata, in the kingdom of Naples. Apulia 
in its narrower sense was the cormtry E. of Sam- 
nium on both sides of the Aufidus, the Davmia 
and Peucetia of the Greeks : the Avhole of the 
S.E. part was called Calabria by the Romans. 
The Greeks gave the name of Daunia to the N. 
part of the countrj' firom the Frento to the Aufidus, 
of Peucetia to the country from the Aufidus to Ta- 
rentum and Brundusium, and of lapygia or Mes- 
sapia to the whole of the remaining S. part : thougli 
they sometimes included under lapj'gia all Apulia 
in its widest meaning. The N.W. of Apulia 
is a plain, but the S. part is traversed by the E. 
branch of the Apennines, and has only a smaU 
tract of land on the coast on each side of the moun- 
tains. The country Avas very fertile, especially in 
the neighbourhood of Tarentum, and the mountains 
afibrded excellent pasturage. The population Avas 



AQUAE. 

of a mixed nature : they were for the most part of 
\ Illyrian origin, and are said to have settled in the 
i country under the guidance of lapyx, Daunius, and 
Peucetius, three sons of an Illyrian king, Lycaon. 
Subsequently many towns were founded by Greek 
colonists. The Apulians joined the Samnites against 
the Romans, and became subject to the latter on 
the conquest of the Samnites. 

Aquae, the name given by the Romans to many 
medicinal springs and bathing-places : — 1. Auke- 
LIAE or CoLONiA AuRELiA Aquensis {Badeu- 
Baden). 2. Calidae or SoLls {Bath) in Britain. 
3. CuTiLiAE, mineral springs in Samnium near the 
ancient town of Cutilia, which perished in early 
times, and E. of Reate. There was a celebrated 
lake in its neighbourhood with a floating island, 
which was regarded as the umbilicus or centre 
of Italy. Vespasian died at this place. 4. 
Mattiacae or Pontes Mattiaci ( Wiesbaden), 
in the land of the Mattiaci in Germany. 5. Fa- 
ta vinae [Aponi Fons]. 6. Sextiae {Aix), a 
Roman colony in Gallia Narbonensis, founded by 
Sextius Calvinus, B. c. 1 22 ; its mineral waters 
were long celebrated, but were thought to have 
lost much of their efficacy in the time of Augustus. 
Near this place Marius defeated the Teutoni, B. c. 
102. 7. Statiellae (Acqui), a town of the 
Statielli in Liguria, celebrated for its Avarm baths. 

Aquae, in Africa. 1. (Meriga, Ru.), in the in- 
terior of Mauretania Caesariensis.— 2. Calidae 
(Gurbos or Hammam VEnf), on the gulf of Car- 
thage. — 3. Regiae {Hammam Truzza)^ in the 
N. part of Byzacena. — 4. Tacapitanae {Ham- 
mat- el-Khabs), at the S. extremity of Byzacena, 
close to the large city of Tacape {Khabs). 

Aquila. l.^Of Pontus, translated the Old Tes- 
tament into Greek, in the reign of Hadrian, pro- 
bably about a. d. 1 30. Only a few fragments re- 
main, which have been published in the editions 
of the Hexapla of Origen.— 2. Julius Aquila, a 
Roman jurist quoted in the Digest, probably lived 
under or before the reign of Septimius Severus, A. D. 
193— 198.— 3. L. Pontius Aquila, a friend of 
Cicero, and one of Caesar's murderers, was killed 
at the battle of Mutina, b. c. 43.-4. Aquila Ro- 
manus, a rhetorician, who probably lived in the 
third century after Christ, wrote a small work en- 
titled De Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis, which 
is usually printed with Rutilius Lupus. — Editions. 
By Ruhnken, Lugd. Bat. 1768, reprinted with ad- 
, ditional notes by Frotscher, Lips. 1831. 

Aquilaria {Alhowareah), a town on the coast 
of Zeugitana in Africa, on the W. side of Her- 
, maeum Pr. (C. Bon), the E. extremity of the 
Gulf of Carthage. It was a good landing-place in 
summer. 

Aquileia (Aquileiensis : Aquileia or Aglar), a 
town in Gallia Transpadana at the very top of the 
Adriatic, between the rivers Sontius and Natiso, 
about 60 stadia from the sea. It was founded by 
the Romans in b. c. 182 as a bulwark against the 
N. barbarians, and is said to have derived its 
name from the favourable omen of an eagle {aquila) 
j'.ppearing to the colonists. As it was the key of 
Italy on the N.E., it was made one of the strong- 
est fortresses of the Romans. From its position it 
became also a most flourishing place of commerce : 
the Via Aemilia was continued to this town, and 
from it all the roads to Rhaetia, Noricum, Panno- 
nia, Istria, and Palmatia branched off. It was 
taken and completely destroyed by Attila in A. b. 



ARABIA. 67 

452 : its inhabitants escaped to the Lagoons, where 
Venice was afterwards built. 

Aquillia Via, began at Copwa, and ran S. 
through Nola and Nuceria to Salernum ; from 
thence it ran through the vqyj heart of Lucania and 
Bruttii, passing Nerulum, Interamnia, Cosentia, 
Vibo, and Medina, and terminated at Rliegium. 

Aquillius or Aquilius. 1. M'., consul b. c. 
129, finished the war against Aristonicus, son of 
Eumenes of Pergamus. On his return to Rome he 
was accused of maladministration in his province, 
but was acquitted by bribing the judges. — 2. M'., 
consul in b. c. 101, conquered the slaves in Sicily, 
who had revolted under Athenion. In 98 he was 
accused of maladministration in Sicily, but was 
acquitted. In 88 he went into Asia as one of the 
consular legates in the Mithridatic war : he was 
defeated and handed over by the inhabitants of 
Mytilene to Mithridates, who put him to death b)"- 
pouring molten gold down his throat. 

Aqmllius Gallus. [Gallus.] 

Aquiloma (Aquilonus), a town of Samnium, E. 
of Bovianum, destroyed by the Romans in the Sam- 
nite wars. 

Aquinum (Aquinas : Aquino), a town of the 
Volscians, E. of the river Melpis, in a fertile coun- 
try ; a Roman municipium and afterwards a colony ; 
the birth-place of Juvenal ; celebrated for its 
purple dye. (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 27.) 

Aquitania. 1. The country of the Aquitani, 
extended from the Garumna {Garonne) to the Py- 
renees, and from the ocean to Gallia Narbonensis : 
it was first conquered by Caesar's legates, and again 
upon a revolt of the inhabitants in the time of 
Augustus. — 2. The Roman province of Aquitania, 
formed in the reign of Augustus, was of much wider 
extent, and was bounded on the N. by the Ligeris 
{Loire), on the W. by the ocean, on the S. by the 
Pyrenees, and on the E. by the Mons Cevenna, 
which separated it from Gallia Narbonensis. — The 
Aquitani were one of the three races which inha- 
bited Gaul ; they were of Iberian or Spanish 
origin, and difiered from the Gauls and Belgians 
in language, customs, and physical peculiarity. 

Ara Ubiofum, a place in the neighbourhood of 
Bonn in Germany, perhaps Godesberg : others sup- 
pose it to be another name of Colonia Agrippina 
{Cologne). 

Arabia {rj 'ApaSia : "Apaxp, pi . "ApaSes, ''Apa- 
€oi, Arabs, Arabus, pi. Arabes, Arabi : Arabia), 
a country at the S.W. extremity of Asia, forming 
a large peninsula, of a sort of hatchet shape, bounded 
on the W. by the Arabicus Sinus {Red Sea), on 
the S. and S.E. by the Erythraeum Mare 
{Gulf of Bab-el- Mandeb and Indian Ocea?z), and 
on the N.E. by the Persicus Sinus {Persian Gulf). 
On the N. or land side its boundaries were some- 
what indefinite, but it seems to have included the 
whole of the desert country between Egypt and 
SjTia, on the one side, and the banks of the Eu- 
phrates on the other ; and it was often considered 
to extend even further on both sides, so as to in- 
clude, on the E., the S. part of Mesopotamia along 
the left bank of the Euphrates, and, on the W., 
the part of Palestine E. of the Jordan, and the 
part of Egj'pt between the Red Sea and the E. 
margin of the Nile valley, which, even as a part of 
Egj'pt, was called Arabiae Nemos. In the stricter 
sense of the name, which confines it to the penin- 
sula itself, Arabia may be considered as bounded 
on the N. by a line from the head of the Red Spa 

F 2 



G8 ARABIA. 

(at Suez) to the mouth of the Tigris (Shat-el-Arab) 
which just about coincides with the parallel of 30° 
N. lat. It was divided into 3 parts : (1) Arabia Pe- 
traea (tJ Trerpaia 'Apagi'a : N. W. part of El-Hejaz), 
including the triangular piece of land between the 
two heads of the Red Sea (the peninsula of M, 
Sinai) and the country immediately to the N. and 
N. E. ; and called from its capital Petra, while the 
literal signification of the name " Rocky Arabia" 
agrees also with the nature of the country : (2) 
^abia Deserta (El-Jebel), including the great 
Syrian Desert and a portion of the interior of the 
Arabian peninsula : (3) Arabia Felix (El-Nejed, 
El-Hejaz, El-Yemen, El-Hadramaut, Oman, and 
El-Hejer) consisted of the whole country not in- 
cluded in the other two divisions ; the ignorance of 
the ancients respecting the interior of the peninsula 
leading them to class it with Arabia Felix, although 
it properly belongs to Arabia Deserta, for it con- 
sists, so far as it is knowTi, of a sandy desert of 
steppes and table land, interspersed with Oases 
{Wadis), and fringed with mountains, between 
which and the sea, especially on the W. coast, lies 
a belt of low land (called Tehdmah), intersected 
bj^ numerous mountain torrents, which irrigate the 
strips of land on their banks, and produce that fer- 
tility which caused the ancients to apply the epi- 
thet of Felix to the whole peninsula. The width 
of the Tehamah is, in some places on the W. coast, 
as much as from one to two days' journey, but on 
the other sides it is verj'- narrow, except at the E. 
end of the peninsula (about Mushit in Oman) 
where for a small space its width is again a day's 
journey. — The inhabitants of Arabia were of the 
race called Semitic or Aramaean, and closely re- 
lated to the Israelites. The N. W. district (Arabia 
Petraea) was inhabited by the various tribes which 
constantly appear in Jewish history: the Araa- 
lekites, Midianites, Edomites, Moabites, Ammo- 
nites, &c. The Greeks and Romans called the 
inhabitants by the name of Nabathaei, whose 
capital was Petra. The people of Arabia Deserta 
were called Arabes Scenitae {'S,K't]v7Tai), from their 
dwelling in tents, and Arabes Nomadae (Nojuaoes), 
from their mode of life, which was that of wander- 
ing herdsmen, who supported themselves partly by 
their cattle, and to a great extent also by the plun- 
der of caravans, as their unchanged descendants, 
the Bedouins or Bedawee, still do. The people of 
the Tehamah were (and are) of the same race ; but 
their position led them at an early period to culti- 
vate both agriculture and conmierce, and to build 
considerable cities. Their chief tribes were kno^TO 
by the following names, beginning S. of the Na- 
bathaei, on the W. coast : the Thamj'deni and 
Minaei (in the S. part of Hejaz) in the neighbour- 
hood of Macoraba {Mecca) ; the Sabaei and Ho- 
meritae in the S. W. part of the peninsula ( Fewere) ; 
on the S. E. coast, the Chatramolitae and Adra- 
mitae (in El-Hadramaut, a country ver}' little 
known, even to the present day) ; on the E. and 
and N. E. coast the Omanitae and Daracheni (in 
Oman, and El-Ahsa or El-Hejer). — From the 
earliest known period a considerable traffic was 
carried on by the people in the N. (especially the 
Nabathaei) by means of caravans, and by those on 
the S. and E. coast by sea, in the productions of 
their own country (chiefly gums, spices, and pre- 
cious stones), and in those of India and Arabia. 
Besides this peaceful intercourse with the neigh- 
bouring countries, they seem to have made military 



ARACHNE. 

expeditions at an early period, for there can be no 
doubt that the Hyksos or " Shepherd-kings," who 
for some time ruled over Lower Egypt, were Ara- 
bians. On the other hand, they have successfully 
resisted all attempts to subjugate them. The al- 
ledged conquests of some of the Assyrian kings 
could only have affected small portions of the coun- 
try on the N. Of the Persian empire we are ex- 
pressly told that they were independent. Alex- 
ander the Great died too soon even to attempt his 
contemplated scheme of circumnavigating the pe- 
ninsula and subduing the inhabitants. The Greek 
kings of Syria made unsuccessful attacks upon the 
Nabathaei. Under Augustus, Aelius Gallus, as- 
sisted by the Nabathaei, made an expedition into 
Arabia Felix, but was compelled to retreat into 
Egypt to save his army from famine and the cli- 
mate. Under Trajan, Arabia Petraea was conquered 
by A. Cornelius Palma (a. d. 107), and the country 
of the Nabathaei became a Roman province. Some 
partial and temporary footing was gained at a much 
later period, on the S.W. coast by the Ethiopians ; 
and both in this direction and from the N. Chris- 
tianity was early introduced into the country, where 
it spread to a great extent, and continued to exist 
side by side with the old religion (which was Sa- 
baeism, or the worship of heavenly bodies), and 
with some admixture of Judaism, until the total 
revolution produced by the rise of Mohammedanism 
in 622. While maintaining their independence, 
the Arabs of the Desert have also preserved to this 
day their ancient form of government, which is 
strictly patriarchal, under the heads of tribes and 
families {Emirs and SJieiks). In the more settled 
districts, the patriarchal authority passed into the 
hands of kings ; and the people were divided into 
the several castes of scholars, warriors, agricultiurists, 
merchants, and mechanics. The Mohammedan 
revolution lies beyond our limits. 

Arabicus Sinus (o 'ApaSiKhs kSXttos: Red 
Sea), a long narrow gulf between Africa and Arabia, 
connected on the S. with the Indian Ocean by the 
Angustiae Divae {Straits of Bab-el- Mandeh), and 
on the N. divided into two heads by the peninsula 
of Arabia Petraea {Penins. of Sinai), the E. of 
which was called Sinus Aelanites or Aelaniticus 
{Gulf of Ahaba), and the W. Sinus Heroopolites 
or Heroopoliticus {Gulf of Suez). The upper part 
of the sea was known at a very early period ; but 
it was not explored in its whole extent till the ma- 
ritime expeditions of the Ptolemies. Respecting 
its other name see Erythraeum Mare. 

Arabis {"hpaSis, also 'ApdSios, "Apgjs, "Apro^iS, 
and 'ApTd€ios : Poorally or Agbor), a river of Ge- 
drosia, falling into the Indian Ocean 1000 stadia 
( 1 00 geog. miles) W. of the mouth of the Indus, 
and dividing the Oritae on its W. from the Ara- 
bitae or Arbies on its E., who had a city named 
Arbis on its E. bank. 

Arabitae. [Arabis.] 

Arachnaeum (^hpaxvatov), a mountain forming 
the boundary between Argolis and Corinthia. 

Arachne, a Lydian maiden, daughter of Idraon 
of Colophon, a famous dyer in purple. Arachne 
excelled in the art of weaving, and, proud of her 
talent, ventured to challenge Athena to compete 
with her. Arachne produced a piece of cloth in 
which the amours of the gods were woven, and as 
Athena could find no fault with it, she tore the 
work to pieces. Arachne in despair hung herself: 
the goddess loosened the rope and saved her life, 



ARACHOSIA. 



AKAXES. 



69 



but the rope was changed into a cobweb and 
Arachne herself into a spider (apaxfri), the animal 
most odious to Athena. (Ov. Met. vi. 1, seq.) This 
fable seems to suggest the idea that man learnt the 
art of weaving from the spider, and that it was in- 
vented in Lydia. 

Arachosia ('Apax&xn'a : 'Apaxw^o: or -wrai : 
S. E. part of A fghanistan and iV. E. fart of Be- 
loocJiistan), one of the extreme E. provinces of the 
Persian (and afterwards of the Parthian) Empire, 
bounded on the E. by the Indus, on the N. by the 
Paropamisadae, on the W. by Drangiana, and on 
the S. by Gedrosia. It was a fertile country, wa- 
tered by the river Arachotus {'Apdxojros), some 
distance from which stood a city of the same name, 
Arachotus, which was said to have been built by 
Semiramis, and which was the capital of the pro- 
vince until the foundation of Alexandria. The 
shortest road from Persia to India passed through 
Arachosia. 

Arachotus. [Arachosia.] 

Araehtlius or Aretlio ("Apaxdos or 'Apedcvv : 
Arta), a river of Epirus, rises in M. Lacmon 
or the Tymphean mountains, and flows into the 
Ambracian gulf, S. of Ambracia : it is deep and 
difficult to cross, and navigable up to Ambracia. 

Aracyntlius ("ApaKvudos : Zigos), a mountain 
on the S.W. coast of Aetolia near Pleuron, some- 
times placed in Acarnania. Later writers erro- 
neously make it a mountain between Boeotia and 
Attica, and hence mention it in connection with 
Amphion, the Boeotian hero. (Propert. iii. 13. 41 ; 
Adaeo (i. e. Attico) AracyntJio, Virg. Ed. ii. 24.) 

Aradus (^ApaZos : ^Apddios, Aradius : in 0. T. 
Arvad : Ruad), an island oif the coast of Phoenicia, 
at the distance of 20 stadia (2 geog. miles), with a 
city which occupied the whole surface of the island, 
7 stadia in circumference, which was said to have 
been founded by exiles from Sidon, and which was 
a very flourishing place under its own kings, under 
the Seleucidae, and under the Romans. It pos- 
sessed a harbour on the mainland, called Anta- 

RADUS. 

Arae Phiiaenorum. [Philaenorum Arae.] 

Araethyrea ("Apaidvpea), daughter of Arns, an 
autochthon who was believed to have built Arantea, 
the most ancient town in Pliliasia. After her 
dfath, her brother Aoris called the country of 
Phliasia Araethyrea, in honour of his sister. 

Araphen (^Apa(pr\v : 'Apaip-fjuios, 'Apacp-fiuoBeu : 
Rafina), an Attic demus belonging to the tribe 
Aegaeis, on the E. of Attica, N. of the river Era- 
sinus, not far from its mouth. 

Arar or Araris (Saone), a river of Gaul, rises in 
the Vosges, receives the Dubis {Daubs) from the 
E., after which it becomes navigable, and flows 
with a quiet stream into the Rhone at Lugdunum 
(Lyon). In the time of Ammianus (a. d. 370) it 
was also called Sauconna, and in the middle ages 
Sangona, whence its modern name Saone. 

Araros {'Apapws), an Athenian poet of the 
Middle Comedv, son of Aristophanes, flourished 
B.C. 375. 

Aras. [Araethyrea.] 

Araspes {'Apda-irris), a Mede, and a friend of 
the elder Cyrus, is one of the characters in Xeno- 
phon's Cyropaedia. He contends with Cyrus that 
love has no power over him, but shortly afterwards 
refutes himself by falling in love with Panthea, 
whom Cyrus had committed to his charge. [Abra- 

DATAS.] 



Ai'atus {"Aparos). 1. The celebrated general 
of the Achaeans, son of Clinias, was born at Sicyon, 
B. c. 271. On the murder of his father by Aban- 
TiDAS, Aratus, Avho was then a child, Avas con- 
veyed to Argos, where he was brought up. "When 
lie had reached the age of 20 he gained possession 
of his native city, b. c. 2.')1, deprived the usurper 
Nicocles of his power, and united Sicyon to the 
Achaean league, which gained in consequence a 
great accession of power. [Achaei.] In 245 he 
was elected general of the league, which office he 
frequently held in subsequent years. Through his 
influence a great number of the Greek cities joined 
the league ; but he excelled more in negotiation 
than in war, and in his war with the Aeto- 
lians and Spartans he ■ was often defeated. In 
order to resist these enemies he cultivated the 
friendship of Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, 
and of his successor Philip ; but as Philip was 
evidently anxious to make himself master of all 
Greece, dissensions arose between him and Aratus, 
and the latter was eventually poisoned in 213 by 
the king's order. Divine honours were paid to 
him by his countrymen, and an annual festival 
('Aparem, see Did of Antiq.) established. Aratus 
wrote Commentaries, being a history of his own 
times down to B. c. 220 : at which point Polybius 
commenced his history. — 2. Of Soli, afterwards 
Pompeiopolis, in Cilicia, or (according to one au- 
thority) of Tarsus, flourished B. c. 270, and spent 
all the latter part of his life at the court of Anti- 
gonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia. He wrote 
two astronomical poems, entitled Fhaenomena {^ai- 
voixiva), consisting of 732 verses, and Diosemeia 
(Aioar]iJ.e7a), of 422. The design of the Phaenomena 
is to give an introduction to the knowledge of the 
constellations, with the rules for their risings and 
settings. The Diosemeia consists of prognostics of 
the weather from astronomical phaenomena, with 
an account of its eff"ects upon animals. It appears 
to be an imitation of Hesiod, and to have been imi- 
tated by Virgil in some parts of the Georgics. The 
style of these two poems is distinguished by ele- 
gance and accuracy ; but it wants originality and 
poetic elevation. That they became very popular 
both in the Grecian and Roman v/orld {cum sole et 
lima semper Aratus erit., Ov. Am. i. 15. 16), is 
proved by the number of commentaries and Latin 
translations. Parts of three poetical Latin transla- 
tions are preserved. One Avritten by Cicero when 
very young, one by Caesar Germanicus, the grand- 
son of Augustus, and one by Festus Avienus. — 
Editions. By Voss, Heidelb. 1824, with a Ger- 
man poetical version ; by Buttmann, Berol. 1826 ; 
and by Bekker, Berol. 1828. 

Arauris {Herault), erroneously Rauraris in 
Strabo, a river in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in M. 
Cevenna, and flows into the Mediterranean. 

Arausio {Orange)., a to\vn of the Cavari or 
Cavares, and a Roman colony, in Gallia Narbonen- 
sis, on the road from Arelate to Vienna : it still 
contains remains of an amphitheatre, circus, aque- 
duct, triumphal arch, &c. 

Araxes ('Apa|77s), the name of several rivers. 
— L In Armenia Major {Eraskh or Aras), rises 
in M. Aba or Abus (nr. Erzeroum), from the op- 
posite side of which the Euphrates flows ; and, 
after a great bend S.E. and then N.E., joins the 
Cyrus {Kour), which flows down from the Cau- 
casus, and falls with it into the Caspian by two 
mouths, in about 39'^ 20' N. Lat. The lower part, 

p 3 



70 



AHA X US. 



ARCESILAUS. 



past Artaxata, flows through a plain, which was 
called rh 'Apa^rjvhv TreSiW. The Araxes was 
proverbial for the force of its current ; and hence 
Virgil (Aen. viii. 728), says pontevi indignatus 
Araxes^ with special reference to the failure of 
both Xerxes and Alexander in throwinfj a bridge 
over it. It seems to be the Phasis of Xenophon. 
—2. In Mesopotamia, [Aborrhas.] — 3. In 
Persis {Bend-Emir)^ the river on which Persepolis 
stood, rises in the mountains E. of the head of the 
Persian Gulf, and flows S.E. into a salt lake {Bakli- 
tegan) not far below Persepolis. —4. It is doubtful 
whether the Araxes of Herodotus is the same as 
the Oxus, Jaxartes, or Volga.— b. The Pe- 
NEUS, in Thessaly, Avas called Araxes from the 
violence of its torrent (fr. apd^rcrco) . 

Arazus ("Apa^os : C. Papa), a promontory of 
Achaia near the confines of Elis. 

Arbaces {'ApSdKTis), the founder of the Median 
empire, according to Ctesias, is said to have taken 
Nineveh in conjunction with Belesis, the Babylo- 
nian, and to have destroyed the old Assyrian em- 
pire under the reign of Sardanapalus, B. c. 876. 
Ctesias assigns 28 years to the reign of Arbaces, 
B.C. 876 — 848, and makes his dynastj' consist 
of 8 kings. This account differs from that of 
Herodotus, who makes Deioces the first king of 
Media, and assigns only 4 kings to his dynasty. 

Arbela (ra "ApgrjAa : Erbille), a city of Adia- 
bene in Assyria, between the rivers Lycus and 
Caprus ; celebrated as the head-quarters of Darius 
Codomannus, before the last battle in which he 
was overthrown by Alexander (b. c. 331), which 
is hence frequently called the battle of Arbela, 
though it was really fought near Gauga^iela, 
about 50 miles W. of Arbela. The district about 
Arbela was called Arbelitis ('Ap^TjAlrts). 

Arbis. [Arabis.] 

Arbucala or Arbocala (Villa Fasila?), the 
chief town of the Vaccaei in Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, taken by Hannibal after a long resistance. 

Atbuscula, a celebrated female actor in panto- 
mimes in the time of Cicero. 

Area or -ae {"ApK-q, or -ai : Tell-Ai-Jca), a very 
ancient city in the N. of Phoenicia, not far from 
the sea-coast, at the foot of M. Lebanon : a colony 
under the Romans, named Area Caesarea or Cae- 
sarea Libani : the birthplace of the emperor Alex- 
ander Severus. 

Arcadia ('Ap«aSi'a: "ApKas, pi. 'Ap/caSes), a 
coimtrj^ in the middle of Peloponnesus, was bounded 
on the E. by Argolis, on the N. by Achaia, on the 
W. by Elis, and on the S. by Messenia and La- 
conica. Next to Laconica it was the largest country 
in the Peloponnesus : its greatest length was about 
50 miles, its breadth from 35 to 41 miles. It Avas 
surrounded on all sides by mountains, which like- 
wise traversed it in every direction, and it may be 
regarded as the Switzerland of Greece. Its prin- 
cipal mountains were Cyllene and Erj-manthus in 
the N., Artemisius in the E., and Parthenius, Mae- 
nalus, and Lycaeus in the S. and S.W. The Ache- 
lous, the greatest river of Peloponnesus, rises in 
Arcadia, and flows through a considerable part of 
the country, receiving numerous affluents. The 
N. and E. parts of the coiintrj- Avere barren 
and unproductive ; the W. and S. Avere more 
fertile, with numerous A'alleys Avhere com Avas 
groAvn. The Arcadians, said to be descended 
from the eponymous hero Arcas, regarded them- 
selves as the most ancient people in Greece : the 



Greek Avritcrs call them indigenous (our^x^ores) 
and Pelasgians. In consequence of the physical 
peculiarity of the country, they Avere chiefly cm- 
ployed in hunting and the tending of cattle, whence 
their AA'orship of Pan, Avho Avas especially the god 
of Arcadia, and of Artemis. They were a people 
simple in their habits and moderate in their de- 
sires : they Avere passionately fond of music, and 
cultivated it Avith great success {soli cantare periti 
Arcades., Y'wg.Ecl. x. 32), Avhich circumstance Avas 
supposed to soften the natural roughness of their 
character. The Arcadians experienced fewer 
changes than any other people in Greece, and re- 
tained possession of their country upon the conquest 
of the rest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians. Like 
the other Greek peoples, they were originally go- 
A-erned by kings, but are said to have abolished 
monarchy toAvards the close of the second Messenian 
AA-ar, and to haA'e stoned to death their last king 
Aristocrates, because he betrayed his allies the 
Messenians. The diflferent towns then became in- 
dependent republics, of Avhich the most important 
AA-ere ]Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Psuphis, 
and Phexeos. Like the Swiss, the Arcadians 
frequently served as mercenaries, and in the Pe- 
loponnesian Avar, they Avere found in the armies of 
both the Lacedaemonians and Athenians. The 
Lacedaemonians made many attempts to obtain 
possession of parts of Arcadia, but these attempts 
AA'ere finally frustrated by the battle of Leuctra 
(b. c. 371); and in order to resist all future ag- 
gressions on the part of Sparta, the Arcadians, upon 
the advice of Epaminondas, built the city of Me- 
galopolis, and instituted a general assembly of 
the Avhole nation, called the JMyrii (MvpioL, Did. 
of Antiq. s. v.). They subsequently joined the 
Achaean League, and finally became subject to the 
Romans. 

Arcadius, emperor of the East (a. d. 395 — 408), 
elder son of Theodosiiis I., was born in Spain, 
A. D. 383. On the death of Theodosius, he became 
emperor of the East, while the West Avas given to 
his younger brother Honorius. Arcadius possessed 
neither physical nor intellectual vigour, and was en- 
tirely goA-erned by unAvorthy faA'ourites. At first 
he Avas ruled by Rufinus, the praefect of the East ; 
and on the murder of the latter soon after the ac- 
cession of Arcadius, the government fell into the 
hands of the eunuch Eutropius. Eutropius was 
put to death in 399, and his power noAv deA'olved 
upon Gainas, the Goth ; but upon his revolt and 
death in 401 Arcadius became entirely dependent 
upon his wife Eudoxia, and it was through her 
influence that St. Chrysostom was exiled in 404. 
Arcadius died on the 1st of May, 408, leaA-ing the 
empire to his son Theodosius IL, who Avas a minor. 

Arcanmn. [Arpinum.] 

Arcas ("Apwas), king and eponymous hero of the 
Arcadians, son of Zeus and Callisto, grandson of 
Lycaon and father of Aphidas and Elatus. Arcas was 
the boy whose flesh his grandfather Lycaon placed 
before Zeus, to try his divine character. Zeus up- 
set the table (rpdireCa) Avhich bore the dish, and 
destroyed the house of Lycaon by lightning, but 
restored Areas to life. When Arcas had grown 
up, he built on the site of his father's house the 
town of Trapezus. Arcas and his mother were 
placed by Zeus among the stars. 

Arcesilaus or Arcesiias {'ApKeaiXaos, 'ApKe- 
a'lAas), a Greek philosopher, son of Seuthes or 
Scythes, was bom at Pitane in Aeolis, and flou- 



I ARCESILAUS. 

\ rislied about b. c. 250. He studied at first in his 
j native town under Autolycus, a mathematician, 
I and afterwards went to Athens, where he became 
j the disciple first of Theophrastus and next of Po- 
j lemo and of Grantor. He succeeded Crates about 
; B. c. 241 in the chair of the Academy, and became 
the founder of the second or middle {jj-iari) Aca- 
demy, He is said to have died in his 76th year 
I from a fit of drunkenness. His philosophy Avas of 
I a sceptical character, though it did not go so far as 
that of the followers of Pyrrhon. He did not 
doubt the existence of truth in itself, only our ca- 
I pacities for obtaining it, and he combated most 
j strongly the dogmatism of the Stoics. 
I Arcesilaus {'ApKeoiXans). 1. Son of Lycus and 
i Theobule, leader of the Boeotians in the Trojan 
j war, slain by Hector. —2. The name of four kings 
j of Cyrene. [Battus and Battiadae.] 

AxcesiXLS ('Ap/fetVtos), son of Zeus and Euryo- 
i dia, father of Laertes, and grandfather of Ulysses, 
i Hence both Laertes and Ulysses are called Arce- 
siades ('ApKeiaidSrjs). 

Archaeopolis CApxai6iro\is), the later capital 
of Colchis ; near the river Phasis. 

Archandropolis {'ApxauBpov ir6\ts), a city of 
Lower Egypt, on the Nile, between Canopus and 
Cercasorus. 

Archedemus ( 'Apx^^Vf^os ; Dor. 'Apx^^a/xos). 

I. A popular leader at Athens, took the first step 
against the generals who had gained the battle of 
Arginusae, B. c, 406. The comic poets called him 

blear-eyed " (7Aa^&jj'), and said that he Avas a 
foreigner, and had obtained the franchise by fraud. 
. —2. An Aetolian (called Archidamus by Livy), 
j commanded the Aetolian troops which assisted the 
' Romans in their war with Philip (b.c. 1.99 — 197). 
He afterwards took an active part against the Ro- 
mans, and eventually joined Perseus, whom he 
accompanied in his flight after his defeat in 168. 
I — 3. Of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, mentioned by 
Cicero, Seneca, and other ancient writers. 

Archedicus {'Apx^SiKos), an Athenian comic 
poet of the new comedj--, supported Antipater and 
the Macedonian party. 

Archegetes ('Apx^7€T77s), a surname of Apollo, 
probably in reference to his being a leader of co- 
i lonies. It was also a surname of other gods. 
' Archelais (ApxeXat^). 1. In Cappadocia (AJc- 
jserai), on the Cappadox, a tributary of the Halys, 
a city founded by Archelaus, the last king of Cap- 
padocia, and made a Roman colony hj the emperor 
Claudius. — 2. A town of Palestine, near Jericho, 
founded by Archelaus, the son of Herod the Great. 

Archelaus ('ApxeAaos). 1. Son of Herod the 
Great, was appointed by his father as his successor, 
and received from Augustus Judaea, Samaria, and 
Idumaea, with the title of ethnarch. In conse- 
quence of his tyrannical government, the Jews ac- 
cused him before Augustus in the 10th year of his 
reign (a. D. 7) : Augustus banished him to Vienna 
in Gaul, where he died.— 2. King of Macedonia 
(b.c, 413 — 399), an illegitimate son of Perdiccas 

II. , obtained the throne by the murder of his half- 
brother. He improved the internal condition of 
nis kingdom, and was a warm patron of art and 
literature. His palace was adorned with magni- 
ficent paintings by Zeuxis ; and Euripides, Aga- 
thon, and other men of eminence, were among his 
guests. According to some accounts Archelaus 
was accidentally slain in a hunting party by his 
favourite, Craterus or Crateuas ; but according to 



ARCHESTRATUS. 71 

other accounts he was murdered by Craterus. — 3. 
A distinguished general of Mithridates. In 
B. c. 87 he was sent into Greece by Mithridates 
Avith a large fleet and army ; at first he met with 
considerable success, but was twice defeated by 
Sulla in 86, near Chaeronea and Orchomenos in 
Boeotia, with immense loss. Thereupon he was 
commissioned by Mithridates to sue for peace, 
which he obtained : but subsequently being sus- 
pected of treachery by the king, he deserted to the 
Romans just before the commencement of the second 
Mithridatic war, b.c. 81. — 4. Son of the pre- 
ceding, was raised by Pompey, in B. c. 63, to the 
dignity of priest of the goddess (Enyo or Bellona) 
at Comana in Pontus or Cappadocia. In 56 or 55 
Archelaus became king of Egypt by marrying 
Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, who 
after the expulsion of her father had obtained the 
sovereignty of Egypt. Archelaus, however, Avas 
king of Eg5'-pt only for 6 months, for Gabinius 
marched Avith an army into Egypt in order to re- 
store Ptolemy Auletes, and in the battle Avhich 
ensued, Archelaus perished. — 5, Son of No. 4, 
and his successor in the office of high-priest of Co- 
mana, Avas deprived of his dignity by Julius Caesar 
in 47. — 6. Son of No. 5., received from Antony, 
in B. c. 36, the kingdom of Cappadocia — a favour 
Avhich he owed to the charms of his mother Gla- 
phyra. After the battle of Actium Octavianus not 
only left Archelaus in the possession of his king- 
dom, but subsequently added to it a part of Cilicia 
and Lesser Armenia. But having incurred the en- 
mity of Tiberius by the attention Avhich he had 
paid to C. Caesar, he was summoned to Rome soon 
after the accession of Tiberius and accused of treason. 
His life Avas spared, but he was obliged to remain at 
Rome, Avhere he died soon after, a. d. 17. Cappa- 
docia was then made a Roman province. — 7. A 
philosopher, probably born at Athens, though others 
make him a native of Miletus, flourished about B.C. 
450. The philosophical system of Archelaus is 
remarkable, as forming a point of transition from 
the older to the newer form of philosophy in Greece. 
As a pupil of Anaxagoras he belonged to the Ionian 
school, but he added to the physical system of his 
teacher some attempts at moral speculation. — 8. 
A Greek poet, in Egypt, lived under the Ptolemies, 
and Avrote epigrams, some of which are still extant 
in the Greek Anthology. — 9. A sculptor of Priene, 
son of ApoUonius, made the marble bas-relief re- 
presenting the Apotheosis of Homer, Avhich formerly 
belonged to the Colonna family at Rome, and is 
noAV in the Townley Gallery of the British Museum. 
He probably lived in the reign of Claudius. 

Ajrcliemorus i^Apx^p-opos), or Opheltes, son 
of the Nemean king Lycurgus and Eurydice. 
When the Seven heroes on their expedition against 
Thebes stopped at Nemea to obtain Avater, Hypsi- 
pyle, the nurse of the child Opheltes, Avhile shoAv- 
ing the Avay to the Seven, left the child alone. In 
the meantime, the child Avas killed by a dragon, 
and buried by the Seven. But as Amphiaraus saw 
in this accident an omen boding destruction to him 
and his companions, they called the child Arche- 
morus, that is, " Forerunner of Death," and insti- 
tuted the Nemean games in honour of him. 

Archestratus ('ApxeVrporos), of Gela or Syra- 
cuse, about B. c. 350, wrote a poem on the Art of 
Cookery, which Avas imitated or translated by 
Ennius in his Carmina Hedypathetica or Hedy 
patJdca (from iQ^vrtdOeia). 

P 4 



72 



ARCHIAS. 



ARCHlMEDfJS. 



Archias ('Apx'as)- 1- An Heraclid of Corinth, 
left his countn,' in consequence of the death of 
AcTAEON, and founded Syracuse, B. c. 734, by 
command of the Delphic oracle.— 2. A. Licinius 
ArcMas, a Greek poet, born at Antioch in Syria, 
about B. c. 120, ver>' early obtained celebritj^ 
by his verses. In 102 he came to Rome, and 
was received in the most friendly way by many of 
the Roman nobles, especially by the Luculli, from 
whom he afterwards obtained the gentile name of 
Licinius. After a short stay at Rome he accompanied 
L. Lucullus, the elder, to Sicily, and followed him, in 
the banishment to which he was sentenced for his 
management of the slave war in that island, to Hera- 
clea in Lucania, in which town Archias was enrolled 
as a citizen ; and as this town was a state united 
with Rome by a foediis, he subsequently obtained 
the Roman franchise in accordance with the lex 
Plautia Papiria passed in B. c. 89. At a later time 
he accompanied L. Lucullus the younger to the 
Mithridatic war. Soon after his return, a charge 
was brought against him in 61 of assuming the 
citizenship illegally, and the trial came on before 
Q. Cicero, who was praetor this year. He was de- 
fended by his friend M. Cicero in the extant speech 
Pro Archia, in which the orator, after briefly dis- 
cussing the legal points of the case, rests the de- 
fence of his client upon his surpassing merits as a 
poet, which entitled him to the Roman citizenship. 
We may presume that Archias was acquitted, 
though we have no formal statement of the fact. 
Archias wrote a poem on the Cimbric war in 
honour of ]Marius ; another on the Mithridatic war 
in honour of Lucullus ; and at the time of his trial 
was engaged on a poem in honour of Cicero's con- 
sulship. No fragments of these works are ex- 
tant ; and it is doubtful whether the epigrams pre- 
served under the name of Archias in the Greek 
Anthology were really written by him. 

Archidamus ("Apxioaixos), the name of 5 kings 
of Sparta. 1. Son of Anaxidamus, contemporary 
with the Tegeatan war, which followed soon after 
the second Messenian, b. c. 668.-2. Son of Zeuxi- 
damus, succeeded his grandfather Leotychides, and 
reigned B.C. 469 — 427. During his reign, B.C. 
464, Sparta was made a heap of ruins hya. tremen- 
dous earthquake ; and for the next 10 years he 
was engaged in war against the revolted Helots 
and Messenian s. Towards the end of his reign 
the Peloponnesian war broke out : he recommended 
his countrymen not rashly to embark in the war, 
and he appears to have taken a more correct \ie w 
of the real strength of Athens than any other 
Spartan. After the war had been declared (b. c. 
431) he invaded Attica, and held the supreme 
command of the Peloponnesian forces till his death 
in 429.-3. Grandson of No. 2, and son of Agesi- 
laus II., reigned b. c. 361—338. During the life- 
time of his father he took an active part in resist- 
ing the Thebans and the various other enemies of 
Sparta, and in 3G7 he defeated the Arcadians and 
Argives in the " Tearless Battle," so called be- 
cause he had won it without losing a man. In 
362 he defended Sparta against Epaminondas. In 
the third Sacred war (b. c. 356 — 346) he assisted 
the Phocians. In 338 he went to Italy to aid the 
Tarentines against the Lucanians, and there fell in 
battle.— 4. Grandson of No. 3, and son of Euda- 
midas I., was king in b. c. 296, when he was de- 
feated by Demetrius Poliorcetes.— 5. Son of Euda- 
midas II., and the brother of Agis IV. On the 



murder of Agis, in b. c. 240, Archidamus fled from 
Sparta, but afterwards obtained the throne by 
means of Aratus. He was, however, slain almost 
immediately after his return to Sparta. Pie was 
the last king of the Eurypontid race. 

Archigenes ('Apx^y^yris), an eminent Greek 
physician, born at Apamea in Syria, practised at 
Rome in the time of Trajan, a. d. 98 — 117. He 
published a treatise on the pulse, on which Galen 
wrote a Commentary. He was the most eminent 
physician of the sect of the Eclectici, and is men- 
tioned by Juvenal as well as by other writers. 
Only a few fragments of his works remain. 

Archiloclius {' Apxi^.oxos), of Paros, was one 
of the earliest Ionian lyric poets, and the first 
Greek poet who composed Iambic verses according 
to fixed rules. He flourished about B.C. 714 — 676. 
He was descended from a noble family, who held 
the priesthood in Paros. His grandfather was 
Tellis, his father Telesicles, and his mother a 
slave, named Enipo. In the flower of his age 
(between b. c. 710 and 700), Archilochus went 
from Paros to Thasos with a colony, of which one 
account makes him the leader. The motive for 
this emigration can only be conjectured. It was 
most probably the result of a political change, to 
which cause was added, in the case of Archilochus, 
a sense of personal wrongs. He had been a suitor 
to Neobule, one of the daughters of Lycambes, 
who first promised and afterwards refused to give 
his daughter to the poet. Enraged at this treat- 
ment, Archilochus attacked the whole family in an 
Iambic poem, accusing Lycambes of perjury, and 
his daughters of the most abandoned lives. The 
verses were recited at the festival of Demeter, and 
produced such an effect, that the daughters of Ly- 
cambes are said to have hung themselves through 
shame. The bitterness which he expresses in his 
poems towards his native island seems to have 
arisen in part also from the low estimation in 
which he was held, as being the son of a slave. 
Neither was he more happy at Thasos. He draws 
the most melancholy picture of his adopted coun- 
try, which he at length quitted in disgust. While 
at Thasos, he incurred the disgrace of losing his 
shield in an engagement with the Thracians of the 
opposite continent ; but, instead of being ashamed 
of the disaster, he recorded it in his verse. At 
length he returned to Paros, and in a war 
between the Parians and the people of Naxos, 
he fell by the hand of a Naxian named Ca- i 
londas or Corax. Archilochus shared with his 
contemporaries, Thaletas and Terpander, in the 
honour of establishing lyric poetry throughout 
Greece. The invention of the elegy is ascribed 
to him, as well as to Callinus ; but it was on his 
satiric Iambic poetry that his fame was founded. 
His Iambics expressed the strongest feelings in the 
most unmeasured language. The licence of Ionian 
democracy and the bitterness of a disappointed 
man were united with the highest degree of 
poetical power to give them force and point. The 
emotion accounted most conspicuous in his verses 
was " rage," " Archilochum proprio rabies annavit 
iambo." (Hor. Ar. Pott. 79.) The fragments of 
Archilochus are collected in Bergk's Poet. Lyrici 
Graec, and by Liebel, Archilochi Reliquiae, Lips. 
1812, 8vo. 

Archimedes ('Apx'w^^Stjs), of Syracuse, the 
most famous of ancient mathematicians, was bom 
b. c. 287. He was a friend, if not a kinsman, of 



ARCHINUS. 



ARCTOS. 



73 



Hiero, though his actual condition in life does not 
seem to have been elevated. In the early part of 
his life he travelled into Egypt, where he studied 
under Conon the Samian, a mathematician and 
astronomer. After visiting other countries, he 
returned to Syracuse. Here he constructed for 
Hiero various engines of war, which, many years 
afterwards, were so far effectual in the defence of 
Sj'racuse against Marcellus, as to convert the siege 
into a blockade, and delay the taking of the city 
for a considerable time. The accounts of the per- 
formances of these engines are evidently exag- 
gerated ; and the story of the burning of the 
Roman ships by the reflected rays of the sun, 
though very current in later times, is probably 
a fiction. He superintended the building of a 
ship of extraordinary size for Hiero, of which a 
description is given in Athenaeus (v. p. 206, d.), 
where he is also said to have moved it to the sea 
by the help of a screw. He invented a machine 
called, from its form, Cochlea, and now known as 
the water-screw of Archimedes, for pumping the 
water out of the hold of this vessel. His most ce- 
lebrated performance was the construction of a 
sphere ; a kind of orrery, representing the move- 
ments of the heavenly bodies. When Syracuse 
was taken (b. c. 212), Archimedes was killed by 
the Roman soldiers, being at the time intent upon a 
mathematical problem. Upon his tomb was placed 
the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder. 
When Cicero was quaestor in Sicily (75) he found 
this tomb near one of the gates of the city, almost 
hid amongst briars, and forgotten by the Syracusans. 
The intellect of Archimedes was of the very highest 
order. He possessed, in a degree never exceeded, 
unless by Newton, the inventive genius which dis- 
covers new provinces of inquiry, and finds new 
points of view for old and familiar objects ; the 
clearness of conception which is essential to the re- 
solution of complex phaenomena into their consti- 
tuent elements ; and the power and habit of intense 
and persevering thought, without which other in- 
tellectual gifts are comparatively fruitless. The fol- 
lowing works of Archimedes have come down to 
us : 1. On Equiponderants and Centres of Gravity. 
2. The Quadrature of the Parabola. 3. On the 
Sphere and Cylinder. 4. On Dimension of the 
Circle, 5. On Spirals. 6. On Conoids and Sphe- 
roids. 7. The Arenarius. 8. On Floating Bodies. 
9. Lemmata. The best edition of his works is by 
Torelli, Oxon. 1792. There is a French translation 
of his works, with notes, by F. Peyrard, Paris, 
1808, and an English translation of the Arena- 
rius by G. Anderson, London, 1784. 

Archinus {'Apxtvos)^ one of the leading Athe- 
nians, who, with Thrasybulus and Anytus, over- 
threw the government of the Thirty, b. c. 403. 

ArcMppus ("Apx^^^^os), an Athenian poet of 
the old comedy, about b. c. 415. 

Archytas ('Apx^ras). 1. Of Amphissa,aGreek 
epic poet, flourished about b. c. 300. — 3. Of Ta- 
rentum, a distinguished philosopher, mathematician, 
general, and statesman, probably lived about b. c. 
400, and onwards, so that he was contemporary 
with Plato, whose life he is said to have saved by 
his influence with the tyrant Dionysius. He was 
7 times the general of his city, and he com- 
manded in several campaigns, in all of which he 
was victorious. After a life which secured to him 
a place among the very greatest men of antiquity, 
he was drowned while upon a voyage on the 



Adriatic. (Hor. Carm. i. 28.) As a philosopher, 
he belonged to the Pj'-thagorean school, and he ap- 
pears to have been himself the founder of a new 
sect. Like the Pythagoreans in general, he paid 
much attention to mathematics. Horace calls him 
maris et terrae numeroque carentis arenae Mensorem. 
To his theoretical science he added the skill of a 
practical mechanician, and constructed various 
machines and automatons, among which his wooden 
flying dove in particular was the wonder of anti- 
quity. He also applied mathematics with success 
to musical science, and even to metaphysical philo- 
soph)% His influence as a philosopher was so great, 
that Plato was undoubtedly indebted to him for 
some of his views ; and Aristotle is thought by 
some writers to have borrowed the idea of his cate- 
gories, as well as some of his ethical principles, 
from Archytas. 

Arconnesus {^ApKowrjaos : 'ApKovpriaios). 1. 
An island off the coast of Ionia, near Lebedus, also- 
called Aspis and Maoris. -^2. (Orak Ada), an is- 
land off the coast of Caria, opposite HalicarnassuSy 
of which it formed the harbour. 

Arctinus {'ApKT7vos), of Miletus, the most dis- 
tinguished among the cyclic poets, probably lived 
about B. c. 776. Two epic poems were attributed 
to him. 1. The Aethiopis, which was a kind of 
continuation of Homer's Iliad : its chief heroe& 
were Memnon, king of the Ethiopians, and Achilles, 
who slew him. 2. The Destruction of Ilion, which 
contained a description of the destruction of Troy, 
and the subsequent events until the departure of 
the Greeks. 

Arctophylax. [Arctos.] 

Arctos CApKTos), "the Bear," two constella- 
tions near the N. Pole. 1. The Great Bear 
{"ApKTos fx^yaXi] : JJrsa Major)., also called the 
Waggon (afxa^a: plaustrum). The ancient Italian 
name of this constellation was Septem 7Vio«es, that 
is, the Seven Ploughing Oxen., also Septentrio, and 
with the epithet Major to distinguish it from the 
Septentrio Minor, or Lesser Bear : hence Virgil 
{Aen. iii. 356) speaks of geminosque Triones. The 
Great Bear was also called FLelice {kKiKf]) from its. 
sweeping round in a curve. — 2. The Lesser or 
Little Bear (^ApKTos fiiKpd : Ursa Minor)^ 
likewise called the Waggon, was first added to the 
Greek catalogues by Thales, by whom it was pro- 
bably imported from the East. It was also called 
Phoenice {^oiviKf]), from the circumstance that it 
was selected by the Phoenicians as the guide- 
by which they shaped their course at sea, the 
Greek mariners with less judgment employing 
the Great Bear for the purpose ; and Cynosura 
(Kvv6(Tovpa), dog''s tail, from the resemblance 
of the constellation to the upturned curl of a 
dog's tail. The constellation before the Great 
Bear was called Bootes (Bocottjs), Ardophylaa: 
('ApKTOcpvXa^), or Arciurus CApKrovpos from odpos, 
guard) ; the two latter names suppose the con- 
stellation to represent a man upon the watch, 
and denote simply the position of the figure in re- 
ference to the Great Bear, while Bootes, which is 
found in Homer, refers to the Waggon, the imagi- 
nary figure of Bootes being fancied to occupy the 
place of the driver of the team. At a later time 
Arctophylax became the general name of the con- 
stellation, and tfie word Arcturus was confined to 
the chief star in it. All these constellations are 
connected in mythology with the Arcadian nymph 
Callisto, the daughter of Lycaon. Metamor- 



74 



ARCTURUS. 



A RET AS. 



phosed by Zeus upcii the cartli into a she-bear, 
Callisto was pursued b}- her son Areas in the chase, 
and when he was on the point of killini,' her, Zeus 
placed them both among the stars, Callisto be- 
coming the Great Bear and Areas the Little Bear 
t-r Bootes. In the poets the epithets of these stars 
liave constant reference to the family and country 
of Callisto : thus we find them called Lycaonis 
A rctos : Muenalia Ardos and Maenalis Ursa (from 
!Maenalus in Arcadiaj : Erymanthis Ursa (from 
Erymanthus in iVrcadia) : Parrhasides stellae 
(from the Arcadian town Parrhasia). — 'Though 
most traditions identified Bootes with Areas, others 
pronounced him to be Icarus or his daughter Eri- 
gone. Hence the Septentriones are called Boves 
Icurii. (SeeDict.o/Atiiiq. pp. 147, 148, 159,2nded.) 
Arcturus. [Arctos.] 

Ardea (Ardeas, -atis : Arded). 1. The chief 
town of the Rutuli in Latium, a little to the left 
of the river Numicus, 3 miles from the sea, was 
situated on a rock surrounded by marshes, in an 
unhealthy district. It was one of the most ancient 
places in Ital}', and was said to have been the ca- 
pital of Turnus. It was conquered and colonized 
by the Romans, B. c. 442, from which time its im- 
portance declined. In its neighbourhood was the 
Latin Aphrodisium or temple of Venus, which Avas 
under the superintendence of the Ardeates. — 2. 
{Ardekan ?), an important toA\Ti in Persis, S.W. of 
Persepolis. 

Arduenna Silva, the Ardennes, a vast forest, in 
the N.W. of Gaul, extended from the Rhine and 
the Treviri to the Nervii and Remi, and N. as 
far as the Scheldt : there are still considerable re- 
mains of this forest, though the greater part of it 
has disappeared. 

Ardys ("ApSus), son of Gyges, king of Lydia, 
reigned b. c. 678 — 629 : he took Priene and made 
war against Miletus. 

Area or Aretias CApeia or 'ApTjn'ar vfjo-os, i. e. 
the island of Ares : Kerasiint Ada)^ also called 
Chalceritis, an island off the coast of Pontus, close 
to Phamacea, celebrated in the legend of the Argo- 
nauts. 

Areithons ('Api}i0oos), king of Arne in Boeotia, 
and husband of Philomedusa, is called in the Iliad 
(vii. 8) icopvvqrris, because he fought with a club : 
he fell by the hand of the Arcadian Lycurgus. 

Arelate, Arelas, or Arelatum (Arelatensis : 
Aries), a town in Gallia Narbonensis at the head 
of the delta of the Rhone on the left bank, and a 
Roman colonj' founded by the soldiers of the sixth 
legion, Colonia Arelate Scxtanorum. It is first 
mentioned by Caesar, and under the emperors it 
became one of the most flourishing towns on this 
side of the Alps. Constantine the Great built an 
extensive suburb on the right bank, which he con- 
nected with the original city by a bridge. The 
Roman remains at Aries attest the greatness of the 
ancient citj*: there are still to be seen an obelisk 
of granite, and the mins of an aqueduct, theatre, 
amphitheatre, palace of Constantine, and a large 
Roman cemetery. 

Aremorica. [Armorica.] 

Arenacum {Arnlieim or Ao-f^), a tovnx of the 
Batavi in Gallia Belgica. 

Areopagus. [Athexae.] 

Ares ("ApTjs), the Greek god of war and one 
of the great OI}Tnpian gods, is represented as 
the son of Zeus and Hera, The character of 
Ares in Greek raythologj- will be best understood 



by comparing it with that of other divinities wh» 
are likewise in some way connected with war. 
Athena represents thoughtfulness and wisdom i 
the affairs of war, and protects men and their ha- 
bitations during its ravages. Ares, on the other 
hand, is nothing but the personification of bol 
force and strength, and not so much the god c 
war as of its tumult, confusion, and horrors. Hi 
sister Eris calls forth war, Zeus directs its cours" 
but Ares loves war for its own sake, and delight 
in the din and roar of battles, in the slaughter ' 
men, and the destruction of towns. He is not eve 
influenced by party-spirit, but sometimes assis 
the one and sometimes the other side, just as h" 
inclination may dictate ; whence Zeus calls hi 
tWoTTpoaaXXos. (11. v. 889.) This savage an 
sanguinary character of Ares makes him hated b; 
the other gods and by his own parents. It w~ 
contrary to the spirit of the Greeks to represent 
being like Ares, wdth all his overwhelming physical 
strength, as always victorious ; and when he come 
in contact with higher powers, he is usually con- 
quered. He was wounded by Diomedes, who was 
assisted by Athena, and in his fall he roared like 
ten thousand warriors. The gigantic Aloidae had 
likewise conquered him, and kept him a prisoner for 
13 months, until he was delivered by Hermes. He 
was also conquered by Hercules, with whom he fough' 
on account of his son Cycnus, and was obliged to r 
turn to Olympus. This fierce and gigantic, but withal 
handsome god loved and was beloved by Aphrodite. 
[Aphrodite.] When Aphrodite loved Adonis, 
Ares in his jealousy metamorphosed himself into a 
bear, and killed his rival. [Adonis.] According to 
a late tradition. Ares slew Halirrhothius, the son of 
Poseidon, when he was on the point of violating 
Alcippe, the daughter of Ares. Hereupon Posei- 
don accused Ares in the Areopagus, Avhere the 
Olympian gods were assembled in court. Ares was 
acquitted, and this event was believed to have 
given rise to the name Areopagus. The warlike 
character of the tribes of Thrace led to the belief 
that the god's residence was in that country, and 
here and in Scythia were the principal seats of his 
worship. In Scythia he was worshipped imder the 
form of a sword, to which not only horses and other 
cattle, but men also were sacrificed. In Greece 
itself the worship of Ares was not very general. 
All the stories about Ares and his worship in the 
countries N. of Greece seem to indicate that his 
worship was introduced into the latter country from 
Thrace. The Romans identified their god' Mars 
with the Greek Ares. [Mars.] 

Arestor ('Ape'o-Toop), father of Argus, the guar- 
dian of lo, who is therefore called Arestorides. 

Aretaeus ('AperaTos), the Cappadocian, one of 
the most celebrated of the ancient Greek physicians, 
probabl)' lived in the reign of Vespasian. He wrote 
in Ionic Greek a general treatise on diseases in 8 
books, which is still extant. The best edition is 
by C. G. Kuhn, Lips. 1828. 

Aretas ('Apera?), the name of several kings of 
Arabia Petraea. 1. A contemporary of Pompey, 
invaded Judaea in b. c. 65, in order to place Hyr- 
canus on the throne, but was driven back by the 
Romans, who espoused the cause of Aristobulus. 
His dominions were subsequently invaded by 
Scaurus, the lieutenant of Pompey. — 2. The 
father-in-law of Herod Antipas, invaded Judaea, 
because Herod had dismissed the daughter of 
Aretas in consequence of his connection with He- 



ARETE. 



ARGONAUTAE. 



75 



rbdias. This Aretas seems to have been the same 
who had possession of Damascus at the time of the 
conversion of the Apostle Paul, a. d. 31. 

Arete ('ApTjT?]). 1. Wife of Alcinous, king of 
the Phaeacians, received Ulysses with hospitality. 
— ' 2. Daughter of the elder Dionysius and Aris- 
tbmache, wife of Thearides, and after his death 
of her uncle Dion. After Dion had fled from 
Syracuse, Arete was compelled by her brother 
to marry Timocrates, one of his friends ; but she 
was again received by Dion as his wife, when he 
had obtained possession of Syracuse and expelled 
the younger Dionysius, After the assassination of 
Dion in 353, she was drowned by his enemies. -=> 
3. Daughter of Aristippus, the founder of the Cy- 
renaic school of philosophy, was instructed by him 
in the principles of his system, which she trans- 
mitted to her son the younger Aristippus. 

AretMsa CApedovcra), one of the Nereids, and 
tlie nymph of the famous fountain of Arethusa in 
the island of Ortygia near Syracuse. For details, 
see Alpheus. Virgil {Eclog. iv. 1, x. 1) reckons 
her among the Sicilian nymphs, and as the divinity 
who inspired pastoral poetry. — There were several 
other fountains in Greece, which bore the name of 
Arethusa, of which the most important was one in 
Ithaca, now Lebado, and another in Euboea near 
Chalcis. 

Arethusa {'ApiOova-a : Er-Restun), a town and 
fortress on the Orontes, in Syria : in Strabo's time 
the seat of a petty Arabian principality. 

Aretias. [Area.] 

Arctium. [Arretium.] 

Areus ('Apeus), two kings of Sparta. 1. Suc- 
ceeded his grandfather, Cleomenes II., since his 
father Acrotatus had died before him, and reigned 

B. c. 309 — 265. He made several unsuccessful 
attempts to deliver Greece from the dominion of 
Antigonus Gonatas, and at length fell in battle 
against the Macedonians in 265, and was succeeded 
by his son Acrotatus. —2. Grandson of No. 2, 
reigned as a child for 8 years under the guardian- 
ship of his uncle Leonidas II., who succeeded him 
about B. c. 256. 

Arevacae or Arevaci, the most powerful tribe 
of the Celtiberians in Spain, near the sources of 
the Tagus, derived their name from the river Areva 
{Arlanzo), a tributar}'- of the Durius [Duero). 

Argaeus (^Apyalos). 1. King of Macedonia, 
son and successor of Perdiccas I., the founder of 
the dynasty. —.2. A pretender to the Macedonian 
crown, dethroned Perdiccas II. and reigned 2 
years 

Argaeus Mons <^Apya7os'. ErdjisJi), a lofty 
snow-capped mountain nearly in the centre of Cap- 
padocia ; an offset of the Anti-Taurus, At its 
foot stood the celebrated city of Mazaca or Caesarea. 

Arganthonius ('ApyavdaivLus), king of Tartes- 
sus in Spain, in the 6th century B.C., is said to 
have reigned 80 years, and to have lived 120. 

Arganthonius or Arganthus Mons (rh 'Ap- 
yavdcavioy opos: Katirli), a mountain in Bithynia, 
running out into the Propontis, forming the Prom. 
Posidium (C. Bouz), and separating the bays of 
Cios and Astacus. 

Argennum or Arginum CApyewov, 'Apyivov: 

C. Blanco), a promontory on the Ionian coast, op- 
posite to Chios. 

Argenteus, a small river in Gallia Narbonensis, 
which flov/s into the Mediterranean near Forum 
Julii. 



Argentoratum or -tus (Strasshmy), an impor- 
tant town on the Rhine in Gallia Belgica, the 
head-quarters of the 8th legion, and a Roman mu- 
nicipium. In its neighbourhood Julian gained a 
brilliant victory over the Alemanni, a. d. 357. It 
was subsequently called Strateburgum and Stratis- 
burguvi, whence its modem name. 

Arges. [Cyclopes.] 

Argia i^Apyda), daughter of Adrastus and Am- 
phithea, and Avife of Polynices. 

Argia ('Apyda). [Argos.] 

Argiletum, a district in Rome, which ex- 
tended from the S. of the Quirinal to the Capitoline 
and the Forum. It was chiefly inhabited by me- 
chanics and booksellers. The origin of the name 
is uncertain : the most obvious derivation is from 
argilla potter's claj^ ; " but the more common ex- 
planation in antiquity was Argi letum, " death of 
Argus,'- from a hero Argus who was buried there. 

Argilus {"ApyiXos : 'ApyiKios), a town in Bi- 
saltia, the E. part of Mygdonia in Macedonia, be- 
tween Amphipolis and Bromiscus, a colony of 
Andres. 

Arginusae {'Apyivovaai or 'Apyivov(r<rai), 3 
small islands off the coast of Aeolis, opposite My- 
tilene in Lesbos, celebrated for the naval victory of 
the Athenians over the Lacedaemonians under 
Callicratidas, b. c. 406. 

Argiphontes ('Ap7ei(^)oVT77s), " the slayer of 
Argus," a surname of Hermes. 

Argippaei {'Apynnraioi), a Scythian tribe in 
Sarmatia Asiatica, who appear, from the description 
of them by Herodotus (iv. 23), to have been of 
the Calmuck race. 

Argissa. [Argura.] 

Argithea, the chief town of Athamania in Epirus. 

Argiva, a surname of Hera or Juno from Argos, 
where, as well as in the whole of Peloponnesus, 
she was especially honoured. [Argos.] 

Argivi. [Argos.] 

Argo. [Argonautae.] 

Argolis. [Argos.] 

Argonautae {'Apyovavrai), the Argonauts, "the 
sailors of the Argo," Avere the heroes who sailed 
to Aea (afterwards called Colchis) for the purpose 
of fetching the golden fleece. The story of the 
Argonauts is variously related by the ancient wri- 
ters, but tlie common tale ran as follows. In lolcus 
in Thessaly reigned Pelias, who had deprived his 
half-brother Aeson of the sovereignty. In order to 
get rid of JASONthe son of Aeson, Pelias persuaded 
Jason to fetch the golden fleece, which was suspended 
on an oak-tree in the grove of Ares in Colchis, and 
was guarded day and night by a dragon. Jason 
willingly undertook the enterprize, and commanded 
Argus, the son of Phrixus, to build a ship with 
50 oars ; which was called Argo {^Apyca) after 
the name of the builder. Jason was accompanied 
by all the great heroes of the age, and their num- 
ber is usually said to have been 50. Among these 
Avere Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Zetes and Ca- 
lais, the sons of Boreas, the singer Orpheus, the 
seer Mopsus, Philammon, Tydeus, Theseus, Am- 
phiaraus, Peleus, Nestor, Admetus, &c. After 
leaving lolcus they first landed at Lemnos, Avhere 
they united themselves Avith the women of the is- 
land, Avho had just before murdered their fathers 
and husbands. From Lemnos they sailed to the 
Doliones at Cyzicus, Avhere king Cyzicus received 
them hospitably. They left the country during 
the night, and being thrown back on the coast by 



76 



ARGONAUTAE. 



ARGOS. 



a contrary wind, they were taken for Pelasgians, 
the enemies of the Doliones, and a struggle ensued, 
in which Cyzicus was slain ; but being recognised 
by the Argonauts, they buried him and mourned 
over his fate. They next landed in Mj-sia, where 
they left behind Hercules and Polyphemus, who 
had gone into the country in search of Hylas, whom 
a nymph had carried off while he was fetching 
water for his companions. In the country of the 
Bebryces, king Amycus challenged the Argonauts 
to fight with iiim ; and when Pollux was killed by 
him, the Argonauts in revenge slew many of the 
Bebrj-ces, and sailed to Salmydessus in Thrace, 
where the seer Phineus was tormented by the 
Harpies. When the Argonauts consulted him 
about their voj-age, he promised his advice on con- 
dition of their delivering him from the Harpies. 
This was done by Zetes and Calais, two sons of 
Boreas ; and Phineus now advised them, before 
sailing through the S}Tnplegades, to mark the flight 
of a dove, and to judge from its fate what they 
themselves would have to do. When they ap- 
proached the Symplegades, they sent out a dove, 
which in its rapid flight between the rocks lost only 
the end of its tail. The Argonauts now, with the 
assistance of Hera, followed the example of the 
dove, sailed quickly between the rocks, and suc- 
ceeded in passing without injury to their ship, with 
the exception of some ornaments at the stern. 
Henceforth the Symplegades stood immoveable in 
the sea. On their arrival at the Mariandyni, the 
Argonauts were kindly received by their king, Ly- 
ons. The seer Idmon and the helmsman Tiphys 
died here, and the place of the latter was supplied 
by Ancaeus. They now sailed along the coast 
until they arrived at the mouth of the river Phasis. 
The Colchian king Aeetes promised to give up the 
golden fleece, if Jason alone would yoke to a plough 
two fire-breathing oxen with brazen feet, and sow 
the teeth of the dragon which had not been used by 
Cadmus at Thebes, and which he had received 
from Athena. The love of Jvledea furnished Jason 
with means to resist fire and steel, on condition of 
his taking her as his wife ; and she taught him 
how he was to kill the warriors that were to spring 
up from the teeth of the dragon. While Jason 
was engaged upon his task, Aeetes formed plans 
for burning the ship Argo and for killing all the 
Greek heroes. But Medea's magic powers sent to 
sleep the dragon who guarded the golden fleece ; 
and after Jason had taken possession of the trea- 
sure, he and his Argonauts, together with Med< a 
and her young brother Absyrtus, embarked by 
night and sailed away. Aeetes pursued them, but 
before he overtook them, Medea murdered her 
brother, cut him into pieces, and threw his limbs 
overboard, that her father might be detained in his 
pursuit by collecting the limbs of his child. Aeetes 
at last returned home, but sent out a great number 
of Colchians, threatening them with the punish- 
ment intended for Medea, if they returned without 
her. While the Colchians were dispersed in all 
directions, the Argonauts had already reached the 
mouth of the river Eridanus. But Zeus, angrj- at 
the murder of Absyrtus, raised a storm which cast 
the ship from its course. When driven on the 
Absyrtian islands, the ship began to speak, and 
declared that the anger of Zeus would not cease, 
unless they sailed towards Ansonia, and got puri- 
fied by Circe. They now sailed along the coasts 
of the Ligyans and Celts, and through the sea of 



Sardinia, and continuing their course along the 
coast of Tyrrhenia, they arrived in the island of 
Aeaea, where Circe purified them. When they 
were passing by the Sirens, Orpheus sang to pre- 
vent the Argonauts being allured by them. Butes. 
however, swam to them, but Aphrodite carried 
him to Lilybaeum. Thetis and the Nereids con- 
ducted them through Scylla and Charybdis and 
between the whirling rocks (ireTpai -nXayKTai) ; 
and sailing by the Trinacian island with its oxen 
of Helios, they came to the Phaeacian island of 
Corcyra, where they were received by Alcinous. 
Tn the meantime, some of the Colchians, not being 
able to discover the Argonauts, had settled at the 
foot of the Ceraunian mountains ; others occupied 
the Absyrtian islands near the coast of Illj-ricum ; 
and a third band overtook the Argonauts in the 
island of the Phaeacians. But as their hopes of 
recovering Medea were deceived by Arete, the 
queen of Alcinous, they settled in the island, and 
the Argonauts continued their voyage. During 
the night they were overtaken by a storm ; but 
Apollo sent brilliant flashes of lightning which 
enabled them to discover a neighbouring island, 
which they called Anaphe. Here they erected an 
altar to Apollo, and solemn rites were instituted, 
which continued to be observed down to very late 
times. Their attempt to land in Crete Avas pre- 
vented by Talus, who guarded the island, but was 
killed by the artifices of Medea. From Crete 
they sailed to Aegina, and from thence between 
Euboea and Locris to lolcus. Respecting the 
I events subsequent to their arrival in lolcus, see 
Aesox, jNIedea, Jason, Pelias. The story of 
; the Argonauts probably arose out of accounts of 
I commercial enterprises which the wealthy Minyans, 
I who lived in the neighbourhood of lolcus, made to 
j the coasts of the Euxine. The expedition of the 
! Argonauts is related by Pindar in the 4th Pythian 
j ode, by Apollonius Rhodius in his Argonautica^ 
and by his Roman imitator Valerius Flaccus. 

ArgOS {rh "Apyos, -eos), is said by Strabo (p. 
372) to have signified a plain in the language of 
the Macedonians and Thessalians, and it may 
therefore contain the same root as the Latin word 
ager. In Homer we find mention of the Pelasgic 
Argos, that is, a to^vn or district of Thessaly, and 
of the Achaean Argos, by which he means some- 
times the whole Peloponnesus, sometimes Aga- 
memnon's kingdom of Argos of which Mycenae was 
the capital, and sometimes the town of Argos. As 
Argos frequently signifies the whole Peloponnesus, 
the most important part of Greece, so the 'Apyeiot 
j often occur in Homer as a name of the whole body 
I of the Greeks, in which sense the Roman poets 
j also use Argivi.^1, Argos, a district of Pelopon- 
' nesus, called Argolis (77 'ApyoX'is) by Herodotus, 
I but more frequently by other Greek writers either 
j Argos, Argia (tj ^Apy^'ia), or Argolice (tj 'Apyo- 
' MKT]). Under the Romans Argolis became the 
j usual name of the country, while the word Argos or 
I Argi was confined to the town. Argolis under the 
1 Romans signified the country bounded on the N. 
by the Corinthian territory, on the W. by Arcadia, 
on the S. by Laconia, and included towards the E. 
the whole Acte or peninsula between the Saronic 
and Argolic gulfs : but during the time of Grecian 
independence Argolis or Argos was only the 
country lying round the Argolic gul£, bounded on 
the W. by the Arcadian mountains, and separated 
on the N. by a range of mountains from Corinth, 



i ARGOS. 

I Cleonae, and Phlius. Argolis, as understood bj 
f 1 the Romans, was for the most part a mountainous 
' and unproductive country : the only extensive plain 
j adapted for agriculture was in the neighbourhood 
I of the city of Argos. Its rivers were insignificant 
1 and mostly dry in summer : the most important 
was the Inachus. The country was divided into 
the districts of Argia or Argos proper, Epidauria, 
Troezenia, and Hermionis. The original in- 
' habitants of the country were, according to mytho- 
logy, the Cynurii ; but the main part of the popu- 
lation consisted of Pelasgi and Achaei, to whom 
Dorians were added after the conquest of Pelopon- 
nesus by the Dorians. See below. No. 2. —2. 
, Argos, or Argi, -orum, in the Latin writers, now 
Argo, the capital of Argolis, and, next to Sparta, 
the most important town in Peloponnesus, situated 
in a level plain a little to the W. of the Inachus. 
It had an ancient Pelasglc citadel, called Larissa, 
and another built subsequently on another height 
(duas arces Jiabent Argi, Liv. xxxiv. 25). It pos- 
\ sessed numerous temples, and was particularly ce- 
lebrated for the worship of Hera, whose great 
temple, ffe^-aeum, lay between Argos and Mycenae. 
The remains of the Cyclopian walls of Argos are 
still to be seen. The city is said to have been 
built by Inachus or his son Phoroneus, or grand- 
. son Argus. The descendants of Inachus, who 
may be regarded as the Pelasgian kings, reigned 
\ over the country for 9 generations, but were at 
length deprived of the sovereignty by Danaus, 
who is said to have come from Egypt. The de- 
I scendants of Danaus were in their time obliged to 
j submit to the Achaean race of the Pelopidae. 
i Under the rule of the Pelopidae Mycenae became 
I the capital of the kingdom, and Argos was a de- 
pendent state. Thus Mycenae was the royal resi- 
dence of Atreus and of his son Agamemnon ; but 
under Orestes Argos again recovered its supremacy. 
Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians 
Argos fell to the share of Temenus, whose de- 
scendants ruled over the country ; but the great 
bulk of the population continued to be Achaean. 
All these events belong to mythology ; and Argos 
first appears in history about b. c. 750, as the chief 
, state of Peloponnesus, under its ruler Phidon. 
* After the time of Phidon its power declined, and 
' it was not even able to maintain its supremacy over 
the other towns of Argolis. Its power was greatly 
weakened by its wars with Sparta. The two states 
long contended for the district of Cynuria, which 
lay between Argolis and Laconia, and which the 
Spartans at length obtained by the victory of their 
300 champions, about b. c. 550. In b. c. 524 
Cleomenes, the Spartan king, defeated the Argives 
with such loss near Tiryns, that Sparta was left 
without a rival in Peloponnesus. In consequence 
of its weakness and of its jealousy of Sparta, Argos 
took no part in the Persian war. In order to 
strengthen itself, Argos attacked the neighbouring 
towns of Tiryns, Mycenae, &c., destroyed them, 
and transplanted their inhabitants to Argos. The 
introduction of so many new citizens was followed 
by the abolition of royalty and of Doric institutions, 
and by the establishment of a democracy, which 
continued to be the form of government till later 
times, when the city fell under the power of tyrants. 
In the Peloponnesian war Argos sided with Athens 
against Sparta. In b. c. 243 it joined the Achaean 
' League, and on the conquest of the latter by the 
Romans, 146, it became a part of the Roman pro- 



ARIADNE. 77 

vince of Achaia. At an early time Argos was 
distinguished by its cultivation of music and poetry 
[Sacadas ; Telesilla] ; but at the time of the 
intellectual greatness of Athens, literature and 
science seem to have been entirely neglected at 
Argos. It produced some great sculptors, of whom 
A GEL AD AS and Polycletus are the most ce- 
lebrated. 

Argos Amphilochicum {"Apyos Th 'Afi<pi\oxi- 
Koi^), the chief town of Amphilochia in Acarnania, 
situated on the Ambracian gulf, and founded by 
the Argive Amphilochus. 

Argos Hippium. [Arpi,] 

Argous Portus (Po7io Ferraio), a town and 
harbour in the island of II va {Elba). 

Argura CApyovpa), a toAvn in Pelasgiotis in 
Thessaly, called Argissa by Homer (//. ii. 738). 

Argus {"Apyos). 1. Son of Zeus and Niobe, 
3rd king of Argos, from whom Argos derived its 
name. — 2. Sumamed Panoptes, " the all-seeing," 
because he had a hundred eyes, son of Agenor, 
Arestor, Inachus, or Argus. Hera appointed him 
guardian of the cow into which lo had been meta- 
morphosed ; but Hermes, at the command of Zeus, 
put Argus to death, either by stoning him, or by 
cutting oflF his head after sending him to sleep by 
the sweet notes of his flute. Hera transplanted 
his eyes to the tail of the peacock, her favourite 
bird. — 3. The builder of the Argo, son of 
Phrixus, Arestor, or Polybus, was sent by Aeetes, 
his grandfather, after the death of Phrixus, to take 
possession of his inheritance in Greece. On his 
voyage thither he suffered shipwreck, was found 
by Jason in the island of Aretias, and carried back 
to Colchis. 

Argyra {'Apyvpa), a town in Achaia near Pa- 
trae, with a fountain of the same name. 
Argyripa. [Arpi.] 

Aria ('Apei'a, 'Apia : "Apeios, "Apios : the E. 
part of Khorassan, and the W. and N.W. part of 
Afghanistan), the most important of the E. pro- 
vinces of the ancient Persian Empire, was bounded 
on the E. by the Paropamisadae, on the N. by 
Margiana and Hyrcania, on the W. by Parthia, and 
on the S. by the great desert of Carmania. It Avas 
a vast plain, bordered on the N. and E. by moun- 
tains, and on the W. and S. by sandy deserts ; and, 
though forming a part of the great sandy table- 
land, now called the Desert of Iran, it contained 
several very fertile oases, especially in its N. part, 
along the base of the Sariphi {Kohistan and Ha- 
zarah) mountains, which was watered by the river 
Arius or -as {Herirood), on which stood the later 
capital Alexandria {Herat). The river is lost in 
the sand. The lower course of the great river 
Etymandrus {Helmund) also belonged to Aria, 
and the lake into which it falls was called Aria 
Lacus {Zurrali). From Aria was derived the 
name under which all the E. provinces were in- 
cluded. [Ariana.] 

Aria Lacus. [Aria.] 

Ariabignes {'ApLa§Lyvi]s), son of Darius Hys- 
taspis, one of the commanders of the fleet of 
Xerxes, fell in the battle of Salamis, B. c. 480. 

Anadne {'ApidSurj), daughter of Minos and Pa- 
siphae or Creta, fell in love with Theseus, when he 
was sent by his father to convey the tribute of the 
Athenians to Minotaurus, and gave him the clue of 
thread by means of which he found his way out of 
the Labyrinth, and which she herself had received 
from Hephaestus. Theseus in return promised to 



78 ARIAEUS. 

marry her, and she accordingly left Crete with him ; 
but on their arrival in the island of Dia (Naxos), 
she was killed by Artemis. This is the Homeric 
account {Od. xi. 322) ; but the more common tra- 
dition related that Theseus left Ariadne in Naxos 
alive, either because he was forced by Dionysus to 
leave her, or because he was ashamed to bring a 
foreign wife to Athens. Dionysus found her at 
Naxos, made her his wife, and placed among the 
stars the crown which he gave her at their mar- 
riage. There are several circumstances in the 
story of Ariadne which offered the happiest sub- 
jects for works of art, and some of the finest ancient 
works, on gems as well as paintings, are still ex- 
tant, of which Ariadne is the subject. 

Ariaeus ('ApiaTos) or Aridaeus ('AptSoTos), the 
friend of C3'rus, commanded the left wing of the 
army at the battle of Cunaxa, B.C. 401. After 
the death of Cyrus he purchased his pardon from 
Artaxerxes by deserting the Greeks. 

Arianmes ('Apia/xj/Tjs), the name of two kings 
of Cappadocia, one the father of Ariarathes I., and 
the other the son and successor of Ariarathes II. 

Ariana {'Apiav-n : Iran), derived from Aria, 
from the specific sense of which it must be carefully 
distinguished, was the general name of the E. pro- 
vinces of the ancient Persian Empire, and included 
the portion of Asia bounded on the W. by an 
imaginary line dra^ra from the Caspian to the 
mouth of the Persian Gulf, on the S. by the Indian 
Ocean, on the E. by the Indus, and on the N. by 
the great chain of mountains called by the general 
name of the Indian Caucasus, embracing the pro- 
vinces of Parthia, Aria, the Paropamisadae, Ara- 
chosia, Drangiana, Gedrosia, and Carraania (K/io- 
rassan, Afghajiistan, Beloochistan, and Kirmayi). 
But the name was often extended to the country 
as far W. as the margin of the Tigris-valley, so 
as to include Media and Persis, and also to 
the provinces N. of the Indian Caucasus, namely 
Bactria and Sogdiana (Bokliara). The knowledge 
of the ancients respecting the greater part of this 
region was confined to what was picked up in the 
expeditions of Alexander and the wars of the 
Greek kings of S}Tia, and what was learned from 
merchant caravans. 

Ariarathes {'Apiapddrjs), the name of several 
kings of Cappadocia,—!. Son of Ariamnes I., as- 
sisted Ochus in the recovery of Egypt, b, c. 350. 
Ariarathes was defeated by Perdiccas, and crucified, 
322. Eumenes then obtained possession of Cappa- 
docia.— 2. Son of Holophernes, and nephew of 
Ariarathes I., recovered Cappadocia after the death of 
Eumenes, B.C. 315. He Avas succeeded by Ariamnes 

II. — 3. Son of Ariamnes IL,and grandson of No. 2, 
married Stratonice, daughter of Antiochus II., king 
of Syria.— 4. Son of No. 3, reigned B.C. 220 — 162. 
He married Antiochis, the daughter of Antiochus 

III. , king of S^'ria, and assisted Antiochus in his 
war against the Romans. After the defeat of An- 
tiochus, Ariarathes sued for peace in 188, which 
he obtained on favourable terms. In 183 — 179, he 
assisted Eumenes in his war against Pharnaces.— 5. 
Son of No. 4, previously called Alithridates, reigned 
B.C. 163 — 130. He was surnamed Philopator, 
and was distinguished by the excellence of his 
character and his cultivation of philosophy and the 
liberal arts. He assisted the Romans in their war 
against Aristonicus of Pergamus, and fell in this 
war, 130.-6. Son of No. 5, reigned b. c. 130 — 
96. He married Laodice, sister of ^alithridates 



ARIMI. 

VI., king of Pontus, and was put to death by 
Mithridates by means of Gordius. On his death 
the kingdom was seized by Nicomedes, king of 
Bithynia, who married Laodice, the widow of the 
late king. But Nicomedes was soon expelled by 
Mithridates, who placed upon the throne,— 7. Son 
of No. 6. He was, however, also murdered by 
Mithridates in a short time, who now took posses- 
sion of his kingdom. The Cappadocians rebelled 
against ^Mithridates, and placed upon the throne, 
— 8. Second son of No. 6 ; but he was speedily 
driven out of the kingdom by Mithridates, and 
shortly afterwards died. Both Mithridates and 
Nicomedes attempted to give a king to the Cap- 
padocians ; but the Romans allowed the people to 
choose whom they pleased, and their choice fell upon 
Ariobarzanes.— 9. Son of Ariobarzanes II., reigned 
B. c. 42 — 36. He was deposed and put to death by 
Antony, v/ho appointed Archelaus as his successor. 

Ariaspae or Ag^iaspae {'Apidcnrai, 'Aypidcnai), 
a people in the S. part of the Persian province of 
Drangiana, on the very borders of Gedxosia, with 
a capital city, Ariaspe ('Apidcrin]). In return for 
the services which they rendered to the army of 
Cyrus the Great, when he marched through the 
desert of Carmania, they were honoured with the 
name of Evepyerai, and were allowed by the Per- 
sians to retain their independence, which was con- 
firmed to them by Alexander as the reward of 
similar services to himself. 

Alicia (Aricinus : Aricda or Riccia),axi ancient 
town of Latium at the foot of the Alban Mount, 
on the Appian Way, 16 miles from Rome. It 
was a member of the Latin confederacy, was sub- 
dued by the Romans, with the other Latin towns, 
in B.C. 338, and received the Roman franchise. 
In its neighbourhood was the celebrated grove and 
temple of Diana Aricina, on the borders of the 
Lacus Nemorensis (A^e7?2i). Diana was worshipped 
here Avith barbarous customs : her priest, called rex 
nemorensis, was always a run-aAvay slave, who ob- 
tained his office by killing his predecessor in single 
combat. The priest was obliged to fight with any 
slave Avho succeeded in breaking off a branch of a 
certain tree in the sacred grove. 

Alidaeus. [Ariaeus ; Arrhidaeus.] 

Arii, is the name applied to the inhabitants of 
the province of Aria, but it is probably also a 
form of the generic name of the whole Persian 
race, derived from the root ar, which means noble, 
and which forms the first syllable of a great num- 
ber of Persian names. [Comp. Artaei.] 

Arimaspi {'ApLixaa-n-oi), a people in the N. of 
Scythia, of whom a fabulous account is given by 
Herodotus (iv. 27). The genu of the fable is 
perhaps to be recognised in the fact that the Ural 
Mountains abound in gold. 

Arimazes {'Apifxd^rjs) or Ariomazes ('Apia- 
^ua^Tjs), a chief in Sogdiana, whose fortress was 
taken by Alexander in b. c. 328. In it Alexander 
found Roxana, the daughter of the Bactrian chief, 
Oxyartes, whom he made his wife. 

Arimi CApi/xoi) and Arima (ra ''Apifxa sc. opr]), 
the names of a mythical people, district, and range 
of mountains in Asia Minor, which the old Greek 
poets made the scene of the pimishment of the 
monster Typhoeus. Virgil {Aen. ix. 716) has 
misunderstood the elu 'Apifiois of Homer (//. ii. 
783), and made Typhoeus lie beneath Inarime, an 
island off the coast of Itah', namely, Pithecusa cr 
Aenaria (IscJiia). 



ARIMINUM. 



ARISTARCHUS. 



79 



Ar iTniTnim (Ariminensis : Rimini), a town in 
Umbria on the coast at the mouth of the little 
river Ariminus (Marocchia). It was originally 
inhabited by Umbrians and Pelasgians, was after- 
wards in the possession of the Senones, and was 
colonised by the Romans in B. c. 268, from which 
i time it appears as a flourishing place. After 
I leaving Cisalpine Gaul, it was the first to\vn which 
a person arrived at in the N. E. of Italia proper. 

Ariobarzanes {'Apio€ap^dur)s). I. Kings or 
Satraps of Pontus.^ — 1. Betrayed by his son Mi- 
j thridates to the Persian king, about b. c. 400.— 2. 
i SonofMithridates L, reigned b. c. 363—337. He 
revolted from Artaxerxes in 362, and may be re- 
garded as the founder of the kingdom of Pontus. 
—3. Son of Mithridates III., reigned 266—240, 
I and was succeeded by Mithridates IV. — II. Kings 
of Cappadocia. — 1. Surnamed Philoromaezis, reigned 
b. c. 93 — 63, and was elected king by the Cappado- 
cians, under the direction of the Romans. He was 
several times expelled from his kingdom by Mithri- 
dates, but was finally restored by Pompey in 63, 
shortly before his death. — 2. Surnamed PMlopator, 
succeeded his father in 63. The time of his death 
is not known ; but it must have been before 51, in 
which year his son was reigning. — 3. Surnamed 
Eusebes and Philoromaeus, son of No. 2, whom he 
j succeeded about 51. He assisted Pompey against 
' Caesar in 48, but was nevertheless pardoned by 
i Caesar, who even enlarged his territories. He was 
slain in 42 by Cassius, because he was plotting 
against him in Asia. 

Arion ('Api'wv). 1. Of Methymna in Lesbos, 
an ancient Greek bard and a celebrated player on the 
cithara, is called the inventor of the dithyrambic 
poetry, and of the name dithyramb. He lived 
about b. c. 625, and spent a great part of his life at 
the court of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Of his 
life scarcely any thing is known beyond the beau- 
tiful story of his escape from the sailors with whom 
he sailed from Sicily to Corinth. On one occasion, 
thus runs the story, Arion went to Sicily to take 
part in some musical contest. He won the prize, 
and, laden with presents, he embarked in a Co- 
rinthian ship to return to his friend Periander. 
The rude sailors coveted his treasures, and medi- 
tated his murder. After trying in vain to save his 
life, he at length obtained permission once more to 
play on the cithara. In festal attire he placed him- 
self in the prow of the ship and invoked the gods 
in inspired strains, and then threw himself into the 
sea. But many song-loving dolphins had assembled 
round the vessel, and one of them now took the 
bard on its back and carried him to Taenarus, 
from whence he returned to Corinth in safety, and 
related his adventure to Periander. Upon the 
arrival of the Corinthian vessel Periander inquired 
of the sailors after Arion, who replied that he had 
remained behind at Tarentum ; but when Arion, 
at the bidding of Periander, came forward, the 
sailors owned their guilt, and were punished accord- 
ing to their desert. In the time of Herodotus and 
Pausanias there existed at Taenarus a brass monu- 
ment, representing Arion riding on a dolphin. 
Arion and his cithara (lyre) were placed among the 
stars. A fragment of a hymn to Poseidon, ascribed 
to Arion, is contained in Bergk's Poetae Lyrici 
Graeci, p. 566, &c.-— 2. A fabulous horse, which 
Poseidon begot by Demeter ; for, in order to escape 
from the pursuit of Poseidon, the goddess had meta- 
morphosed herself into a mare, and Poseidon de- 



ceived her by assuming the figure of a horse. There 
were many other traditions respecting the origin of 
this horse, but all make Poseidon its father, though 
its mother is diflferent in the various legends. 

Ariovistus, a German chief, who crossed the 
Rhine at the request of the Sequani, when they 
were hard pressed by the Aedui. He subdued the 
Aedui, but appropriated to himself part of the terri- 
tory of the Sequani, and threatened to take still 
more. The Sequani now united with the Aedui 
in imploring the help of Caesar, who defeated Ario- 
vistus about 50 miles from the Rhine, B. c. 58. 
Ariovistus escaped across the river in a small boat. 

Aristaenetus('A/3£(rTaiVeTos),the reputed author 
of 2 books of Love-Letters, taken almost en- 
tirely from Plato, Lucian, Philostratus, and Plu- 
tarch. Of the author nothing is known. The 
best edition is by Boissonade, Paris, 1 822. 

Aristaenus (^ApiaTaivos), of Megalopolis, some- 
times called Aristaenetus, was frequently strategus 
or general of the Achaean league from b. c. 198 to 
185. He was the political opponent of Philo- 
poemen, and a friend of the Romans. 

Aristaens (^Kpiaraios), a divinity worshipped 
in various parts of Greece, was once a mortal, who 
became a god through the benefits he had conferred 
upon mankind. The different accounts about him 
seem to have arisen in different places and inde- 
pendently of one another, so that they referred to 
several distinct beings, who were subsequently 
identified and united into one. He is described 
either as a son of Uranus and Ge, or, according to 
a more general tradition, as the son of Apollo and 
Cyrene. His mother Cyrene had been carried off 
by Apollo from mount Pelion to Libya, where she 
gave birth to Aristaeus. Aristaeus subsequently 
went to Thebes in Boeotia ; but after the unfortu- 
nate death of his son Actaeon, he left Thebes and 
visited almost all the Greek colonies on the coasts 
of the Mediterranean. Finally he went to Thrace^ 
and after dwelling for some time near mount Hae- 
mus, where he founded the town of Aristaeon, he 
disappeared. Aristaeus is one of the most benefi- 
cent divinities in ancient mythology : he was wor- 
shipped as the protector of flocks and shepherds, of 
vine and olive plantations ; he taught men to keep 
bees, and averted from the fields the burning heat 
of the sun and other causes of destruction. 

Aristagoras {^KpiffTayopas), of Miletus, brother- 
in-law of Histiaeus, was left by the latter during 
his stay at the Persian court, in charge of the go- 
vernment of Miletus. Having failed in an attempt 
upon Naxos (b. c. 501), which he had promised to 
subdue for the Persians, and fearing the conse- 
quences of his failure, he induced the Ionian cities 
to revolt from Persia. He applied for assistance to 
the Spartans and Athenians: the former refused^ 
but the latter sent him 20 ships and some troops. 
In 499 his army captured and burnt Sardis, but 
was finally chased back to the coast. The Athe- 
nians now departed ; the Persians conquered most 
of the Ionian cities ; and Aristagoras in despair 
fled to Thrace where he was slain by the Edo- 
nians in 497. 

Aristander ('.'^pfo-rai'Spos), the most celebrated 
soothsayer of Alexander the Great, wrote a work 
on prodigies. 

Aristarclms ('Ap/o-Tapxos). 1. An Athenian, 
one of the leaders in the revolution of the " Four 
Hundred," B. c. 411. He was afterwards put to 
death by the Athenians, not later than 406. = 2 



80 



ARISTEAS. 



ARISTIDES. 



A Lacedaemonian, succeeded Cleander as hannost J 
of Byzantium in 400, and in various ways ill 
treated the Cyrean Greeks, who had recently re- 
turned from Asia. — 3. Of Tegea, a tragic poet 
at Athens, contemporary with Euripides, flourished 
about B. c. 454, and wrote 70 tragedies. — 4. Of 
Samos, an eminent mathematician and astronomer 
at Alexandria, flourished between B. c. 280 and 264. 
He employed himself in the determination of some 
of the most important elements of astronomy ; but 
none of his works remain, except a treatise on the 
magnitudes and distances of the sun and moon 
(nepl ineyeduv Koi a'iToaTi]i.t.6.rwvr\\iov koL ae\r]vr)s). 
Edited by Wallis, Oxon, 1688, and reprinted in 
vol. iii. of his works. There is a French trans- 
lation, and an edition of the text, Paris, 1810. — 5. 
Of Samoth RACE, the celebrated grammarian, flou- 
rished B.C. 156. He was educated in the school of 
Aristophanes of Byzantium, at Alexandria, where 
he himself foimded a grammatical and critical 
school. At an advanced age he left Alexandria, 
and went to Cyprus, where he is said to have died 
at the age of 72, of voluntary starvation, because 
he was suffering from incurable dropsy. Aristar- 
chus was the greatest critic of antiquity. His 
labours were chiefly devoted to the Greek poets, 
but more especially to the Homeric poems, of which 
he published a recension, which has been the basis 
of the text from his time to the present day. The 
great object of his critical labours was to restore 
the genuine text of the Homeric poems, and to 
clear it of all later interpolations and corruptions. 
He marked those verses which he thought spurious 
with an obelos, and those which he considered as 
particularly beautiful with an asterisk. He divided 
the Iliad and Odyssey into 24 books each. He 
did not confine himself to a recension of the text, 
but also explained and interpreted the poems : he 
opposed the allegorical interpretation which was 
then beginning to find favour, and which at a later 
time became very general. His grammatical prin- 
ciples were attacked by many of his contemporaries: 
the most eminent of his opponents was Crates of 
Mallus. 

Aristeas (AptcrTeas), of Proconnesus, an epic 
poet of whose life we have only fabulous accounts. 
His date is quite uncertain : some place him in the 
time of Croesus and Cynis ; but other traditions 
make him earlier than Homer, or a contemporary 
and teacher of Homer. The ancient writers re- 
present him as a magician, Avho rose after his 
death, and whose soul could leave and re-enter its 
body according to its pleasure. He was connected 
with the worship of Apollo, which he was said to 
have introduced at Metapontum, He is said to 
have travelled through the countries N. and E. of 
the Euxine, and to have visited the Issedones, 
Arimaspae, Cimmerii, Hyperborei, and other my- 
thical nations, and after his return to have written 
an epic poem in 3 books, called The Arismaspea 
(to 'Api,ua(r7rem). This work is frequently men- 
tioned by the ancients, but it is impossible to say 
who was the real author of it. 

Aristeas or Aristaeus, an officer of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus (b. c. 285 — 247), the reputed author 
of a Greek work, giving an account of the manner 
in which the translation of the Ssptuagint was 
executed, but which is generally admitted by the 
best critics to be spurious. Printed at Oxford, 
1692, 8vo. 

Aristides ('A/jjo-tc/????). 1. An Athenian, son of 



Lysirnachus, surnamed the " Just," was of an an- 
cient and noble family. He was the political disciple 
of Clisthenes, and partly on that account, partly from 
personal character, opposed from the first to The- 
mistocles. Aristides fought as the commander of his 
tribe at the battle of Marathon, b. c. 490 ; and next 
year, 489, he was archon. In 483 or 482 he suffered 
ostracism, probably in consequence of the triumph 
of the maritime apd democratic policy of his rival. 
He was still in exile in 480 at the battle of Salamis, 
where he did good service by dislodging the enemy, 
with a band raised and armed by himself, from the 
islet of Psyttaleia. He was recalled from banish- 
ment after the battle, was appointed general in the 
following year (479), and commanded the Athe- 
nians at the battle of Plataea. In 477, when the 
allies had become disgusted with the conduct of 
Pausanias and the Spartans, he and his colleague 
Cimon had the glory of obtaining for Athens the 
command of the maritime confederacy: and to 
Aristides was by general consent entrusted the 
task of drawing up its laws and fixing its assess- 
ments. This first tribute ((popos) of 460 talents, 
paid into a common treasury at Delos, bore his 
name, and was regarded by the allies in after 
times, as marking their Satumian age. This is 
his last recorded act. He died after 471, the year 
of the ostracism of Themistocles, and very likely 
in 468. He died so poor that he did not leave 
enough to pay for his funeral : his daughters were 
portioned by the state, and his son Lysimachus 
received a grant of land and of money. — 2. The 
author of a work entitled Milesiaca, which was 
probably a romance, having Miletus for its scene. 
It was written in prose, and was of a licentious 
character. It was translated into Latin by L. 
Cornelius Sisenna, a contemporary of Sulla, and 
it seems to have become popular with the Romans. 
Aristides is reckoned as the inventor of the Greek 
romance, and the title of his work gave rise to the 
term Milesian, as applied to works of fiction. His 
age and country are unknown, but the title of his 
work is thought to favour the conjecture that he was 
a native of Miletus. — 3. Of Thebes, a celebrated 
Greek painter, flourished about b. c. 360 — 330. The 
point in which he most excelled was in depicting the 
feelings, expressions, and passions which may be ob- 
served in common life. His pictures were so much 
valued that long after his death Attains, king of Per- 
gamus, offered 600,000 sesterces for one of them.— 
4. P. Aelius Aiistides, surnamed Theodorus, a 
celebrated Greek rhetorician, was bom at Adriani 
in Mysia, in a. D. 117. He studied under Herodea 
Atticus at Athens, and subsequently travelled 
through Egypt, Greece, and Italy. The fame of 
his talents and acquirements was so great that 
monuments were erected to his honour in several 
to^vns which he had honoured with his presence. 
Shortly before his return he was attacked by an 
illness which lasted for 13 years, but this did not 
prevent him from prosecuting his studies. He subse- 
quently settled at Smyrna, and when this city was 
nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 178, he used 
his influence with the emperor M. Aurelius to in- 
duce him to assist in rebuilding the town. The 
Smyrnaeans showed their gratitude to Aristides 
by offering him various honours and distinctions, 
most of which he refused : he accepted only the 
office of priest of Asclepius, which he held until 
his death, about A. D. 180. The works of Aristides 
which have come down to us, are 55 orations and 



APOLLO. ARES (MARS). ARIADNE. 




COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. ANTIOCH — ASSORUS. 




Arcadia. Page 70. 




Argos in Peloponnesus. Page 77 . 




Aspendus in Pamphylia. Page 98. 




ARISTION. 



ARISTOCLES. 



81 



declamations, and 2 treatises on rhetorical sub- 
jects of little value. His orations are much supe- 
rior to those of the rhetoricians of his time. His 
admirers compared him to Demosthenes, and even 
Aristides did not think himself much inferior. 
This vanity and self-sufficiency made him enemies 
and opponents ; but the number of his admirers 
was far greater, and several learned grammarians 
wrote commentaries on his orations, some of which 
are extant. The best edition of Aristides is by 
W. Dindorf, Lips. 1829. —5. Quintilianus Aris- 
tides, the author of a treatise in 3 books on 
music, probably lived in the 1st century after 
Christ. His work is perhaps the most valuable of 
all the ancient musical treatises : it is printed in 
the collection of Meibomius entitled Aiiliquae Mu- 
sicae Auetores Sepiein, Amst. 1652. 

Aristion CApia-TLcov), a philosopher either of the 
Epicurean or Peripatetic school, made himself ty- 
rant of Athens through the influence of Mithridates. 
He held out against Sulla in B. c. 87; and when 
the city was taken by storm, he was put to death 
by Sulla's orders. 

Aristippus CApiaTnnros). 1. Son of Aritades, 
born at Cyrene, and founder of the Cyrenaic school 
of Philosophy, flourished about B. c. '370. The fame 
of Socrates brought him to Athens, and he remained 
with the latter almost up to the time of his execu- 
tion, B. c. 399. Though a disciple of Socrates, he 
wandered both in principle and practice very far 
from the teaching and example of his great master. 
He was luxurious in his mode of living : he in- 
dulged in sensual gratifications and the society of 
the notorious Lais ; and he took money for his 
teaching (being the first of the disciples of Socrates 
Avho did so). He passed part of his life at the 
court of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse ; but he 
appears at last to have returned to Cyrene, and 
there to have spent his old age. The anecdotes 
which are told of him, however, do not give us the 
notion of a person wlio was the mere slave of his 
passions, but rather of one who took a pride in ex- 
tracting enjoyment from all circumstances of every 
kind, and in controlling adversity and prosperity 
alike. They illustrate and confirm the two state- 
ments of Horace {Ep. i. 1. 18), that to observe the 
precepts of Aristippus is mild res, non me rebus 
suhjungere, and (i. 17. 23) that, omnis Aristip- 
pum decuit color ct status et res. Thus when 
reproached for his love of bodily indulgences, he 
answered, that there was no shame in enjoying 
them, but that it would be disgraceful if he could 
not at any time give them up. To Xenophon and 
Plato he was very obnoxious, as we see from the 
Memorabilia (ii. 1 . ) where he maintains an odious 
discussion against Socrates in defence of voluptuous 
enjoyment, and from the Fhaedo, where his ab- 
sence at the death of Socrates, though he was only 
at Aegina, 200 stadia from Athens, is doubtless 
mentioned as a reproach. He imparted his doc- 
trine to his daughter Arete, by whom it was com- 
municated to her son, the younger Aristippus. — 
2. Two tyrants of Argos, in the time of Antigonus 
Gonatas. See Aristojiachus, Nos. 3 and 4. 

Aristo, T., a distinguished Roman jurist, lived 
under the emperor Trajan, and was a friend of the 
Younger Pliny. His works are occasionally men- 
tioned in the Digest, but there is no direct extract 
from any of them in that compilation. He wrote 
notes on the Libri Posteriorum of Labeo, on 
Cassius, whose pupil he had been, and on Sabinv.s. 



Aristo. [Ariston.] 

Aristobulus ('Apto-TogouA-os), princes of Judaea. 

1. Eldest son of Joannes Hyrcanus, assumed the 
title of king of Judaea, on the death of his father 
in B. c. 107. He put to death his brother Anti- 
gonus, in order to secure his power, but died in 
the following year, 106. —2. Younger son of 
Alexander Jannaeus and Alexandra. After the 
death of his mother in b, c, 70, there was a civil 
war for some years between Aristobulus and his 
brother Hyrcanus, for the possession of the crown. 
At length in b. c. 63, Aristobulus was deprived of 
the sovereignty by Pompey and carried away as a 
prisoner to Rome. In 57, he escaped from his 
confinement at Rome, with his son Antigonus, and, 
returning to Judaea, renewed the war ; but he was 
taken prisoner, and sent back to Rome by Gabinius. 
In 49, he was released by Julius Caesar, who sent 
him into Judaea, but he was poisoned on the way 
by some of Pompey 's party, —3. Grandson of No. 

2, son of Alexander and brother of Herod's wife 
Mariamne. He was made high-priest by Herod, 
when he was only 17 years old, but was afterwards 
drowned at Jericho, by order of Herod, b. c. 35. 
— 4. Son of Herod the Great by Mariamne, was 
put to death in B. c. 6, with his brother Alexander, 
by order of their father, whose suspicions had been 
excited against them by their brother Antipater. 
—5. Surnamed " the Younger," son of Aristobulus 
and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great. 
He was educated at Rome with his two brothers, 
Agrippa I. and Herod the future king of Chalcis. 
He died, as he had lived, in a private station.— 
6. Son of Herod king of Chalcis, grandson of No. 
4, and great-grandson of Herod the Great. In A. d. 
55, Nero made him king of Armenia Minor, and 
in 61 added to liis dominions some portion of the 
Greater Armenia which had been given to Tigranes, 
He joined the Romans in the war against An- 
tiochus, king of Commagene, in 73. 

Aristobulus. 1. Of Cassandrea, served under 
Alexander the Great in Asia, and wrote a history 
of Alexander, which was one of the chief sources 
used by Arrian in the composition of his work.— 
2. An Alexandrine Jew, and a Peripatetic philo- 
sopher, lived B. c. 170, under Ptolemy VI. Philo-; 
metor. He is said to have been the author of 
commentaries upon the books of Moses, the object 
of which was to prove that the Greek philosophy 
was taken from the books of jNIoses ; but it is now 
admitted that this work was written by a later 
writer, whose object was to induce the Greeks to 
pay respect to the Jewish literature. 

Aristocles {'Apia-roKXrjs). 1. Of Rhodes, a 
Greek grammarian and rhetorician, a contemporary 
of Strabo. — 2. Of Pergamus, a sophist and rhe- 
torician, and a pupil of Herodes Atticus, lived 
under Trajan and Hadrian. — 3. Of Messene, a 
Peripatetic philosopher, probably lived about the 
beginning of the 3rd century after Christ. He 
wrote a work on philosophy, some fragments of 
which are preserved by Eusebius. — 4. Sculptors. 
There were two sculptors of this name : Aristocles 
the elder, who is called both a Cydonian and a 
Sicyonian, probably because he was born at Cy- 
donia and practised his art in Sicyon ; and Aris- 
tocles the younger, of Sicyon, grandson of the 
former, son of Cleoetas, and brother of Canachus. 
These artists founded a school of sculpture at 
Sicyon, which secured an hereditary reputation, 
and of which we have the heads for 7 genera- 

G 



82 



ARISTOCRATES. 



ARISTON. 



tions, namely, Aiistocles, Cleoetas, Aristocles and 
Canachus. Synnoon, Ptolichus, Sostratus, and Pan- 
tias. The elder Aristocles probably lived about 
B.C. GOO— 568 ; the younger about 540 — 508. 

Aristocrates hpiaroKpaTris). 1. Last king 
of Arcadia, was the leader of the Arcadians in 
the 2nd Messenian war, when they assisted the 
Messenians against the Spartans. Having been 
bribed by the Spartano, he betrayed the Messe- 
nians, and was in consequence stoned to death by 
the Arcadians, about B.C. 668, who now abolished 
the kingly office. — 2. An Athenian of wealth and 
influence, son of Scellias, was one of the Athenian 
generals at the battle of Arginusae, B. c. 406, and 
on his return to Athens was brought to trial and 
executed. 

Aristodenms {"'kpiaro^fiiios). 1. A descendant 
of Hercules, son of Aristomachus, and father of 
Eurysthenes and Procles. According to some tra- 
ditions Aristodemus was killed at Naupactus by a 
flash of lightning, just as he v/as setting out on his 
expedition into Peloponnesus ; but a Lacedaemo- 
nian tradition related, that Aristodemus himself 
came to Sparta, was the first king of his race, and 
died a natural death.— 2. A Messenian, one of 
the chief heroes in the first Messenian war. As 
the Delphic oracle had declared that the" preser- 
vation of the Messenian state demanded that a 
maiden of the house of the Aepytids should be 
sacrificed, Aristodemus offered his own daughter. 
In order to save her life, her lover declared that 
she was with child by him, but Aristodemus, en- 
raged at this assertion, murdered his daughter and 
opened her body to refute the calumny. Aristo- 
demus was afterwards elected king in place of 
Euphaes, v/ho had fallen in battle against the 
Spartans. He continued the war against the Spar- 
tans, till at length, finding further resistance hope- 
less, he put an end to his life on the tomb of his 
daughter, about B. c. 723. — 3. Tyrant of Cumae in 
Campania, at whose court Tarquinius Superbus died, 
B.c. 496.-4. One of the 300 Spartans at Ther- 
mopylae (b. c. 480), was not present at the battle 
in which his comrades fell, either in consequence of 
sickness, or because he had been sent on an errand 
from the camp. The Spartans punished him with 
Atimia, or civil degradation. Stung with this 
treatment he met his death at Plataea in the follow- 
ing year (479), after performing the wildest feats 
of valour. —5. A tragic actor of Athens in the 
time of Demosthenes, took a prominent part in the 
political afikirs of his time, and advocated peace 
with Macedonia. He was employed by the Athe- 
nians in their negotiations with Philip, with whom 
he was a great favourite. — 6. Of Miletus, a friend 
and flatterer of Antigonus, king of Asia, who sent 
him into Greece in B.C. 315, in order to promote 
his interests there. —7. There were many literary 
persons of this name referred to by the ancient 
grammarians, whom it is difficult to distinguish 
from one another. Two were natives of Nysa in 
Caria, both grammarians, one a teacher of Pompey, 
and the other of Strabo. There was also an Aris- 
todemus of Elis, and another of Thebes, who are 
quoted as writers. 

Aristogiton CApiaToydTcou). 1. The conspi- 
rator against the sons of Pisistratus. See Har- 
MODius. — 2, An Athenian orator and adversary 
of Demosthenes, Hyperldes, and Dinarchus. He 
was often accused by Demosthenes and others, and 
defended himsolf in a number of orations which 



are lost. Among the extant speeches of Deino- 
stlienes there are 2 against Aristogiton, and among 
those of Dinarchus there is one. 

Aristomaclie ('Apio-To^axTj), daughter ofHip- 
parinus of Syracuse, sister of Dion, and wife of the 
elder Dionysius, who married her and Doris of 
Locri on the same day. She afterwards perished 
with her daughter Arete. 

Aristomachus ('Api(TTdiuax"s)- 1. SonofTalaus 
and brother of Adrastus. — 2. Son of Cleodemus 
or Cleodaeus, grandson of Hyllus, great-grandson 
of Hercules, and father of Temenus, Cresphontes, 
and Aristodemus. He fell in battle when he in- 
vaded Peloponnesus ; but his three sons were more 
successful and conquered Peloponnesus. —3. Ty- 
rant of Argos, under the patronage of Antigonus 
Gonatas, was assassinated, and succeeded by Aris- 
tippus IL— 4. Tyrant of Argos, succeeded Aris- 
tippns II. : he resigned his power upon the death 
of Demetrius in b. c. 229, and induced Argos to 
join the Achaean league. He afterwards deserted 
the Achaeans, and again assumed the tyranny ot 
Argos ; but the city having been taken b}-" Anti- 
gonus Doson, Aristomachus fell into the hands of 
the Achaeans, and was by them put to death. 

Aristomenes CApia-To/xevris). 1. The Messe- 
nian, the hero of the 2nd war with Sparta, belongs 
more to legend than to history. He was a native 
of Andania, and was sprung from the royal line of 
Aepytus. Tired of the yoke of Sparta, he began 
the war in B. c. 685, 39 years after the end of 
the 1st war. Soon after its commencement he so 
distinguished himself by his valour, that he was 
offered the throne, but refused it, and received the 
office of supreme commander. After the defeat of 
the Messenians in the 3rd year of the war, through 
the treachery of Aristocrates, the Arcadian leader, 
Aristomenes retreated to the mountain fortress of 
Ira, and there maintained the war for 1 1 years, 
constantly ravaging the land of Laconia. In 
one of his incursions, however, the Spartans 
overpowered him with superior numbers, and car- 
rying him with 50 of his comrades to Sparta, 
cast them into the pit (jceaSas) where condemned 
criminals were thrown. The rest perished ; not 
so Aristomenes, the favourite of the gods ; rfor 
legends told how an eagle bore him up on its wings 
as he fell, and a fox guided him on the 3rd day 
from the cavern. But having incurred the anger 
of the Twin Brothers, his country was destined to 
ruin. The city of Ira, which he had so long sue- [ 
cessfull}'' defended, fell into the hands of the Spar- j' 
tans ; Aristomenes, after performing prodigies of 
valour, was obliged to leave his country, which 
was again compelled to submit to the Spartans, B. c. 
663. He afterwards settled at lalysus in Rhodes, 
where he died. Damagetus, king of lalysus, had 
been enjoined by the Delphic oracle "■ to marry the 
daughter of the best of the Greeks," and he there- t 
fore took to wife the daughter of Aristomenes, who 
accompanied him to Rhodes. The Rhodians ho- [ 
noured Aristomenes as a hero, and from him were fi 
descended the illustrious family of the Diagoridae. [i 
— 2. An Acarnanian, who governed Egypt with [| 
justice and wisdom during the minority of Ptolemy H 
V. Epiphanes, but was put to death by Ptolemy in ji 
192. — 3. A comic poet of Athens, flourished dur- 
ing the Peloponnesian war. 

Ariston {'Apiarwu). 1. Of Chios, a Stoic phi- 
losopher, and a disciple of Zeno, flourished about 
D, c. 260. Though he professed himself a Stoic, 



ARTSTONAUTAE. 

! yet he differed from Zeno in several points, and 
became the founder of a small school. He is said 
' to have died of a coup de soleil. — 2. A Peripatetic 
I philosopher of Julis in the island of Ceos, succeeded 
\ Lycon as head of the Peripatetic school, about b. c. 
I 230. He wrote several philosophical works which 
j are lost. — 3. Of Alexandria, a Peripatetic philo- 
sopher and a contemporary of Strabo, wrote a work 
on the Nile. 

Aristonautae (^KpiarovavTai)^ a town in Achaia, 
the harbour of Pallene. 

Aristonicus {'hpiaroviKos). 1. A natural son 
of Eumenes II. of Pergamus. Upon the death of 
: his brother Attalus III., B,c. 133, who left his 
! kingdom to the Romans, Aristonicus laid claim to 
I the crown. At first he met with considerable suc- 
! cess. He defeated in 131 the consul P. Licinius 
I Crassus ; but in 130 he was defeated and taken pri- 
i soner by M. Perpernn, was carried to Rome by 
' M'. Aquillius in 129, and was there put to death. 
— 2. An Alexandrine grammarian, a contemporary 
of Strabo, and the author of several works, most of 
which related to the Homeric poems. 

Aristonymus {"'hpiaTdjvvu.os), a comic poet and 
contemporary of Aristophanes and Amipsias. 

Aristophianes {''kpi(rTO(pdvr]s). 1. The celebrated 
comic poet, was born about b. c. 444 and probably 
I at Athens. His father Philippus had possessions in 
Aegina, and may originally have come from that 
island, whence a question arose whether Aristophanes 
was a genuine Athenian citizen : his enemy Cleon 
brought against him more than one accusation to 
i deprive him of his civic rights (^evias 7pa<|)at), but 
Avithout success. He had three sons, Philippus, 
Araros, and Nicostratus, but of his private history 
we know nothing. He probably died about B. c. 
i 380. The comedies of Aristophanes are of the 
! highest historical interest, containing as they do an 
admirable series of caricatures on the leading men 
of the day, and a contemporary commentary on the 
evils existing at Athens. Indeed, the caricature is 
the only feature in modern social life which at all 
resembles them. Aristophanes was a bold and 
often a wise patriot. He had the strongest affection 
for Athens, and longed to see her restored to the 
state in which she was flourishing in the previous 
generation, and almost in his own childhood, before 
Pericles became the head of the government, and 
! Avhen the age of Miltiades and Aristides had but 
just passed away. The first great evil of his ow-n 
\ time against which he inveighs, is the Peloponne- 
sian war, which he regards as the work of Pericles. 
To this fatal war, among a host of evils, he ascribes 
the influence of demagogues like Cleon at Athens. 
Another great object of his indignation was the re- 
, cently adopted system of education which had been 
introduced by the Sophists, acting on the specula- 
tive and inquiring turn given to the Athenian 
mind by the Ionian and Eleatic philosophers, and 
the extraordinary intellectual development of the 
age following the Persian war. The new theories 
introduced by the Sophists threatened to overthrow 
; the foundations of morality, by making persuasion 
i and not truth the object of man in his intercourse 
with his fellovi's, and to substitute a universal 
scepticism for the religious creed of the people. 
[ The worst effects of such a system were seen in 
Alcibiades, who combined all the elements which 
Aristophanes most disliked, heading the war party 
in politics, and protecting the sophistical school in 
philosophy and also in literature. Of this latter 



ARISTOPHANES. 88 

school — the literary and poetical Sophists — Euri- 
pides was the chief, whose works are full of that 
lj.€T€0)pocro(p'ia which contrasts so offensively with 
the moral dignity of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and 
for which Aristophanes introduces him as soaring 
in the air to write his tragedies. Another feature 
of the times was the excessive love for litigation at 
Athens, the consequent importance of the dicasts, 
and disgraceful abuse of their power ; all of which 
enormities are made by Aristophanes objects of 
continual attack. But though he saw what were 
the evils of his time, he had not wisdom to find a 
remedy for them, except the hopeless and unde- 
sirable one of a movement backwards ; and there- 
fore, though we allow him to have been honest and 
bold, we must deny him the epiihet of great. The 
following is a list of his extant comedies, with the 
year in which they were performed: — 425. Acliar- 
nians. Produced in the name of Callistratus. First 
prize. — 424. 'iTTTreis, KtiigJds or Horsemen. The 
first play produced in the name of Aristophanes 
himself. First prize ; second Cratinus. — 423. 
Clouds. First prize, Cratinus ; second, Amipsias. 
— 422. Wasps. Second prize. — Clouds (second 
edition), failed in obtaining a prize. Some writers 
place this B. c. 41 1, and the whole subject is very 
uncertain. — Aid. Peace. Second prize; Eupolis 
first. — Birds. Second prize ; Amipsias, first ; 
Phry nichus, third. — 411. Lysistrata. — Thesmo- 
pJioriazusae. During the Oligarchy. — 408. First 
Plutus. — 405. Frogs. First prize; Phrynichus, 
second ; Plato, third. Death of Sophocles. — 392. 
Ecclesiazusae. ■ — 388. Second edition of the Plutus. 
— The last two comedies of Aristophanes were the 
Aeolosicon and Cocalus, produced about B. c. 387 
(date of the peace of Antalcidas) by Araros, one of 
his sons. — Suidas tells us, that Aristophanes was 
the author, in all, of 54 plays. As a poet Aristo- 
phanes possessed merits of the highest order. His 
works contain snatches of lyric poetry which are 
quite noble, and some' of his chorusses, particularly 
one in the Knights, in which the horses are repre- 
sented as rowing triremes in an expedition against 
Corinth, are written with a spirit and humour un- 
rivalled in Greek, and are not very dissimilar to 
English ballads. He was a complete master of the 
Attic dialect, and in his hands the perfection of 
that glorious language is wonderfully shown. No 
flights are too bold for the range of his fancy; 
animals of every kind are pressed into his service ; 
frogs chaunt chorusses, a dog is tried for stealing 
a cheese, and an iambic verse is composed of the 
grunts of a pig. — Editions. The best of the col- 
lective plays are by Invemizzi, completed by 
Beck and Dindorf, 13 vols. Lips. 1794—1826, 
and by Bekker, 5 vols. 8vo., London, 1829.— 
2. Of Byzantium, son of Apelles, and one of the 
most eminent Greek grammarians at Alexandria. 
He was a pupil of Zenodotus and Eratosthenes, 
and teacher of the celebrated Aristarchus. He 
lived about B. c. 264, in the reign of Ptolemy II. 
and Ptolemy III., and had the supreme manage- 
ment of the library at Alexandria. Aristophanes 
was the first who introduced the use of accents in 
the Greek language. He devoted himself chiefly 
to the criticism and interpretation of the Greek 
poets, and more especially of Homer, of whose 
works he made a new and critical edition {SiSpOwcris). 
The philosophers Plato and Aristotle likewise en- 
gaged his attention, and of the former, as of several 
of the poets, he made new and critical editions. 

a 2 



84 ARISTOPHON. 

All we possess of his numerous works consists of 
fragments scattered through the Scholia on the 
poets, some argumenta to the plays of the tragic 
poets and of Aristophanes, and a part of his Ae|ety, 
which is printed in Boissonade's edition of He- 
rodian's Pariitioncs, London, 1 819, pp. 283 — 289. 

Aristophoii kpicrocpcav). 1. Of the demus of 
Azenia in Attica, one of the most distinguished 
Athenian orators about the close of the Peloponne- 
sian war. The number of laws which he proposed 
may be inferred from his own statement, as preserved 
by Aeschines, that he was accused 75 times of 
having made illegal proposals, but that he had al- 
ways come off victorious. In B. c. 3.54 he accused , 
Iphicrates and Timotheus, and in the same year ' 
he came forward in the assembly to defend the law 
of Leptines against Demosthenes. The latter 
treats him with great respect, and reckons him 
among the most eloquent orators. —2. Of the de- 
mus of Colyttus, a contemporary of Demosthenes, 
and an orator of great distinction and influence. 
It was this Aristophon whom Aeschines served as 
a clerk, and in whose service he was trained for 
his public career. [Aeschixes.] — 3. A comic 
poet of the middle comedy. — 4. A painter of 
some distinction, son and pupil of Aglaophon, and 
brother of Polygnotus. 

Aristoteles {'ApLaTor4\ris), the philosopher, was 
bom at Stagira, a town in Chalcidice in Macedonia, 
B. c. 384. His father, Nicomachus, was physician 
in ordinary to Amyntas II., king of Macedonia, 
and the author of several treatises on subjects 
connected Avith natural science : his mother, 
Phaestis (or Phaestias), w-as descended from a 
Chalcidian famih'. The studies and occupation of 
his father account for the early inclination ma- 
nifested by Aristotle for the investigation of nature, 
an inclination which is perceived throughout his 
whole life. He lost his father before he had at- 
tained his 17th year, and he was entrusted to the 
guardianship of one Proxenus of Atameus in !My- 
sia, who was settled in Stagira. In 367, he went to 
Athens to pursue his studies, and there became a 
pupil of Plato upon the return of the latter from 
Sicily about 365. Plato soon distinguished him 
above all his other disciples. He named him the 
" intellect of his school," and his house, the house 
of the "reader." Aristotle lived at Athens for 20 
years, till 347. During the whole of this period 
the good understanding which subsisted between 
teacher and scholar continued, with some trifling 
exceptions, undisturbed ; for the stories of the dis- 
respect and ingratitude of the latter towards the 
former are nothing but calumnies invented by his 
enemies. During the last 10 years of his first re- 
sidence at Athens, Aristotle gave instruction in 
rhetoric, and distinguished himself by his opposition 
to Isocrates. It was at this time that he published 
his first rhetorical writings. Upon the death of Plato 
(347) Aristotle left Athens, perhaps he was of- 
fended by Plato having appointed Speusippus as 
his successor in the Academy. He first repaired 
to his friend Hermias at Atameus, where he mar- 
ried Pythias, the adoptive daughter of the prince. 
On the death of Hermias, who was killed by the 
Persians (344), Aristotle fled from Atarneus to 
Mytil ene. Two years afterwards (342) he ac- 
cepted an invitation from Philip of Macedonia, to 
undertake the instruction of his son Alexander, 
then 13 years of age. Here Aristotle was treated 
with the most marked respect. His native citv, 



ARISTOTELES. 
Stagira, which had been destroyed by Philip, was 
rebuilt at his request, and Philip caused a gymna- 
sium (called Nymphaeum) to be built there in a 
pleasant grove expressly for Aristotle and hia 
pupils. Several of the youths of the Macedonian, 
nobles were educated by Aristotle along with 
Alexander. Aristotle spent 7 years in Macedonia; 
but Alexander enjoyed his instruction without in- 
terruption for only 4. Still with such a pupil 
even this short period Avas sufficient for a teacher 
like Aristotle to fulfil the highest purposes of 
education, and to create in his pupil that sense of 
the noble and great, which distinguishes Alexander 
from all those conquerors who have only swept like 
a hurricane through the world. On Alexander's 
accession to the throne in 335, Aristotle returned 
to Athens. Here he fomid his friend Xenocra- 
tes president of the Academy. He himself had 
the Lyceum, a gj-nmasium sacred to Apollo Ly- 
ceus, assigned to him by the state. He soob 
assembled round him a large number of dis- 
tinguished scholars, to whom he delivered lectures 
on philosophy in the shady walks {irep'nraToi) 
which surrounded the Lyceum, while walking up 
and doATO (Trepnrarwv), and not sitting, which waa 
the general practice of the philosophers. From one 
or other of these circumstances the name Peripate- 
tic is derived, which was afterwards given to his 
school. He gave two different courses of lectures 
every day. Those which he delivered in the morn- 
ing {kuQivos Trep'nraTos) to a narrower circle of 
chosen (esoteric) hearers, and which were called 
acroamatic or acroatic, embraced subjects connected 
with the more abstruse philosophy (theology)^ 
physics, and dialectics. Those which he delivered 
in the afternoon {8ei\iv6s irep'nraTos) and intended 
for a more promiscuous circle (which accordingly 
he called exoteric), extended to rhetoric, sophistics, 
and politics. He appears to have taught not so 
much in the way of conversation, as in regular 
lectures. His school soon became the most cele- 
brated at Athens, and he continued to preside over 
it for 13 years (335 — 323). During this time he 
also composed the greater part of his works. In 
these labours he was assisted by the truly kingly 
liberality of his former pupil, who not only pre- 
sented him with 800 talents, but also caused large 
collections of natural curiosities to be made for him, 
to which posterity is indebted for one of his most 
excellent works, the History of Animals. Mean- 
while A-arious causes contributed to throw a cloud 
over the latter years of the philosopher's life. In 
the first place, he felt deeply the death of his wife 
Pythias, who left behind her a daughter of the 
same name : he lived subsequently with a friend 
of his wife's, the slave Herpyllis, who bore him a 
son, Nicomachus. But a source of still greater 
grief was an interruption of the friendly relation in 
which he had hitherto stood to his royal pupil. 
This was occasioned by the conduct of Callis- 
THENES, the nephew and pupil of Aristotle, who 
had vehemently and injudiciously opposed the 
changes in the conduct and policy of Alexander. 
Still Alexander refrained from any expression of 
hostility towards his former instmctor, although 
their former cordial connection no longer subsisted 
undisturbed. The story that Aristotle had a share 
in poisoning the king, is a fabrication of a later 
age ; and moreover it is certain that Alexander 
died a natural death. After the death of Alex- 
ander (323) Aristotle was looked upon with suspi- 



ARISTOTELES. 



ARISTOTELES. 



So 



cion at Athens as a friend of Macedonia ; but as 
it was not easy to bring any political accusation 
against him, he Avas accused of impiety {acreSeias) 
by the hierophant Euryraedon. He withdrew 
from Athens before his trial, and escaped in the 
beginning of 322 to Chalcis in Euboea, where he 
died in the course of the same year, in the 63rd 
year of his age, of a chronic disease of the stomach. 
His body was transported to his native city Sta- 
gira, and his memory was honoured there, like that 
of a hero, by yearly festivals. He bequeathed to 
Theophrastus his well-stored library and the ori- 
ginals of his writings. Tn person Aristotle was 
short and of slender make, with small eyes, and a 
lisp in his pronunciation, using L for /?, and with 
a sort of sarcastic expression in his comitenance. 
He exhibited remarkable attention to external ap- 
pearance, and bestowed much care on his dress 
and person. He is described as having been of 
weak health, which, considering the astonishing 
extent of his studies, shows all the more the energy 
of his mind. — The numerous works of Aristotle 
may be divided into the following classes according 
to the subjects of which they treat : we only men- 
tion the most important in each class. I. DiA. 
LECTics AND LoGic. — The extant logical writings 
are comprehended as a whole under the title Orga- 
non ("Opyavoy, i. e. instrument of science). They 
are occupied with the investigation of the method 
by which man arrives at knowledge. An insight 
into the nature and formation of conclusions and of 
proof by means of conclusions, is the common aim 
and centre of all the separate 6 works composing 
the Organon : these separate works are, 1 . Karri- 
yopiai, Praedicamenta^ in which Aristotle treats of 
the (10) comprehensive generic ideas, under which 
all the attributes of things may be subordinated as 
species. 2. Ilepi ep/xTji/ei'as, De Literpretatione, 
concerning the expression of thought by means of 
speech. 3, 4. ^KvaXvriKa irporepa and vcrrepa, 
Analytica^ each in 2 books, on the theory of con- 
clusions, so called from the resolution of the con- 
clusion into its fundamental coinponent parts. 5. 
ToiriKCL, De Locis, in 8 books, of the general points 
of view (roTTot), from which conclusions may be 
drawn. 6, Uepl (TocpiariKuv eAeyxcoj', concerning 
the fallacies which only apparently prove some- 
thing. The best edition of the Organon is by 
Waitz, Lips. 1844. — II. Theoretical Philo- 
sophy, consisting of Metaphysics, Mathemaiics, and 
Pliysics, on all of which Aristotle wrote works. 1. 
The Metaphysics,'m 14 books (tcDj- ^uera ra (pvaiKo), 
originally consisted of distinct treatises, independent 
of one another, and were put together as one work 
after Aristotle's death. The title also is of late 
origin, and was given to the work from its being 
placed after {fxeTa) the Physics (to (pvaiKa). The 
best edition is by Brandis, Berol. 1823. — 2. In 
Matliematics we have 2 treatises by Aristotle : (1.) 
Ilepl wToixuv 'ypaf.Ljj.cav^ i. e. concerning indivisible 
lines ; 2. MTjxoi'i/ca TrpoSATj/xara, Mechanical Pro- 
blems. — 3. In Physics, we have, — (1). Physics 
{(pvaiKT] cLKpoaais, called also by others Trept apx^y), 
in 8 books. In these Aristotle develops the general 
principles of natural science. (Cosmology.) (2.) 
Concerning the Heaven [ir^pl ovpavov), in 4 books. 
(3.) On Production and Destruction (vrepl yeviaews 
KoL cpGopas, de Gciieratione et Corruptione), in 2 
books, develop the general laws of production and 
destruction. (4.) On Meteorology (ixeTeocpoXoyiKa, 
de Meteons), in 4 books. (5.) On the Universe (Trepl 



Koa-fMov, de Miindo), a letter to Alexander, treats 
the subject of the last 2 works in a popular tone 
and a rhetorical style altogether foreign to Aris- 
totle. The whole is probably a translation of a 
work with the same title by Appuleius. (6.) The 
History of Animals (irepl ^wav laropia), in 9 books, 
treats of all the peculiarities of this division of the 
natural kingdom, according to genera, classes, and 
species ; especially giving all the characteristics of 
each animal according to its external and internal vi- 
tal functions ; according to the manner of its copula- 
tion, its mode of life, and its character. The best 
edition is by Schneider, Lips. 1811. The observa- 
tions in this work are the triumph of ancient saga- 
city, and have been confirmed by the results of the 
most recent investigations. (Cuvier.) (7.) On the 
paiis of Animals (-Trepl ^wwv /.Lop'icov), in 4 books, 
in Avhich Aristotle, after describing the phaenomena 
in each species, develops the causes of these phaeno- 
mena by means of the idea to be formed of the 
purpose which is manifested in the formation of the 
animal. (8.) On the Generation of Animals {irepl 
^awv yev^aews), in 5 books, treats of the generation 
of animals and the organs of generation. (9.) De 
Incessu Animalium {-rrepl ^coaiu iropeias). (10.) 
Three hooks on the Soid (TrepJ ypvxTjs). Aristotle 
defines the soul to be " the internal formative prin- 
ciple of a body which may be perceived by the 
senses, and is capable of life." Best edition by 
Trendelenburg, Jenae, 1833. Several anatomical 
works of Aristotle have been lost. He was tlie first 
person who in any especial manner advocated ana- 
tomical investigations, and showed the necessity of 
themfor the study of the natural sciences. He fre- 
quently refers to investigations of his own on the sub- 
ject. — III. Practical Philosophy or Politics. 
— All that falls within the sphere of practical philo- 
sophy is comprehended in three principal works : 
the Ethics, tha Politics, aud the Oeconomics. 1. The 
Nicomachean Ethics ('H0tKa NiKo/^dxeta), in 10 
books. Aristotle here begins with the highest and 
most universal end of life, for the individual as well 
as for the community in the state. This is hap- 
piness {ehZaifxovia) ; and its conditions are, on the 
one hand, perfect virtue exhibiting itself in the 
actor, and on the other hand, corresponding bodily 
advantages and favourable external circumstances. 
Virtue is the readiness to act constantly and con- 
sciously according to the laws of the rational nature 
of man {opQhs Xoyos). The nature of virtue shows 
itself in its appearing as the medium between two 
extremes. In accordance with this, the several 
virtues are enumerated and characterized. Best 
editions by Zell, Heidelb. 1 820 ; Corais, Paris, 
1822 ; Card well, Oxon. 1828 ; Michelet, Berol. 
1828. — 2. The Eudemean Ethics {'UeiKa EvSv- 
jweta), in 7 books, of which only books i. ii.iii. and 
vii. are independent, while the remaining books iv. 
V. and vi. agree word for word Avith books v. vi. and 
vii. of the Nicomachean Ethics. This ethical work 
is perhaps a recension of Aristotle's lectures, edited 
by Eudemus. — 3. 'UGlko. M4ya\a, in 2 books. — 4. 
Politics (UoXiTiKd), in 8 books. The Ethics con- 
duct us to the Politics. The connection between 
the two works is so close, that in the Ethics by the 
word vcrrepov reference is made by Aristotle to the 
Politics, and in the latter by Trpdrepov to the 
Ethics. The Politics show how happiness is to be 
attained for the human community in the state ; for 
the object of the state is not merely the external 
preservation of life, but " happy life, as it ia at- 

G 3 



86 



ARISTOTELES. 



ARMENIA. 



tained by means of virtue " (aperv, perfect deve- 
lopment of the whole man). Hence also ethics form 
the first and most general foundation of political 
life, because the state cannot attain its highest 
object, if morality does not prevail among its 
citizens. The house, the family, is the element of 
the state. Accordingly Aristotle begins with the 
doctrine of domestic economy, then proceeds to a 
description of the different forms of government, 
after which he gives a delineation of the most im- 
portant Hellenic constitutions, and then investigates 
which of the constitutions is the best (the ideal of 
a state). The doctrine concerning education, as 
the most important condition of this best state, 
forms the conclusion. Best editions, by Schneider. 
Francof. ad Viadr. 1809 ; Corais, Paris, 1821 ; 
Gottling, Jenae, 1824 ; Stahr, with a German 
translation, Lips. 1837 ; Barthelemy St. Hilaire, 
with a French translation, Paris. 1837. — 5. Oeco- 
nomics (o'lKovofxiKd), in 2 books, of which only the 
first is genuine. — IV. Works ox Art, which 
have for their subject the exercise of the creative 
faculty, or Art. To these belong the Poetics and 
Rhetoric 1. Tlie Poetics (Ilepl TroiTjri/crys). Aris- 
totle penetrated deeper than any of the ancients 
into the essence of Hellenic art. He is the father 
of the aesthetics of poetry^ as he is the completer of 
Greek rhetoric as a science. The greatest part of 
the treatise contains a theory of Tragedy ; nothing 
else is treated of. with the exception of the epos ; 
comedy is merely alluded to. Best editions by 
Tvrwhitt, Oxon. 1794 ; Hermann, Lips. 1802; 
Grafenhan, Lips. 1821 ; Bekker, Berol. 1832 ; 
Bitter, Colon. 1839. — 2. The Rhetoric (rexvr) pv- 
TopiKTi), in 3 books. Rhetoric, as a science, accord- 
ing to Aristotle, stands side by side with Dialectics. 
The only thing which makes a scientific treatment 
of rhetoric possible is the argumentation which 
awakens conviction : he therefore directs his chief 
attention to the theory of oratorical argumentation. 
The second main division of the work treats of the 
production of that favourable disposition in the 
hearer, in consequence of which the orator appears 
to him to be worthy of credit. The third part 
treats of oratorical expression and arrangement. — 
According to a story current in antiquity Aristotle 
bequeathed his library and MSS. to Theophrastus, 
his successor in the Academy. On the death of 
Theophrastus, the libraries and !MSS. both of 
Aristotle and Theophrastus are said to have come 
into the hands of his relation and disciple, Ne- 
leus of Scepsis. This Neleus sold both libraries 
to Ptolemy IL, king of Egypt, for the Alexan- 
drine library ; but he retained for himself, as an 
heirloom, the original MSS. of the works of 
these two philosophers. The descendants of Ne- 
leus, who were subjects of the king of Pergamus, 
knew of no other way of securing them from the 
search of the Attali, who wished to rival the Pto- 
lemies in forming a large library, than concealing 
them in a cellar, where for a couple of centuries 
they were exposed to the ravages of damp and 
worms. It was not till the beginning of the cen- 
tury before the birth of Christ that a wealthy book- 
collector, the Athenian Apellicon of Teos, traced 
out these valuable relics, bought them from the ig- 
norant heirs, and prepared from them a new edition 
of Aristotle's works. After the capture of Athens, 
Sulla conveyed Apellicon's library to Rome, B. c. t 
84. [Apellicon.] From this story an error ,1 
arose, which has been handed down from the time { 



of Strabo to the present day. It was concluded 
from this account, that neither Aristotle nor Theo- 
phrastus had published their writings, with the ex- 
ception of some exoteric works, which had no im- 
portant bearing on their system ; and that it was 
not till 200 years later that they were brought to 
light by the above-mentioned Apellicon, and pub- 
lished to the philosophical world. That, however, 
was by no means the case. Aristotle indeed did 
not prepare a complete edition, as we call it, of his 
writings. Nay, it is certain that death overtook 
him before he could finish some of his works and 
put the finishing hand to others. Nevertheless it 
cannot be denied that Aristotle destined all his 
works for publication, and published several in his 
life-time. This is indisputably certain with regard 
to the exoteric writings Those which had not 
been published by Aristotle himself, were given to 
the world by Theophrastus and his disciples in a 
complete form. — Editioyis. The best edition of 
the complete works of Aristotle is by Bekker, 
Berlin, 1831—1840, 4to. text, 2 vols., and a Latin 
translation in one volume. This edition has been 
reprinted at Oxford in 11 vols. 8vo. There is a 
stereotyped edition published by Tauchnitz, Leipzig, 
1832, 16mo, in 16 vols., and another edition of the 
text by "Weise, in one volume, Leipzig, 1843. 

Aristoxenus ('Apitrrolei/oy), of Tarentum, a 
Peripatetic philosopher and a musician, flourished 
about B.C. 318. He was a disciple of Aristotle, 
whom he appears to have rivalled in the variety of 
his studies. According to Suidas, he produced 
works to the number of 453 upon music, philosophy, 
history, in short every department of literature. 
We know nothing of his philosophical opinions, ex- 
cept that he held the soul to be a harmony of 
the body (Cic. Tusc. i. 10), a doctrine which had 
been already discussed by Plato in the Phaedo. 
Of his numerous works the only one extant is his 
Elements of Harmony (apfMoviKo. crT0LX^7a)^ in 3 
books : edited by Meibomius, in the Antiquae Mu- 
sicae Auctores Septem^ Amst. 1652. 

Aristus (^Apiaros). 1. Of Salarais in C}-prus, 
wrote a historj- of Alexander the Great. — 2. An 
Academic philosopher, a contemporary and friend 
of Cicero, and teacher of M. Brutus. 

Anus, river. [Aria.] 

Ariusia (77 'Apiovaia x^P"-), a district on the N. 
coast of Chios, where the best wine in the island 
was grown (Ariusium Vinurn, Virg. Eel. v. 71). 

Armene ('Ap^eVrj, or -wr) : Akliman), a tOAvn 
on the coast of Paphlagonia, where the 10,000 
Greeks, during their retreat, rested 5 days, enter- 
tained by the people of Sinope, a little to the W. 
of which Armene stood. 

Armenia ('Aojueyla : 'Ap/xeyios, Armenius : Ar- 
menia), a country of Asia, lying between Asia 
]\Iinor and the Caspian, is a lofty table- land, 
backed by the chain of the Caucasus, watered by 
the rivers Cjtus and Araxes, containing the sources 
also of the Tigris and of the Euphrates, the latter 
of which divides the countr}' into 2 unequal parts, 
which were called jNIajor and Minor. 1. Armenia 
Major or Propria ('A. 77 fxeydAr} or 77 tStcos KaXov- 
uevT] : Erzeroum, Ears, Van, and Erivan), was 
bounded on the N.E. and N. by the Cyrus (Kur)^ 
which divided it from Albania and Iberia ; on the 
N.W. and W. by the Moschici moimtains (the pro- 
longation of the chain of the Anti-Taurus), and the 
Euphrates (Frat), which divided it from Colchis 
and Armenia Minor ; and on the S. and S.E. 



ARMENIA, 



ARNOBIUS. 



87 



by tlie mountains called Masius, Niphates, and 
Oordiaei (the prolongation of the Tauras), and the 
lower course of the A raxes, which divided it 
from Mesopotamia-, Assyria, and Media : on the 
E. the country comes to a point at the confluence 
of the Cyrus and Araxes. It is intersected by 
chains of mountains, between which run the two 
great rivers Araxes, flowing E. into the Caspian, 
and the Arsanias or S. branch of the Euphrates 
(Murad), flowing W. into the main stream (Frat) 
just above M. Masius. The E. extremity of the 
chain of mountains which separates the basins 
of these two rivers, and which is an offshoot of 
the Anti-Taurus, forms the Ararat of Scripture. 
In the S. of the country is the great lake of Van, 
Arsissa Palus, enclosed by mountain chains which 
connect Ararat with the S. range of mountains. — 
2. Armenia Minor ('A. fxiKpd or fipax^Tepa), was 
bounded on the E. by the Euphrates, which divided 
it from Armenia Major, on the N. and N.W. by 
the mountains Scodises, Paryadres, and Anti- 
Taurus, dividing it from Pontus and Cappadocia, 
and on the S. by the Taurus, dividing it from 
Commagene in N. Syria, so that it contained the 
country' E. and S. of the city of Siwas (the ancient 
Cabira or Sebaste) as far as the Euphrates and the 
Taurus. The boundaries between Armenia Minor 
and Cappadocia varied at different times ; and in- 
deed the whole country up to the Euphrates is 
sometimes called Cappadocia, and, on the other 
hand, the whole of Asia Minor E. of the Plalys 
seems at one time to have been included under the 
name of Armenia. — The people of Armenia claim.ed 
io be aboriginal ; and there can be little doubt 
that they were one of the most ancient families of 
that branch of the human race which is called 
Caucasian. Their language, though possessing 
some remarkable peculiarities of its own, was nearly 
allied to the Indo-Germanic family ; and their 
manners and religious ideas were similar to those 
of the Medes and Persians, but with a greater 
tendency to the personification of the powers of 
nature, as in the goddess Anaitis, whose worship 
Avas peculiar to Armenia. They had commercial 
dealings with Assyria and Phoenicia. In the time 
of Xenophon they had preserved a great degree of 
primitive simplicity, but 400 years later Tacitus 
gives an unfavourable view of their character. — 
The earliest Armenian traditions represent the 
country as governed by native kings, who had per- 
petually to maintain their independence against 
attacks from Assyria. They were said to have 
been conquered by Semiramis, but again threw off 
the yoke at the time of the Median and Babjdonian 
revolt. Their relations to the Medes and Persians 
seem to have varied between successful resistance, 
unwilling subjection, and friendly alliance. A body 
of Armenians formed a part of the army which 
Xerxes led against Greece ; and they assisted 
Darius Codomannus against Alexander, and in 
this war they lost their king, and became subject 
to the Macedonian empire (b. c. 328). After 
another interval of successful revolt (b. c. 317 — 
274), they submitted to the Greek kings of Syria ; 
but when Antiochus the Great was defeated by the 
Romans (b. c. 190), the country again regained 
its independence, and it was at this period that it 
was divided into the two kingdoms of Armenia 
Major and Minor, under two different dynasties, 
founded respectively by the nobles who headed 
the revolt, Artaxias and Zariadras. Ultimatel}^, 



Armenia Minor was made a Roman province by 
Trajan ; and Armenia Major, after being a perpe- 
tual object of contention between the Romans and 
the Parthians, was subjected to the revived Persian 
empire by its first king Artaxerxes (Ardeshir) in 
A. D. 226 

Armenius Mens (rh 'Apix&ioj/ opos), a branch 
of the Anti-Taurus chain in Armenia Minor. 

Armimus (the Latinized form oi Hermann, " the 
chieftain"), son of Sigimer, " the conqueror," and 
chief of the tribe of the Cherusci, who inhabited 
the country to the north of the Hartz mountains, 
now forming the S. of Hanover and Brunswick. 
He was born in B. c. 18 ; and in his youth, he led 
the warriors of his tribe as auxiliaries of the Ro- 
man legions in Germany, where he learnt the lan- 
guage and military discipline of Rome, and was 
admitted to the freedom of the city, and enrolled 
amongst the equites. In A. D. 9, Arminius, who 
was now 27 years old, and had succeeded his 
father as chief of his tribe, persuaded his coimtry- 
men to rise against the Romans, who were now 
masters of this part of Germany, and which 
seemed destined to become, like Gaul, a Roman 
province. His attempt was crowned with success. 
Quintilius Varus, who was stationed in the country 
with 3 legions, was destroyed with almost all 
his troops [Varus] ; and the Romans had to re- 
linquish all their possessions beyond the Rhine. 
In 1 4, Arminius had to defend his country against 
Germanicus. At first he was successful ; the 
Romans were defeated, and Germanicus withdrew 
towards the Pthine, followed by Arminius. But 
having been compelled by his uncle, Inguiomer, 
against his own wishes, to attack the Romans 
in their entrenched camp, his army was routed, 
and the Romans made good their retreat to the 
Rhine. It was in the course of this campaign that 
Thusnelda, the wife of Arminius, fell into the 
hands of the Romans, and was reserved with the 
infant boy to whom she soon after gave birth in 
her captivity, to adorn the triumph of Germanicus 
at Rome. In 16, Arminius was again called upon 
to resist Germanicus, but he was defeated, and his 
country was probably only saved from subjection 
by the jealousy of Tiberius, who recalled Germa- 
nicus in the following year. At length Arminius 
aimed at absolute power, and was in consequence 
cut off by his own relations in the 37th year of his 
age, A. D. 19. 

Armorica or Aremoriea, the name of the N.W. 
coast of Gaul from the Ligeris [Loire) to the Se- 
quana {Seine), derived from the Celtic or, air, 
" upon," and muir, mor, " the sea." The Armo- 
ricae civitaies are enumerated by Caesar (B. G. 
vii. 75). 

Ama (Arnas, -atis : Civitella cfArno), a town 
in Umbria near Perusia. 

Amae ( "Apvai), a town in Chalcidice in Mace- 
donia, S. of Anion and Bromiscus. 

Ame {^Apvri), a town in Boeotia mentioned by 
Homer (11. ii. 507), supposed by Pausanias to be 
the same as Chaeronea, but placed by others near 
Acraephium on the E. of the lake Copais. 

Arnissa ("Apviaaa : Ostrova a town in Eor- 
daea in Macedonia. 

Arnobius. 1. The elder, a native of Africa, 
lived about A. u. 300, in the reign of Diocletian. 
He was at first a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca in 
Africa, but afterwards embraced Christianity ; and 
to remove all doubts as to the reality of his con- 

G 4 



88 



ARNON. 



ARRIANUS. 



version, he wrote, while yet a catechumen, his 
celebrated work against the Pagans, in 7 books 
{Libti spptem advcrsus Genies), which we still pos- 
sess. The nest edition is by Orelli, Lips. 1816. 
— 2. The Younger, lived about a. d. 460, and 
was probably a bishop or presbyter in Gaul. He 
wrote a commentary on the Psalms, still extant, 
which shows that he was a Semi- Pelagian. 

Amon ("Apvwv : Wad-el Mojib), a considerable 
river of E. Palestine, rising in the Arabian Desert, 
and flowing W. through a rocky valley into the 
Lacus Asphaltites {Dead Sea). The surrounding 
district was called Amonas ; and in it the Romans 
had a military station, called Castra Arnonensia. 

Amus {Arno), the chief river of Etruria, rises 
in the Apennines, flows by Pisae, and falls into the 
Tyrrhenian sea. It gave the name to the Tribiis 
Arniensis, formed B. c. 387. 

Aroa ('Apoa or 'Kp67i\ the ancient name of 
Patrae. 

Aromata (ra ' Kpl^jxara^ ^Apco/xaTuv &Kpou ; 
Cape Guarda/ui), the E.-most promontory of Africa, 
at the S. extremity of the Arabian Gulf : also the 
surrounding district was called Aromata or Aroma- 
tophora Regio, with a town 'Apoojudrov ifxiropiov : 
so named from the abundance of spices which the 
district produced. 

Arpi (Arpanus : Arpi), an inland to\vn in the 
Daunian Apulia, founded, according to tradition, by 
Diomedes, who called it ^Apyos 'imnov^ from which 
its later names of Argyrippa ov Argynpa and Arpi 
are said to have arisen (File (Diomedes) tirbem 
A rgyripam, patriae cognomine gentis^Wvg. Aen. xi. 
246). During the time of its independence it was 
a flourishing commercial town, using Salapia as its 
harbour. It was friendly to the Romans in the 
Samnite wars, but revolted to Hannibal after the 
battle of Cannae, b. c. 216: it was taken by the 
Romans in 213, deprived of its independence, and 
never recovered its former prosperitj'. 

Arpinum (Arplnas, -atis : Arpino)^ a town of 
Latium on the small river Fibrenus {Fibreno)^ ori- 
ginally belonging to the Volscians and afterwards 
to the Samnites, from whom the Romans wrested 
it, was a Roman municipium, and received the jus 
sujfragii, or riglit of voting in the Roman comitia, 
B.C. 188. It was the birthplace of Marius and 
Cicero, the latter of whom was born in his father's 
villa, situated on a small island formed by the river 
Fibrenus. Cicero's brother Quintus had an estate 
S. of Arp'num, called Arcantun. 

Arretium or Aretium (Arretlnus : Arezzo)^ one 
of the most important of the 12 cities of Etruria, 
Avas situated in the N. E. of the country at the 
foot of the Apennines, and possessed a fertile terri- 
tory near the sources of the Arnus and the Tiber, 
producing good wine and corn. It was thrice 
colonised by the Romans, whence we read of 
Arretini Veteres^ Fidenafes, Julienses. It was par- 
ticularly celebrated for its pottery, which was of 
red ware. The Cilnii, from Avliom Maecenas was 
descended, were a noble family of Arretium. The 
ruins of a city 2 or 3 miles to the S. F. of Avezzo, 
on a height called Poggio diSan Cori/elio, or Casiel 
Secco, are probably the remains of the ancient Ar- 
retium. 

Arrhapachitis {'Appairaxins), a district of 
Assyria, between the rivers Lycus and Choatras. 

An-hibaeus (^Ap'piSatos ), chieftain of the Mace- 
donians of Lyncus, revolted against king Perdiccas 
in the Peloponnesian war. It was to reduce him 



that Perdiccas sent for Brasidas (b. c. 424), and 
against him took place the unsuccessful joint ex- 
pedition, in which Perdiccas deserted Brasidas, and 
Brasidas effected his bold and skilful retreat. 

ArrMdaeus ('Ap^iSaTos) or Aridaeus ('Apt- 
Zalos). 1. A half-brother of Alexander the Great, 
son of Philip and a female dancer, Philinna of 
Larissa, was of imbecile understanding. He was 
at Babylon at the time of Alexander's death, b. c. 
323, and was elected king under the name of 
Philip. The young Alexander, the infant son of 
Roxana, was associated with him in the govern- 
ment. In 322, Arrhidaeus married Eurydice. On 
their return to Macedonia, Eurydice attempted to 
obtain the supreme power in opposition to Poly- 
sperchon ; but Ai'rhidaeus and Eurydice were made 
prisoners, and put to death by order of Olympias, 
317. — 2. One of Alexander's generals, obtained 
the province of the Hellespontine Phrygia, at the 
division of the provinces in 321 at Triparadisus, 
but was deprived of it by Antigonus in 319. 

Arria. 1. Wife of Caecina Paetus. When 
her husband was ordered by the emperor Claudius 
to put an end to his life, A. D. 42, and hesitated to 
do so, Arria stabbed herself, handed the dagger to 
her husband, and said, " Paetus, it does not pain 
me. "—-2. Daughter of the preceding, and wife of 
Thrasea. 

Arrianus (^Appiav6s). 1. Of Nicomedia in Bi- 
thynia, bom about A. D. 90, was a pupil and friend 
of Epictetus, and first attracted attention as a phi- 
losopher by publishng at Athens the lectures of 
his master. In 124, he gained the friendship of 
Hadrian during his stay in Greece, and received 
from the emperor the Roman citizenship ; from this 
time he assumed the name of Flavins. In 136, 
he was appointed praefect of Cappadocia, which 
was invaded the year after by the Alani or Mas- 
sagetae, whom he defeated. Under Antoninus 
Pius, in 146, Arrian was consul ; and about 150 
he withdrew from public life, and from this time 
lived in his native town of Nicomedia, as priest of 
Demeter and Persephone. He died at an advanced 
age in the reign of M. Aurelius. Arrian was one 
of the most active and best writers of his time. 
He was a close imitator of Xenophon both in the 
subjects of his works and in the style in which 
they were written. He regarded his relation to 
Epictetus as similar to that of Xenophon to So- 
crates ; and it was his endeavour to carry out that 
resemblance. With this view he published, I. the 
philosophical lectures of his master (Aiarpigol 
'ETTLKTrjTov) in 8 books, the first half of which is 
still extant. Edited in Schweighauser's Epicteteae 
Philosophiae Momanenta, vol. iii., and in Coraes' 
Udpepya 'EWrju. Bi€\iod. vol. viii. — 2. An ab- 
stract of the practical philosophy of Epictetus 
('E7X6if"'5iov 'ETTiKTTjTou), which is still extant. 
This celebrated work maintained its authority for 
man}'- centuries, both with Christians and Pagans. 
The best editions are those of Sehwcighauser and 
Coraes, in the collections above referred to. He 
also published other works relating to Epictetus, 
which are now lost. His original works are : — ■ 
3. A treatise on the chase {Kvu-ny7}TiK6s), which 
forms a kind of supplement to Xenophon's Avork 
on the same subject, and is printed in most editions 
of Xenophon's works. — 4. The History of the 
Asiatic expedition of Alexander the Great CAvd- 
Saais 'AAe^afSpoi;), in 7 books, the most important 
of Arrian 's works. This great work reminds the 



ARRIBAS. 



ARSACES. 



89 



reader of Xenophon's Anabasis, not only by its 
title, but also by the ease and clearness of its style. 
It is also of great value for its historical accuracy, 
being based upon the most trustworthy histories 
written by the contemporaries of Alexander, espe- 
cially those of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and of 
Aristobulus, the son of Aristobulus, — 5. On India 
('IvSiK^ or TO. 'IvSiKa), which may be regarded as 
a continuation of the Anabasis, at the end of which 
it is usually printed. This work is written in the 
Ionic dialect, probably in imitation of Ctesias of 
Cnidus, whose Avork on the same subject Arrian 
wished to supplant by amore trustworthy and correct 
] account. The best editions of the Anabasis are by 
1 Ellendt, Regiraontii, 1833, and by C. W. Krliger, 
I Berlin, 1835; of the Indica by Schmieder, Halle, 
I 1798. — 6. A description of a voyage round the 
coasts of the Euxine {■KeplirXovs ttovtov Eu|eii/oy), 
which had undoubtedly been made by Arrian him- 
self during his government of Cappadocia. This 
Periplus has come down to us together with a 
Periplus of the Erythraean, and a Periplus of the 
Euxine and the Palus Maeotis, both of which also 
bear the name of Arrian, but they belong undoubt- 
edly to a later period. The best editions are in 
Hudson's Geographi Minores, vol. i., and in Gail's 
;uid Hoffmann's collections of the minor Geogra- 
phers. — 7. A work on Tactics {Koyos ruKTLKhs or 
Texvv TaKTiKT}), of which we possess at present 
only a fragment: printed in Blancard's collection 
of the minor works of Arrian. Arrian also wrote 
numerous other works, all of which are now lost. 
— 2. A Roman jurisconsult, probably lived under 
Trajan, and is perhaps the same person with the 
orator Arrianus, who corresponded with the younger 
Pliny. He wrote a treatise de Interdictis, of which 
the 2d book is quoted in the Digest. 

Arribas, Arrybas, Arymbas, or Tharrytas 
('Appi'gas, 'Appugas, 'Apv/xSas, or Qappvras), a de- 
scendant of Achilles, and one of the early kings of 
the Molossians in Epirus. He is said to have been 
educated at Athens, and on his return to his native 
country to have framed for the Molossians a code of 
laws, and established a regular constitution. 

Q. Arrius. 1. Praetor, b. c. 72, defeated Crixus, 
the leader of the runaway slaves, but was after- 
wards conquered by Spartacus. In 71, Arrius was 
to have succeeded Verres as propraetor in Sicily, 
: but died on his way to Sicily. —2. A son of the 
! preceding, was an unsuccessful candidate for the 
I consulship, b. c. 59. He was an intimate friend 
of Cicero. 
Arrius Aper. [Apkr.] 

L. Arruntius. 1. Proscribed by the triumvirs 
in B, c. 43, but escaped to Sext. Pompey in Sicily, 
j and was restored to the state with Pompey. He 
; subsequently commanded the left wing of the fleet 
' of Octavianus at the battle of Actium, 31, and was 
consul in 22. — 2. Son of the preceding, consul 
A. D. 6. Augustus declared in his last illness, that 
Arruntius was notunworthy of the empire, and would 
; have boldness enough to seize it, if an opportunity 
( presented. This rendered him an object of sus- 
i picion to Tiberius. He was charged in A. d. 37, 
■ as an accomplice in the crimes of Albucilla, and 
put an end to his own life. 

Arsa (Azu7)ga), a town in Hispania Baetica, 
Arsaces ('AptrarcTjs), the name of the founder of 
the Parthian empire, which was also borne by all 
his successors, who were hence called the Arsacidae. 
1. He Avas of obscure origin, and seems to have 



come from the neighbourhood of the Ochus. He 
induced the Parthians to revolt from the Syrian 
empire of the Seleucidae, and he became the first 
monarcb of the Parthians. This event probably 
took place about B. c. 250, in the reign of Antiochua 
II. ; but the history of the revolt, as well as of 
the events which immediately followed, is stated 
very differently by different historians. Arsaces 
reigned only 2 years, and was succeeded by his 
brother Tiridates. — 2. Tiridates, reigned 37 
years, b. c. 248 — 211, and defeated Seleucus Cal- 
linicu?, the successor of Antiochus II. — 3. Arta- 
banus I., son of the preceding, was attacked by 
Antiochus III. (the Great), who, however, was 
unable to subdue his country, and at length recog- 
nised him as king, about 210. — 4. Priapatius, 
son of the preceding, reigned 15 years, and left 3 
sons, Phraates, Mithridates, and Artabanus. — 5. 
Phraates I., subdued the Mardi, and, thougb he 
had many sons, left the kingdom to his brother 
Mithridates. — 6. Mithridates I., son of Arsaces 
IV., greatly enlarged the Parthian empire by his 
conquests. He defeated Demetrius Nicator, king 
of Syria, and took him 'prisoner in 138. Mithri- 
dates treated Demetrius with respect, and gave 
him his daughter Pthodogune in marriage. Mith- 
ridates died during the captivity of Demetrius, 
between 138 and 130. —7. Phraates II., son of 
the preceding, carried on war against Antiochus 
VII. Sidetes, whom Phraates defeated and slew 
in battle, B. c. 128. Phraates himself was shortly 
after killed in battle by the Scythians, who had 
been invited by Antiochus to assist him against 
Phraates, but who did not arrive till after the 
fall of the former. — 8. Artabanus II., youngest 
brother of Arsaces VI., and youngest son of Ar- 
saces IV., fell in battle against the Thogarii or 
Tochari, apparently after a short reign. — 9. Mith- 
ridates II., son of the preceding, prosecuted many 
wars with success, and added many nations to the 
Parthian empire, whence he obtained the surname 
of Great. It was in his reign that the Romans 
first had any official communication with Parthia. 
Mithridates sent an ambassador to Sulla, who had 
come into Asia B. c. 92, and requested alliance 
with the Romans. —10. (Mnascires ?) Nothing 
is known of the successor of Arsaces IX. Even 
his name is uncertain. — 11. Sanatroces, reigned 7 
years, and died about B.C. 70.— 12. Phraates III., 
son of the preceding. He lived at the time of the 
war between the Romans and Mithridates of Pon- 
tus, by both of whom he was courted. He con- 
tracted an alliance with the Romans, but he took 
no part in the war. At a later period misunder- 
standings arose between Pompey and Phraates, 
but Pompey thought it more prudent to avoid a 
war with the Parthians, although Phraates had 
invaded Armenia, and Tigranes, the Armenian 
king, implored Pompey's assistance. Phraates 
was murdered soon afterwards by his 2 sons, 
Mithridates and Orodes. — 13. Mithridates III., 
son of the preceding, succeeded his father during 
the Armenian war. On his return from Armenia, 
Mithridates was expelled from the throne, on ac- 
count of his cruelty, and was succeeded by his 
brother Orodes. Mithridates afterwards made 
war upon his brother, but was taken prisoner and 
put to death. —14. Orodes I., brother of the pre- 
ceding, was the Parthian king, whose general 
Surenas defeated Crassus and the Romans, B. c. 
53. [Crassus.] After the death of Crassus, 



90 



ARSACES. 



ARSACES. 



Orodes gave the command of the army to his son 
Pacorus, who entered Syria in 51 with a small 
force, but was driven back by Cassius. In 50 
Pacorus again crossed the Euphrates with a much 
larger armv, and advanced as far as Antioch, but 
was defeated near Antigonea b}' Cassius. Tlie 
Parthians now remained quiet for some years. In 
40 they crossed the Euphrates again, vmder the 
command of Pacorus and Labienus, the son of T. 
Labienus. They oven-an Syria and part of Asia 
iMinor, but Avere defeated in 39 by Veutidius 
Bassus, one of Antony's legates : Labienus was 
slain in the flight, and the Parthians retired to 
their own dominions. In 38, Pacorus again in- 
vaded Syria, but was completely defeated and fell 
in the battle. This defeat was a severe blow to 
the aged king Orodes, who shortly afterwards sur- 
rendered the croAVTi to his son, Phraates, during 
his life-time. —15. Phraates IV., commenced his 
reign by murdering his father, his 30 brothers, and 
his own son, who was grown up, that there might 
be none of the royal family whom the Parthians 
could place upon the throne in his stead. In con- 
sequence of his cruelty many of the Parthian 
nobles fled to Antony- (37), who invaded Parthia 
in 36, but was obliged to retreat after losing 
a great part of his army. A few years after- 
wards the cruelties of Phraates produced a rebellion 
against him ; he was driven out of the country, 
and Tiridates proclaimed king in his stead. Phraa- 
tes, however, was soon restored by the Scythians, 
and Tiridates fled to Augustus, carrying with him 
the youngest son of Phraates. Augustus restored 
his son to Phraates, on condition of his surrender- 
ing the Roman standards and prisoners taken in 
the war with Crassus and Antony. They vv-ere 
given up in 20 : their restoration caused universal 
joy at Rome, and was celebrated not only by the 
poets, but by festivals and commemorative monu- 
ments. Phraates also sent to Augustus as hostages 
his 4 sons, with their wives and children, who were 
carried to Rome. In a. d. 2, Phraates was poi- 
soned b)' his wife Thenuusa, and her son Phraata- 
ces. — 16. Pliraataces, reigned only a short time, 
as he was expelled by his subjects on account of 
his crimes. The Parthian nobles then elected as 
king Orodes, who was of the family of the Arsa- 
cidae. — 17. Orodes II., also reigned only a short 
time, as he was killed by the Parthians on account 
of his cruelty. Upon his death the Parthians ap- 
plied to the Romans for Vonones, one of the sons 
of Phraates IV., who was accordingly granted to 
them. —18. Vonones I., son of Phraates IV., 
was also disliked by his subjects, who therefore 
invited Artabanus, king of Media, to take posses- 
sion of the kingdom, Artabanus drove Vonones 
out of Parthia, who resided first in Armenia, next 
in Syria, and subsequently in Cilicia. He was put 
to death in a. d. 19, according to some accounts 
by order of Tiberius on accoimt of-his great wealth, j 
— 19. Artabanus III., obtained the Parthian | 
kingdom soon after the expulsion of Vonones, j 
about A. D. 16. Artabanus placed Arsaces, one ' 
of his sons, over Armenia, and assumed a hostile j 
attitude towards the Romans. His subjects, whom ; 
he oppressed, despatched an embassy to Tiberius | 
to beg him to send to Parthia Phraates, one of the 
sons of Phraates IV. Tiberius willingly complied 
with the request ; but Phraates upon an-iving in 
Syria was carried off by a disease, a. d. 35, As 
soon as Tiberius heard of his death, he set up Ti- 



ridates, another of the Arsacidae, as a claimant to 
the Parthian throne : Artabanus was obliged to 
leave his kingdom, and to fly for refuge to the 
Hyrcanians and Cannanians. Hereupon Vitellius, 
the governor of Syria, crossed the Euphrates, and 
placed Tiridates on the throne. Artabanus was, how- 
ever, recalled next year (36) by his fickle subjects. 
He was once more expelled by his subjects, and 
once more restored. He died soon after his last 
restoration, leaving two sons, Bardanes and Gotar-. 
zes, whose civil wars are related differently by 
Josephus and Tacitus. — 20. Gotarzes, succeeded 
his lather, Artabanus III., but was defeated by 
his brother Bardanes and retired into Hyrcania. — 

21, Bardanes, brother of the preceding, was put 
to death by his subjects in 47, whereupon Gotarzes 
again obtained the crown. But as he ruled with 
ciiielty, the Parthians secretly begged the emperor 
Claudius to send them from Rome Meherdates, 
grandson of Phraates IV. . Claudius complied with 
their request, and commanded the governor of Syria 
to assist Meherdates, but the latter was defeated 
in battle, and taken prisoner by Gotarzes.— 

22. Vonones II., succeeded Gotarzes about 50. 
His reign was short. — 23. Vologeses I., son of 
Vonones II. or Artabanus III. Soon after his 
accession, he conquered Armenia, which he gave 
to his brother Tiridates, In 55 he gave up Ar- 
menia to the Romans, but in 58 he again placed 
his brother over Armenia and declared war against 
the Romans, This war terminated in favour of the 
Romans : the Parthians were repeatedly defeated 
by Domitius Corbulo, and Tiridates was driven 
out of Armenia, At length, in 62, peace Avas con- 
cluded between Vologeses and the Romans on con- 
dition that Nero would surrender Armenia to Ti- 
ridates, provided the latter would come to Rome 
and receive it as a gift from the Roman emperor, 
Tiridates came to Rome in 63, where he was re- 
ceived with extraordinary splendour, and obtained 
from Nero the Armenian crown. Vologeses after- 
wards maintained friendly relations with Vespasian, 
and seems to have lived till the reign of Domitian. 
— 24, Pacorus, succeeded his father, Vologeses 
I., and v;as a contemporary of Domitian and Tra- 
jan.— 25. Chosroes or Osroes, succeeded his 
brother Pacorus during the reign of Trajan. His 
conquest of Armenia occasioned the invasion of Par- 
thia by Trajan, who stripped it of many of its pro- 
vinces, and made the Parthians for a time subject to 
Rome, [Trajaxus,] Upon the death of Trajp.n 
iuA. D. 117, the Parthians expelled Parthamas- 
pates whom Trajan had placed upon the throne, 
and recalled their former king. Chosroes. Hadrian 
relinquished the conquests of Trajan, and made the 
Euphrates, as before, the eastern boundary of the 
Roman empire. Chosroes died during the reign 
of Hadrian. — 26. Vologeses II., succeeded his 
father Chosroes, and reigned from about 1 22 to 
149,-27. Vologeses III., began to reign in 149. 
He invaded Syria in 162, but the generals of the 
emperor Verus drove him back into his own domi- 
nions, invaded Mesopotamia and Ass5'ria, and took 
Seleucia and Ctesiphon ; and Vologeses was obliged 
to purchase peace by ceding Mesopotamia to the 
Romans. From this time to the downfall of the 
Parthian empire, there is great confusion in the 
list of kings. — 28. Vologeses IV,, probably as- 
cended the throne in the reign of Commodus, His 
dominions were invaded b}- Septimius Severus, who 
took Ctesiphon in 199. On\he death of Volo- 



ARSACIA. 



ART AB AN US. 



91 



geses IV., at the beginning of the reign of Cara- 
calla, Parthia was torn asunder by contests for the 
crown between the sons of Vologeses. •— 29. Volo- 
geses v., son of Vologeses IV., was attacked by 
Caracalla in 215, and about the same time was 
dethroned by his brother Artabanus. — 30. Arta- 
banus IV., the last king of Parthia. The war 
commenced by Caracalla against Vologeses, was 
continued against Aitabanus ; but Macrinus, the 
successor of Caracalla, concluded peace with the 
Parthians. In this war Artabanus had lost the 
best of his troops, and the Persians seized the op- 
portunity of recovering their long-lost independ- 
ence. They were led by Artaxerxes (Ardshir), 
the son of Sassan, and defeated the Parthians in 
three great battles, in the last of which Artabanus 
Avas taken prisoner and killed, A. D. 226. Thus 
ended the Parthian empire of the Arsacidae, after 
it had existed 476 years. The Parthians were 
now obliged to submit to Artaxerxes, the founder 
of the dynasty of the Sassanidae, which continued 
to reign till a. D. 651. 

Arsacia {'Apa-aKia : Ru. S.E. of Teheran\ a 
great city of Media, S. of the Caspiae Portae, ori- 
ginally named Rhagae ('Poyai') ; rebuilt by Se- 
leucus Nicator, and called Europus (EupcoTrt^s) ; 
again destroyed in the Parthian Wars and rebuilt 
by Arsaces, who named it after himself. 

Arsacidae, the name of a dynasty of Parthian 
kings. [Arsaces.] It was also the name of a 
dynasty of Armenian kings, who reigned in Ar- 
menia from B. c. 1 49 to A. D. 428. This dynasty 
was founded by Artaxias I., Avho was related 
to the Parthian Arsacidae. 

; Arsamosata {'Apa-ajxcoa-ara, also wrongly abbrev. 
I'ApfjLuaaTa: Shemshat), a town and strong fortress 
in Armenia Major, between the Euphrates and the 
sources of the Tigris, near the most frequented pass 
iof the Taurus. 

i Arsanias, -ius, or -us {'Apffavias, &c.), the 
.name of two rivers of Great Armenia.— 1. (Murad), 
■the S. arm of the Euphrates. [Armenia.] —2. 

(Arslan ?),asmall stream rising near the sources of 
ithe Tigris, and flowing W. into the Euphrates near 

Melitene. 

Arsenaria, or-enn- ('Apa-nvapia: Arzaw,^xL.), 
a town in Mauretania Caesariensis, 3 miles (Rom.) 
from the fiea : a Roman colony. 
Arsene. [Arzanene.] 
Arses, Narses, or Oarses ("Aparis, Ndpa-ns, or 
^Odptrrjs), youngest son of king Artaxerxes III. 
Ochus, was raised to the Persian throne by the 
sunuch Bagoas after he had poisoned Artaxerxes, 
B, c. 339, but he was murdered by Bagoas in the 3rd 
year of his reign, when he attempted to free himself 
from the bondage in which he was kept. After the 
ieath of Arses, Bagoas made Darius III. king. 

Arsia {Arsa\ a river in I stria, forming the 
boundary between Upper Italy and Illyricum, with 
I town of the same name upon it. 

Arsia Silva, a wood in Etruria celebrated for 
the battle between the Tarquins and the Romans. 

ArsinoeCApo-ir'c^T]). I. Mythological. 1. Daughter 
?f Phegeus, and wife of Alcmaeon. As she disap- 
oroved of the murder of Alcmaeon, the sons of 
Phegeus put her into a chest and carried her to 
A.gapenor at Tegea, Avhere they accused her of 
having killed Alcmaeon. [Alcmaeon, Agenor.] 
— 2. Nurse of Orestes, saved the latter from the 
hands of Clytemnestra,and carried him to Strophius, 
"ather of Pylades. Some accounts call her Lao- 



damia. — 3. Daughter of Leucippus and Philodice, 
became by Apollo mother of Eriopis and Aescula- 
pius. — II. Historical. 1. Mother of Ptolemy I., 
was a concubine of Philip, father of Alexander the 
Great, and married Lagus, while she was pregnant 
with Ptolemy. — 2. Daughter of Ptolemy I. and 
Berenice, married Lysimachus, king of Thrac(!, in 
B. c. 300 ; after the death of Lj'simachus in 281, 
she married her half-brother, Ptolemy Ceraunus, 
who miu:dered her children by Lysimachus ; and^ 
lastly, in 279, she married her own brother Pto- 
lemy II. Philadelphus. Though Arsinoe bore 
Ptolemy no children, she was exceedingly beloved 
by him ; he gave her name to several cities, called 
a district (vo/j.Ss) of Egypt Arsinoites after her, 
and honoured her memory in various ways. — 3. 
Daughter of Lysimachus, married Ptolemy II. 
Philadelphus soon after his accession, b. c. 285. 
In consequence of her plotting against her name- 
sake [No. 2], when Ptolemy fell in love with hery 
she was banished to Coptos in Upper Egypt, She 
had by Ptolemy three children, Ptolemy III, Ever- 
getes, Lysimachus, and Berenice,— 4. Also called 
Eurydice and Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy IIL 
Evergetes, wife of her brother Ptolemy tV. Philo- 
pator, and mother of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes. She 
was killed by Philammon by order of her husband. 
— 5. Daughter of Ptolemy XI. Auletes, escaped 
from Caesar, when he was besieging Alexandria 
in B. c. 47, and was recognised as queen by the 
Alexandrians. After the capture of Alexandria 
she was carried to Rome by Caesar, and led in 
triumph by him in 46. She was afterwards dis- 
missed by Caesar, and returned to Alexandria ; 
but her sister Cleopatra persuaded Antony to have 
her put to death in 41. 

Arsmoe ('Apo-ivoTj : 'Apaivoevs, or -orjTris), the 
name of several cities of the times of the successors 
of Alexander, each called after one or other of the 
persons of the same name (see above). — 1. In 
Aetolia, formerly Kwi/c^Tra,— 2. On the N. coast 
of Cyprus, on the site of the older city of Marium 
(Mdpioy), Avhich Ptolemy I. had destroyed.— 3 
A port on the W. coast of Cyprus, — 4. {Fama- 
gosia), on the S.E. coast of Cyprus, between Sa- 
lamis and Leucolla. — 5. In Cilicia, E. of Ane- 
murlum. — 6. (Ajeroud or Suez), in the Nomos 
Heroopolites in Lower Egypt, near or upon the 
head of the Sinus Heroopolites or W. branch of 
the Red Sea (Gulf of Suez). It was afterwards 
called Cleopatris. — 7. {Medinei-el-Faio7/.in, 'Ru.), 
the chief city of the Nomos Arsinoites in the Ilepta- 
nomis or Middle Egypt [Aegyptus, p. 15, b.] 5 
formerly called Crocrodilopolis (KpoKodeiXav iro- 
Ais), and the district Nomos Crocodilopolites, from 
its being the chief seat of the Egyptian worship of 
the crocodile. This nomos also contained the Lake 
Moeris and the labyrinth. — 8. In Cyrenaica, also 
called Taucheira. — 9. On the coast of the Tro- 
glodytae on the Red Sea, E. of Egypt. Its pro- 
bable position is a little below the parallel of 
Thebes. — Some other cities called Arsinoe are 
better known by other names, such as Ephesus m 
Ionia and Pataba in Lycia. 

Arsissa or Mantiana ('Apaiaaa, 17 Mavnav-f} : 
Van), a great lake, abounding in fish, in the S. of 
Armenia Major. [Armenia.] 

Artabanus ('Aprd€avos). 1. Son of Hystaspes 
and brother of Darius, is frequently mentioned in 
the reign of his nephew Xerxes, as a Avise and 
frank counsellor. —2. Aji Hyrcanian, commander 



92 



ARTABAZUS. 



of the body-guard of Xerxes, assassinated this king 
in B. c. 465, with the view of setting himself upon 
the throne of Persia, but was shortly afterwards 
killed bv Artaxerxes. — 3. I. II. IH. IV., kings 
of Parthia. [Arsaces. III. VIII. XIX. XXXI.] 

Artabaztis ^'ApTctga^oy). 1. A Made, acts a 
prominent part Lm Xenophon's account of Cyrus the 
Elder. — 2. A distinguished Persian, a son of Phar- 
naces, commanded the Parthians and Choasmians, 
in the expedition of Xerxes into Greece, B. c. 480. 
He served under Mardonius in 479, and after the 
defeat of the Persians at Plataea, he fled with 
40,000 men, and reached Asia in safety. —3. A 
general of Artaxerxes I., fought against Inar;is in 
Egypt, B.C. 462. — 4. A Persian general, fought 
under Artaxerxes II., against Datames. satrap of 
Cappadocia, B. c. 362. Under Artaxerxes III., 
Artabazus, who was then satrap of W. Asia, re- 
volted in B. c. 356, but was defeated and obliged 
to take refuge with Philip of Macedonia. He was 
afterwards pardoned by Artaxerxes, and returned 
to Persia ; and he was one of the most faithful 
adherents of Darius III. Codoraannus, who raised 
him to high honours. On the death of Darius 
(330) Artabazus received from Alexander the sa- 
trapy of Bactria. One of his daughters, Barsine, 
became by Alexander the mother of Hercules ; a 
second, Artocama. married Ptolemy son of Lagus ; 
and a third, Artonis, married Eumenes. 

Artabri. afterwards Arotrebae, a Celtic people 
in the N. W. of Spain, near the Promontory Ne- 
rium or Celticum, also called Artabrum after them 
(C. Finisterre). 

Artace CApTaK-q: Artal-i), a sea-port town of 
the peninsula of Cyzicus, in the Propontis : also a 
mountain in the same peninsula. 

Artachaees ('ApraxatTjs), a distinguished Per- 
sian in the army of Xerxes, died while Xerxes 
was at Athos. The mound which the king raised 
over him is still in existence. 

Artacoana {'ApraKoava, or -Kawa: SeJcJivan?), 
the ancient capital of Aria, not far from the site 
of the later capital, Alexandria. 

Artaei {'Apraloi), was, according to Herodotus 
(vi. 61), the old native name of the Persians. It 
signifies noble, and appears, in the form Apra, as 
the first part of a large number of Persian proper 
Eames. [Comp. Aril] 

Artanes CAprdv-ns). 1. A river in Thrace, 
falling into the Ister. — 2. A river in Bithynia. 

Artaphernes CApracpepi/ris). 1. Son of Hys- 
taspes and brother of Darius. He was satrap of 
Sardis at the time of the Ionian revolt, b. c. 500. 
See Aristagoras. — 2. Son of the former, com- 
manded, along with Datis, the Persian array of 
Darius, which was defeated at the battle of Mara- 
thon, B. c. 490. Artaphernes commanded the Ly- 
dians and Mysians in the invasion of Greece by 
Xerxes in 480. 

Artatumm {Salhurg near Homburg ?), a Roman 
fortress in Germany on M. Taunus, built by Drusus 
and restored by Germanicus. 

Artavasdes ('ApraouacrSTys or 'ApTaSdaSrjs) or 
Artabazes {'ApraSd^rjs). L King of the Greater 
Armenia, succeeded his father Tigranes. In the ex- 
pedition of Crassus against the Parthians, B. c. 54, 
Artavasdes was an ally of the Romans ; but after the 
defeat of the latter, he concluded a peace with the 
Parthian king. In 36 he joined Antony in his 
campaign against the Panhians, and persuaded him 
to invade 3Iedia, because he was at enmity with 



ARTAXERXES. 

his namesake Artavasdes, king of Media ; but h<- 
treacherously deserted Antony in the middle of the 
campaign. Antony accordingly invaded Armenia in 
3-1, contrived to entice Artavasdes into his camp, 
where he was immediately seized, carried him to 
Alexandria, and led him in triumph. He remained 
in captivity till 30, when Cleopatra had him killed 
after the battle of Actium, and sent his head to 
his old enemy, Artavasdes of Media, in hopes of 
obtaining assistance from the latter. This Arta- 
vasdes was well acquainted with Greek literature, 
and wrote tragedies, speeches, and historical work*. 
—2. King of Annenia, probably a grandson of 
No. 1, was placed upon the throne by Augustus, 
but was deposed by the Armenians. — 3. King of 
Media Atropatene, and an enemy of Artavasdes I., 
king of Armenia. Antony invaded his countrj- 
in 36, at the instigation of the Armenian king, but 
he was obliged to retire with great loss. Arta- 
vasdes afterwards concluded a peace with Antony, 
and gave his daughter lotape in marriage to Alex- 
ander, the son of Antony. Artavasdes was subse- 
quently engaged in wars with the Parthians and 
Armenians. He died shortly before 20. 

Artaxata or -ae (to 'Aprd^ara, or -li'ara : Ru, 
above A'aksJnvan), the later capital of Great Ar- 
menia, built by Artaxias, under the advice of 
Hannibal, on a peninsula, surrounded by the river 
Araxes. After being burnt by the Romans imder 
Corbulo (a. d. 58), it was restored by Tiridates, 
and called Neroniana. It was still standing in 
the 4th century. 

Artaxerxes or Artoxerxes CApra^fp^-qs or 'Ap- 
To|ep|7js), the name of 4 Persian kings, is com- 
j pounded of Aiia, which means ''honoured," and 
Aerje^, which is the same as the Zend, ksaiJira, 
I "a king:" consequently Artaxerxes means "the 
i honoured king." — 1. Sumamed Longimanus, 
j from the circumstance of his right hand being longer 
I than his left, reigned b. c. 4G5 — 425. He ascended 
! the throne after his father, Xerxes L. had been mur- 
i dered by Artabanus, and after he himself had put 
I to death his brother Darius on the instigation of Ar- 
j tabanus. His reign was disturbed by several dan- 
gerous insurrections of the satraps. The Eg3'ptian3 
also revolted in 460, under Inarus, who was sup- 
ported by the Athenians. The first army which 
Artaxerxes sent imder his brother Achaemenes was 
defeated and Achaemenes slain. The second army 
which he sent, under Artabazus and Megabyzus. 
was more successful. Inarus was defeated in 456 
or 455, but Amyrtaeus, another chief of the insur- 
gents, maintained himself in the marshes of Lower 
Egypt. At a later period (449) the Athenians 
under Cimon sent assistance to Amyrtaeus ; and 
even after the death of Cimon, the Athenians gained 
two victories over the Persians, one by land and 
the other by sea, in the neighbourhood of Salamis 
in Cyprus. After this defeat Artaxerxes is said to 
have concluded peace with the Greeks on terms 
very advantageous to the latter. Artaxerxes was 
I succeeded by his son Xerxes II. — 2. Sumamed 
I Mnemon, from his good raemon,-, succeeded his 
i father, Darius II., and reigned b. c. 405 — 359 
Cyrus, the younger brother of Artaxerxes, who 
was satrap of W. Asia, revolted against his brother, 
and, supported by Greek mercenaries, invaded 
Upper Asia. In the neighbourhood of Cunaxa, near 
Babylon, a battle was fought between the armies 
of the two brothers, in which Cyrus fell, B.C. 401. 
[Cyrus.] Tissaphemes was appointed satrap ol 



ARTAXIAS. 



ARTEMIS. 



93 



VV. Asia in the place of Cyrus, and Avas actively 
engaged in wars with the Greeks. [Thimbron ; 
Dercyllidas ; Agesilaus.] Notwithstanding 
these perpetual conflicts with the Greeks, the Per- 
sian empire maintained itself by the disunion 
among the Greeks themselves, which was fomented 
and kept up by Persian money. The peace of An- 
talcidas, in B. c. 388, gave the Persians even 
greater power and influence than they had pes- 
' sessed before. [Antalcidas.] But the empire 
was suffering from internal disturbances, and Ar- 
taxerxes had to carry on frequent wars with tribu- 
tary princes and satraps, who endeavoured to make 
themselves independent. Thus he maintained a 
long struggle against Evagoras of Cyprus, from 385 
to 376 ; he also had to carry on war against the 
Cardusians, on the shores of the Caspian sea ; and 
his attempts to recover Egypt were unsuccessful. 
Towards the end of his reign he put to death his 
eldest son Darius, who had formed a plot to assas- 
sinate him. His last days were still further em- 
bittered by the unnatural conduct of his son Ochus, 
who caused the destruction of two of his brothers, 
in order to secure the succession for himself. Ar- 
taxerxes was succeeded by Ochus, who ascended 
the throne under the name of Artaxerxes III. — 3. 
Also called Ochus, reigned b. c. 359—338. In 
order to secure his throne, he began his reign with 
a merciless extirpation of the members of his fa- 
mily. He himself Avas a cowardly and reckless 
despot ; and the great advantages which the Per- 
sian arms gained during his reign, were owing only 
to his Greek generals and mercenaries. These ad- 
vantages consisted in the conquest of the revolted 
satrap Artabazus [Artabazus, No. 4], and in the 
i reduction of Phoenicia, of several revolted towns in 
Cyprus, and of Egypt, 350. The reins of govern- 
ment were entirely in the hands of the eunuch 
Bagoas, and of Mentor the Rhodian. At last he 
was poisoned by Bagoas, and was succeeded by his 
youngest son, Arses. — 4, The founder of the dy- 
nasty of the Sassanidae. 

Axtaxias {'Apra^ias) or Artaxes ('ApralTjs), 
the name of 3 kings of Armenia. — 1. The founder 
of the Armenian kingdom, was one of the generals 
of Antiochus the Great, but revolted from him 
about B. c. 188, and became an independent so- 
vereign. Hannibal took refuge at the court of 
Artaxias, and he superintended the building of 
Artaxata, the capital of Armenia. Artaxias was 
conquered and taken prisoner hj Antiochus IV. 
Epiphanes, about 16'5.— 2. Son of Artavasdes, 
was made king by the Armenians Avhen his father 
! was taken prisoner by Antony in 34. In 20 Au- 
gustus, at the request of the Armenians, sent Ti- 
I berius into Armenia, in order to depose Artaxias 
\ and place Tigranes on the throne, but Artaxias Avas 
I put to death before Tiberius reached the country. 
Tiberius, hoAvever, took the credit to himself of a 
successful expedition : whence Horace {Epist. i. 
12. 26) says, Cluudi viHutc Neronis Armenius ceci- 
1 dit. — 3. Son of Polemon, king of Pontus, Avas pro- 
claimed king of Armenia by Germanicus, in a. d. 
18. He died about 35. 

Artayctes (AprauKTTjs), Persian goA-ernor of 
Sestus on the Hellespont, when the toAvn Avas taken 
by the Greeks in b. c. 478, met with an ignomi- 
: nious death on account of the sacrilegious acts which 
; he had committed against the tomb of the hero 
! Protesilaus. 

Artemidorus ('AprejUtSw/joy). 1. Sixmaraed 



Aristophanius, from his being a disciple of the 
celebrated grammarian Aristophanes, was himself 
a grammarian, and the author of several works now 
lost. — 2. Of Cnidus, a friend of Julius Caesar, 
Avas a rhetorician, and taught the Greek language 
at Rome. — 3. Daldianus, a native of Ephesus, 
but called Daldianus, from Daldis in Lydia, his 
mother's birth-place, to distinguish him from the 
geographer Artemidorus. He lived at Rome in the 
reigns of Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius (a. d. 1 38. 
— 180), and Avrote a Avork on the interpretation of 
dreams {'OvetpoKpiTiKa), in 5 books, Avhich is still 
extant. The object of the Avork is to prove, that 
the future is revealed to man in dreams, and to 
clear the science of interpreting them from the 
abuses with Avhich the fashion of the time had sur- 
rounded it. The style is simple, correct, and ele- 
gant. The best edition is by Reift', Lips. 1805. 
— 4. Of Ephesus, a Greek geographer, lived 
about B.C. 100. He made voyages round the 
coasts of the Mediterranean, in the Red Sea, and 
apparently even in the S. ocean. He also visited 
Iberia and Gaul. The work, in Avhich he gave 
the results of his investigations, consisted of II 
books, of which Marcianus afterwards made an. 
abridgement. The original work is lost ; but we 
possess fragments of Marcianus' abridgement, which 
contain the periplus of the Pontus Euxinus, and 
accounts of Bithynia and Paphlagonia. These- 
fragments are printed in Hudson's GeograpJii Mi- 
nores, vol. i. 

Artemis (^Aprefxis), one of the great divinities 
of the Greeks. According to the most ancient 
account, she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto,. 
and the tAvin-sister of Apollo, born Avith him in 
the island of Delos. She was regarded in various 
points of view by the Greeks, which must be care- 
fully distinguished. — 1. Aiiemis as the sister of' 
Apollo, is a kind of female Apollo, that is, she as a 
female divinity represented the same idea that 
Apollo did as a male divinity. As sister of Apollo, 
Artemis is like her brother armed Avith a bow, 
quiver, and arroAvs, and sends plagues and death 
among men and animals. Sudden deaths, but 
more especially those of women, are described as 
the effect of her arrows. As Apollo aa^s not only 
a destructive god, but also averted evils, so Artemia 
likewise cured and alleviated the sufferings of 
mortals. In the Trojan war she sided, like Apollo,, 
Avith the Trojans. She Avas more especially the 
protectress of the young ; and from her Avatching 
over the young of females, she came to be regarded, 
as the goddess of the flocks and the chase. In this, 
manner she also became the huntress among the 
immortals. Artemis, like Apollo, is unmarried ; 
she is a maiden- divinity never conquered by love. 
She slew Orion AArith her arroAvs, according to one 
account, because he made an attempt upon her 
chastity ; and she changed Actaeon into a stag, 
simply because he had seen her bathing. With 
her brother Apollo, she slew the children of Niobe, 
Avho had deemed herself superior to Leto. When 
Apollo was regarded as identical Avith the sun 
or Helios, nothing was more natural than that his 
sister should be regarded as Selene or the moon, 
and accordingly the Greek Artemis is, at least in 
later times, the goddess of the moon. Hence 
Artemis is represented in love with the fair youth 
Endymion, Avhom she kissed in his sleep, but tbis 
legend properly relates to Selene or the Moon, and 
is foreign to the character of Artemis, Avho, as Ave 



m ARTEMISIA, 
have observed, was a goddess unmoved by love. — 
2. T/ie Arcadian Ai-temis is a goddess of the nymphs, 
and was worshipped as such in Arcadia in very early 
times. She hunted with her nj-mphs on the Ar- 
cadian mountains, and her chariot was drawn by 
4 stags with golden antlers. There Avas no con- 
nection between the Arcadian Artemis and Apollo. 
— 3. The Taurian Artemis. The worship of this 
goddess was connected, at least in early times, with 
human sacrifices. According to the Greek legend 
there was in Tauris a goddess, whom the Greeks 
for some reason identified with their own Artemis, 
and to whom all strangers thrown on the coast of 
Tauris were sacrificed. Iphigenia and Orestes 
brought her image from thence, and landed at 
Brauron in Attica, whence the goddess derived the 
name of Brauronia. The Brauronian Artemis was 
worshipped at Athens and Sparta, and in the latter 
place the boj's were scourged at her altar till it was 
besprinkled with their blood. This cruel ceremony 
was believed to have been introduced by Lycurgus, 
instead of the human sacrifices which had imtil 
then been offered to her. Iphigenia, who was at 
first to have been sacrificed to Artemis, and who then 
became her priestess, Avas afterwards identified with 
the goddess, who was v.-orshipped in some parts of 
Greece, as at Hermione, under the name of Iphi- 
genia. Some traditions stated that Artemis made 
Iphigenia immortal, in the character of Hecate, the 
goddess of the moon. — 4. The Ephesian Artemis, 
was a divinity totally distinct from the Greek god- 
dess of the same name. She seems to have been 
the personification of the fructifying and all-nourish- 
ing powers of nature. She was an ancient Asiatic 
divinity whose worship the Greeks found esta- 
blished in Ionia, when they settled there, and to 
whom they gave the name of Artemis. Her ori- 
ginal character is sufficiently clear from the fact, 
that her priests were eunuchs, and that her image 
in the magnificent temple of Ephesus represented 
her with many breasts {iroXvixaaThs). The repre- 
sentations of the Greek Artemis in works of art 
are different according as she is represented either 
as a huntress, or as the goddess of the moon. As 
the huntress, she is tall, nimble, and has small 
hips ; her forehead is high, her ej^es glancing 
freely about, and her hair tied up, with a few Incks 
floating down her neck ; her breast is covered, 
and the legs up to the knees are naked, the rest 
being covered by the chlamys. Her attributes 
are the bow, quiver, and arrows, or a spear, stags, 
and dogs. As the goddess of the moon, she wears 
a long robe which reaches down to her feet, a veil 
covers her head, and above her forehead rises the 
crescent of the moon. In her hand she often ap- 
pears holding a torch. The Romans identified their 
goddess Diana with the Greek Artemis. 

Artenusia ('Apre/xto-ia). 1. Daughter of Lyg- 
damis, and queen of Halicarnassus in Caria, accom- 
panied Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, Avith 5 
ships, and in the battle of Salamis (b. c. 480) 
greatly distinguished herself by her prudence and 
courage, for Avhich she was afterwards highly ho- 
noured by the Persian king. — 2. Daughter of 
Hecatomnus, and sister, wife, and successor of the 
Carian prince Mausolus, reigned B. c. 352 — 350. 
She is renowned in history for her extraordinary 
grief at the death of her husband Mausolus. She 
is said to have mixed his ashes in her daily drink ; 
and to perpetuate his memory she built at Hali- 
camassus the celebrated monument, Mausoleum, 



ARYCANDA. J 

which was regarded as one of the 7 wonders of tKlP 
world, and whose name subsequently became the 
generic term for any splendid sepulchral monument. 

Artemisium ('ApTe^iVioi'), properly a temple of 
Artemis. 1. A tract of country on the N. coast of 
Euboea, opposite Magnesia, so called from the temple 
of Artemis belonging to the town of Hestiaea : off 
this coast the Greeks defeated the fleet of Xerxes, 
B.C. 480. — 2. A promontory of Caria near the 
gulf Glaucus, so called from the temple of Artemis 
in its neighbourhood. 

Artemita ('ApTeymVa). — 1. (Shereban?) a city 
on the Sillas, in the district of Apolloniatis in 
Assyria. — 2. A city of Great Armenia, S. of the 
lake Arsissa. 

Artemou (^Apriuuv), a Lacedaemonian, built 
the militaiy engines for Pericles in his war against 
Samos in B.C. 441. — There Avere also several 
Avriters of this name, Avhose Avorks are lost. 

M. Artorius, a physician at Rome, AA^as the 
friend and physician of Augustus, Avhom he at- 
tended in his campaign against Brutus and Cassius. 
B. c. 42. He was drowned at sea shortly after the 
battle of Actium, 31. 

Arvemi, a Gallic people in Aquitania in the 
country of the M. Cebenna, in the modern Au- 
vergne. In early times they Avere the most 
powerful people in the S. of Gaul : they Avere 
defeated by Domitius Ahenobarbus and Fabius 
Maximus in b. c. 121, but still possessed consider- 
rable power in the time of Caesar (58). Their ca- 
pital Avas Nemossus, also named Augustonemetum 
or Arvemi on the Elaver {Allier), with a citadel, 
called at least in the middle ages Claras Mons, 
Avhence the name of the modem toAvn, Clermont. 

Arvina, a cognomen of the Cornelia gens, borne 
by several of the Cornelii, of Avhom the most im- 
portant Avas A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina, consul 
B. c. 343 and 322, and dictator 320. He com- 
manded the Roman armies against the Samnites, 
whom he defeated in several battles. 

Aruns, an Etruscan Avord, was regarded by the 
Romans as a proper name, but perhaps signified a 
younger son in general. — 1. Younger brother of 
Lucumo, i. e. L. Tarquinius Priscus.— 2. Younger 
brother of L. Tarquinius Superbus, Avas murdered 
by his wife. —-3. Younger son of Tarquinius Su- 
perbus, fell in combat Avith Brutus. — 4. Son of 
Porsena, fell in battle before Aricia. — 5. Of Clu- 
siura, invited the Gauls across the Alps. 

Aruntius. [Arruntius.] 

Arusianus, Messus or Messius, a Roman gram- 
marian, lived about A. d. 450, and Avrote a Latin 
phrase-book, entitled Quadriga, vet Exempla Elo- 
cutionum ex Virgilio, Sallustio, Terentio, et Cicerone 
per literas digesta. It is called Quadriga from its 
being composed from 4 authors. The best edition 
is by Lindemann, in his Corpus Grammaiicorum 
Latin, vol. i. p. 1 99. 

Arxata ('Ap|aTa: NaksMvan), the capital of 
Great Armenia, before the building of Artaxata, 
lay lower down upon the Araxes, on the confines of 
Media. 

Aryandes ('Apuai/STjs), a Persian, who was ap- 
pointed by Cambyses governor of Egypt, but was 
put to death by Darius, because he coined silver 
money of the purest metal, in imitation of the gold 
money of that monarch. 

Arycanda (^hpvKavZa), a small town of Lycia, 
E. of Xanthus, on the river Arj^candus, a tributary 
of the Limyrus. 



ARZANENE. 



ASCURIS. 



95 



Arzanene {"ApCav-nJ^r)), a district of Armenia 
Major, bounded on the S. liy the Tigris, on the W. 
by the Nymphiiis, and containing in it the lake 
Arsene (*Apcr7]i'i] : Erzen). It formed part of 

GORDYENE. 

Arzen or -es, or Atranutzin ('Ap^-qy, "ApCes, 
' Arpavovr^iv : Erzeroum)^ a strong fortress in Great 
Armenia, near the sources of the Euphrates and 
the Araxes, founded in the 5th century. 

Asaei ('Acratoi), a people of Sarmatia Asiatica, 
near the mouth of the Tanais {Don). 

Asander (^Aaavhpos). 1. Son of Philotas, bro- 
ther of Parmenion, and one of the generals of Alex- 
ander the Great. After the death of Alexander in 
323 he obtained Caria for his satrapy, and took an 
active part in the wars which followed. He joined 
Ptolemy and Cassander in their league against 
Antigonus, but was defeated by Antigonus in 313. 

2. A general of Pharnaces II., king of Bos- 
porus. He put Pharnaces to death in 47, after the 
defeat of the latter by Julias Caesar, in hopes of 
obtaining the kingdom. But Caesar conlerred the 
kingdom upon Mithridates of Pergamus, with whom 
Asander carried on war. Augustus afterwards 
confirmed Asander in the sovereignty. 

Asbystae ('AcrSvo-Ta/), a Libyan people, in the 
N. of Cyrenaica. Their country was called 'Acr- 
€v(Tris. 

Asca C'AaKa), a city of Arabia Felix. 

Ascalabus, son of Misme, respecting whom the 
same story is told, Avhich we also find related of 
Abas, son of Metanira. [Abas. No. 1.] 

Ascalaphus {'A(TKd\a<pos). 1. Son of Ares and 
Astyoche, led, with his brother lalmenus, the Mi- 
nyans of Orchomenos against Troy, and was slain 
by Deiphobus. — 2. Son of Acheron and Gorgyra 
or Orphne. When Persephone was in the lower 
v/orld, and Pluto gave her permission to return to 
the upper, provided she had not eaten anything, 
Ascalaphus declared that she had eaten part of a 
pomegranate. Deraeter punished him by burying 
him under a huge stone, and when this stone was 
subsequently removed by Hercules, Persephone 
clianged him into an owl (a(TKd\a<pos), by sprink- 
ling him with water from the river Phlegethon. 

Ascalou A(TKd\oov : ' AaKaXwveiTris : Askaldn), 
one of the chief cities of the Philistines, on the 
coast of Palestine, between Azotus and Gaza. 

Ascania 'Aanavla Xiixvri). 1. (Lalceof Iznik), 
in Bithynia, a great fresh-water lake, at the E. 
end of which stood the city of Nicaea (Iznik). The 
surrounding district was also called Ascania. — 2. 
(LaJce of Biirdur)^ a salt-water lake on the borders 
of Phrygia and Pisidia, which supplied the neigh- 
bouring country Avith salt. 

Ascanius {'AarKavios), son of Aeneas by Creusa. 
According to some traditions, Ascanius remained 
in Asia after the fall of Troy, and reigned either 
at Troy itself or at some other town in the neigh- 
bourhood. According to other accounts he accom- 
panied his father to Italy. Other traditions again 
gave the name of Ascanius to the son of Aeneas 
and Lavinia. Livy states that on the death of his 
father Ascanius was too young to imdertake the 
government, and that after he had attained the 
ige of manhood, he left Lavinium in the hands of 
liis mother, and migrated to Alba Longa. Here 
he was succeeded by his son Silvius. Some writers 
relate thai Ascanius was also called Ilus or Julus. 
The gens Julia at Rome traced its origin from 
l^ulus or Ascanius. 



Asciburg-mm (Asburg near Mors), an ancient 
place on the left bank of the Rhine, founded, ac- 
cording to fable, by Ulysses. 

Ascii (dcTKioi, i. e. shadowless)^ a term applied 
to the people living about the Equator, between the 
tropics, who have, at certain times of the year, the 
sun in their zenith at noon, when consequently 
erect objects can cast no shadow. 

Ascl^piadae, the reputed descendants of Aes- 
culapius. [Aesculapius.] 

Asclepiades {'AaKXrjTndSrjs). 1. A lyric poet, 
who is said to have invented the metre called after 
him {Mctrum Asclepiadeum)^ but of Avhose life no 
particulars are recorded.— -2. Of Tragilus in Thrace, 
a contemporary and disciple of Isocrates, about B. c. 
360, wrote a work called Tpaywdovixeva in 6 books, 
being an explanation of the subjects of the Greek 
tragedies.— 3. Of Myrlea in Bithynia, in the middle 
of the first century b. c, wrote several grammatical 
works. — 4. There were a great many physicians 
of this name, the most celebrated of whom was a 
native of Bithynia, who came to Rome in the 
middle of the first century b. c, where he acquired 
a great reputation by his successful cures. Nothing 
remains of his writings but a few fragments pub- 
lished by Gumpert, Asclepiadis Bitliyni Fragmenta, 
Vinar. 17.94. 

Asclepiodorus A(TKK'TiTTi6^a:po';). 1. A general 
of Alexander the Great, afterwards made satrap of 
Persia by Antigonus, B. c. 317. — 2. A celebrated 
Athenian painter, a contemporary of Apelles. 

Asclepius. [Aesculapius.] 

Q. Asc5nuis Pedianus, a Roman gramm.arian, 
born at Patavium (Padua), about B. c. 2, lost his 
sight in his 73rd year in the reign of Vespasian, 
and died in his 85th year in the reign of Domi- 
tian. His most important work was a Commentary 
on the speeches of Cicero, and we still possess frag- 
ments of his Commentaries on the Divinatio, the 
first 2 speeches against Verres, and a portion of 
the third, the speeches for Cornelius (i. ii.), the 
speech In toga Candida, for Scaurus, against Piso, 
and for Milo. They are written in very pure lan- 
guage, and refer chiefly to points of history and 
antiquities, great pains being bestowed on tlie 
illustration of those constitutional forms of the se- 
nate, the popular assemblies, and the courts of 
justice, which were fast falling into oblivion under 
the empire. This character, however, does not 
apply to the notes on the Verrine orations, which 
were probably written by a later grammarian. 
Edited in the 5th volume of Cicero's works by 
Orelli and Baiter. There is a valuable essay on 
Asconius by Madvig, Hafniae, 1828. 

Ascordus, a river in Macedonia, which rises in 
M. Olympus and flows between Agassa and Diura 
into the Thermaic gulf. 

Ascra ('AaKpa : 'AarKpalos), a town in Boeotia 
on M. Helicon, where Hesiod resided, who had 
removed thither with his father from Cyme in 
Aeolis, and who is therefore called Ascraeus. 

Asculum. 1. Picenum (Asculanus. AscoU), 
the chief town of Picenum and a Roman munici- 
pium, v/as destroyed by the Romans in the Social 
War (b. c. 89), but was afterwards rebuilt. — 2. 
Apiilum (Asculinus ; AscoU di Satriario), a town of 
Apulia in Daunia on the confines of Samnium, 
near which the Romans were defeated by Pyrrhus, 
B. c. 279. 

Asciiris (Ezero), a lake in M. OlympiLH in 
Perrhaebia in Thessaly, near Lapathus 



ASDRUBAL. 



ASIA. 



Asdrubal. [Hasdrub.al.] 

Asea (17 'Acrc'a), a town in Arcadia, not far 
from Megalopolis. 

Asellio, P. Sempromus, tribune of the soldiers 
under P. Scipio Africanus at Numantia, B. c. 133, 
wrote a Roman history from the Punic wars in- 
clusive to the times of the Gracchi. 

Asellus, Tib. Claudius, a Roman eques, was 
deprived of his horse by Scipio Africanus Minor, 
when censor, B.C. 142, and in his tribuneship of 
the plebs in 139 accused Scipio Africanus before 
the people. 

Asia ('A(rta), daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, 
wife of lapetus, and mother of Atlas, Prometheus, 
and Epimetheus. According to some traditions, 
the continent of Asia derived its name from her. 

Asia (' Act to : 'Acrievs, -lauos, -laT-qs, -or ikos : 
Asia)^ also in the poets Asis ('dcri's), one of the 3 
great divisions which the ancients made of the 
knowni world. It is doubtful -whether the name 
is of Greek or Eastern origin ; but, in either case, 
it seems to have been first used by the Greeks for 
the W. part of Asia Minor, especially the plains 
■watered by the river Caj'ster, where the Ionian 
colonists first settled ; and thence, as their geogra- 
phical knowledge advanced, they extended it to 
the whole country E., N.E., and S.E. The first 
knowledge which the Greeks possessed of the op- 
posite shores of the Aegean Sea dates before the 
earliest historical records. The legends respecting 
the Argonautic and the Trojan expeditions, and other 
mythical stories, on the one hand, and the allusions 1 
to commercial and other intercourse with the peo- 
ple of Asia Minor, S}Tia, and Eg}-pt, on the other 
hand, indicate a certain degree of knowledge of the 
coast from the mouth of the Phasis, at the E. ex- 
tremity of the Black Sea, to the mouth of the 
Nile. This knowledge was improved and increased 
by the colonization of the Vv'., X., and S. coasts of 
Asia Minor, and by the relations into which these 
Greek colonies were brought, first with the Lydian, 
and then with the Persian empires, so that, in the 
middle of the oth century b. c, Herodotus was able 
to give a pretty complete description of the Persian 
empire, and some imperfect accounts of the parts 
beyond it ; while some knowledge of S. Asia was 
obtained by way of EgA-pt ; and its X. regions, 
with their wandering tribes, formed the subject of 
marvellous stories which the traveller heard from 
the Greek colonists on the X. shores of the Black 
Sea. The conquests of Alexander, besides the 
personal acquaintance which they enabled the 
Greeks to form with those provinces of the Persian 
empire hitherto only known to them by report, 
extended their knowledge over the regions watered 
by the Indus and its 4 great tributaries {the Pun- 
jab and Scinde) ; the lower course of the Indus 
and the shores between its mouth and the head of 
the Persian Gulf were explored by Xearchus ; and 
some further knowledge was gained of the nomad 
tribes which roamed (as they still do) over the 
vast steppes of Central Asia by the attempt of 
Alexander to penetrate on the X.E. beyond the 
Jaxartes (Sihoun) ; while, on all points, the Greeks 
v.-ere placed in advanced positions from which to 
acquire fiu-ther information, especially at Alexan- 
dria, whither voyagers constantly brought accounts 
of the shores of Arabia and India, as far as the is- 
land of Taprobane, and even beyond this, to the 
Malay peninsula and the coasts of Ccchin China. 
On the E. and N. the wars and commerce of the 



Greek kingdom of Syria carried Greek knowledge 
of Asia no further, except in the direction of India 
to a small extent, but of course more acquaintance 
was gained with the countries already subdued, 
until the conquests of the Parthians shut out the 
Greeks from the country E. of the Tigris-valley ; 
a limit which the Romans, in their turn, were 
never able to pass. They pushed their arms, how- 
ever, further X"^. than the Greeks had done, int^j 
the mountains of Armenia, and they gained in- 
formation of a great caravan route between India 
and the shores of the Caspian, through Bactria, 
and of another commercial track leading over Cen- 
tral Asia to the distant regions of the Seres. This 
brief sketch w ill show that all the acctu^te know- 
ledge of the Greeks and Romans respecting Asia 
was confined to the countries which slope down 
S. -wards from the great mountain-chain formed by 
the Caucasus and its prolongation beyond the Cas- 
pian to the Himalayas : of the vast elevated steppes 
between these mountains and the central range of 
the Altai (from which the X^. regions of Siberia 
again slope down to the Arctic Ocean) the}- only 
knew that they were inhabited by nomad tribes, 
except the country directly X^. of Ariana, where 
the Persian empire had extended beyond the 
mountain-chain, and where the Greek kingdom of 
Bactria had been subsequently established. — The 
notions of the ancients respecting the size and form 
of Asia were such as might be inferred from what 
has been stated. Distances computed from the ac- 
I counts of travellers are always exaggerated ; and 
hence the S. part of the continent was supposed to 
extend much further to the E. than it really does 
(about 60° of long, too much, according to Pto- 
lemy), while to the X. and X.E. parts, which 
were quite unknown, much too small an extent was 
assigned. However, all the ancient geographers, 
except Pliny, agreed in considering it the largest 
of the 3 divisions of the world, and all believed it 
to be surrounded by the ocean, with the curious 
exception of Ptolemy, who recurred to the early 
notion, which we find in the poets, that the E. 
parts of Asia and the S.E. parts of Africa were 
imited by land which enclosed the Indian Ocean on 
the E. and S. The different opinions about the 
boundaries of Asia on the side of Africa are men- 
tioned under Africa : on the side of Europe the 
boundary was formed by the river Tanais (Don), 
the Palus Maeotis (.Sea of Azof), Pontus Euxinua 
{Black Sea), Propontis {Sea of Marmora), and 
the Aegean {Archipelago). — The most general 
division of Asia was into 2 parts, which were 
difi"erent at different times, and known by different 
names. To the earliest Greek colonists the river 
Halys, the E. boundary of the Lydian kingdom, 
formed a natural division between Upper and 
Lower Asia (7) &vo} 'A., or to. &vu) 'Aairjs, and 1? 
Karoo 'A., or to. Kara) ttjs 'Aa'irjs, or 'A. t) ivros 
"AAuos TroraiJLov) ; and afterwards the Euphrates 
was adopted as a more natural boundar}'. Another 
division was made by the Taurus into A. intra 
Taurum, i. e. the part of Asia X. and X^'.W. of the 
Taurus, and ^. ejf?-a Taurum, all the rest of the 
continent ('A. ivros rov Tavpov, and 'A. e/cros rov 
Tavpov). The division ultimately adopted, but 
apparently not till the 4th century of our era, was 
that of A. Major and A. Minor. — L Asia Major 
('A. 77 fji^yaKT]) was the part of the continent E. of 
the Tanais, the Euxine, an imaginary line drawn 
from the Euxine at Trapezus {Trel>izond) to the 



THE SHIP AKGO. APHRODITE (VENUS). ATHENA (MINERYA.) 




Athena (Minerva). (Bartoli, Admiranda, pi. 41.) Pages 101, 102. 




Aphrodite (Venus) and Eros (Cupid), 
(Causei, Museum liomanum, vol. 1, tav. 40.) Pa je 61, 




Athena (Minerva) superintending the Building of the Argo. 
(Zoega, Bassu-ilievi, tav. 45.) Page 75. 



\_Tofacei>. 90. 



COINS OF PEESONS. 



ANTONIUS — AKSACES. 




M. Antonius, the Trium\-ir, ob. B. c. 30. Page 59. 




Arcadius, Roman EmperoTj A. d. 395—108. Page 70. 




Archelaus, King of Cappadocia, ob, a.d. 17. Page 71, Xo. 9. 




Aretas, King of Arabia Pctraea. Page 74. 




Ariarathes TV., King of Cappadocia, B.C. 220- 162. Page 78. 




Ariarathes V., King of Cappadocia, B. c. 163—130. Page 78. 
\_Toface p. 97 




Ariarathes YI., King of Cappadocia, B.C. 130 - 96. Page 78. 




Ariobarzanes I., King of Cappadocia, b. c. 93 — 63. Page 79- 




Ariobarzanes III., King of Cappadocia, ob. b. c. 42. Page 79. 




Arsaces I. (Artabanus I.), King of Parthia. Page 89. 




Arsaces VI. (ilithridates I.), King of Parthia. Page 89. 



ASINARUS 



ASPASIUS. 



97 



Gulf of Issus, and the Mediterranean : thus it in- 
cluded the countries of Sarmatica Asiatica Avith all 
the Scythian tribes to the E., Colchis, Iberia, Al- 
bania, Armenia, Sj'ria, Arabia, Babylonia, Meso- 
potamia, Assyria, Media, Susiana, Persis, Ariana, 
Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactriana, Sogdiana, India, 
the land of the Sinae and Serica ; respecting which, 
see the several articles. -— 2. Asia Minor {'Aala r\ 
luLiicpd : Anatolia), was the peninsula on the extreme 
W. of Asia, bounded by the Euxine, Aegean, and 
Mediterranean on the N., W., and S. ; and on the 
E. by the mountains on the W. of the upper course 
of the Euphrates. It was for the most part a fer- 
tile country, intersected with mountains and rivers, 
abounding in minerals, possessing excellent har- 
bours, and peopled, from the earliest known period, 
1 by a variety of tribes from Asia and from Europe, 
i For particulars respecting the country, the reader 
' is referred to the separate articles upon the parts 
into which it was divided by the later Greeks, 
I namely, Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on the W., Ly- 
cia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, on the S. ; Bithynia, 
j Paphlagonia, and Pontus, on the E. ; and Phrygia, 
! Pisidia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, in the centre : 
I see also the articles Troas, Aeoli.a , Ionia, Doria, 
I Lycaonia, Pergamus,Halys, Sangarius,Tau- 
i Rus, &c. — 3. Asia Propria (A. 77 Idius Ka\ov- 
\ fifvvX or simply Asia, the Roman province, formed 
out of the kingdom of Pergamus, which was be- 
' queathed to the Romans by Attalus III. (b. c. 
; 130), and the Greek cities on the W. coast, and the 
adjacent islands, with Rhodes. It included the 
districts of Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia; and 
was governed at first by propraetors, afterwards by 
proconsuls. Under Constantine the Great, a new 
division was made, and Asia only extended along 
( the coast from the Prom. Lectum to the mouth of 

the Maeander. 
[ Asinarus {'Aaivapos : Fiume di Noto or Fred- 
do 9), a river on the E. side of Sicily, on which the 
Athenians were defeated by the Syracusans, b. c. 
413: the Syracusans celebrated here an annual 
festival called Asinaria. 
) Asine ('Ao-'lut] : 'Acriva7os). 1. A town in La- 
■ conica on the coast between Taenarura and Gy- 
; thium. — 2. A to^vn in Argolis, W. of Hermione, 
; Avas built by the Dry opes, who were driven out of 
[ the town by the Argives after the first Messenian 
\ war, and built No. 3. —-3. (Saratza?), an important 
. town in Messenia, near the Promontory Acritas, 
. on the Messenian gulf, which was hence also called 
the Asinaean gulf. 

Asinia Gens, plebeian, came from Teate, the 
chief tOAvn of the Marrucini ; and the first person 
of the name mentioned is Herius Asinius, the leader 
, of the Marrucini in the Marsic war, B. c. yU. The 
Asinii are given under their surnames, Gall us 
and PoLLio. 

Asius {"Actios). 1. Son of Hyrtacus of Arisbe, 
and father of Acamas and Phaenops, an ally of the 
Trojans, slain by Idomeneus. — 2. Son of Dymas 
and brother of Hecuba, whose form Apollo assumed 
when he roused Hector to fight against Patroclus. 
— 3. Of Samos, one of the earliest Greek poets, 
lived probably about B. c. 700. He Avrote epic 
and elegiac poems, Avhich have perished with the 
exception of a few fragments. 

Asmiraea, a district and city of Serica in the N. 
of Asia, near mountains called Asmiraei Montes, 
[ which are supposed to be the Altai range, and the 
j, city to be Khantil, in the centre of Chinese Tartary. 



Asopus ('A(rw7ro's). 1. (Basilikos), a river in 
Peloponnesus rises near Phlius, and flows through 
the Sicyonian territory into the Corinthian gulf. 
Asopus, the god of this river, was son of Oceanus 
and Tethys, husband of Metope, and father of 
Evadne, Euboea, and Aegina, each of whom was 
therefore called Asopis {' Ac-oonris). When Zeus 
carried off Aegina, Aesopus attempted to fight 
with him, but he was smitten by the thunderbolt 
of Zeus, and from that time the bed of the river 
contained pieces of charcoal. By Aegina Asopus 
became the grandfather of Aeacus, who is there- 
fore called Asopiades.—'2. (Asopo), a river in 
Boeotia, forms the N. boundary of the territory of 
Plataeae, flows through the S. of Boeotia, and falls 
into the Euboean sea near Delphinium in Attica. 
— 3. A river in Phthiotis in Thessaly, rises m 
M. Oeta, and flows into the Maliac gulf near 
Thermopylae. — 4. A river in Phrygia, flows past 
Laodicea into the Lycus. — 5. A tOAvn in Laconica 
on the E. side of the Laconian gulf. 

Aspadana ('Ao-TraSam : IspaJian'?), a town of 
the district Paraetacene in Persis. 

Asparagium (Iscarpar), a town in the terri- 
tory of Dyrrhachium in Illyria. 

Aspasia CAa-n-aaia). 1. The elder, of Miletus, 
daughter of Axiochus, the most celebrated of the 
Greek Hetaerae (see Diet, of Antiq. s. v.), came to 
reside at Athens, and there gained and fixed the 
affections of Pericles, not more by her beauty than 
by her high mental accomplishments. Having 
parted with his wife, Pericles attached himself to 
Aspasia during the rest of his life as closely as was 
allowed by the law, which forbade marriage with a 
foreign woman under severe penalties. The enemies 
of Pericles accused Aspasia of impiety (aaeS^Lo), 
and it required all the personal influence of Pericles, 
who defended her, and his most earnest entreaties 
and tears, to procure her acquittal. The house of 
Aspasia was the centre of the best literary and 
philosophical society of Athens, and was frequented 
even by Socrates. On the death of Pericles (b. c. 
429), Aspasia is said to have attached herself to 
one Lysicles, a dealer in cattle, and to have made 
him by her instructions a first-rate orator. The 
son of Pericles by Aspasia was legitimated by a 
special decree of the people, and took his father's 
name. — 2. The Younger, a Phocaean, daughter of 
Hermotimus, was the favourite concubine of Cyrus 
the Younger, who called her Aspasia after the 
mistress of Pericles, her previous name having been 
Milto. After the death of Cyrus at the battle of 
Cunaxa (b. c. 401), she fell into the hands of Ar- 
taxerxes, who likewise became deeply enamoured 
of her. When Darius, son of Artaxerxes, was ap- 
pomted successor to the throne, he asked his father 
to surrender Aspasia to him. Tlie request could 
not be refused as coming from the king elect ; 
Artaxerxes, therefore, gave her up ; but he soon 
after took her away again, and made her a priestess 
of a temple at Ecbatana, where strict celibacy was 
requisite. 

Aspasii. [Aspil] 

Aspasius {'Aa-irdcrios). 1. A peripatetic philo- 
sopher, lived about a. d. 80, and wrote commentaries 
on most of the works of Aristotle. A portion of 
his commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics is 
still preserved. — 2. Of Byblus, a Greek sophist, 
lived about A. D. 180, and wrote commentaries on 
Demosthenes and Aeschines, of which a few ex- 
tracts are preserved. 

H 



ASPENDUS. 



ASTACUS. 



Aspendus ("Aairci'dos : 'Acr7reV5jo5, Aspendius : 
Dashashkehr or Mcuiaugat)^ a strong and flourishing 
city of Pamphylia, on the small navigable river 
Eurymedon, 60 stadia (G gcog. miles) from its 
mouth : said to have been a colony of the Argivcs. 

Asper, Aemilius, a Roman grammarian, who 
wrote commentaries on Terence and Virgil, must 
he distinguished from another grammarian, usually 
called Asper Jmnor, the author of a small work 
entitled ^rs Grammaiica^ printed in the Grammat. 
Lat. Ajidores, by Putschins, Hanov, 1605. 

Asphaltltes Lacus or Mare Mortuum ('Ao-^aA- 
t7tis or ^oSofUTis Ai^ii'Tj, or ?/ ^dXaaaa ri vsKpa), 
the great salt and bituminous lake in the S.E. of 
Palestine, which receives the water of the Jordan. 
It has no visible outlet, and its surface is consi- 
derably below the level of the Mediterranean. 
The tales about fish not living in it and birds 
dropping down dead as they fly over it, are now 
proved to be fabulous. 

Aspii or Aspasii ("Ao-rtoi, 'AtrTrao-ioi), an Indian 
tribe, in the district of the Paropamisadae, between 
the rivers Choes {Kama) and Indus, in the N.E. 
of Afghanistan and the N.W. of the Pimjab. 

Aspis ('Ao-Tri's). 1. Clypea (Klibiah)^ a city 
on a promontory of the same name, near the N.E. 
point of the Carthaginian territorj-, foimded hy 
Agathocles, and fciken in the first Punic War by 
the Romans, who called it Clypea, the translation 
of 'Ao-TTi's. — 2. (Marsa-Zqfran9 Ru.), in the 
African Tripolitana, the best harbour on the coast 
of the Great S}-rtis.~— 3. [Arcoxxesus.] 

Aspledon. {^AcnrXriddiu : 'Aa-Xiidofios), or Sple- 
don, a town of the Minyae in Boeotia on the river 
Melas, near Orchomenus ; built by the mythical 
Aspledon, son of Poseidon and Midea. 

Assa ("Aacra : Wacralos), a town in Chalcidice 
in Macedonia, on the Singitic gulf. 

Assaceni {'AcraaKrjvoL), an Indian tribe, in the 
district of the Paropamisadae, between the rivers 
Cophen (Cabool) and Indus, in the X.W. of the 
Punjab. ' 

A^saracus ('Ao-irapa/cos), king of Troy, son of 
Tros, father of Capys, grandfather of Anchises, and 
great-grandfather of Aeneas. Hence the Romans, 
as descendants of Aeneas, are caUed domus Assa- 
raci (Virg. Aen. i. 284). 

Assesus ('Acro-Tjo-os), a town of Ionia near Mi- 
letus, with a temple of Athena surnamed 'Aaa-na'ia. 

AssblMS {'AcraojpSs ot 'AcrcrcSpiov ; 'Aacrcit)p7uos: 
Asaro), a small to\vn in Sicily betv.-een Enna and 
AgA'rium. 

Assus ("Acrcros : "Aaaios, 'Acr-reus : Asso, Ru., 
near Berani), a flourishing city in the Troad, on 
the Adramyttian Gulf, opposite to Lesbos : after- 
wards called Apollonia : the birthplace of Cleanthes 
the Stoic. 

Assyria {'Aaavp'ia : 'Aaavpios, Ass}i-iu3 : Kur- 
distan). 1. The country properly so called, in the 
narrowest sense, was a district of W. Asia, extend- 
ing along the E, side of the Tigris, which divided 
it on the W. and N.W. from Mesopotamia and 
Babylonia, and bounded on the N. and E. by M. 
Niphates and iM. Zagrus, which separated it from 
Armenia and Media, and on the S.E. by Susiana. 
It was watered by several streams, flovring into the 
Tigris from the E. ; two of which, the Lycus or 
Zabatus {Great Za/>), and the Caprus or Zabas or 
Anzabas {Little Znb), di\nded the country into three 
parts : that between the Upper Tigris and the Lycus 
was called Aturia (a mere dialectic variet}- of 



Assyria), was probabh* the most ancient seat of the 
monarch}-, and contained the capital, Nineveh or 
NiNus: tliat between the Lycus and the Caprus was 
called Adiabene : and the part S.E. of the Caprus 
contained the districts of Apolloniatis and Sittacene. 
Another division into districts, given by Ptolemj-, 
is the following: Arrhapachitis, Calacine, Adiabene, 
Arbelitis, Apolloniatis and Sittacene. — 2. In a 
wider sense the name was applied to the whoh- 
country watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris, 
between the mountains of Armenia on the N.. these 
of Kurdistan on the E., and the Arabian Desert 
on the W., so as to include, besides Assyria Proper, 
Mesopotamia and Babylonia ; nay, there is some- 
times an apparent confusion between Assyria and 
Syria, which gives ground for the supposition that 
the terms were originally identical. — 3. By a 
further extension the word is used to designate the 
Ass\-ri:in Empire in its widest sense. The early 
history of this great monarchy is too obscure to be 
given here in any detail ; and indeed it is only 
just now that new means of investigating it are 
being acquired. The germ of this empire was one 
of the first great states of which Ave have any re- 
cord, and was probably a powerful and civilized 
kingdom as early as Egypt. Its reputed founder 
was Ninus, the builder of the capital city ; and in 
its widest extent it included the countries just 
mentioned, with Media, Persis, and portions of 
the countries to the E. and N.E., Annenia, Syria, 
Phoenicia, and Palestine, except the kingdom of 
Judah ; and, beyond these limits, some of the 
Assyrian kings made incursions into Arabia and 
Egypt. The fruitless expedition of Sennacherib 
against the latter countrj- and the miraculous de- 
struction of his army before Jerusalem (b. c. 714), 
so weakened the empire, that the Medes revolted 
and formed a separate kingdom, and at last, in 
B.C. 606, the governor of Babylonia united with 
Cyaxares, the king of Media, to conquer Assyria, 
v.'hich was divided betv/een them, Assyria Proper 
falling to the share of jMedia, and the rest of the 
empire to Babj-lon. The Assyrian king and all 
his family perished, and the city of Ninus was 
rased to the ground, [Comp. Babylon and Me- 
dia.] It must be noticed as a caution, that some 
writers confound the Assyrian and Babylonian em- 
pires under the former name. 

Asta (Astensis). 1 {Asii in Piedmont), an in- 
land town of Liguria on the Tanarus, a Roman 
colony. -=-3. (Mesa de Asta), a town in Hispania 
Baetica, near Gades, a Roman colony with the sur- 
name Regia. 

Astaboras (^AaraSopas: Aibarali or Tacazza) 
and Astapus ('Ao-raTrous, Balir-el-Azak or Blue 
A'ile), two rivers of Aethiopia, having their sources 
in the highlands of Abyssi?iia, and uniting in about 
1 7° N. Lat. to form the Nile. The land enclosed 
by them was the island of Merge. 

Astacus ("Acrra/fos), father of Ismarus, Leades, 
Asphoaicus, and Melanippus. 

Astacus {^AaraKos: 'Aaraicrjuds). 1. {Dra- 
gomestre)., a city of Acamania, on the Achelolis.— 
2. A celebrated city of Bithynia, at the S.E. comer 
g{ the Simis As/acenus {'AcrraKrivos koAttos), a bay 
of the Propontis, v.-as a colony from Megara, but 
afterwards received fresh colonists from Athens, 
who called the place O'bia {'OXSia). It was de- 
stroyed by Lysimachus, but rebuilt on a neighbour- 
ing site, at the N.E. comer of the gulf, by Nico- 
medes I., who named his new city Nicomedia. 



ASTAPA. 



ATABYRIS. 



99 



Astapa (Estepa), a town in Hispania Baetica. ] 

Astapus. [AsrABORAS.] 

Astarte. [Aphrodite and Syria Dea.] 

Astelephus CAareXc-cpus), a river of Colchis, 
120 stadia ( 12 geog. miles) S. of Sebastopolis. 

Asteria ('Ao-Tepia), daughter of the Titan Coeus 
and Phoebe, sister of Leto (Latona), wife of Perses, 
and mother of Hecate. In order to escape the em- 
braces of ZeMS, she is said to have taken the form 
of a quail {ortyx. opTii|), and to have thrown herself 
down from heaven into the sea, where she v/as 
metamorphosed into the island Asteria (the island 
which had fallen from heaven like a star), or Ortygia^ 
afterwards called Delos, 

Asterion or Asterius CAaTep'iwv or Wcrrepios). 
1. Son of Teutamus, and king of the Cretans, mar- 
ried Em-opa after she had been carried to Crete by 
Zeus, and brought up the three sons, Minos, Sar- 
pedon, and Rhadamanthys, whom she had by the 
father of the gods. — 2. Son of Cometes, Pyremus, 
or Priscus, by Antigone, daughter of Pheres, was 
one of the Argonauts. 

Asteris or Asteria CAarepis, 'Aarepia\ a small 
island between Ithaca and Cephallenia. 

Asteriiim. {'Aar^piou), a town in Magnesia in 
Thessaly. 

Asteropaeus ('AcrTe/joTraTos), son of Pelegon, 
leader of the Paeonians, and anally of the Trojans, 
was slain by Achilles. 

Astigi, a town in Hispania Baetica on the river 
Singulis, a Pioman colony with the surname Au- 
yusta Firma, 

Astraea (^Aa-Tpala), daughter of Zeus and 
Themis, or, according to others, of Astraens and 
Eos. During the golden age, this star-bright 
maiden lived on earth and among men, whom she 
blessed ; but when that age had passed away, 
Astraea, who tarried longest amongst men, with- 
drew, and was placed among the stars, where 
she was called TlapQ^uos or Virgo. Her sister 
Aiows or Pudicitia, left the earth along with her 
'ad superos Astraea recessit, hac {Pudiciiia) comite, 
Juv. vi. 19). 

Astraeus ('Aa-Tpaios), a Titan, son of Crius and 
Eurybia, husband of Eos (Aurora), and father of 
the v/inds Zephyrus, Boreas, and Notus, Eosphorns 
; (the morning star) and all the stars of heaven, 
j Ovid {Met. xiv. 545) calls the winds ^is^raei (adj.) 
■ fratres, the " Astraean brothers." 

Astura. 1. (La Siura), a river in Latium, rises 
in the Alban mountains, and flows between Antium 
md Circeii into the Tyrrhenian sea. At its mouth 
it formed a small island with a town upon it, also 
called Astura {Torre d' Astura) : here Cicero had 
!an estate. — 2. (Ezla), a river in Hispania Tar- 
iraconensis, flowing into the Durius. 
I ' Astures, a people in the N. W. of Spain, 
; bounded on the E. by the Cantabri and Vaccaei, 
'on the W. by the Gallaeci, on the N. by the 
Ocean, and on the S. by the Vettones, thus inha- 
: biting the modern Asiurias and the northern part of 
Leon and Valladolid. They contained 22 tribes and 
; 240,000 freemen, and were divided into the Au- 
Igustani and Transmoatani, the former of whom 
dwelt S. of the mountains as far as the Durius, 
and the latt- r N. of the mountains down to the 
sea-coast. The country of the Astures Avas moun- 
tainous, rich in minerals and celebrated for its 
horses: the people themselves were rude and war- 
like. Theii- chief town was Astmica Augusta 
■Astorga). 



Astyages (A(rTi'a777s), son of Cyaxares, last 
king of Media, reigned B. c. 594 — 559. Alarmed 
by a dream, he gave his daughter Mandane in 
marriage to Cambyses, a Persian of good family. 
Another dream induced him to send Harpagus to 
destroy the offspring of this marriage. The child, 
the future conqueror of the Medes, was given to a 
herdsman to expose, but .he brought it up as his 
own. Years afterwards, circumstances occurred 
which brought the young Cyrus under the notice of 
Astyages, who, on inquiry, discovered his parentage. 
He inflicted a cruel punishment on Harpagus, Avho 
waited his time for revenge. When Cyrus had 
grov\-n up to man's estate, Harpagus induced him 
to instig:ite the Persians to revolt, and, having been 
appointed general of the Median forces, he deserted 
with the greater part of them to Cyrus. Astyages 
was taken prisoner, and Cyrus mounted the throne. 
He treated the captive monarch with mildness, but 
kept him in conhnement till his death. This is 
the account of Herodotus, and is to be preferred 
to that of Xenophon, who makes Cyrus the 
grandson of Astyages, but says, that Astyages Avas 
succeeded by his son Cyaxares II., on whose 
death Cyrus succeeded peaceably to the vacant 
throne. 

Astyanax Aarvavai)^ son of Hector and An- 
dromache : his proper name was Scamandrius, but 
he was called Astj^anax or " lord of the city " b}'- 
the Trojans, on account of the services of his father. 
After the taking of Troy the Greeks hurled him 
down from the walls, that he might not restore the 
kingdom of Troy. 

Astydamas ('A(TTi/5a/xas), a tragic poet, son of 
Morsimus and of a sister of the poet Aeschylus, 
and a pupil of Isocrates, Avrote 240 tragedies, and 
gained the prize 15 times. His first tragedy was 
acted B. c. 399. 

Astydamia ('AcrruSa,ueja). 1. Daughter of 
Amyntor and mother of Tlepolemus by Hercules. 
■="2. Wife of AcASTUs. 

Astynome ('Acttuz/o^t)), daughter of Chryses, 
better known under her patronymic Chryseis. 

Astyoche or Astyochia (^Aarvoxn or 'Aarvo- 
X^ict). 1. Daughter of Actor, by whom Ares begot 
Ascalaphus and lalmenus. — =2. Daughter of Phy- 
las, king of Ephyra in Thesprotia, became by Her- 
cules the mother of Tlepolemus. 

Astyociius ('Aarvoxos)., the Lacedaemonian ad- 
miral in B. c. 412, commanded on the coast of Asia 
Minor, where he was bribed by the Persians to 
remain inactive. 

Astypalaea {'AaTVirdAaia : 'AcrTVTvaXciLSvs, 'Act- 
TvivaXaLdi7\s : Stampalia), one of the Sporades in 
the S. part of the Grecian archipelago, with a 
town of the same name, founded by the Megarians, 
which was under the Romans a libera civitas. 
(Astypaleia regna, i. e. Astypalaea., Ov. Met. vii. 
461.) The inhabitants worshipped Achilles. 

Astyra (xa "Aarvpa), a towji of Mysia, N. W. 
of Adramyttium., on a marsh connected Avith the 
sea, with a grove sacred to Artemis surnamed 
'Aarvp'ivT] or -7]V7]. 

Asycilis {^'Aavxis), an ancient king of Egypt, 
succeeded Mycerinus. 

Atabiilus, the name in Apulia of the parching 
S. E. wind, the Sirocco, Avhich is at present called 
Alti7io in Apulia. 

Atacyris orAtabyrium (^Ara§vpLov),i\iQ high- 
est mountani in Rhodes on the S.W. of that island, 
! on Avhich Avas a celebrated temple of Zeus Ataby^ 

H 2 



100 



ATAGIS. 



ATHANAGIA. 



riiis, said to have been founded by Althaemenos, 
the grandson of Minos. 
Atagis. [Athesis.] 

Atalanta {'hTaKavrn]). 1. The Arcadian Aia- 
lanta, was a daughter of lasus (lasion or lasius) 
and Clyniene. Her father, who had wished for a 
son, was disappointed at her birth, and exposed her 
on the Parthenian (virgin) hill, where she was 
suckled by a she-bear, the symbol of Artemis. 
After she had grown up she lived in pure maiden- 
hood, slew the centaurs who pursued her, and took 
part in the Calydonian hunt. Her father subse- 
quently recognised her as his daughter ; and when 
he desired her to marry, she required every suitor 
who wanted to win her, to contend with her first 
in the foot-race. If he conquered her, he was to 
be rewarded with her hand, if not, he was to be 
put to death. This she did because she was the 
most swift-footed of mortals, and because the 
Delphic oracle had cautioned her against marriage. 
She conquered many suitors, but was at length 
overcome by INIilanion with the assistance of 
Aphrodite. The goddess had given hira 3 golden 
apples, and during the race he dropped them one 
after the other : their beauty charmed Atalanta so 
much, that she could not abstain from gathering 
them, and Milanion thus gained the goal before 
her. She accordingly became his wife. They 
were subsequently both metamorphosed into lions, 
because they had profaned by their embraces the 
sacred grove of Zeus. — 2. The Boeotian Atalanta. 
The same stories are related of her as of the Arca- 
dian Atalanta, except that her parentage ^and the 
localities are described differently. Thus she is 
said to have been a daughter of Schoenus, and to 
have been married to Hippomenes. Her foot-race 
is transferred to the Boeotian Onchestus, and the 
sanctuary which the nevrh' married couple profaned 
by their love, wos a temple of Cybele, who meta- 
morphosed them into lions, and yoked them to her 
chariot. 

Atalante {'ATaXdurr] : 'AraXavTOLOs). 1. A 
small island in the Euripus, on the coast of the 
Opuntian Locri, with a small town of the same 
name. — 2. A town of Macedonia on the Axius, in 
the neighbourhood of Gortynia and Idomene. 

Atarantes ('Ardpayres), a people in the E. of 
Libya, described by Herodotus (iv. 184). 

AtarbeeMs. [Aphroditopolis.] 

Atameus {'Arapyevs: Dikeli), a city on M. 
Cane, on the coast of Mysia, opposite to Lesbos : a 
colony of the Chians : the residence of the tyrant 
Hermias, with whom Aristotle resided some time : 
destroyed before the time of Pliny. 

Ataulplius, Athaulphus, Adanlplms (i.e.Atha- 
ulf, " sworn helper," the same name as that which 
appears in later history under the form of Adolf or 
Adolphus), brother of Alaric's wife. He assisted 
Alaric in his invasion of Italy, and on the death of 
that monarch in a. d. 410, he was elected king of 
the Visigoths. He then made a peace with the 
Romans, married Placidia, sister of Honorius, re- 
tired vrith his nation into the S. of Gaul, and 
finally withdrew into Spain, whore he was mur- 
dered at Barcelona. 

Atax (A tale), originally called Narbo, a river 
in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in the Pyrenees, and 
flows by Narbo Martius into the Lacus Rubresus 
or Rubrensis, which is connected with the sea. 
From this river the poet P. Terentius Varro ob- 
tained the surname Atacinus. [Varro.] 



Ate ("Attj), daughter of Eris or Zeus, was an 

ancient Greek divinitj-, who led both gods and 
men into rash and inconsiderate actions. She once 
even induced Zeus, at the birth of Hercules, to take 
an oath by which Hera was afterwards enabled to 
give to EurA-stheus the power v/hich had been 
destined for Hercules. When Zeus discovered his 
rashness, he hurled Ate from Olympus and ba- 
nished her for ever from the abodes of the gods. 
In the tragic writers Ate appears in a different 
light : she avenges evil deeds and inflicts just pu- 
nishments upon the offenders and their posterity, 
so that her character is almost the same as that of 
Nemesis and Erinnys. She appears most pro- 
minent in the dramas of Aeschylus, and least ir 
those of Euripides, with whom the idea of Dike 
(justice) is more fully developed. 

Ateius, surnamed Praeie.xtatus, and PliiLologu?^ 
a celebrated grammarian at Rome, about B. c. 40. 
and a friend of Sallust, for whom he drew up an 
Epitome (Breviarium) of Roman History. After 
the death of Sallust Ateius lived on intimate terms 
with Asinius PoUio, whom he assisted in his literar}' 
pursuits. 

Ateius Capito. [Capito.] 

Atella (Atellanus ; Aversa), a town in Cam- 
pania between Capua and Neapolis, originally in- 
habited by the Oscans, afterwards a Roman muni- 
cipium and a colony. It revolted to Hannibal 
(B.C. 216) after the battle of Cannae, and the 
Romans in consequence transplanted its inhabitants 
to Calatia, and peopled the town by new citizens 
from Nuceria. Atella owes its celebrity to the 
Atellanae Fabulae or Oscan farces, which took their 
name from this iQWTi. {Did. ofAntiq. p. 347, ■2ded.) 

Aternum (Pescara), a town in central Italy 
on the Adriatic, at the mouth of the river Atemus 
(Pescara), was the common harbour of the Vestini, 
Marracini, and Peligni. 

Aternus. [Aterxum.] 

Ateste (Atestinus : Este), a Roman colony in 
the country of the Veneti in Upper Italy. 

Athacus, a town in Lyncestis in Macedonia. 

Atbamania A6ay.avia: 'AdaiJ.dv, avos),a. moun- 
tainous country in the S. of Epirus, on the W. side 
of Pindus, of which Argithea was the chief town. 
The Athamanes were a Thessalian people, who 
had been driven out of Thessaly by the Lapithac. 
They were governed by independent princes, the 
last of whom was Amvnander. 

Atliamas ('A0a^ar), son of Aeolus and Enarete, 
and king of Orchomenus in Boeotia. At the com- 
mand of Hera, Athamas married Nephele, by whom 
he became the father of Phrixus and Helle. But 
he was secretly in love with the mortal Ino, the 
daughter of Cadmus, by whom he begot Learchus 
and Melicertes ; and Nephele, on discovering that 
Ino had a greater hold on his affections than her- 
self, disappeared in anger. Having thus incurred 
the anger both of Hera and of Nephele, Athamas 
was seized with madness, and in this state killed his 
own son, Learchus : Ino threw herself with Meli- 
certes into the sea, and both were changed into 
marine deities, Ino becoming Leucothea, and Meli- 
certes Palaemon. Athamas, as the murderer ot 
his son, was obliged to flee from Boeotia, and settled 
in Thessaly. — Hence we have Athamantiades. 
son of Athamas, i. e. Palaemon ; and AthamarttisM 
daughter of Athamas, i. e. Helle. I 

Atlianagia {Agramuntf), the chief town o:l 
the Ilergetes in Hispania Tarraconensis. I 



ATHANARICUS. 



ATHENA. 



101 



Athanaricus, king of the Visi-Gotlis during 
their slay in Dacia. In a. d. '667 — 369 he carried 
on war with the emperor Valens, with whom he 
finally concluded a peace. In 374 Athanaric was 
defeated by the Huns, and, after defending himself 
for some time in a stronghold in the mountains of 
Dacia, was compelled to fly in 380, and take refuge 
in the Roman territory. He died in 381. 

AthanasiUS {'ABavda-ios), St., one of the most 
celebrated of the Christian fathers, was born at 
Alexandria about A. d. 2.96, and was elected arch- 
bishop of the citj'- on the death of Alexander in 
326. The history of his episcopate is full of stirring 
incidents and strange transitions of fortune. He 
was the great champion of the orthodox faith, as it 
had been expounded at the council of Nice in 
325, and was therefore exposed to persecution 
whenever the Arians got the upper hand in the 
state. He was thrice driven from his see into 
exile, and thrice recalled. He died in 373. The 
Athanasian creed was not composed by Athanasius : 
its real author is imknown. The best edition of 
his works is by Montfaucon, Paris, 1698, reprinted 
at Padua> 1777. 

Athena {'Adrivri or 'ASTjm), one of the great 
divinities of the Greeks. Homer calls her a daugh- 
ter of Zeus, without any allusion to the manner of 
lier birth ; but later traditions related that she was 
born from the head of Zeus, and some added that 
she sprang forth with a mighty war-shout and in 
complete armour. The most ancient tradition, as 
preserved by Hesiod, stated that Metis, the first 
wife of Zeus, was the mother of Athena, but that 
Metis, when pregnant with her, was, on the advice 
of Gaea and Uranus, swallowed up by Zeus, and 
that Zeus afterwards gave birth himself to Athena, 
who sprang from his head. Another set of traditions 
regarded her as the daughter of Pallas, the winged 
giant, whom she afterwards killed on account of 
his attempting to violate her chastitj'- ; and a third 
set carried her to Libya, and called her a daughter 
of Poseidon and Tritonis. These various traditions 
about Athena arose, as in most other cases, from 
local legends and from identifications of the Greek 
Athena with other divinities. But according to 
the general belief of the Greeks, she was the 
daughter of Zeus ; and if we take Metis to have 
been her mother, we have at once the clue to the 
character which she bears in the religion of Greece ; 
for, as her father was the most powerful and her 
mother the wisest among the gods, so Athena was 
a combination of the two, a goddess in whom power 
and wisdom were harmoniously blended. From 
this fundamental idea may be derived the various 
aspects under which she appears in the ancient 
writers. She seems to have been a divinity of a 
purely ethical character ; her power and wisdom 
appear in her being the preserver of the state and of 
everything which gives to the state strength and pros- 
perity. — As the protectress of agriculture, Athena is 
represented as inventing the plough and rake : she 
created the olive tree (see below), taught the people 
to yoke oxen to the plough, took care of the breeding 
of horses, and instructed men how to tame them 
by the bridle, her own invention. Allusions to this 
feature of her character are contained in the epithets 
$ovdeia, Boapixia, ayp'Kpa^ linr'ia, or xaA-tJ^rrts. She 
is also represented as the patron of various kinds 
of science, industry, and art, and as inventing 
numbers, the trumpet, the chariot and navigation. 
Slie was further believed to have invented nearly 



every kind of work in which women were em- 
ployed, and she herself was skilled in such work. 
Hence we have the tale of the Lydian maiden 
Arachne, who ventured to compete with Athena in 
the art of weaving. [Arachne.] Athena is in 
fact the patroness of both the useful and elegant arts. 
Hence she is called ipydvri, and later writers make 
her the goddess of all wisdom, knowledge, and art, 
and represent her as sitting on the right hand of her 
father Zeus, and supporting him with her counsel. 
She is therefore characterized b)^ various epithets and 
surnames, expressing the keenness of her sight or the 
vigour of her intellect, such as OTrrzAeriS, 6(pdaAfM- 
Tis, d^vdepK7]S, yKavicwTTLS^ ttoXv§ov\os, iroXvix'qris, 
and yLfix'^VLTis. — As the patron divinity of the state, 
she was at Athens the protectress of the phratries 
and houses which formed the basis of the state. 
The festival of the Apaturia had a direct reference 
to this particular 'point in the character of the god- 
dess. {Diet, of Ant. Apaturia.) She also main- 
tained the authority of tlie law, justice, and order 
in the courts and the assembly of the people. This 
notion was as ancient as the Homeric poems, in 
which she is described as assisting Ulysses against 
the lawless conduct of the suitors. {Od. xiii. 394.) 
She was believed to have instituted the ancient 
court of the Areopagus, and in cases Avhere the 
votes of the judges were equally divided, she gave 
the casting one in favour of the accused. The 
epithets which have reference to this part of the 
goddess's character are a^ioivoLvos, the avenger, 
Bou\a7a, and ayvpa7a. — As Athena promoted the 
internal prosperity of the state, so she also pro- 
tected the state from outward enemies, and thus 
assumes the character of a warlike divinitj', though 
in a very different sense from Ares, Eris, or Enyo. 
According to Homer she does not even keep arras, 
but borrows them from Zeus ; she preserves men 
from slaughter when prudence demands it, and 
repels Ares's savage love of war, and conquers him. 
The epithets which she derives from her warlike 
character are ay^Xeia, Xacppia, aXKifxaxv., Xaocraoos, 
and others. In times of war, towns, fortresses, 
and harbours, are under her especial care, whence 
she is designated as ipva'nvroKis., a\a\ico/iiev7]is, 
iroMa?, TToXtovxos, aKpala., aKp'ia, KXrjBovxos, irv- 
AatTis, Trpofxaxopfxa, and tlie like. In the war of 
Zeus against the giants, she assisted her father and 
Hercules with her counsel, and also took an active 
part in it, for she buried Enceladns under the island 
of Sicily, and slew Pallas. In the Trojan war she 
sided with the Greeks, though on their return home 
she visited them with storms, on account of the 
manner in which the Locrifln Ajax had treated 
Cassandra in her temple. As a goddess of war 
and the protectress of heroes, Athena usually ap- 
pears in armour, with the aegis and a golden staff. 
— The character of Athena, as we have here traced 
it, holds a middle place between the m.ale and 
female, whence she is a virgin divinity, v/hose heart 
is inaccessible to the passion of love. Tiresias was 
deprived of sight for having seen her in the bath ; 
and Hephaestus, who had made an attempt upon 
her chastity, was obliged to take to flight. For this 
reason, the ancient traditions always describe the 
goddess as dressed ; and when Ovid makes her 
appear naked before Paris, he abandons the genuine 
story. — Athena was worshipped in all parts of 
Greece. Her worship Avas introduced from the 
ancient towns on the lake Copais at a very early 
period into Attica, where she became the great 



lU'J ATHENAK. 

nntinnal divinity of t]ie city and tlie conntry, IIm> 
she \v:i3 roirardod as the 3ea caTeipa, vyUia, and 
iraiu>via. The tale ran that in the reign of Cecrops 
both Poseidon and Athena contended for the pos- 
session of Athens. The pods rt solved that -which- 
ever of them produced a ^'ift niost useful to mortals 
should have pnssession of the land. Poseidon struck 
the cround with his trident and straightway a 
horse appeared. Athena then planted the olive. 
The crods thereupon decreed that the olive was more 
useful to man than the horse, and gave the city to 
the coddoss, from whom it was call Athenre. At 
Athens the magnificent festival of the Panathcnaca 
was celebrated in honour of the goddess. At this 
festival took pl.ice the grand procession, whicli was 
represented on the frieze of the Parthenon. {Did. 
of Ant. art. Panutheyiaea.) At Lindus in Rliodes 
her worship was likewise very ancient. Respecting 
its introduction into Italy, and ' the modifications 
which her character underwent there, see Minkuva. 
Among the things sacred to her we may mention I 
the o wl, serpent, cock, and olive-tree, which she was 
said to have created in her contest with Poseidon 
about the possession of Attica. The sacrifices oifered 
to her consisted of bulls, rams, and cows. Athena 
was frt-quently represented in v/orks of art, in 
which we generally find some of the following 
characteristics: — 1. The helmet, which she usually 
wears on her head, but in a few instances carries 
in her iiand. It is generally ornamented in the 
most beautiful manner with griffins, heads of rams, 
horses, and sphinxes. 2. The aegis, which is re- 
presented on works of art, not as a shield, but as a 
goat-skin, covered with scales, set with the appal- 
ling Gorgon's head, and surrounded with tassels. 
{Diet, of Ant. art. Ae-jis.) 3. The round Argolic 
shield, in the centre of which the head of j\I(!dusa 
likewise appears. 4. Objects sacred to her, such 
as an olive branch, a serpent, an owl, a cock, and 
a lance. Her garment is usually the Spartan tunic 
without sleeves, and over it she wears a cloak, the 
peplus, or, though rarely, the chlamys. i 

Athenae ('AOfyi/ai, also 'Adi]V7] in Homer: WOrj- 
vatos, tJ 'AGTjj/aicx, Athuniensis : Athens), the capital 
of Attica, about 150 stadia from the sea, on the 
S. W. slope of Mount Lycabettus, between the 
small rivers Cephissus on the W. and Ilissus on 
the E., the latter of which llowed through the 
town. The most ancient part of it, the Acropolis, 
is said to have been built by the mythical Cecrops, 
but the cit}' itself is said to have owed its origin 
to Theseus, who united the 12 independent states 
or townships of Attica into one state, and made 
Athens thrir capital. The city was burnt b}' 
Xerxes in b. c. 480, but was soon rebuilt under 
the administration of Themistocles, and was adorned ' 
with public buildings by Cimon and especially by 
Pericles, in whose time (b. c. 460 — i29) it reached 
its greatest splendour. Its beauty was chiefly 
owing to its public buildings, for the private houses 
were mostly insignificant, and its streets badly laid 
out. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian' war, i 
it contained 10,000 houses (Xen. Mem. iii. 6. 
§ 14), which at the rate of 12 inhabitants to a 
house would give a population of 120,000, though 
some writers make the inhabitants as many "as 
180,000. Under the Romans Athens continued 
to be a great and flourishing city, and retained 
many privileges and imnmnitics 'when S. Greece 
was fonned into the Roman province of Achaia. 
It suffered greatly on its capture by Sulla, 



ATHENAE. 




B. c. C5, and was deprived of many of its 
privileges. It was at that time, and also during 
the early centuries of the Christian aera, one of the 
chief seats of learning, and the Romans were ac- 
customed to send their sons to Athens, as to an 
University, for the completion of their education. 
Hadrian, who v/as very partial to Ath >ns and fre- 
quently resided in the city (a. d. 1 22, 1 28), adorned 
it with many new buildings, and his example was 
followed by Herodes Atticus, who spent large sums 
of money upon beautifying the city in the reign o: 
M. Aurelius. — Athens consisted of 2 distinct 
parts: I. The City (to Gcttu), properly so called, 
divided into, 1 . The Upper Cit}- or Acropolis (tj avd: 
7r6\is, aicpoTToXis), and, 2. The Lower City {ij /cara.- 
TToAis), surrounded with walls by Themistocles. 
II. The 3 harbour-towns of Piraeus, Munychia, 
and PhaleiTim, also surrounded with walls by 
Themistocles, and connected with the city by 
means of the /o7ig walls {to. iiaKpa Tei'xi?), built 
I under the administration of Pericles. The long 
walls consisted of the wall to Phalerum on the 
E., 35 stadia long (about 4 miles), and of the v/all 
to Piraeus on the W., 40 stadia long (about 4^ 
miles) ; between these two, at a short distance 
from the latter and parallel to it, another wall was 
erected, thus making 2 walls leading to the Pi- 
raeus (sometimes called to. c/ceATj), with a narrow 
passage between them. There were therefore 3 
long walls in all ; but the name of Lonr/ Walls 
seems to have been confined to the two leading to 
the Piraeus, while the one leading to Phalerum 
v.-as distinguished by the name of the Fhalerian 
Wall {rh ^a\7]pLKhv relxos). The entire circuit of 
the walls was 1741 stadia (nearlj- 22 miles), of 
wliich 43 stadia (nearly c-i miles) belonged to the 
city, 7o stadia (9i miles) to the long walls, and 561 
(7 miles) to Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum. — 
1. Topograpliy of the Acropolis or Upper City. 
The Acropolis, also called Cecropia from its re- 
puted founder, was a steep rock in the middle of 
tlie city, about 150 feet high, 1150 feet long, and 
500 broad: its sides were naturalh' scarped on all 
sides except the W. end. It was originally sur- 
rounded by an ancient Cyclopian wall said to have 
been built by the Pelasgians ; at the time of the 
Peloponnesian war only the N. part of this wall 
remained, and this portion was still called the Pc- 
lasrjic V/all; while the S. part, which had been 
rebuilt by Cimon, was called the Cimonian Wall. 
On the W. end of the Acropolis, where access is 
alone practicable, were the magnificent Propyl asa, 
the Entrances," built by Pericles, before the right 
wing of v\-hich was the small temple of HIki) 
I "Anrepos. The summit of the Acropolis v/as co- 
vered with temples, statues of bronze and marble, 
and various other works of art. Of the temples, 
the grandest was the Parthenon, sacred to the 
" Virgin" goddess Athena ; and N. of the Parthe- 
non was the magnificent Erechtheum, containing 
3 separate temples, one of Athena Polias (IloAias), 
or the " Protectress of the State," the Erechtheum 
proper, or sanctuarj^ of Erechtheus, and the Pun- 
(irosiuni, or sanctuary of Pandrosos, the daughter of 
Cecrops, Between the Parthenon and Erechtheum 
was the colossal statue of Athena Promacho:- 
(IlpoVaxos), or the "■ Fighter in the Front," whose 
helmet and spear was the first ol)ject on the 
Acropolis visible from the sea.— =2. Topography 
of the Lower City. — The lower city was built 
in the plain round the Acropolis, but this plain 



ATHENAE. 




The Bema of the Pnyx at Athens. 




iTofacep. 102. 



ATHENAE. 




ITo/ace p. 1"?. 



ATHENAE. 



ATHENAE. 



103 



also contained several hills, especially in the S.Vv". ' 
part. Walls. The ancient walls embraced a 
much greater circuit than the modern ones. On 
the W. they included the hill of the Nymphs and 
the Pnj'x, on the S. they extended a little beyond 
the Ilissus, and on the E. they crossed the Ilissus, 
near the Lyceum, which Avas outside the walls.™ 
Gates. Their number is unknovvn, and the posi- 
tion of many of them is uncertain ; but the folloAv- 
ing list contains the most important. Gn the W. 
side were : — 1. Dipylum (Ai-n-vkou, more anciently 
Bpiacriai or Kepa/u/cat), the m^ost frequented gate 
of the citj'-, leading from the inner Ceramicus to 
the outer Ceramicus, and to the Academy. — 2. 
The Sacred Gate {at 'ispal UvAai), where the sacred 
road to Eleusis began. — 3. The KnigWa Gate^{ai 
'iTTTrdSes TT.), probably between the hill of the 
Nymphs and the Pnyx. — 4. 77^6 Piraean Goic 
(rj YleipdiKT] tt.), between the Pnyx and the Mu- 
seum, leading to the carriage road (a^a^iros) be- 
tween the Long Walls to the Piraeus. — 5. The 
Melitian Gate {at MeAin'Ses tt,), so called because 
it led to the demus Melite, within the city. On 
the S. side, coing from W. to E. : — 6. The Gate of 
rJie Dead {al 'Hp/at tt.) in the neighbourhood of the 
Museum, placed by many authorities on the N. 
side. — 7. The Jtonian Gate (at Ircoj/Iat tt,), near the 
Ilissus, where the road to Phalerum began. On 
the E. side, going from S. to N. : — 8. The Gale 
of Diochares (ai Aioxdpovs tt.), leading to the 
Lyceum, — 9. The Diomeaji Gate (?j Atoiieia tt.), 
leading to Cynosarges and the demus Diomea. On 
the N. side. — 10. The Achar?iian Gate (al 'Axap- 
viKal TT.), leading to the demus Acharnae. — Chief 
Districts. Tlie inner Ceranucus (Kepc/xeiKos), or 
Potter's Quarter," in the W. of the city, extend- 
ing N. as far as the gate Dipylum, by v/hich it 
was separated from the outer Ceramicus ; the S. 
part of the inner Ceramicus contained the Acjora 
{ayopa), or " market-place," the only one in the city 
(for there were not 2 market-places, as some sup- 
pose), lying S.W. of the Acropolis, and between 
the Acropolis, the Areopagus, the Pnyx, and the 
Museum. The demus Melite, S. of the inner i 
Ceramicus, and perhaps embracing the hill of the ! 
Museum. The demus Scainhonidae, W. of the 
inner Ceramicus, between the Pnyx and the hill 
of the Nymphs. The Collytus, S. of Melite. Coele, 
a district S. of CoUytus and the Museum, along 
the Ilissus, in Avhich were the graves of Cimon 
and Thucydides. Limnac, a district E. of Melite 
and Collytus, between the Acropolis and the 
Ilissus. Diomea, a district in the E. of the city, 
near the gate of the same name and the Cyno- 
sarges. Agrae, a district S. of Diomea. Hills. 
The Areopagus {'Ape'iou ivdyos or "Apeios irdyos), 
the " Hill of Ares," W. of the Acropolis, which 
gave its name to the celebrated council that held 
its sittings there (Diet, of Ant. s. v.), was accessible 
on the S. side by a flight of steps cut out of the 
rock. The Nili of the Nymphs, N.W. of the 
Areopagus. The Pnyx {Uuv^), a semicircular hill, 
S.W. of the Areopagus, where the assemblies of 
the people were held in earlier times, for afterwards 
the people usually met in the Theatre of Dionysus. 
(See Did. ofAnl. p. 440, b, 2d ed.) The Mustum, 
S. of the Pnyx and the Areopagus, on which was 
the monument of Philopappus, and where the 
Macedonians built a fortress. — Streets. Of these 
we have little information. We read of the Piraean 
which led from the Piraean (jate to the 



Agora ; of the Street of the Hermae, which ran 
along the Agora between the Stoa Basileos and 
Stoa Poecile ; of the Street of the Tripods., on 
the E. of the Acropolis, &c. — Public Buildings. 
1. Temples. Of these the most important was 
the Olympieum ('OAy/iTrtetov), or Temple of the 
Olympian Zeus, S. E. of the Acropolis, near the 
Ilissus and the fountain Callirrhoe, which v/as long 
uuiinished, and was first completed by Hadrian. 
Thcseum (@r]ae7ov) or Temple of Theseus, on a 
hill N. of the Areopagus, now converted into the 
Aluseum of Athens. The Temple of Aics, S. of 
the Areopagus and W. of the Acropolis. Metrdum 
{Mr]rpwov), or temple of the mother of the gods, 
E. of the Agora, and S. of the Acropolis, near the 
Senate House, and the Odeum of Herodes Atticus. 
Besides these, there was a vast number of other 
temples in all parts of the city. — 2. T\\& Senate 
House (l3ouAsvTripiou), at the S. end of the Agora. 
— 3. The Tholus (i^oAos), a round building close 
to the Senate House, which served as the new 
Prytaneum, in which the Prytanes _ took their 
meals and offered their sacrifices. (Diet, of Ant. 
s.v.) — 4. The Prytaneum {TlpvTaveiov), at the 
N.E. foot of the Acropolis, where the Prytanes 
used more anciently to take their meals, and where 
the laws of Solon were preserved. — 5. Stoae 
(cTToai), or Halls, supported by pillars, and used as 
places of resort in the heat of the day, of Avhich 
there were several in Athens. (Diet, of Ant. p. 944, 
2d ed.) In the Agora there were 3 ; the Stoa 
Basiltus (arroa fiaariAeios), the court of the King- 
Archon, on the W. side of the Agora ; the Stoa 
Foecile (cToa voikiXt]), so called because it was 
adorned with fresco painting of the battle of Mara- 
thon by Polj-gnotus ; and the Stoa Eleutherius 
(aroa eAeyffepios), or Hall of Zeus Eleutherius, 
both on the S. side of the Agora. ■ — 6. Theatres 
The Theatre of Dionysus, on the S.E. slope of the 
Acropolis, was the great theatre of the state (Diet, 
of Ant. p. 1120, 2d ed.) ; besides this there were 
three Odea (oode^a), for contests in vocal and in- 
strumental music (Diet, of A7d. s.v.), an ancient 
one near the fountain Callirrhoe, a second built by 
Pericles, close to the theatre of Dionysus, on the 
S.E. slope of the Acropolis, and a third built by 
PI erodes Atticus, in honour of his wife Regilla, on 
the S.W. slope of the Acropolis, of which there 
are still considerable remains. — 7. Stadium (rh 
^rdoiov), S. of the Ilissus, in the district Agrae. — 
8. Monuments. The Monument of Andronicus 
Cyrrhestes, formerly called the Toicer of the Winds, 
an octagonal building N. of the Acropolis, still 
extant, was an horologium. (Diet, of Ant. p. 616, 2d 
ed.) The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, fre- 
quently but erroneously called the Lantern of 
Demosthenes, still extant, in the Street of the 
Tripods. The Monument of Harmodius and Aris- 
tog'iton in the Agora, just before the ascent to the 
Acropolis.-— Suburbs. The Older Ceramicus (6 e|c«> 
Ka\oviJ.euos), N.W. of the city, was the finest 
suburb of Athens : here were buried the Athenians 
Avho had fallen in war, and at the further end of it 
was the Academia, 6 stadia from the city. Cyno- 
sarges (i-h Kvvoaapyes), E. of the cit}^ before the 
gate Diomea. a gymnasium sacred to Hercules, 
where Antisthenes, the foimder of the Cynic 
school, taught. Lyceum {rh AvKecnv), S. E. of 
the Cynosarges, a gymnasium sacred to Apollo 
Lyceus, v/here Aristotle and the Peripatetics 
taught 

u 4 



:n4 ATHENAE. 

Athenae {'Ad^ivai: Atenah),a seaport town of 
I'omus, naini d from its temple of Athena. 

Athenaetun ('A^rji'aiof), in general a temple of 
Athena, or any place consecrated to this goddess. 
The name was specially given to a school founded 
by the emperor Hadrian at Rome about A. D. 133, 
ftir the promotion of literary and scientific studies. 
It was in the neighbourhood of the forum, and at 
the foot of the Aventine Hill: it had a staff of 
professors paid by the government, and continued 
in repute till the 5th centurj' of our era. (Dicf. 
of Ant. s. r.) — Athenaeum was also the name of 
a town in Arcadia, not far from [Megalopolis, and 
of a place in Athaniania in Epirus. 

Athenaeus (^Mrivaios). 1. A contemporary of 
Archimedes, the author of an extant work Uepi 
V[r]xo-vr]iJ.dTwv (on warlike engines), addressed to 
Marcellus (probably the conqueror of Syracuse) ; 
printed in Thevenot's Matliemutki Veteres, Paris, 
1693. — 2. A learned Greek grammarian, of Nau- 
cratis in Egypt, lived about a. d. 230, first at 
Alexandria and afterwards at Rome. His extant 
Avork is entitled the Deipnosophidae {Aenrpoao- 
<pl(^Ta^^, i. e. the Banquet of the Learned^ in 1 5 books, 
of which the first "2 books, and parts of the 3rd, 
11th, and loth, exist only in an Epitome. The 
work may be considered one of the earliest col- 
lections of what are called Ana^ being an immense 
mass of anecdotes, extracts from the Avritings of 
poets, historians, dramatists, philosophers, orators, 
and physicians, of facts in natural history, criti- 
cisms, and discussions on almost every conceivable 
subject, especially on Gastronomy. Athenaeus re- 
presents himself as describing to his friend Timo- 
crates, a full account of the conversation at a ban- 
quet at Rome, at which Galen, the physician, and 
Ulpian, the jurist, were among the guests. — Edi- 
tions. By Casaubon, Genev. 1597 ; by Schweig- 
hauser, Argentorati, 1801-1807 ; and by "W. Din- 
dorf. Lips. 18'27. — 3. A celebrated physician, 
founder of the medical sect of the Pneumatici, was 
born at Attalia in Cilicia, and practised at Rome 
about A. D. 50. 

Athenagoras kQ-(]vay6pas\ an Athenian phi- 
losopher, converted to the Christian religion in the 
•2d century of our aera, is the author of two extant 
Avorks, An Apolonv for C/-!m-//c/«s, addressed to the 
emperors M. Aurelius and his son Commodus, and 
a treatise in defence of the tenet of the resurrection. 
—Editions. By Fell, Oxon. 1682; Rechenberg, 
Lips. 1684-85; Dechair, Oxon. 1706. 

Athenais {'A6r]vais). 1. Surnamed Philostorgus, 
wife of Ariobarzanes II., king of Cappadocia, and 
mother of Ariobarzanes III. — 2. Daughter of 
Leontius, afterwards named Eudocia. 

Athenion M-nvioov)., a Cilician, one of the 
commanders of the slaves in the 2nd servile war in 
Sicily, maintained his ground for some time suc- 
cessfully, and defeated L. Licinius LucuUus, but 
was at length conquered and killed in B.C. 101 by 
the consul M\ Aquilliiis. 

Athenodonis ('AeTj^o'Swoos). 1. Of Tarsus, a 
Stoic philosopher surnamed Cordylio, was the keeper 
of the librarj- at Pergamus, and afterwards removed 
to Rome, where he lived with M. Cato, at whose 
house he died. — 2. Of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, 
surnamed Cananiies, from Cana in Cilicia, the birth- 
place of his father, whose name was Sandon. He 
was a pupil of Posidonius at Rhodes, and after- 
wards taught at Apollonia in Epirus. where the 
young Ocuivius (subsequently the emperor Au- 



ATLANTIS. 

gustus) was one of his disciples. He accompanied 
the latter to Rome, and became one of his intimate 
friends and advisers. In his old age he returned 
to Tarsus, where he died at the age of 82. He 
was the author of several works which are not 
extant. — 3. A sculptor, the son and pupil of Age- 
sander of Rhodes, whom he assisted in execrting 
the group of Laocoon. [Agesander.] 

Athesis {Adige or Etsch), rises in the Rhaetian 
Alps, receives the Atagis (Eisach), flows through 
Upper Italy past Verona, and falls into the 
Adriatic by many mouths. 

Athmone {'A6/j.ovi), also 'Aduovia and "AQixovov : 
'ASuoj/evy, fem. 'Adfxovis), an Attic demus belong- 
ing to the tribe Cecropis, afterwards to the tribe 
Attalis. 

Athos ("AOccs, also "AQwv : 'A6wltt)$ ; IJaghloi 
Oios, Mo?ite S<(nto, i. e. Ho/v Mountain), the 
mountainous peninsula, also called Acte, which 
projects from Clialcidice in Macedonia. At the 
extremity of the peninsula the mountain rises 
abruptly from the sea to a height of 6349 feet ; 
there is no anchorage for ships at its base, and the 
voyage round it was so dreaded by mariners, that 
Xerxes had a canal cut through the isthmus, 
which connects the peninsula with the mainland, 
to afford a passage to liis fleet. The isthmus is 
about 1-^ mile across ; and there are most distinct 
traces of the canal to be seen in the present day ; 
so that we must not imitate the scepticism of 
Juvenal (x. 174), and of many modern writers, who 
refused to believe that the canal was ever cut. 
The peninsula contained several flourishing cities 
in antiquity, and is now studded with numerous 
monasteries, cloisters, and chapels, whence it de- 
rives its modern name. In these monasteries some 
valuable !MSS. of ancient authors have been dis- 
covered. 

Athribis ("AOpiSis), a city in the Delta of 
Egypt ; capital of the Xomos Athribitcs. 

Atia, mother of Augustus. 

Atilia or Atillia Gens, the principal members 
of which are given under their surnames Calati- 
Nus, Reguli s, and Serranus. 

Atilicinus, a Roman jurist, who probably lived 
about A. D. 5U, is referred to in the Digest. 

Atilius. 1. L., one of the earliest of the Roman 
jurists who gave public instruction in law, probably 
lived about B. c. 100. He wrote commentaries 
on the laws of the Twelve Tables. — 2. M., one of 
the early Roman poets, wrote both tragedies and 
comedies, but apparentlj' a greater number of the 
latter than of the former. 

Atina (Atinas, -atis : Alina), a town of the 
Volsci in Latium, afterwards a Roman colony. 

Atintanes {'ATivraves), an Epirot people in 
Illyria, on the borders of ;^iacedonia ; their country, 
Atintania, was reckoned part of Macedonia. 

Atius Yams. [Varus.] 

Atlanticum Mare. [Oceanus.] 

Atlantis ('ArAavxts, sc. I'Tjaos), according to 
an ancient tradition, a great island W. of the 
Pillars of Hercules in the Ocean, opposite Mount 
Atlas : it possessed a numerous population, and was 
adorned with every beauty ; its powerful princes 
invaded Africa and Europe, but were defeated by 
the Athenians and their allies: its inhabitants 
afterwards became wicked and impious, and the 
island was in consequence swallowed up in the 
ocean in a day and a night. This legend is given 
by Plato in the Tiniaeus^ and is said to have been 



ATHENA E. 




COINS OF PERSONS. ARSACES 



- BALBINUS. 




Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.), King of Parthia. Tage 89. 




Arsaccs XXVII. (Vologeses UI.), King of Tarthia. Page 90. 




Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy I., and wife of Ptolemv II, 
Page 91. 




Attaluc, Roman Emperor, a. d. 409— 410. Page 106. 
To face p. 10.5.] 




Augustus, wlien Triumvir, on a coin of Balbus. Page 109. 




Augustus, Roman Emperor, ob. a. d. 14. Pages 108 — 110. 




Aurelianus, Roman Emperor, A. r>. 270 — 275. Page 110. 




Avitus, Roman Emperor, A. D. 455. Page 113. ' 




Balbinus, Roman Emperor, A. d. 238. Page 115. 



ATLAS. 



ATROPATES. 



105 



related to Solon by the Egj-ptian priests. The 
Canary Islands, or the Azores, which perhaps Avere 
visited by the Phoenicians, may have given rise to 
the legend ; but some modern writers regard it as 
indicative of a vague belief in antiquity in the 
existence of the W. hemisphere. 

Atlas ("ArXas), son of lapetus and Clymene, 
and brother of Prometheus and Epimetheus. He 
made war with the other Titans upon Zeus, and 
being conquered, was condemned to bear heaven 
on his head and hands : according to Homer Atlas 
bears the long columns which keep asunder heaven 
and earth. The myth seems to have arisen from 
the idea that lofty mountains supported the heaven. 
Later traditions distort the original idea still more, 
by making Atlas a man who was metamorphosed 
into a mountain. Thus Ovid (Met. iv. 626, seq.) re- 
lates that Perseus came to Atlas and asked for shelter, 
which was refused, whereupon Perseus, by means 
of the head of Medusa, changed him into M. Atlas, 
on which rested heaven with all its stars. Others 
go still further, and represent Atlas as a powerful 
king, who possessed great knowledge of the courses 
of the stars, and who was the first who taught men 
that heaven had the form of a globe. Hence the 
expression that heaven rested on his shoulders was 
regarded as a merely figurative mode of speaking. 
At first, the story of Atlas referred to one mountain 
only, which was believed to exist on the extreme 
boundary of the earth ; but, as geographical know- 
ledge extended, the name of Atlas was transferred 
to other places, and thus we read of a Mauretanian, 
Italian, Arcadian, and even of a Caucasian, Atlas. 
The common opinion, however, was, that the 
heaven-bearing Atlas was in the N.W. of Africa. 
See below. Atlas was the father of the Pleiades 
by Pleione or by Hesperis ; of the Hyades and 
Hesperides by Aethra ; and of Oenomaus and 
Maia by Sterope. Dione and Calypso, Hyas and 

; Hesperus, are likewise called his children. — At- 
lantiades^ a descendant of Atlas, especially Mercury, 

, his grandson by Maia (comp. Mercuri facunde 
?iepos Atlantis, Hor. (7a?7«. i. 10), and Hermaphro- 

; ditus, son of Mercury. — Atlantias and A ilai/tis, a 

j female descendant of Atlas, especially the Pleiads 

I and Hyads. 

I Atlas Mons ("ArAas: Atlas), was the general 
I name of the great mountain range which covers 
i the surface of N. Africa between the Mediterra- 
nean and Great Desert (Sahara), on the N. and S., 
, and the Atlantic and the Lesser Syrtis on the W. 
i and E. ; the mountain chains S.E. of the Lesser 
I Syrtis, though connected with the Atlas, do not 
properly belong to it, and were called by other 
, names. The N. and S. ranges of this system were 
distinguished by the names of Atlas Minor and 
Atlas Major, and a distinction was made between 
the 3 regions into which they divided the country. 
[Africa, p. 23, a.] 

Atossa ("Arocraa), daughter of Cyrus, and wife 
successively of her brother Cambyses, of Smerdis 
the Magian, and of Darius Hystaspis, over whom 
she possessed great influence. She bore Darius 4 
- sons, Xerxes, Masistes, Achaemenes, and Hystaspes. 
Atrae or Hatra ("Arpai, ra "Arpa : Arp-qvos, 
Atrenus : Hadr, S.W. of Mosul)^ a strongly forti- 
I fied city on a high mountain in Mesopotamia, in- 
habited by people of the Arab race. 

Sempronius, Atratinus. 1. A., consul b. c. 
497 and 491.-— 2. L., consul 444 and censor 443. 
■—3. C, consul 423, fought unsuccessful!)' against 



the Volscians, and was in consequence condemned 
to pay a heavy fine. — 4. L., accused M. Caelius 
Rufus, Avhora Cicero defended, 57. 

Atrax CArpal : 'ArpaKios), a town in Pelas- 
giotis in Thessaly, inhabited by the Perrhaebi, so 
called from the mythical Atrax, son of Peneus 
and Bura, and father of Hippodamia and Caenis. 

Atrebates, a people in Gallia Belgica, in the 
modern Artois, which is a corruption of their name. 
In Caesars time (b. c. 57) they numbered 15,000 
warriors : their capital was Nemetocenna. Part 
of them crossed over to Britain, where they dwelt 
in the upper valley of the Thames, Oocfordsliire 
and BerhsJiire. 

Atreus ('Arpsus), son ofPelops aud Hippodamia, 
grandson of Tantalus, and brother of Thyestes and 
Nicippe. [Pelops.] He was first married to 
Cleola, by whom he became the father of Plis- 
thenes ; then to Aerope, the widow of his son 
Plisthenes, who was the mother of Agamemnon, 
Menelaus, and Anaxibia, either by Plisthenes or by 
Atreus [Agamemnon]; and lastly to Pelopia, the 
daughter of his brother Thj-estes. The tragic fate 
of the house of Tantalus afforded ample materials 
to the tragic poets of Greece, who relate the details 
in various ways. In consequence of the murder of 
their half-brother Chrysippus, Atreus and Thyestes 
were obliged to take to flight ; they were hospi- 
tably received at Mycenae ; and, after the death 
of Eurystheus, Atreus became king of Mycenae. 
Thyestes seduced Aerope, the wife of Atreus, and 
was in consequence banished by his brother : from 
his place of exile he sent Plisthenes, the son of 
Atreus, whom he had brought up as his own child, 
in order to slay Atreus ; but Plisthenes fell by the 
hands of Atreus, who did not know that he was 
his own son. In order to take revenge, Atreus, 
pretending to be reconciled to Thyestes, recalled 
him to Mycenae, killed his 2 sons, and placed their 
flesh before their father at a banquet, who unwit- 
tingly partook of the horrid meal. Thyestes fled 
with horror, and the gods cursed Atreus and his 
house. The kingdom of Atreus was now visited 
by famine, and the oracle advised Atreus to call 
back Thyestes. Atreus, who went out in search 
of him, came to king Thesprotus, and as he did 
not find him there, he married his third wife, Pe- 
lopia, the daughter of Thyestes, whom Atreus be- 
lieved to be a daughter of Thesprotus. Pelopia 
was at the time with child by her own father. 
This child, Aegisthus, afterwards slew Atreus 
because the latter had commanded him to slay his 
own father Thyestes. [Aegisthus.] The treasury 
of Atreus and his sons at Mycenae, which is men- 
tioned by Pausanias, is believed by some to exist 
still ; but the ruins which remain are above ground, 
whereas Pausanias speaks of the building as under- 
ground. 

Atria. [Adria.] 

Atrides ('Arpet'Srjs), a descendant of Atreus, 
especially Agamemnon and Menelaus. 

Atropatene At poiraT-riuii), or Media Atropatia 
At poiraTia or -os MTjSt'a), the N.W. part of 
Media, adjacent to Armenia, named after Atro- 
pates, a native of the country, who, having been 
made its governor by Alexander, founded there a 
kingdom, which long remained independent alike 
of the Seleucidae, the Parthians, and the Romans, 
but was at last subdued by the Parthians. 

Atropates C At poiTaT-r]s), a Persian satrap, fought 
at the battle of Gaugamela, b. c. 331, and after 



106 ATROPOS. 
the death of Darius, was made satrap of Media In' 
Alexander. His daughter was married to Per- 
diccas in 324 ; and lie received from his fatlier-in- 
law, after Alexander's death, the province of tlie 
Greater Media. In the S.W. of the country, 
called after him Media AtropatC-ne, he established 
an independent kingdom, which continued to exist 
down to the time of the emperor Augustus. 
Atropos. [MoiRAE.] 

Atta, T. Quintlus, a Roman comic poet, died 
ii.c. 7'u. His sunianic Atta was given him from 
a defect in his feet, to which circumstance Horace 
prohai)ly alludes (Ep. ii. 1. 79). His plays were 
verv popular, and were acted even in the time of 
Augustus. 

Attaginus ('Attg7£;'os), son of Phrynon, a 
Theban, betrayed Thebes to Xerxes, n. c. 480. 
After the battle of Plataeae (47.0 ) the other Greeks 
required Attaginus to be delivered up to them, but 
he made his escape. 

Attalia {'ArrdAcia, 'ArTc.AeoiTijs or -arris). 
1. A city of Lydia. formerly called Agroira ('Ayp6- 
eipa).'—2. (Laara\ a city on the coast of Pam- 
phylia, near the mouth of the river Catarrhactes, 
founded by Attains LI. Philadelphus, and subdued 
by the Romans under P. Servilius Isauricus. 

Atta.lU3 ("ATTaAos). 1. A Macedonian, uncle 
of Cleopatra, whom Philip married in B. c. 337. 
At the nuptials of his niece. Attains otfered an 
insult to Alexander, and, on the accession of the 
laiter, was put to death by his order in Asia Minor, 
whither Philip had previously sent him to secure 
the Greek cities to his cause.-— 2. Son of Andro- 
menes the Stj'mphaean, and one of Alexander's 
officers ; after the death of Alexander (b. c. 323), 
he served under Pcrdiccas, whose sister, Atalante, 
he had maixied ; and after the death of Perdiccas 
(321 ), ho joined Alcetas, the brother of Perdiccas ; 
but their united forces were defeated in Pisidia by 
Antigonus in 320. — 3. Ki7?gs of Pcrgamus. — (I.) 
Son of Attains, a brother of Philetaerus, succeeded 
his cousin, Eumenes I., and reigned B. c. 241 — 197. 
He took part with the Romans against Philip and 
the Achaeans. He was a vv ise and just prince, and 
Avas distinguished by his patronage of literature. — 
(II.) Suniamed Philadelphus. 2nd son of Attains I., 
.succeeded his brother Eumenes IT., and reigned 
l.>9 — 138. Like his father he was an ally of the 
Romans, and he also encouraged the arts and 
sciences. — (III.) Sumamed riiilomeioi; son of 
Eumenes II. and Stratonice, succeeded his uncle 
Attains II., and reigned 138 — 133. He is known 
to us chie% for the extravagance of his conduct 
and the murder of his relations and friends. In 
his v.'ill, ho made the Romans his heirs ; but his 
kingdom was claimed by Aristonicus. [Arlsto- 
MCLs.]— -4. Roman emperor of the West, was 
raised to the throne by Alaric, but was de])osed by 
the latter, after a reign of one year (a. d. 409, 410), 
on account of his acting witlicut Alaric's advice. 
-—5. A Stoic philosopher in the reign of Ti- 
berius, was one of the teachers of the philosopher 
Seneca, who speaks of him in the highest terms. 

Attegiia, a town in Hispania Baetica, of imcer- 
tain site, 

Atthis or Attis ("ArBis or^Ams), daughter of 
Cranaus, from whom Attica was believed to have 
derived its name. The two birds into which Phi- 
lomele and her sister Procne were metamorphosed, 
were likewise called Attis. 

Attica (tj 'ArriKi), sc. yri), a division of Greece, 



ATTICUS. 

lias the form of a triangle, two sides of which are 
v/ashed by the Aegacan sea, while the third is 
separated Irom Boeotia on the N. by the mountains 
Cithaeron and Parnos. Megaris, Avhich bounds it 
on the N.W., was formerly a part of Attica. In 
ancient times it was called Acie and Actice {'AKri) 
and 'A/cTt/crj), or the "coastland" [Acte], from 
which the later form Attica is said to have been 
derived : but according to traditions it derived its 
name from Ailhis, the daughter of the mythical 
king Cranaus ; and it is not impossible that Att-ica 
may contain the root Att or Ath, Avhich we find in 
Attlris vcnA. AHiciiac. Attica is divided by many 
aiK-iont writers into 3 districts. 1. The Highlands 
(fl SiaKp'ia^ also dpeivT] 'Attik?';), the N.E. of the 
country, containing the range of Pames and ex- 
tending S. to the promontory C,\Tiosura : the only 
level part of this district was the small plain of 
Marathon opening to the sea. 2. The Plain (t) 
TreSi'a?, Tt> Trc-Stoi'), the N.W. of the country', in- 
cluded both the plain round Athens and the plain 
round Eleusis, and extended S. to t!ic promontor}- 
Zoster. 3. The Sea-coast District (ij TrapaAia), 
the S. part of the country, terminating in the pro- 
montory Sunium. Besides these 3 divisions Ave 
also read of a 4th, The Midland District (fieaSyaia), 
still called Afesogia, an undulating plain in the 
middle of the country, bounded by M. Pentelicus 
on tlie N., M. Hyraettus on the W., and the sea 
on the E. The soil of Attica is not very fer- 
tile : the greater part of it is not adapted for 
crowing corn ; but it produces olives, figs, and 
grapes, especial!}'- the 2 former, in great perfection. 
The country is dry : the chief river is the Cephis- 
sus, which rises in Parnes and flows through the 
Athenian plain. The abundance of Avild flowers 
in the country made the honey of M. Hymettus 
very celebrated in antiquity. Excellent marble 
Avas obtained from, the quarries of Pentelicus, 
N.E. of Athens, and a considerable supply of silver 
from the mines of Laurium near Sunium. The 
area of Attica, including the island of Salamis, 
Avhich belonged to it, contained between 700 and 
oOO square miles ; and its population in its flou- 
rishing period Avas probably about 500,000, of 
Avhich nearly 4-5tlis Avere '•laves. Attica is said 
to have been originally inhabited by Pelasgians. 
Its most ancient political division was into 12 
independent states, attributed to Cecrops, Avho 
according to some legends came from Egypt. Sub- 
sequently Ion, the grandson of HcUen, divided the 
people into 4 tribes, Geleontes, Hopleies., A rgades, 
iind Acgicorcs ; and Theseus, Avho united the 12 
independent states of Attica into one political body, 
and made Athens the capital, again divided the 
nation into 3 classes, the Enpatridae^ Gcomorii and 
Demiurgi. Clisthenes (B.C. .510) abolished the 
old tribes and created 10 new ones, according to a 
geographical division : these tribes Avere subdivided 
into 174 demi or townships. (For details, see 
Did. of Ant. art. Tribus.) 

Atticus Herodes, Tfberius Clandius, a cele- 
brated Greek rhetorician, born about A. D. 104, at 
Marathon in Attica. He taught rhetoric both at 
Athens and at Rome, and his school was frequented 
by the most distinguished men of the age. The 
future emperors M. Aurelius and L. Verus Avere 
among his pupils, and Antoninus Pius raised him 
to the consulship in 143. He possessed immense 
wealth, a great part of Avhich he spent in embel- 
lishing Athens. He died at the age of 76, in 180. 



ATTICUS. 



AUGE. 



107 



He wrote numerous works, none of which have 
come down to us, with the exception of an oration, 
entitled n<=pi TroAireias, the genuineness of which, 
however, is very doubtful. It is printed in the 
collections of the Greek orators, and by Fiorillo, 
in Hcrodis Attici quae superstmt. Lips. 1801. 

Atticus, T. Pomponius, a Roman eques, bom 
at Rome, B. c. 109. His proper name after his 
adoption by Q. Caecilius, the brother of his mother, 
was Q. Caecilius Pomponianus Atticus. His sur- 
name, Atticus, was given him on account of his 
long residence in Athens and his intimate acquain- 
tance Avith the Greek language and literature. He 
■was educated along with L. Torquatus, the younger 
C. Marius, and M. Cicero. Soon after the break- 
ing out of the civil war between Marius and Sulla, 
he resolved to take no part in the contest, and ac- 
cordingly removed to Athens. During the re- 
mainder of his life, he kept aloof from all political 
affairs, and thus lived on the most intimate terms 
with the most distinguished men of all parties. 
He was equally the friend of Caesar and Pompey, 
of Brutus and Cassius, of Antony and Augustus ; 
but his most intimate friend Avas Cicero, whose corre- 
spondence with him, beginning in 68 and continued 
down to Cicero''s death, is one of the most valuable 
remains of antiquity. He purchased an estate at 
Buthrotum in Epirus, in which place, as well as at 
Athens and Rome, he spent the greater part of 
his time, engaged in literary pursuits and commer- 
cial undertakings. He died in 32, at the age of 
77, of voluntary starvation, when he found that he 
was atiacked by an incurable illness. His wife 
Pilia, to whom he was married in 56, when he was 
5?) years of age, bore him only one child, a daughter, 
Pomponia or Caecilia, whom Cicero sometimes calls 
Attica and Atticula. She was married in the 
life-time of her father to M. Vipsanius Agrippa. 
The sister of Atticus, Pomponia, was married to 
Q. Cicero, the brother of the orator. The life of 
Atticus by Cornelius Nepos is to be regarded rather 
as a panegyric upon an intimate friend, than strictly 
speaking a biography. In philosophy Atticus be- 
longed to the Epicurean sect. He was thoroughly 
acquainted with the whole circle of Greek and 
Roman literature. So high an opinion was en- 
tertained of his taste and critical acumen, that 
m.any of his friends, especially Cicero, were accus- 
tomed to send him their works for revision and 
correction. None of his OAvn writings have come 
down to us. 

At&a ('ArTTjAas or 'ArriAas, German, Eizel^ 
Hungarian, Eihde), king of the Huns, attained in 
A. D. 434, with his brother Bleda (in German 
Blodel), to the sovereignty of all the northern tribes 
between the frontier of Gaul and the frontier of 
China, and to the command of an array of at least 
500,000 barbarians. He gradually concentrated 
upon himself the awe and fear of the whole ancient 
world, which ultimately expressed itself by affixing 
to his name the well-known epithet of " the Scourge 
of God.'' His career divides itself into two parts. 
The first (a. d. 445 — 450) consists of the ravage 
of the Eastern empire between the Euxine ar.d the 
Adriatic and the negotiations with Theodosiiis II., 
which followed upon it. They were ended by a 
treaty which ceded to Attila a large territory S. 
of the Danube and an annual tribute. The second 
part of his career was the invasion of the Western 
empire (450 — 452). lie crossed the Rhine at 
Strassburg, but was defeated at Chalons by Aetius, 



and Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, in 451. He 
then crossed the Alps, and took Aquileia in 452, 
after a siege of 3 months, but he did not attack 
Rome, in consequence, it is said, of his interview 
with Pope Leo the Great. He recrossed the Alps 
towards the end of the year, and died in 453, on 
the night of his marriage with a beautiful girl, va- 
riously named Hilda, Ildico, Mycolth, by the burbt- 
ing of a blood-vessel. In person Attila was, like 
the Mongolian race in general, a short thickset 
man, of stately gait, with a large head, dark com- 
plexion, flat nose, thin beard, and bald with the 
exception of a few white hairs, his eyes small, but 
of great brilliancy and quickness. 

Attilius. [Atilius.] 

Attius. [Accius.] 

Attiiis or Attus ITavins. [Navius.] 

Attius Tullius. [TuLLius.] 

Aturia {'Arovp'ia). [Assyria.] 

AtiirilS (Adoiir)^ a river in Aquitania, rises in 
the Pyrenees and flows through the territory of 
the Tarbelli into the ocean. 

Atymaius {'Atv/xulus or "Krvjjivos)^ son of Zeus 
and Cassiopiin, a beautiful boy, beloved by Sarpe- 
doii. Others call him son of Phoenix. 

Atys, Attys, Attes, Attis, or Attin ("Atus-, 
"'Arryj, "Arr-qs, " Attis, or "Attlv). 1. Son of 
Nana, and a beautiful shepherd of the Phrygian 
town, Celaenae. He Avas beloved by Cybele, but 
as he proved unfaithful to her, he was thrown b}^ 
her into a state of madness, in which he unmanned 
himself. Cybele thereupon changed him into a 
fir-tree, Avhich henceforth became sacred to lier, 
and she commanded that, in future, her priests 
should be eunuchs. Such is the account in Ovid 
{Fast. iv. 221), but his story is related differently 
by other writers. Atys Avas worshipped in the 
temples of Cybele in common Avith this goddess. 
His Avorship appears to have been introduced into 
Greece at a comparatively late period. It is pro- 
bable that the mythus of Atys represents the two- 
fold character of nature, the male and female con- 
centrated in one. •=» 2. Son of Manes, king of the 
Maeonians, from Avhose son Lydus, his son a]id 
successor, the Maeonians Avere afterwards called 
Lydians. -=» 3. A Latin chief, son of Alba, and 
father of Capys, from Avhom the Atia Gens derived 
its origin, and from Avhom Augustus Avas believed 
to be descended on his mother's sidc.-»»»4. Son of 
Croesus, slain by Adrastus. 

Aiif idena (Aufidenas, -atis : Alfidena), a toAvn 
in Samniura on the river Sagrus. 

AufidiUS. 1. Cn., a learned historian, cele- 
brated by Cicero for the equanimity Avith which 
he bore blindness, Avas quaestor b. c. 11 9, tribunus 
plebis, 114, and finally praetor ]08.»="2. T., a 
jurist, quaestor B. c. 86, and afterwards propraetor 
in Asia. 3. Bassus. [Bassus.] 4. Lurco. 
[LuRco.]— 5. Orestes. [Orestes.] 

Auf idtis (Ofanto), the principal river of Apulia, 
rises in the Apennines in the territory of the Hir- 
pini in Samnium, floAvs at first Avith a rapid current 
(hence violens and acei\ Hor. Carm. iii. 30. 10, 
Sat. i. 1 . 58), and then more sIoAvly {stagna Aufda, 
Sil. Ital. X. 171) inta the Adriatic. Venusia, the 
birth-place of Horace, Avas on the Aufidus. 

Augarus. [Acearus.] 

Aug© or Aug-ia {Avy-q or Avy^ia\ daughter of 
Aleus and Neaera, Avas a priestess of Athena, and 
mother by Hercules of Telephus. She afterwards 
married Teuthras, king of the Mysians. 



108 AUGEAS. 

Augeas or Augias (Avytas or Aiy das), son of , 
Pliorbas or lI<-lios (the SuiO, king of the 
Epcaiis in Klis. He had a herd of 3000 oxen, 
whose stills had not been cleansed for 30 years. 
It was one of the labours imposed upon Hercules 
by Eurystheus to cleanse these stalls in one day. 
As a reward the hero was to receive the tenth { art | 
of the oxen ; but when he had accomplished his 
task by leading the rivers Alpheus and Peneus 
through the stables, Augeas refused to keep his 
promise. Hercules thereupon killed him and his 
sons, with the exception of Phyleus, who was 
placed on the throne of his father. Another tra- 
dition represents Augeas as dying a natural death 
ai an advanced age, and as receiving heroic honours 
from Oxylus. 

Augila (to. AijyiXa: Aujilah), an oasis in the 
Great Desert of Africa, about 3^° S. of Cyrene, and 
10 days' journey W. of the" Oasis of Ammon, 
abounding in date palms, to gather the fruit of 
which a tribe of the Nasamones, called Augilae 
(Ai»7t'Aai), resorted to the Oasis, which at other 
times was uninhabited. 

Augurinus, Genucms. 1. T., consul b. c. 451, 
and a member of the first deceravirate in the same 
year. — 2. M., brother of the preceding, consul 
44.5. 

Augurmus, Minucius. 1. M., consul b. c. 
497 and 491. He took an active part in the de- 
fence of Coriolanus, who was brought to trial in 
401. but was unable to obtain his acquittal. — 2. 
L., consul 458, carried on war against the Aequians, 
and was surrounded b}' the enemy on Mt. Algidus, 
but was delivered by the dictator Cincinnatus. — 
3. L., was appointed praefect of the corn-market 
(prar/cdus annonue) 439, as the people were suf- 
fering from grievous famine. The ferment occa- 
sioned by the assassination of Sp. Maelius in this 
year was appeased by Augurinus, who is said to 
have gone over to the plebs from the patricians, 
and to have been chosen by the tribunes one of 
their body. Augurinus lowered the price of corn 
in 3 market days, fixing as the maximum an as for 
a modius. The people in their gratitude presented 
him with an ox having its homs gilt, and erected 
a statue to his honour outside the Porta Trigemina, 
for which every body subscribed an ounce of brass. 

Augusta, the name of several towns founded or 
colonised by Augustus. 1. A. Asturica. [Asxf- 
REs.] — 2." A. Emerita {MeriJa), in Lusitania 
on the Anas (Guudiana), colonised by Augustus 
Avith the veterans (emeriti) of the 5th and lUth 
legions, was a place of considerable importance. — 
3. A. Firma. [Astigi.] — 4. A. Praetoria (.4 osto), 
a town of the Salassi in Upper Italy, at the foot of 
the Graian and Pennine Alps, colonised by Augus- 
tus with soldiers of the praetorian cohorts. The 
modern town still contains many Roman remains : 
the most important of which are the town gates and 
a triumphal arch. — 5. A. Rauraconim (Augst), 
the capital of the Rauraci, colonised by Mu- 
natius Flancus under Augustus, was on th - left of 
the Rhine near the modern L'as/c : the ruins of a 
Roman amphitheatre are still to be seen. — 6. A. 
Suessonum (Soit-sons), the capital of the Suessones 
in Gallia Belgica, probably the Noviodunum of 
Caesar. —7. A. Taurinorum {Turiii\ more an- 
ciently called Taurusia^ the capital of the Taurini 
on the Po, was an important town in tlie time of 
Ilannibal, and was colonised by Au^ustiis. — 8. 
Trevironun. [Treviri.] — 9. Tricastinormn 



AUGUSTUS. 

I (Aousie), the capital of the Tricastini in Gallia 
Narbonensis. — 10. A. Vindelicorum (Augsburg), 
I capital of Vindelicia or Rhaetia Secunda on the 
Licus (Lech), colonised by Drusus under Augustus, 
after the conquest of Rhaetia, about B. c. 14. 

Augustinus, Aurelius, usually called St. 
I Augustine, the most illustrious of the Latin 
fathers, was bom A. p. 354, at Tagaste, an in- 
land town in Numidia. His mother was a sin- 
cere Christian, who exerted herself in training up 
her son in the practice of piety, but for a long time 
without eliect. He studied rhetoric at Carthage, 
where he embraced the Manichaean heresy, to 
which he adhered for 9 years. He afterwards be- 
came a teacher of rhetoric at Carthage, but in 383 
he went to Italy, and in Milan was led by the 
preaching and conversation of Ambrose to abandon 
his i\Ianichaean errors and embrace Christianity. 
He was baptized by Ambrose in 387, and then re- 
turned to Africa, where he passed the next 3 years 
in seclusion, devoting himself to religious exercises. 
In 391 he was ordained a priest by Valerius, then 
bishop of Hippo, and in 395 he Avns ordained 
bishop of Hippo. His history, from the time of 
his elevation to the see of Hippo, is so closely im- 
plicated with the Donatistic and Pelagian contro- 
versies, that it would be impracticable to pursue 
its details within our limits. He died at Hippo in 
430, when the city was besieged by the Vandals. 
Of his numerous works the 2 most interesting are : 
1. His Confessions, in 13 books, written in 397, con- 
taining an account of his early life. 2. De Civitate 
Dei, in 22 books, commenced about 413, and not 
finished before 426. The first 10 books contain a 
refutation of the various systems of false religion, 
the last 1 2 present a systematic view of the true 
religion. — The best edition of the collected works 
of Augustine is the Benedictine, 11 vols. fol. Paris, 
1679—1700. 

Augustobona {Troyes\ afterwards called Tri- 
cassae, the capital of the Tricasii or Tricasses in 
Gallia Lugdunensis. 
Augustodunum. [Bibracte.] 
Augustonemetum. [Arverni.] 
Augustoritum. [Le mo vices.] 
Augustus, the first Roman emperor, was born on 
the 2brd of September, b. c. 63, and was the son 
of C. Octavius by Atia, a daughter of Julia, the 
sister of C. Julius Caesar. His original name was 
C. Octavius, and, after his adoption by his great- 
uncle, C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, but for the 
sake of brevity we shall call him Augustus, though 
this was only a title given him by the senate and 
the people in 27, to express their veneration for 
him. Augustus lost his father at 4 years of age, 
but his education was conducted with great care 
by his grandmother Julia, and by his mother 
and step-father, L. Marcius Philippus, whom his 
mother married soon after his father's death. 
C. Julius Caesar, who had no male issue, also 
watched over his education with solicitude. He 
joined his uncle in Spain in 45, in the campaign 
against the sons of Pompey, and in the course of 
the same year was sent by Caesar to ApoUonia in 
Illyricum, where some legions were stationed, that 
he might acquire a more thorough practical training 
in military affairs, and at the same time prosecute 
his studies. He was at ApoUonia, when the 
news reached him of his uncle's murder at Rome 
in March 44, and he forthwith set out for Italj', 
j accompanied by Agrippa and a few other friends. 



AUGUSTUS. 



AUGUSTUS. 



100 



On landing near Brandiisium at the beginning of 1 
April, he heard that Caesar had adopted him in 
his testament and made him his heir. He now 
assumed the name of Caesar, and was so saluted 
by the troops. On reaching Rome about the 
beginning of May he demanded nothing but the 
private property which Caesar had left him, but 
declared that he was resolved to avenge the 
murder of his benefactor. The state of parties at 
Rome was most perplexing ; and one cannot but 
admire the extraordinary tact and prudence which 
Augustus displayed, and the skill with which a 
youth of barely 20 contrived to blind the most ex- 
perienced statesmen in Rome, and eventually to 
carry all his designs into effect. Augustus had to 
contend against the republican party as well as 
against Antony ; for the latter foresaw that Au- 
gustus would stand in the Avay of his views, and 
had therefore attempted, though without success, 
to prevent Augustus from acceptmg the inheritance 
which his uncle had left him. Augustus, there- 
fore, resolved to crush Antony first as the more 
dangerous of his two enemies, and accordingly 
made overtures to the republican party. These 
were so well received, especially when 2 legions 
went over to him, that the senate conferred upon 
him the title of praetor, and sent him with the 2 
consuls of the year, C. Vibius Pansa and A. Hir- 
tius, to attack Antony, who was besieging D. 
Brutus in Mutina. Antony was defeated and ob- 
liged to fly across the Alps ; and the death of the 
2 consuls gave Augustus the command of all their 
troops. The senate now became alarmed, and 
determined to prevent Augustus from acquiring 
further power. But he soon showed that he did 
not intend to become the senate's servant. Sup- 
ported by his troops he marched upon Rome and 
demanded the consulship, which the terrified senate 
was obliged to give him. He was elected to the 
office along with Q. Pedius, and the murderers of 
the dictator were outlawed. He now marched 
into the N. of Italy, professedly against Antony, 
who had been joined by Lepidus, and who was 
descending from the Alps along with the latter at 
the head of 17 legions. Augustus and Antony 
now became reconciled ; and it was agreed that 
the empire should be divided between Augustus, 
Antony, and Lepidus, under the title of triumviri 
rei publicae constituendae, and that this arrangement 
should last for the next 5 years. They published 
a proscriptio or list of all their enemies, whose lives 
were to be sacrificed and their propertj^ confiscated : 
upwards of 2000 equites and 300 senators were put 
to death, among whom was Cicero. Soon afterwards 
Augustus and Antony crossed over to Greece, and 
defeated Brutus and Cassius at the decisive battle 
of Philippi in 42, by which the hopes of the re- 
publican party were ruined. The triumvirs there- 
upon made a new division of the provinces. Lepidus 
obtained Africa, and Augustus returned to Italy to 
leward his veterans with the lands he had pro- 
mised them. Plere a new war awaited him (41), 
excited by Fulvia, the wife of Antony. She was 
supported by L. Antonius, the consul and brother 
of the triumvir, who threw himself into the forti- 
fied town of Perusia, which Augustus succeeded in 
taking in 40. Antony now made preparations for 
war, but the opportune death of Fulvia led to a 
reconciliation between the triumvirs, who concluded 
a peace at Brundusium. A new division of the 
provinces was again made : Augustus obtained all 



the parts of the empire W. of the town of Scodra 
in Illyricum, and Antony the E. provinces, while 
Italy was to belong to them in common. Antony 
married Octavia, the sister of Augustus, in order to 
cement their alliance. In 39 Augustus concluded 
a peace with Sex. Pompey, whose fleet gave him 
the command of the sea, and enabled him to pre- 
vent corn from reaching Rome. But this peace 
was only transitory. As long as Pompey was in- 
dependent, Augustus could not hope to obtain the 
dominion of the West, and he therefore eagerly 
availed himself of the pretext that Pompey allowed 
piracy to go on in the Mediterranean, for the pur- 
pose of declaring war against him. In 36 the 
contest came to a final issue. The fleet of Augus- 
tus, under the command of M. Agrippa, gained a 
decisive victory over that of Pompey, who aban- 
doned Sicily and fled to Asia. Lepidus, who had 
landed in Sicily to support Augustus, was impatient 
of the subordinate part which he had hitherto 
played, and claimed the island for himself ; but he 
Avas easily subdued by Augustus, stripped of his 
power, and sent to Rome, where he resided for the 
remainder of his life, being allowed to retain the 
dignity of pontifex maximus. In 35 and 34 Au- 
gustus was engaged in war with the Illyrians and 
Dalmatians. Meantime, Antony had repudiated 
Octavia, and had alienated the minds of the Roman 
people by his arbitrary and arrogant proceedings 
in the East. Augustus found that the Romans 
were quite prepared to desert his rival, and ac- 
cordingly in 32 the senate declared war against 
Cleopatra, for Antony was looked upon only as her 
infatuated slave. The remainder of the year was 
occupied by preparations for war on both sides. In 
the spring of 31 Augustus passed over to Epirus, 
and in September in the same year his fleet gained 
a brilliant victory over Antony's near the promon- 
tory of Actium in Acarnania. In the following 
year (30) Augustus sailed to Egypt. Antony and 
Cleopatra, who had escaped in sate ty from Actium, 
put an end to their lives to avoid falling into the 
hands of the conqueror ; and Augustus now became 
the undisputed master of the Roman world. He 
returned to Rome in 29, and after restoring order 
in all parts of the government he proposed in the 
senate to lay down his powers, but pretended to be 
prevailed upon to remain at the head of affairs for 
10 years longer. This plan was afterwards re- 
peated several times, and he apparently allowed 
himself to be always persuaded to retain his power 
either for 10 or 5 years more. He declined all 
honours and distinctions which were calculated to 
remind the Romans of kingly power ; but he ac- 
cepted in 33 the imperium proco7isidare and the 
tribunitia potestas for life, by which his inviolabi- 
lity was legally established, while by the imperium 
proconsulare he became the highest authority in all 
the Roman provinces. On the death of Lepidus 
in 12 he became pontifex maximus ; but though 
he had thus united in his own person all the great 
offices of state, yet he was too prudent to show to 
the Romans by any display of authority that he 
vv'as the sole master. He had no ministers, in our 
sense of the word ; but on state matters, v/hich he 
did not choose to be discussed in public, he con- 
sulted his personal friends, C. Cilnius Maecenas, 
M. Vipsanius Agrippa, M. Valerius Messalla Cor- 
vinus, and Asinius Pollio. The people retained 
their republican privileges, though they were mere 
forms : they still met in their assemblies, and 



no AUOUSTULUS. 



AURELIANUS. 



elected consuls and other magistrates ; but only 
Buch persons were elected as had been proposed or 
recommended by the emperor. The almost unin- 
terrupted festivities, games, distributions of corn, 
and the like, made the people forget the sub- 
stance of their republican freedom, and obey con- 
tentedly their new ruler. The wars of Augustus 
were not aggres<=ive, but were chiefly imdertaken 
to protect the frontiers of the Roman dominions. 
Most of them were carried on by his relations and 
friends, but he conducted some of them in person. 
Thus, in 27. he attacked the warlike Cantabri and 
Astures in Spain, whose subjugation, however, was 
not completed till 19 by Agrippa. In 21 Augustus 
travelled through Sicily and Greece, :ind spent the 
winter following at Samos. Ivcxt year (20) he 
went to Syria, where he received from Phratites, 
the Parthiiin monarch, the standards and prisoners 
which had been taken from Crassus and Antony. 
In 16 the Ron nns suffered a defeat on the Lower 
Rhine by some German tribes ; whereupon Augus- 
tus went himself to Gaul, and spent 4 years there, 
to regulate the government of that province, and to 
make the necessary preparations for defending it 
against the Germans. In 9 he again went to Gaul, 
where he received German ambassadors, who sued 
for peace ; and from this time forward, he does not 
appear to have again taken any active part in the 
wars that were carried on. Those in Germany 
were the most formidable, and lasted longer than 
the reign of Augustus. He died at Nola, on the 
29th of August, A. D. 14, at the age of 76. Augus- 
tus was first married, though only nominally, to 
Clodia, a daughter of Clodius and Fulvia. His 2nd 
wife, Scril'onia, bore him his only daughter, Julia. 
His 3rd wife v/as Livia Drusilla, the Avife of Tibe- 
rius Nero. Augustus had at first fixed on M. 
Marcellus as his successor, the son of his sister 
Octavia, who was married to his daughter Julia. 
After his death Julia was married to Agrippa, and 
her 2 sons, Caius and Lucius Caesar, were now 
destined by Augustus as his successors. On the 
death of these 2 youths, Augustus was persuaded to 
adopt Tiberius, the son of Livia, and to make him 
his colleague and successor. [Tiberius.] 

Augustulus, Eomulus, last Roman emperor of 
the West, was placed upon the throne by his father 
Orestes (a. d. 475), after the latter had deposed 
the emperor Julius Nepos. In 476 Orestes Avas 
defeated by Odoacer and put to deatli : Romulus 
Augustulus was allowed to live, but was deprived 
of the sovereignty. 

Aulerci, a powerful Gallic people dwelling be- 
tween tlie Setpiana (Seine) and the Liger (Loire), 
were divided into 3 great tribes. 1. A. Ebiiro- 
Vicss, near the coast on the left bank of the Seine 
in the modern Normandy: their capital was Me- 
dioianum, afterwards called Eburovices (Evreux). 
— 2. A. Cenomani, S.W. of the preceding near 
the Liger : their capital was Subdinnum (Je Ma7is). 
At an earl}^ period some of the Cenomani crossed 
the Alps and settled in Upper Italy.— 3. A. Bran- 
novices, E. of the Cenomani near the Aedui, 
wiiose clients they were. The DiaUinies men- 
tioned by Caesar are said Ptolemy to have been 
likewise a branch of the Aulerci. 

Aulis (AvXls), a harbour in Boeotia on the Eu- 
ripus, where the Greek fleet assembled before sail- 
ing against Troy : it had a temple of Artemis. 

Anion (AyAwf : AuKccvh-qs). 1. A district and 
town on the borders of Elis aiul Messenia, with a 



' temple of Aesculapius, who hence had the surname 
Ati/onius.-=-2. A town in Chalcidice in Macedonia, 
on the Strymonic gulf.— 3. (MefoJie), a fertile 
valley near Tarentura celebrated for its wine (ami- 
cus Anion fcrli/i Baccho, Hot. Curm. ii. 6. 18). 

Aui'anitis (Avpauins : Hauran)., a district S. of 
Damasci'.s and E. of Ituraea and Batanaea, on the 
E. side of the Jordan, belonging either to Palestine 
or to Arabia. 

Aiu'ea Chersonesus (77 Xpvar\ X^paSv-naos), the 
name given by the late geographers to the Malay 
Peninsula. They also mention an Aurea Regio 
beyond the Ganges, which is supposed to be the 
country round Ava. 

Aurslia, the wife of C. Julius Caesar, by whom 
she became the mother of C. Julius Caesar, the 
dictator, and of 2 daughters. She carefully 
watched over the education of her children, and 
always took a lively interest in the success of her 
son. She died in B. c. 54, while Caesar was in 
Gaul. 

Anrelia Gens, plebeian, of which the most im- 
portant members are given under their family 
names. Cotta, Ob-estes, and Scaijrus. 

Aurelia Orestilla, a beautiful but profligate 
woman, whom Catiline married. As Aui'elia at 
first objected to marry him, because he had a 
grov/n-up son by a former marriage, Catiline is 
said to have killed his own offspring in order to 
remove this mipediment to their' union. 

Anrelia Via, the great coast road from Rome to 
Transalpine Gaul, at first extended no further than 
Pisae^ but Avas afterwards continued along the 
coast to Genua and Forum Julii in Gaul. 

Aureliani. [Genabum.] 

Anrelianiis, Roman emperor, a. d. 270 — 275, 
Avas born about a. d. 212, at Sirmiura in Pannonia. 
He entered the army as a common soldier, and by 
his extraordinary bravery Avas raised to offices of 
trust and honour by Valerian and Claudius II. 
On the death of the latter, he Avas elected emperor 
by the legions at Sirmium. His reign presents a 
succession of brilliant exploits, Avhich restored for a 
Avhile their ancient lustre to the arms of Rome. 
He first defeated the Goths and Vandals, Avho had 
crossed the Danube, and Avere ravaging Pannonia. 
He next gained a great victory over the Alemanni 
and other German tribes ; but they succeeded 
notwithstanding in crossing the Alps. Near 
Placentia they defeated the Romans, but Avere 
eventually oA'ercome by Aurelian in tv.o decisive 
engagements in Umbria. After crushing a for- 
midable conspiracy at Rome, Aurelian next turned 
his arm,s against Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, whom 
he defeated, took prisoner, and carried Avith him to 
Rome. [Zenobia ] On his return to Italy he 
marched to Alexandria and put Firmus to death, 
Avho had assumed the title of emperor. He then 
proceeded to the West, v/here Gaul, Britain, and 
Spain were still in the hands of Tetricus, Avho had 
been declared emperor a short time before the 
death of Gallienus. Tetricus surrendered to Au- 
relian in a battle fought near Chalons. [Tetricus. j 
The emperor noAv devoted his attention to domestic 
improvements and reforms. Man}' Avorks oF public 
utiiity Avere commenced : the most important of all 
Avas the erection of a new line of strongly fortified 
A^'alls, embraciiig a much more ample circuit than 
the old ones, Avhich had long since fallen into ruin ; 
but this vast plan Avas not com^pleted imtil the 
reign of Probu.s. After a short residence in the 



AURELIANUS. 



AUSONIUS. 



in 



city, Aurelian visited the provinces on the Danube. 
He now entirely abandoned Dacia, which liad 
been first conquered by Trajan, and made the 
S. bank of the Danube, as in the time of Au- 
gustus, the boundary of the empire. A large forpe 
was now collected in Thrace in preparation for an 
expedition against the Persians ; but while the 
emperor was on the march between Heraclea and 
Byzantium, he was killed by some of his officers. 
The}^ had been induced to conspire against him by 
a certain Mnestheus, the freedman of the emperor 
and his private secretary, who had betrayed his 
trust, and fearful of punishment, had, by means of 
forged documents, organised the conspiracy. 

Aurelianus, Caelius or Coelius, a very cele- 
brated Latin physician, was a native of Numidia, 
and probably lived in the 4th century after Christ. 
Of his writings we possess 3 books Oii Acute 
Diseases " Celerum Passionum," (or " De Morbis 
Aciitis,") and 5 books On Chronic Diseases, 
" Tardarum Passionum " (or " De Morbis Chroni- 
cis"). Edited by Amman, Amstel. 1709, 

M. Aurelius Antoniniis, Roman emperor, a.b. 
161 — 180, commonly called " the philosopher," 
was born at Rome on the 20 th of April, A. D. 121. 
He was adopted by Antoninus Pius immediately 
after the latter had been himself adopted by Ha- 
drian, received the title of Caesar, and married 
Faustina, the daughter of Pius (138). On the 
death of the latter in 161, he succeeded to the 
throne, but he admitted to an equal share of the 
sovereign power L. Ceionius Commodus, who had 
been adopted by Pius at the same time as Marcus 
himself. The two emperors henceforv.'-ard bore 
respectively the names cf M. Aurelius Antoninus 
and L. Aurelius Verus. Soon after their accession 
Verus was despatched to the East, and for 4 jqqxs 
(a. d. 162 — 165) carried on war with great suc- 
cess against Vologeses III., king of Parthia, over 
whom his lieutenants, especially Avidius Cassius, 
gained many victories. At the conclusion of the 
war both emperors triumphed, and assumed the 
titles of Arineniacus, Partldcus Maocimus, and 
Medieus. Meantime Italy was threatened by the 
I numerous tribes dwelling along the northern limits 
of the empire, from the sources of the Danube to 
the lUyrian border. Both emperors set out to en- 
counter the foe ; and the contest with the northern 
nations was continued with varying success during 
the whole life of M. Aurelius, whoso head-quarters 
v/ere generally fixed in Pannonia. After the death 
of Verus in 169, Aurelius prosecuted the Avar 
apjainst the Marcomanni v/ith great success, and in 
consequence of his victories over them he assumed 
in 172 the title of Germanicus, which he also con- 
ferred upon his son Commodus. In 174 he gained 
a decisive victory over the Quadi, mainly through 
a violent storm, v/hich threw the barbarians into 
confusion. This storm is said to have been owing to 
the prayers of a legion chiefly composed of Chris- 
tians. It has given rise to a famous controversy 
among the historians of Christianity upon what is 
commonly termed the Miracle of the Thundering 
Legion. The Marcomanni and the other northern 
barbarians concluded a peace with Aurelius in 
1T5, who forthwith set out for the East, where 
Avidius Cassius, urged on by Faustina, the im- 
worthy wife of Aurelius, had risen in rebellion and 
proclaimed himself emperor. But before Aurelius 
I'jached the East, Cassius had been slain by his 
officers. On his arrival in the East, Aurelius 



acted with the greatest clemxCncy ; none of the ac- 
complices of Cassius were put to death, and to 
establish perfect confidence in all, he ordered the 
papers of Cassius to be destroyed without suffering 
them to be rr^ad. During this expedition, Faustina, 
who had accompanied her husband, died, according 
to some by her o-\vn hands. Aurelius returm^d to 
Rome towards the end of 176 ; but in 178 he set 
out again for Germany, where tlie Marcomanni 
and their confederates had again renewed the v/ar. 
He gained several victories over them, but died in 
the middle of the war on March 17th, 180, in 
Pannonia, either at Vindobona ( Vieima) \)r at Sir- 
mium, in the 59th year of his age and 20th of his 
reign. — The leading feature in the character of 
M. Aurelius was his devotion to philosophy and 
literature. When only 12 years old, he adopted 
the dress and practised the austerities of the 
Stoics, and he continued throughout his life a 
warm adherent and a bright ornament of the Stoic 
philosophy. We still possess a work by M. Au- 
relius, written in the Greek language, and entitled 
Ta qIs eavrhv, or Meditations, in 12 books. It is 
a sort of common-place book, in which were regis- 
tered from time to time the thoughts and feelings of 
the author upon moral and religious topics, without 
an attempt at order or arrangement. No remains 
of antiquitj'- present a nobler view of philosophical 
heathenism. The best edition of the Medications 
is by Gataker, Cantab. 1652, and Lond. 1697. — 
The chief and perhaps the only stain upon the 
memory of Aurelius is his 2 persecutions of the 
Christians ; in the former of which, 1 66, the mar- 
tyrdom of Polycarp . occurred, and in the latter, 
177, that of Irenaeus. — Aurelius was succeeded 
by his son Commodus. 

Aurelius Victor. [Victor.] 

Aureolus, one of the TIdrty Tyrants (a. d. 260 
— 267), Avho assumed the title of Augustus during 
the feeble rule of Gallienus. Aureolus was pro- 
claimed emperor by the legions of Illyria in 267, 
and made himself master of N. Italy, but he 
was defeated and slain in battle in 268, by Clau- 
dius II., the successor of Gallienus. 

Aurora. [Eos.] 

Aurunci. [Italia.] 

Aurunculeius Cotta. [Cotta.] 

Ausa. [Ausetani.] 

Ausci or Auscii, a powerful people in Aquita- 
nia, Avho possessed the Latin franchise: their 
capital was called Climberrum or Elimberrum, also 
Augusta and Ausci (nov/ Audi), 

Ausetani, a Spanish people in the modern Ca- 
talonia : their capital Avas Ausa ( Viqiie). 

Auson (AuVwv), son of Ulysses and Calypso or 
Circe, from Avhom the country of the Aurancans 
Avas believed to have been called Ausonia. 

Ausones, Ausonia. [Italia.] 

Ausonius, Deeimus Magnus, a Romian poet, 
born at Burdigala {Bourdeaux), about A. D, 310, 
taught grammar and rhetoric Avith such reputation 
at his native toAvn, that he Avas appointed tutor of 
Gratian, son of the emperor Valentinian, and Avas 
afterwards raised to the highest honours of the 
state. He Avas appointed by Gratian praefectus of 
Latium, of Libya, and of Gaul, and in 379 was 
elevated to the consulship. After the death of 
Gratian, in 383, he retired from public life, and 
ended his days in a country retreat near Bourdeaux, 
perhaps about 390. It is most probable that he 
Avas a Christian and not a heathen. His extant 



112 AUSTER. 
works are — 1. Epigrammatuin Lihci\ a collcctio]: 
of 150 epigrams. 2. EpJicmcris, containing an ac- 
count of the business and proceedings of a day. 

Pare/iialia, a series of short poems addressed to 
friends and relations on their decease. 4, Pro/es- 
sorcs, notices of the Professors of Bourdeaux. 5. 
Epitaphia Ilcroum, epitaphs on the heroes who fell 
in the Trojan war and a few others, 6. A metrical 
catalogu'; of the first 12 Caesars. 7. Tetrasticha^ 
on the^Caesars from Julius to Elagabalus. 8. Clarae 
Urbes, the praises of 14 illustrious cities. 9. Ludus 
Septf.m Sapicniurn, the doctrines of the 7 sages ex- 
pounded by each in his own person. 10. IihjJlia, 
a collection of 20 poems. 11. Eclogarium, short 
poems connected with the Calendar, &c. 1 2. Epi- 
stolae^ 25 letters, some in verse and some in prose. 
]3. Gmtiarum Actio pro Consnlaiu, in prose, ad- 
dressed to Gratian. 14. Periochae, short argu- 
ments to each book of the Iliad and Odyssey. 15. 
Tres Praefaiiu7iculae. — Of these works the Idyls 
have attracted most notice, and of them the most 
pleasing is the Mosella, or a description of the 
river Moselle. Ausonius possesses skill in versifi- 
cation, but is destitute of all the higher attributes 
of a poet. The best edition of his complete works 
is by ToUius, Amstel. 1671. 

Auster, called Notus (No'ros) by the Greeks, 
the S. wind or strictly the S.W. Avind, is personi- 
fied as the god of the S. wind, son of Astraeus and 
Eos. It frequently brought with it fogs and rain ; 
but at certain seasons of the year it was a dry 
Eultr}' wind (hence called plumheus Auster, Hor. 
Sat. ii. 6. 18), injurious both to man and to vege- 
tation, the Sirocco of the modern Italians. 

Autariatae (AvrapuiTai), an lUyrian people in 
the Dalmatian mountains, extinct in Strabo's time. 

Autesiodorum, -urum (Auxerre),atown of the 
Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Autesion (AvTea'iwv), son of Tisamenus, father 
of Theras and Argia, left Thebes at the command 
of an oracle, and joined the Dorians in Pelopon- 
nesus. 

AutocMliones (avrSxOoves). [Aborigines.] 
Autololes, or -ae (AOroAo'Aai), a Gaetulian tribe 
on the W. coast of Africa, S. of the Atlas moun- 
tains. 

Autolycus (Avt6\vkos). 1. Son of Hermes 
and Chione, father of Anticlea, and thus maternal 
grandfather of Ulysses. He lived on mount Par- 
nassus, and v.-as renowned for his cunning and rob- 
beries. Ulysses, when staying with him on one 
occasion, was Avounded by a boar on Parnassus, 
and it was by the scar of this wound that he was 
recognized by his aged nurse, when he returned 
from Troy. — 2. A Thessalian, son of Deimachus, 
one of the Argonauts, and the founder of Sinope.— 
3. A mathematician of Pitane in Aeolis, lived 
about B. c. 340, and wrote 2 astronomical treatises, 
which are the most ancient existing specimens of 
the Greek mathematics. 1. On the Motion of ike 
Sphere (irepi Kivovfj.^vr]s crcpoipas). 2. On the risings 
and settings of llie fired stars (Trepl iniroXuv koX 
Svaewu). Edited by Dasypodius in his Sphaericae 
Doctrinae Pruposiliojies, Argent. 1572. 

Automala (to AurduaAa), a fortified place on 
the Gr at Syrtis in N. Africa. 

Automedon {AvroyMSuv). L Son of Diores, 
the charioteer and companion of Achilles, and, 
after the death of the latter, the companion of his 
son Pyrrhus. Hence Automedon is the name of 
any skilful charioteer. (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 35 ; 



AVERNUS. 

Juv. i. 61.) — 2. Of Cyzicus, a Greek poet, 12 of 
whose epigrams are in the Greek Anthology, lived 
in the reign of Nerva, a. d. 96 — 98. 

Automoli (AvrSfMoXoi), as a proper name, was 
applied to the Egyptian soldiers, who were said to 
have deserted from Psammetichus into Aethiopia, 
where they founded the kingdom of Merge. 

Autonoe (Avtovot)), daughter of Cadmus and 
Harmonia, wife of Aristaeus, and mother of Ac- 
taeon. With her sister Agave, she tore Pentheus 
to pieces in their Bacchic fury: her tomb was 
shown in the territory of Megara. 

Autrigones, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis 
between the ocean (Bay of Biscay) and the upper 
course of the Iberus : their chief town was Fla- 

VIOBRIGA. 

Autronius Paetus. [Paetus.] 

Auxesia (Au^r^aia), the goddess who grants 
{jrowth and prosperity to the fields, honoured at 
Troezen and Epidaurus, was another name for 
Persephone. Damia, who Avas honoured along 
with Auxesia at Epidaurus and Troezen, was only 
another name for Demeter. 

Auximum (Auximas, -atis: Osimo), an impor- 
tant tovvn of Picenum in Italy, and a Roman colony. 

Auxume or Ax- (AuIou^t?, or 'A^wp-rf, and other 
forms : Av^ov ij.lt ai, or 'A^cculrai, &c. : Azum, Ru. 
S.W. o^Adoiva), the capital of a powerful kingdom 
in Ethiopia, to the S. E. of Meroe, in Habesh or 
Abyssinia, which either first arose or first became 
known to the Greeks and Romans in the early 
part of the 2nd century of our aera. It grew upon 
the decline of the kingdom of Meroe. and ex- 
tended beyond the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb into 
Arabia. Being a mountainous region, watered by 
the numerous upper streams of the Astaboras and 
Aatapus, and intersected by the caravan routes 
from the interior of Africa to the Red Sea and the 
Gulf of Bab-el-Mandeb, the country possessed 
great internal resources and a flourishing com- 
merce. 

Auzea, or -ia, or Audia (Sur-Guzlan or Hamza, 
Ru.), a city in the interior of Mauretania Cae- 
sariensis ; a Roman colony under M. Aurelius 
Antoninus. 

Avalites (AwoAi'ttjs : Zcilah), an emporium in 
S. Aethiopia, on a bay of the Erythraean Sea, 
called Avalites Sinus ('A. kSkttos), probably the 
Gulf of Bab-el-Mandeb, or its innermost part, S. of 
the Straits. A people, Avalitae, are also mentioned 
in these parts. 

Avaricum. [Bituriges.] 

Avella. [Abella.] 

Avenio {Avignon), a town of the Cavares in 
Gallia Narbonensis on the left bank of the Rhone. 

Aventicum (Avenches), the chief town of the 
Helvetii, and subsequently a Roman colony with 
the name Pia Flavia Constans Enierita, of which 
ruins are still to be seen in the modern town. 

Aventinensis, Genucius. 1. L., consul b. c 
365, and again 362, was killed in battle against 
the Heraicans in the latter of these years, and his 
army routed. —2. Cn., consul 363. 

Aventinus, son of Hercules and the priestess 
Rhea. 

Aventinus Mons. [Roma.] 

Avernus Lacus (^ "Aopvos Xijxvt] : Lago Aver- 
no), a lake close to the promontory which runs out 
into the sea between Cumae and Puteoli. This 
lake fills the crater of an extinct volcano ; it is cir- 
cular, about li mile in circumference, is very deep, 



\ETEMIS (DIANA). ATHENA (MINERVA). 





iTofacep. 112. 



ATHENA (MINERVA). ATLAS. 





Tojace p. 11.^.] 



AVIANUS. 



BABYLON. 



113 



tnd is surrounded by high banks, which in anti- 
quity were covered by a gloomy forest sacred to 
Hecate. From its waters mephitic vapours arose, 
which are said to have killed the birds that at- 
tempted to fly over it, from which circumstance its 
Greek name was supposed to be derived (from a 
priv. and upvis). Tlie lake was celebrated in my- 
thology on account of its connection with the lower 
world. On its banks dwelt the Cimmerians in 
constant darkness, and near it was the cave of the 
Cumaean Sibyl, through which Aeneas descended 
to the lower world. Agrippa, in the time of 
Augustus, cut down the forest which surrounded 
the lake, and connected the latter with the Lu- 
crine lake ; he also caused a tunnel to be made 
from the lake to Cumae, of which a considerable 
part remains and is known under the name of 
Grotia di Sibylla. The Lucrine lake was filled up 
by an eruption in 1530, so that Avemus is again a 
separate lake. 

Avianus, Flavius, the author of 42 Aesopic 
fables in Latin elegiac verse, which are of very 
little merit both as respects the matter and the 
style. The date of Avianus is uncertain ; he 
probably lived in the 3rd or 4th century of the 
Christian aera. — Editions. By Cannegieter, Amstel. 
1731 ; bv Nodell, Amstel. 1787 ; and bv Lachmann, 
Berol. 1845. 

Avienus, Eufas Festus, a Latin poet towards 
the end of the 4th century of the Christian aera. 
His poems are chiefly descriptive, and are some of 
the best specimens of the poetry of that age. His 
works are : — 1. Descriptio Orbis Terrae, also called 
Metaphrasis Feriegeseos Dio7iysii, in 1 394 hexameter 
lines, derived directly from the ■n-epiri-yifjaiS of 
Dionysius, and containing a succinct account of the 
most remarkable objects in the physical and poli- 
tical geography of the known world. — 2. Ora 
Maritima, a fragment in 703 Iambic trimeters, 
describing the shores of the Mediterranean from 
Marseilles to Cadiz. — 3. Aratea Phaenomena, and 
Aratea Prognostica, both in Hexameter verse, the 
first containing 1325, the second 552 lines, being 
a paraphrase of the two works of Aratus. The 
poems are edited by Wernsdorf, in his Poetae 
Latini Minores, vol. y. pt. ii., which, however, does 
not include the Aratea. 

Aviones, a people in the N. of Germany, whose 
position is uncertain. 

Avitus, AlpMus, a Latin poet under Augustus 
and Tiberius, the fragments of some of whose 
poems are preserved in the Anihologia Laiina. 

Avitus, Cluentms. [Clukntius.] 

Avitus, M. Maecilius, emperor of the West, 
was raised to the throne by the assistance of 
Theodoric II. king of the Visigoths in A. d. 455 ; 
but, after a year's reign, was deposed by Ricimer. 

Axenus. [Euxinus Pontus.] 

Axia {Castell d'' Asso), a fortress in the territory 
of Tarquinii in Etruria. 

Axion {'A^Locv). son of Phegeus, brother of 
Tememis, along with whom he killed Alcmaeon. 

Axiothea ('A|to06a), a maiden of Phlius, who 
came to Athens, and putting on male attire, was 
for some time a hearer of Plato, and afterwards of 
Speusippus. 

Axius, Q., an intimate friend oif Cicero and 
Varro, one of the speakers in the 3d book of i 
Varro's De Re Rustica. I 

Axius ("Altos : Wardar or Vardkari), the | 
chief river in Macedonia, rises in Mt. Scardus, re- 



ceives many affluents, of which the most important 
is the Erigon, and flows S.E. through Macedonia 
into the Thermaic gulf. As a river-god, Axius 
begot by Periboea a son Pelegon, the father of 

ASTEROPAEUS. 

Axona {Aisne), a river in Gallia Belgica, which 
falls into the Isara (Oise). 
Axume. [Atjxume.] 

Azan {'A^dv), son of Areas and the nymph 
Erato, brother of Aphidas and Elatus. The part 
of Arcadia which he received from his father was 
called Azania : it was on the borders of Elis. 

Azaui {'A^auoL : 'ACavhrjs), a town of Phrygia, 
on the river Rhyndacus, and 20 miles S.W. of 
Cotyaeium (Kititayah). The ruins of columns, 
capitals, and other architectural fragments are scat- 
tered over the ground. There are also the remains 
of a splendid temple, and of a theatre. This an- 
cient site was discovered by j\Ir. Kenpel. 

Azania or Barbaria CACavia, BapSapia : Ajan)^ 
the region on the E, coast of Africa, S, of Aromata 
Pr, (C, Guardafui), as far as Bhaptum Pr. (C. 
Formosa ?) 

Azenia ('A^Tyn'a : 'ACrivievs), a demus in the 
S.W. of Attica, near Sunium, belonging to the 
tribe Hippothoontis. 

Azeus {'ACevs), son of Clymenus of Orchome- 
nos, brother of Erginus, Stratius, Arrhon, and Py- 
leus, father of Actor and grandfather of Astyoche. 

Aiorus or Azorium {''A^ccpos, 'A^copiou : 'A(w- 
piTTjj, 'Afajpiarr^s, 'A^wpeus), a town in the N. of 
Thessaly, on the W. slope of Olympus, formed, with 
Doliche and Pythium, the Perrhaebian Tripolis. 

Azotus {"aCwtos: 'AfwTios: Ashdod or AsJi- 
doud), a city of Palestine, near the sea-coast, 9 miles 
N.E. of Ascalon. It was one of the free cities of 
the Philistines, which were included within the 
portion of the tribe of Judah. 

B. 

Babrius (BdSpios), a Greek poet, probably in 
the time of Augustus, turned the fables of Aesop 
into verse, of which only a few fragments v/ere 
known, till within the last few j^ears, when a 
manuscript containing 123 fables was discovered 
on Mount Athos. Edited by Lachmann, Berol. 
1 845 ; bv Orelli and Baiter, Turic. 1845 ; by Lev/is, 
Lond. 1847. 

Babylon (Ba§v\av: Ba€u\avios, fem. Ba€v- 
Xcov'is : Babel in 0. T. : Ru. at and around Hillali), 
one of the oldest and greatest cities of the ancient 
world, the capital of a great empire, was built on 
both banks of the river Euphrates, in about 32° 28' 
N. lat. Its foundation, and the establishment of 
a kingdom by Nimrod, with the city for a capital, 
are among the first recorded facts subsequent to 
the Deluge {Gen. x. 9, 10, xi. 1 — 9), Secular 
history ascribes its origin to Belus (i. e, the god 
Baal), and its enlargement and decoration to Ninus 
or his wife Semiramis ; or, according to another 
tradition, the country was subdued by Ninus, and 
the city was subsequently built by Semiramis, who 
made it the capital of the Assyrian empire. At 
all events it is pretty clear that Babylon was sub- 
ject to the Assjnrian kings of Nineveh from a very 
early period ; and the time at which the governors 
of Babylon first succeeded in making themselves 
virtually independent, cannot be determined witi; 
any certainty until we know more of the history 

I 



114 BABYLON, 
of the early Assyrian dynasties. [Comp. Nabo- 
nassar.] The Babylonian empire begins wiih 
the reign of Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, who, with the aid of the Median king 
Cj'axares, overthrew the Assyrian monarchy, and 
destroyed Nineveh (n. c. 606), and soon afterwards 
defended his kingdom against the aggressions 
(at first successful) of Necho, king of Egypt, in 
the battle of Circesium, B. c. 604. Under his 
son and successor, Nebuchadnezzar (e. c. 60-4 — 
562), the Babylonian empire reached its height, 
and extended from the Euphrates to Egypt, and 
from the mountains of Armenia to the deserts of 
Arabia. After his death it agam declined, until 
it was overtlirown by the capture of Babylon by 
the Modes and Persians under Cyrus (b. c. 538), 
who made the cit}- one of the capitals of the Per- 
sian empire, the others being Susa and Ecbatana. 
Under his successors the city rapidly sank. Da- 
rius I. dismantled its fortifications, in consequence 
of a revolt of its inhabitants; Xerxes carried off 
the golden statue of Belus, and the temple in which 
it stood became a ruin. After the death of Alex- 
ander, Babylon became a part of the Syrian king- 
dom of Seleucus Nicator, who contributed to its 
decline by the foundation of Seleucia on the 
Tigris, which soon eclipsed it. At the commence- 
ment of our era, the greater part of the city was in 
ruins ; and at the present day all its visible re- 
mains consist of mounds of earth, ruined masses of 
brick v.-alls, and a few scattered fragments. Its 
very site has been turned into a dreary marsh by 
repeated immdations from the river. — The city of 
Babylon had reached the summit of its magnifi- 
cence in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar. It formed 
a square, each side of which was 120 stadia (12 
geog. miles) in length. The walls, of burnt brick, 
were 200 cubits high and 50 thick ; in them were 
250 towers and 60 bronze gates ; and they were 
surrounded by a deep ditch. The Euphrates, vrhich 
divided the city into 2 equal parts, was embanked 
watk v.-alls of brick, the openings of which at the 
ends of the transverse streets were closed by gates 
of bronze. A bridge, built on piers of hewn stone, 
united the 2 quarters of the city ; and at each end 
of it stood a royal palace : these erections were 
ascribed to Semiramis. Of two other public build- 
ings of the greatest celebrity, the one was the 
temple of Belus, rising to a great height, and con- 
sisting of 8 stories, gradually diminishing in width, 
and ascended by a flight of steps, which v/ound 
round the whole building on the outside ; in the 
uppermost story was the golden statue of Belus, 
with a golden altar and other treasures : this 
building also was ascribed to Semiramis. The 
other edifice referred to was the "hanging gardens" 
of Nebuchadnezzar, laid out upon terraces which 
were raised above one another on arches. The 
houses of the city were 3 or 4 stories in height, 
and the streets were straight, intersecting one 
another ax right angles. The buildings were al- 
most universally constructed of bricks, some burnt 
and some only sun-dried, cemented together with 
hot bitumen and in some cases with mortar. — 
The Babylonians were certainly a Semitic race ; 
but the ruling class, to which the kings and priests 
and the men of learning belonged, were the Chal- 
daeans, whose origin and affinities are somev/hat 
doubtful ; the most probable opinion, however, is 
that they were a tribe of invaders, who descended 
from tlm mountains on the borders of Annenia, 



BACCHIADAE. 

and conquered the Babylonians. — The religion 
of the Chaldaeans was Sabaeism, or the worship 
of the heavenly bodies, not purely so, but sym- 
bolized in the forms of idols, besides whom they 
liad other divinities, representing the powers of 
nature. The priests foraied a caste, and cultivated 
science, especially astronomy ; in v,-hich they knew 
the apparent motions of the sun, moon, and 5 of 
the planets, the calculation of eclipses of the moon, 
the division of the zodiac into 12 constellations, 
j and of the year into 12 months, and the measure- 
I ment of time by the sun-dial. They must also 
I have had other instrmnents for measuring time, 
, such as the water-clock, for instance ; and it is 
j highly probable that the definite methods of deter- 
I mining such quantities, which the Chaldaean as- 
i tronomers invented, were the origin of the systems 
of weights and measures used by the Greeks and 
Romans. Their buildings prove their knowledge 
of mechanics ; and their remains, slight as they 
are, show considerable progress in the fine arts. — 
The Babylonian government was an unlimited 
monarchy : the king appears to have lived in al- 
most total seclusion from his people, surrounded by 
his court ; and the provinces were administered by 
governors, like the Persian satraps, responsible 
only to the monarch, whose commands they obeyed 
or defied according to his strength or weakness. — 
The position of the city on the lower course of the 
Euphrates, by which it was connected with the 
Persian Gulf, and at the rjeeting of natural routes 
between E, Asia and India on the one side, and 
Europe, Asia ]\Iinor, Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, on 
the other, made it the seat of a flourishing com- 
merce and of in^mense wealth and luxury. — The 
district aroimd the city, bounded by the Tigris on 
the E., Mesopotamia on the N., the Arabian De- 
sert on the W., and extending to the head of the 
Persian Gtdf en the S., was known in later times 
by the name of Babylonia (Irak Arahi), sometimes 
also called Chaldaea. [But comp. Chaldaea.] 
This district was a plain, subject to continual in- 
midations from the Tigris and Euphrates, which 
were regulated by canals, the chief of which was 
the Naarmalcha, i. e. Royal River or Canal (irora- 
fj.os Pac-L\eLos, diSpv^ ^acnXiKri, flumen regium), 
which extended from the Tigris at Seleucia due 
W. to the Euphrates, and was navigable. The 
country was fertile, but deficient in trees. 

Babylon CBaSvAwu nr. Fosiat or Old Cairo), 
a fortress in Lower Egypt, on the right bank of 
the Nile, exactly opposite to the pyramids, and at 
the beginning of the canal which connected the 
Nile with the Red Sea. Its origin was ascribed 
by tradition to a body of Babj'lonian deserters. It 
first became an important place imder the Romans. 
Augustus made it the station of one of the 3 Egyp- 
tian legions. 

Babylonia. [Babylon.] 

Eacchae (Ba/cxi^Os ^^so called Maenades and 
Tliyiadcs. 1. The female companions of Dionysus 
or Bacchus in his wanderings through the East, are 
represented as cro^^■ned with vine-leaves, clothed 
with fa-vra-skins, and carrying in their hands the 
iliyrsus {sqq Diet, of Ant. s. r.). — 2. Priestesses of 
Dionysus, who by wine and other exciting causes 
worked themselves up to frenzy at the Dionysiac 
festivals. 

BaccMadae (Ba/cxiaSat), an Heraclid clan, de- 
rived their name from Bacchis, king of Corinth, 
and reclined the supreme rule in that state, first 



BACCHIUS. 



BALBUS. 



115 



under a monarchical form of government, and next 
as a close oligarchy, till their deposition by Cyp- 
selus, about B c. 657. They were for the most part 
driven into banishment, and are said to have taken 
refuge in different parts of Greece and even Italy. 

BaecMus (Baicx^Tos). 1. The author of a short 
musical treatise called elcrayajy)] re'xj/Tjs jj.ovaiKris, 
printed by Meibomius, in the A7itiquae Musicae 
Anctores Septcm^ Amst. 1652.'=>=2. Of Tanagra in 
Boeotia, one of the earliest commentators on the 
writings of Hippocrates : his writings have pe- 
rished. =- 3. Of Miletus, the author of a work on 
agriculture. 

BacclLUS. [Dionysus.] 

Baccliylides (Ba/cxL'A.tS77s), one of the great 
iyric poets of Greece, born at lulis in Ceos, and 
nephew as well as fellow-tov/nsman of Simo- 
nides. He flourished about b. c. 470, and lived 
a long time at the court of Hiero in Syracuse, to- 
gether with Simonides and Pindar. He vv'rote in 
the Doric dialect Hymns, Paeans, Dithyrambs, &c. ; 
but all his poems have perished, with the exception 
of a few fragments, and 2 epigrams in the Greek 
Anthology. The fragments have been published by 
Xeue, Baccliylidis Cei Fragmcnta^ Eerol. 1823, and 
by Bergk, Po'dtac Lyrici Gracrd^ p. 820. 

Bacenis Silva, a forest Avhich separated the 
Suevi from the Chenisci, probably the part of 
the Thuringian Forest. 

Bacis (BctKis), the name of several prophets, of 
whom the most celebrated was the Boeotian seer, 
who delivered his oracles in hexameter verse at 
Heleon in Boeotia. In later times there existed a 
collection of his oracles, similar to the Sibylline 
books at Rome. 

Bactra or Zariaspa (ra Bdicrpa, to. Zapiaa-n-a 
and 77 Zapi Vtttj : Balkh), the capital of Bactria, 
appears to have been founded by the early Persian 
kings, but not to have been a considerable city till 
the time of Alexander, who settled in it his Greek 
mercenaries and his disabled Macedonian soldiers. 
It stood at the N. foot of the M. Paropamisus (the 
Hindoo Koosh) on the river Bactrus {Adirsiali or 
Delias), about 25 miles S. of its junction with the 
Oxus. It was the centre of a considerable trafnc. 
The existing ruins, 20 miles in circuit, are all of 
the Mohammedan period. 

Bactria or -iana (BaiiTpiavl] : Bafcrpoi, -wi, 
-lai'OL : Bokhara), a province of the Persian em- 
pire, bounded on the S. by M. Paropamisus, which 
separated it from Ariana, on the E. by the N. 
branch of the same range, which divided it from 
the Sacae, on the N.E. by the Oxus, v\-hich sepa- 
rated it from Sogdiana, and on the W. by Mar- 
giana. It was inhabited by a rude and warlike 
people, who were subdued by Cyrus or his next 
successors. It was included in the conquests of 
Alexander, and formed a part of the kingdom of 
the Seleucidae, until B. c. 255, when Theodotus, its 
governor, revolted from Antiochus II., and founded 
the Greek kingdom of Bactria, which lasted till 
B.C. 134 or 125, when it was overthrown by the 
Parthians, with whom, during its whole duration, 
its kings were sometimes at war, and sometimes in 
alliance against Syria. This Greek kingdom ex- 
tended bej'ond the limits of the province of Bac- 
tria, and included at least a part of Sogdiana. 
Bactria v/as watered by the Oxus and its tribu- 
taries, and contained much fertile land ; and much 
of the commerce between W. Asia and India passed 
through it. 



BaduhQiLsaae Lucus, a wood in W. Friesland. 

Eaebia Gens, plebeian, the most important 
members of which are given under their surnames. 
Dives, Sulca, Tamfhilus. 

Baecula, a town in Hispania Tarraconensis, W. 
of Castulo, in the neighbourhood of silver mines. 

Baetsrrae (Beziers), also called Bitsrrensis 
urbs, a town in Gallia Narbonensis on the Obris, 
not far from Narbo, and a Roman colony : its 
neighbourhood produced good wine. 

Eaetica [Hispania.] 

Bastis {Guadalquiver), a river in S. Spain, for- 
merly called Tartessus, and by the inhabitants 
Certis, rises in Hispania Tarraconensis in the ter- 
ritory of the Orelani, flows S.W. through Baetica, 
to which it gives its name, past the cities of Cor- 
buda and Hispalis, and falls into the Atlantic 
Ocean b}^ 2 mouths, N. of Gades. 

Eagacum {Bavai), the chief town of the Nervii 
in Gallia Belgica : there are many Roman remains 
in the modern town. 

Bagaudae, a Gallic people, who revolted under 
Diocletian, and were with difficulty subdued by 
Maximian, A. D. 286. 

Bagoas (BaYoSas), an eunuch, highly trusted 
and favoured by Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), whom 
he poisoned, B. c. 338. He was put to death by 
Darius III. Codomannus, whom he had attempted 
likcv.-ise to poison, 336. The name Bagoas fre- 
quently occurs in Persian history, and is some- 
times used b}' Latin writers as sjmonjanous v/ith 
an eunuch. 

Eagradas (BaypaSas : Hfejerdah), a river of 
N. Africa, falling into the Gulf of Carthage near 
Utica. 

Eaiae (Baianus), a town in Campania, on a 
small bay W. of Naples, and opposite Puteoli, 
Avas situated in a beautiful country, which abounded 
in warm mineral springs. The baths of Baiae 
were the most celebrated in Italy, and the town 
itself w^as the favourite watering-place of the Ro- 
mans, who flocked thither in crowds for health and 
pleasure ; it Vvas distinguished by licentiousness, 
and immorality. The whole country was studded 
with the palaces of the Roman nobles and emperors, 
which covered the coast from Baiae to Puteoli : 
many of these palaces were built out into the sea. 
(Hor. Carm. ii. 18. 20.) The site of ancient 
Baiae is now for the most part covered by the 
sea. 

Ealbinus, D. Caelius, was elected emperor by 
the senate along with M. Clodius Pupienus Maxi- 
mus, after the murder of the two Gordians in 
Africa at the beginning of a. d. 238 ; but the new 
emperors were slain by the soldiers at Rome in 
June in the same 3-ear. 

Balbiis, M'. Acilras, the name of 2 consuls, one 
in B.C. 150, and the other in 114. 

Balbus, T. Ampius, tribune of the plebs b. c. 
63, was a supporter of Pom;-<ey, whom he joined 
in the civil war B. c. 49. He was pardoned by 
Caesar through the intercession of Cicero, Avho 
wrote to him on the occasion (ad Fam.x'i. 12). 

Balbus, M. Atius, of Aricia, married Julia, the 
sister of Julius Caesar, who bore him a daughter, 
Atia, the mother of Augustus Caesar. 

Balbus, L. Cornelius. 1. Of Gades, served 
under Q. Metellus and Pompey against Serto- 
rius in Spain, and received from Pompey the Ro- 
man citizenship. He accompanied Pompey on 
his retiu-n to Rome, B. c. 71, and was for a long 

I 2 



116 



BALBUS. 



BAREA. 



time one of his most intimate friends. At the 
same time he gained the friendship of Caesar, who 
placed great confidence in him. As the friend of 
Caesar and Pompey, he had numerous enemies, 
who accused him in 56 of having illegally assumed 
the Roman citizenship ; he was defended by Ci- 
cero, whose speech has come down to us, and was 
acquitted. In the civil war, 49, Balbus did not 
take any open part against Pompey; but he at- 
tached himself to Caesar, and, in conjunction with 
Oppiu?, had the entire management of Caesar's af- 
fairs at Rome. After the death of Caesar (44) he 
was equally successful in gaining the favour of Oc- 
tavian, who raised him to the consulship in 40. 
Balbus wrote a diary {Ephemeris), which lias not 
come down to us, of the most remarkable occur- 
rences in Caesar's life. He took care that Caesar's 
Commentaries on the Gallic war should be conti- 
nued ; and we accordingly find the 8th book dedi- 
cated to him.— 2. Nephewof the preceding, received 
the Roman franchise along with his uncle. He 
served under Caesar in the civil war ; he was quaes- 
tor of Asinius Pollio in Further Spain in B. c. 43, 
and while there added to his native town Gades a 
suburb ; many years afterwards he was proconsul 
of Africa, and triumphed over the Garamantes in 
19. He built a magnificent theatre at Rome, 
which was dedicated in 1 3. 

Balbus, Lucilius. 1. L., a jurist, and brother 
of the following. — 2. Q., a Stoic philosopher, and 
a pupil of Panaetius, is introduced by Cicero as 
one of the speakers in his De Natura Dcorum. 

Balbus, Octavius, a contemporary of Cicero, 
bore a high character as a judex ; he was put- to 
death by the triumvirs, B. c. 43. 

Balbus, Sp. Tkorius, tribune of the plebs, about 
B. c. Ill, proposed an agrarian law. See Diet, of 
Ant., art. Lex Thoria. 

Baleares (BaAeapi'Ses, BaAzapt'Ses), also called 
G3miiiesiae {Vvixvnaia:) by the Greeks, 2 islands 
in the Mediterranean, oif the coast of Spain, dis- 
tinguished by the epithets Major and Mmor, 
whence their modern names Majorca and Minorca. 
They were early kno\ra to the Carthaginians, who 
established settlements there for the purposes of 
trade ; they afterwards received colonies from 
Rhodes ; and their population was at a later time 
of a verj^ mixed kind. Their inhabitants, also 
called Baleares, were celebrated as slingcrs, and 
were employed as such in the armies of the Car- 
thaginians and Romans. In consequence of their 
piracies they provoked the hostility of the Ro- 
mans, and were finally subdued B. c. 123, hx Q. 
Metellus, who assumed accordingly the surname 
Balearicus. 

Balista, prefect of the praetorians under Va- 
lerian, whom he accompanied to the East. After 
the defeat and capture of that emperor (a. d. 260), 
he rallied a body of Roman troops, and defeated 
the Persians in Cilicia. His subsequent career is 
obscure ; he is mentioned as one of the Thirty Ty- 
rants, and was probably put to death, about 264, 
by Odenathus. 

Bambalio, M. Fulvius, father of Fulvia, the 
wife of yi. Antonius, the triumvir, received the 
nickname of Bambalio on account of a hesitancy in 
his speech. 

BambycG. [Hierapolis]. 

Banasa (Ma mora ? Ru.), a city of Mauretania 
Tingitana, on the river Subur (Sebou), near the 
W. coast : a colony imder Augustus. 



Bandusiae Pons (Sajnbuco), a fountain in 
Apulia, 6 miles from Venusia. (Hor. Cunn. iii. 13.) 

Bantia (Bantinus ; Banzi or Vanzi)., a town in 
Apulia, near Venusia, in a woody district {saltus 
Bayitini, Hor. Cunn. iii. 4. 15). 

Barbana (Bojajia), a river in Illyria, flows 
through the Palus Labeatis. 

Barbari {Bdp§zpoi), the name given by the 
Greeks to all foreigners, whose language was not 
Greek, and who were therefore regarded by the 
Greeks as an inferior race. The Romans applied 
the name to all people, who spoke neither Greek 
nor Latin. 

Barbaria. [Azania.J 

Barbatio, commander of the household troops 
under Gallus, whom he arrested by command of 
Constantius, a. d. 354. In 355 he Avas made 
general of the infantry, and sent into Gaul to assist 
Julian against the Alemanni. He was put to death 
by Constantius in 359. 

Barbatus, M. Horatius, consul b. c. 449 with 
Valerius Publicola after the overthrow of the de- 
cemvirs. [Plblicola.] 

Barbosthenes, a mountain E. of Sparta. 

Barbula, Aemilius. 1. Q., consul b. c. 317, 
when he subdued Apulia, and consul again in 311, 
when he fought against the Etruscans. —2. L., 
consul in 281, carried on war against the Taren- 
tincs, Samnites, and Sallentines. — 3. M., consul 
in 230, carried on war against the Ligurians. 

Barca, the surname of Hamilcar, the father of 
Hannibal, is probably the same as the Hebrew 
Barak, which signifies lightning. His family was 
distinguished subsequently as the "Barcine family," 
and the democratical party, which supported this 
family, as the " Barcine party." 

Barca or -e (Bap/crj : BapidTt^s, BapKa7os, Bar- 
caeus). 1. (Merje/i, Ru.), the second city of Cy- 
renaica, in N.Africa, 100 stadia (10 geog. miles) 
from the sea, appears to have been at first a set- 
tlement of a LibA'an tribe, the Barcaei, but about 
B. c. 560 was colonized by the Greek seceders 
from C\Tene, and became so powerful as to 
make the W. part of C^Tenaica virtually inde- 
pendent of the mother cit}-. In B. c. 510 it was 
taken by the Persians, who removed most of its 
inhabitants to Baclria, and under the Ptolemies 
its ruin was completed by the erection of its port 
into a new city, which was named Ptolemais, 
and which took the place of Barca as one of the 
cities of the Cyrenaic Pentapolis. — 2. A town in 
Bactria peopled by the removed inhabitants of the 
C}Tenaic Barca. 

Barciuo (Barcelona), a town of the Laeetani, in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, afterwards a Roman co- 
lony : the town was not large, but it possessed an 
excellent harbour. 

Bardanes. [Arsaces XXI.] 

Bardylis or Bardyllis (BapSuAu, BdpBvX\i5\ 
an Illyrian chieftain, carried on frequent wars with 
the Macedonians, but was at length defeated and 
slain in battle by Philip, the father of Alexander k 
the Great, B. c. 359. l 

Barea Soranus, consul sulfectus in a. d. 52 ' 
under Claudius, and afterwards proconsul of Asia,' 
was a man of justice and integrity. He was ao- y 
cused of treason in the reign of Nero, ;md was ; 
condemned to death together with his daughter ^ 
Servilia. The chief witness against him was P. 
Egnatius Celer, a Stoic philosopher, and the teachtf 
of Soranus. (See Juv. iii. 116.) 



BARGUSII. 



BATO. 



117 



Bargusii, a people in the N.E. of Spain, be- 
tween the Pyrenees and the Iberus. 

Barium (Barinus : Bari)^ a town in Apulia, on 
the Adriatic, a municipium, and celebrated for its 
fisheries (Barhm jnscosum. Hot. Sat. i. 5. 97). 

Barsaentes (Bapaaeyrris) or Barzaentus (Bap- 
(aei/Tos), satrap of the Arachoti and Drangae, took 
part in the mnrder of Darius III., and afterwards 
fled to India, where he Avas seized by the inhabit- 
ants and delivered up to Alexander, who put him 
to death. 

Barsine (BapatVr?). 1. Daughter of Artabazus, 
and Avife of Memnon the Rhodian, subsequently 
married Alexander the Great, to whom she bore a 
son, Hercules. She and her son were put to death 
by Polysperchon in 309. — 2. Also called Statira, 
elder daughter of Darius III., whom Alexander 
married at Susa, B.C. 324. Shortly after Alex- 
ander's death she was murdered by Roxana. 

Basanitis. [Batanaea.] 

Basilia (Basel or Bale), a town on the Rhine, 
in the neighbom-hood of which Valentinian built a 
fortress. 

Basilina, the mother of Juli;in the apostate, 
being the second wife of Julius Constantius, brother 
of Constantine the Great. 

Basilius, commonly called Basil the Great, was 
born A. V. 329, at Caesarea. He studied at An- 
tioch or Constantinople under Libanius, and subse- 
quently continued his studies for 4 years (351 — 
355) at Athens, chiefly under the sophists Hime- 
rius and Proaeresius. Among his fellow-students 
were the emperor Julian and Gregory Nazianzen, 
the latter of whom became his most intimate friend. 
After acquiring the greatest reputation as a student 
for his knowledge of rhetoric, philosophj', and 
science, he returned to Caesarea, where he began 
to plead causes, but soon abandoned his profession 
and devoted himself to a religious life. Pie now 
led an ascetic life for many years ; he was elected 
bishop of Caesarea in 370 in place of Eusebius ; he 
died in 379. — The best edition of his works is by 
Gamier, Paris, 1721—1730. 

Basilus, L. Minucius, served under Caesar in 
Gaul, and commanded part of Caesar's fleet in the 
civil war. He was one of Caesar's assassins (b.c. 
44), and in the following year was murdered by 
liis own slaves. 

Bassareus (Bacraapevs), a surname of Dionysus, 
probably derived from fiaaaapis, a fox-skin, worn 
by the god himself and the Maenads in Thrace. 

Bassus, Aufidius, an orator and historian under 
Augustus and Tiberius, wrote an account of the 
Roman wars in Germany, and a work upon Roman 
history of a more general character, Avhich was 
continued in 31 books by the elder Pliny. 

Bassus, Q. CaeciliuSj a Roman cques, and an 
adherent of Pompey, fled to Tyre alter the battle 
of Pharsalia B. c. 48. Shortly afterwards he ob- 
tained possession of Tyre, and was joined by most 
of the troops of Sex, Caesar, the governor of Syria, 
who had been killed by his own soldiers at the in- 
stigation of Bassus. He subsequently settled down 
in Apamea, where he maintained himself for 3 
years (46- — 43) against C. Antistius Vetus, and 
afterwards against Statins Murcus and Marcius 
Crispus. On the arrival of Cassius in Syria in 43, 
the troops of Bassus went over to Cassius. 

Bassus, Caesius, a Roman lyric poet, and a 
friend of Persius, who addresses his 6tli satire to 
liim, was destroyed along with his villa in A. D. 79 



by the eruption of Vesuvius which overwhelmed 
Herculaneum and Pompeii. 

Bassus, Saleius, a Roman epic poet of consi- 
derable merit, contemporary with Vespasian. 

Bastarnae or Bastemae, a warlike German 
people, who migrated to tlio country near the 
mouth of the Danube. They are first mentioned 
in the wars of Philip and Perseus against the 
Romans, and at a later period they frequently de- 
vastated Thrace, and were engaged in wars with the 
Roman governors of the province of Macedonia. 
In B. c. 30, they were defeated by M. Crassus, 
and driven across the Danube ; and we find them, 
at a later time, partly settled between the Tyras 
{Dneister) and Borysthenes {Dnieper), and partly 
at the mouth of the Danube, under the name of 
Peucini, from their inhabiting the island of Pence, 
at the mouth of this river. 

Bastitani (also Bastetaai, Eastuli), a people 
in Hispania Baetica on the coast. 

Batanaea or Basanitis {Barava7a, BacravlTis-. 
0. T. Bashan, Basan), a district of Palestine, E. of 
the Jordan, extending from the river Jabbok on 
the S. to Mt. Hermon, in the Antilibanus chain, 
on the N. The S and t are mere dialectic va- 
rieties. 

Batavi or Batavi, a Celtic people who aban- 
doned their homes in consequence of civil dis- 
sensions, before the time of Julius Caesar, and 
settled in the island formed by the Rhine, the 
Waal, and the Maas, which island was called 
after them Insula Batavorum. They were for a 
long time allies of the Piomans in their wars 
against the Germans, and were of great service to 
the former by their excellent cavalry ; but at 
length, exasperated by the oppressions of the Ro- 
man officers, they rose in revolt under Claudius 
Civiiis, in a. d. 69, and were with great difficulty 
subdued. On their subjugation, they were treated 
by the Romans Avith mildness, and were exempt 
from taxation. Their country, which also extended 
beyond the island S. of the Maas and the Waal, 
was called, at a later time, Eatavia. Their chief 
towns were Lugdunum {Leijdcn) and Batavodurum^ 
between the Maas and tlie Waal. The Canine- 
fates or Camiinefates were a branch of the Batavi, 
and dwelt in the W. of the island. 

Batavodurum. [Batavi.] 

Bathycles (Ba0yKAf/s), a celebrated artist of 
Magnesia on the Maeander, constructed for the 
Lacedaemonians the colossal throne of the Amy- 
claean Apollo. Pie probably flourished about the 
time of Solon, or a little later, 

Eathyllus. 1. Of Samos, a beautiful youth 
beloved by Anacreon, -»= 2. Of Alexandria, the 
freedman and favourite of Maecenas, brought to per- 
fection, together with Pylades of Cilicia, the imita- 
tive dance or ballet called Pantomimus. Bathyllus 
excelled in comic, and Pylades in tragic personifi- 
cations, 

Batliae (Bdrvai : Barvalos). 1. {Sarvj)^ a 
city of Osroene in Mesopotamia, E, of the Eu- 
phrates, and S.W. of Edessa, at about equal dis- 
tances ; founded by the Macedonians, and taken 
by Trajan ; celebrated for its annual fair of Indian 
and Syrian merchandize.™ 2. {DaJiab), a city of 
Cyrrhestice, in Syria, between Beroea and Hiera- 
polis. 

Eato (BaTcou). 1. The charioteer of Amphia- 
raus, Avas SAvallowed up by the earth along Avith 
[ AMriiiARAUS. — 2. The name of 2 leader? of thft 



118 BATTIADAE. 
Pannonians and Dalmatians in their insurrection 
in the reign of Augustus, A. D. 6. Tiberius and 
Germanicus were both sent against them, and ob- 
tained some advantages over them, in consequence 
of which the Pannonians and Dahnatians concluded 
a peace with the Romans in 8. But the peace was 
of short duration. The Dalmatian Bato put his 
namesake to death, and renewed the war. Tibe- 
rius now finally subdued Dalmatia ; Bato surren- 
dered to him in 9 upon promise of pardon ; he 
accompanied Tiberius to Italy, and. his life was 
spared. 

Battiadae (BaTTidSai), kings of C3Tcne during 
8 generations. L Battus I., of Thera, led a colony 
to Africa at the command of the Delphic oracle, 
and founded Cyrene about B. c. 631. He was the 
first king of Cyrene, his government was gentle 
and just, and after his death in 599 ho was wor- 
shipped as a hero. ■=-2. Arcesilatis I., son of 
No. 1, reigned b. c. 599— 583. »- 3. Battus II., 
sumamed " the Happy," son of No. 2, reigned B. c. 
583 — 560 ? In his reign, Cyrene received a great 
number of colonists from various parts of Greece ; 
and in consequence of the increased strencrth of his 
kingdom Battus was able to subdue the neigh- 
bouring Libyan tribes, and to defeat Apries, king 
of Egypt (570), who had espoused the cause of the 
Libyans. — 4. Arcesilaus II., son of No. 3, sur- 
named the Oppressive," reigned about B. c. 560 
— 550. In consequence of dissensions between 
himself and his brothers, the latter withdrew from 
Cyrene, and founded Barca. He was strangled by 
his brother or friend, Learchus. —5. Battus III,, 
or " the Lame," son of No, 4, reigned about B. c. 
550 — 530. In his time, Demonax, a Mantinean, 
gave a nev/ constitution to the city, whereby the 
royal power was reduced within very narrow limits. 
— 6. Arcesilaus III., son of No. 5, reigned about 
B.C. 530 — 514, was driven from Cyrene in an at- 
tempt to recover the ancient royal privileges, but 
recovered his kingdom with the aid of Samian 
auxiliaries. He endeavoured to strengthen liiraself 
by making submission- to Cambyses in 525. He 
was, however, again obliged to leave Cyrene ; he 
fled to Alazir, king of Barca, whose daughter he 
had married, and was there slain by the Barcaeans 
and some Cyrenaean exiles. —7. Battus IV., 
probably son of No. 6. of whose life we have no 
accounts. — 8. Arcesilaus IV., probably son of 
No. 7, whose victory in the chariot-race at the Py- 
thian games, B. c. 466, is celebrated by Pindar in 
his 4th and 5th Pythian odes. At his death, 
about 450, a popular government was established. 

Battus (BctTTos), a rhepherd v/bom Hermes 
turned into a stone, beca*. se he broke a promise 
which he made to the god. 

Batulum, a town in Campania of uncertain site. 

Baucis. [Philemon.] 

Bauli {Dacolo), a collection of villas rather th:in 
a town, between Misenum and Baiae in Campania. 

Bavius and Maevius, 2 malevolent poetasters, 
who attacked the poetry of Virgil and Horace. 

Bazira or Bezira {BdCipa : Bd^ipoi : Bajour, 
N.W. of Peshcnciir), a city in the Paropamisus, 
taken by Alexander on his march into India. 

Bebryces (Begpwes). 1. A mythical people in 
Bithynia, said to be of Thracian origin, whose 
king, Amycus, slew Pollux [p. 76, a.]. — 2. An an- 
cient Iberian people on the coast of the Mediterra- 
nean, N. and S. of the Pyrenees : they possessed 
ntunei-ous herds of cattle. 



BELLEROPHON. 




Bedriacum, a small place in Cisalpine Gaul 
between Cremona and Veronn, celebrated for the 
defeat both of Otho and of the Vitellian troops, 
A, D. 69. 

Eelbiria (Be\€Lva: BeXSi viTTjs'). 1. (iSZ. Geovfjc 
(TArbori)^ an island in the Aegaean sea, off the S. 
coast of Attica. — 2, See Belemi.n'a. 

Belemina (BeAe^fm), also called Bclmina and 
Belhina^ a town in the N.W. of Laconia, on the 
borders of Arcadia. The surrounding district was 
called BdmiiiulLs and Bclbinatis. 

Belesis or Eelesys (BeAecrjs, Be'\€o-u$), a Chal- 
daean priest at Babylon, who is said, in conjunc- 
tion v/ith Arbaces, the Mede, to have overthrown 
the old Assyrian empire. [Arbaces.] Belcsi 
afterwards received the satrapy of Babylon froi, 
Arbaces. 

Eelgae, one of the 3 great people, into whicii 
Caesar divides the population of Gaul. They were 
bounded on the N. by the Rhine, on the W. by 
the ocean, on the S. by the Sequana {Seine) and 
]\Iatrona (J/cr/is), and on the E. by the territory- 
of the Treviri. They were of German origin, and 
had settled in the country, expelling or reducing 
to subjection the former inhabitants. They were 
the bravest of the inhabitants of Gaul, were 
subdued by Caesar after a coiuageous resist- 
ance, and were the first Gallic people who threv,' 
off the Roman dominion. The Belgae were sub- 
divided into the tribes of the Nervii, Bellovaci, 
Re.iii, Suessiones, Mcrini, Menapii, Adua- 
Tici, and others ; and the collective forces of the 
whole nation were more than a million. 

Eelgica [Gallia.] 

Eelgium, the name generally applied to the terri- 
tory of the Bellovaci, and of the tribes dependent 
upon the latter, namely, the Atrebates, Ambiani, 
Velliocasses, Aulerci, and Caleti. Belgium did not 
include the v/hole country inhabited by theBelgac, 
for we find the Nervii, Pi,emi, &c., expressl}' ex- 
cluded from it. (Caes. B. G. v. 24.) 

Belisarius, the greatest general of Justinian, 
was a native of Illyria and of mean extraction. In 
A. D. 534, he overthrew the Vandal kingdom in 
Africa, which had been established by Genseric 
about 100 years previously, and took prisoner the 
Vandal king, Gelimer, whom he led in triumph to 
Constantinople. In 535 — 540, Belisarius carried 
on war against the Goths in Italy, and conquered 
Sicih', but he was readied by the jealousy of 
Justinian. In 541 — 544 he again carried on war 
against the Goths in Italj-, but v.'as again recalled 
by Justinian, leaving his victories to be completed 
b}' his rival Narses in the complete overthrow of 
the Gothic kingdom, and the establishment of the 
exarchate of Ravenna. The last victory of Beli- 
sarius was gained in repelling an inroad of the 
Bulgarians, 559. In 563 he was accused of a con- 
spiracy against the life of Justinian ; according to 
a popular tradition, he was deprived of his pro- 
perty, liis eyes were put out, and he wandered as 
a beggar through Constantinople ; but according to 
the more authentic account, he was merely impri- 
soned for a year in his own palace, and then re- 
stored to his honours. He died in 565. 

BeUerophon or Eellerophontes {Be\\epo(pS!>- 
or BsXKepocpovTTjs), son of the Corinthian king 
Glaucus and Eurvmede, and grandson of Sisj'phus, 
was originally called Hipponous, and received the 
name Bellerophon from slaying the Corinthian Bel- 
lerus. To be purified from the murder he fled to 



BELLI. 



BERENICE. 



119 



Proetus, whose wife Antea fell in love witli the 
voung hero ; but as her offers Avere rejected by 
"him, she accused hirn to her husband of having 
made improppt proposals to her. Proetus, unwil- 
ling to kill him with his own hands, sent him to 
his father-in-law, lobates, king of Lycia, with a 
letter in which the latter was requested to put the 
young man to death. lobates accordingly sent 
him to kill the monster Chimaera, thinking that 
he was sure to perish in the contest. After ob- 
taining possession of the winged horse, Pegasus, 
Bellerophori rose with him in the air, and killed 
the Chimaera with his arrows. lobates, thus dis- 
appointed, sent Bellerophon against the Solymi and 
next against the Amazons. In these contests he 
was also victorious ; and on his return to Lycia, 
being attacked by the bravest Lycians, whom 
lobates had placed in ambush for the purpose, Bel- 
lerophon slew them all. lobates, now seeing that it 
was hopeless to kill the hero, gave him his daughter 
(Philonoe, Anticlea, or Cassandra) in marriage, and 
made him his successor on the throne. Bellerophon 
became the father of Isander, Hippolochus, and 
Laodamia. At last Bellerophon drew upon him- 
self the hatred of the gods, and, consumed by grief, 
wandered lonely through the Aleian field, avoiding 
the paths of men. This is all that Homer sa3's 
respecting Bellerophon's later fate : some traditions 
related that he attempted to fly to heaven upon 

, Pegasus, but that Zeus sent a gad-fly to sting 
the horse, which threw off the rider upon the earth, 

i Avho became lame or blind in consequence. (Hor. 

' Carm. iv. 11. 26.) 

Belli, a Celtiberian people in Hispauia Tarra- 
conensis. 

Beilona, the Roman goddess of war, was pro- 
bacy a Sabine divinity. She is frequently men- 
tioned by the Roman poets as the companion of 
Mars, or even as his sister or his wife, and is 
described as armed Avith a bloody scourge. ( Virg. 
Ae7i.\m. 703). During the Samnite wars, in B.C. 
296, App. Claudius Caecus vowed a temple to her, 
, which was erected in the Campus Martius. Her 
i priests, called Bellonarii^ wounded their oa\ti arms 
1 or legs when they offered sacrifices to her. 
; Bellovaci, the most powerful of the Belgae, 
\ dwelt in the modern Beazivais, between the Seine, 
; Oise, Somme, and Bresle. In Caesar's time they 
: could bring 100,000 men into the field, but they 
i were subdued by Caesar with the other Belgae. 
; Belon or Baelon (BeXdop, Ba«Ac6v, nv. Bolonia, 
■ Ru.), a sea-port town in Hispania Baetica on a 
river of the same name (now Barbate), the usual 
place for crossing over to Tingis in Mauretania. 
Eelus (BrjAos), son of Poseidon and Libya or 
j Eurynome, twin- brother of Agenor, and father of 
'. Aegyptus and Danaus. He was believed to be 
the ancestral hero and national divinity of several 
! eastern nations, from whom the legions about him 
I were transplanted to Greece and there became 
j mixed up with Greek myths. 
! Eelus (BriXos : Nahr Naman), a river of Phoe- 
nicia, rising at the foot of M. Carmel, and falling 
; into the sea close to the S. of Ptolemais {Acre), 
celebrated for the tradition that its fine sand first 
led the Phoenicians to the invention of glass. 

Benacns Lacus {Lago di Garda), a lake in the 
X. of Italy (Gallia Transpadana), out of which 
the Mincius flows. 

Beneventum {Bencvento), a town in Samnium 
on the Appia Via, at the junction of the two val- 



leys, through which the Sabatus and Calor flow, 
formerly called Maleventum on account, it is said, 
of its bad air. It was one of the most ancient 
towns in Italy, having been founded, according to 
tradition, by Diomede. In the Samnite wars it 
was subdued by the Romans, who sent a colony 
thither in b. c. 268, and changed its name Male- 
ventum into Beneventum. It Avas colonized a 
second time by Augustus, and was hence called 
Colonia Julia Concordia Augusta Felice. The mo- 
dern town has several Roman remains, among 
others a triumphal arch of Trajan. 

Berecjutia (Bepe/cui'Tta), a surname of Cybele, 
which she derived from Mt. Berecyntus where 
she was worshipped. 

Berenice (Bepez^i'/c?]), a Macedonic form of 
Pherenlce {<^speviK7i), i. e. " Bringing Victory." — 
1. First the wife of an obscure Macedonian, and 
afterwards of Ptolemy I. Soter, who fell in love 
with her when she came to Egypt in attendance 
on his bride Eurydice, Antipater's daughter. She 
was celebrated for her beauty and virtue, and was 
the mother of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. — 2. 
Daughter of Ptolemy II, Philadelphus, and wife 
of Antiochus Theos, king of Syria, who divorced 
Laodice in order to marrj'- her, b. c. 249. On the 
death of Ptolemy, b. c. 247, Antiochus recalled 
Laodice, Avho notwithstanding caused him to be 
poisoned, and murdered Berenice and her son. — 3. 
Daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, and Avife of 
Ptolemy III. Euergetes. She Avas put to death by 
her son Ptolemy IV. Philopator on his accession to 
the throne, 22 1 . The famous hair of Berenice, Avhich 
she dedicated for her husband's safe return from his 
Syrian expedition in the temple of Arsinoe at Zephy- 
rium, was said to have become a constellation. It 
Avas celebrated by Callimachus in a poem, of Avhich 
Ave have a translation by Catullus. •= 4. Othcrv/ise 
called Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy VIII. La- 
thynis, succeeded her father on the throne, B. c. 
81, and married Ptolemy X. (Alexander II.), but 
Avas murdered by her husband 19 days after her 
marriage. ~=5. Daughter of Ptolemy XI. Auletes, 
and eldest sister of the famous Cleopatra, was 
placed on the throne by the Alexandrines Avhen 
they drove out her father, B. c. 58. She next mar- 
ried Arclielaus, but Avas put to death Avith her hus- 
band, Avhen Gabinius restored Auletes, 55.-6. 
Sister of Herod the Great, married Aristobulus, 
Avho was put to death, B. c. 6. She afterwards 
Avent to Rome, Avhere she spent the remainder of 
her life. She Avas the mother of Agrippa I. — 7. 
Daughter of Agrippa I., married her uncle Herod, 
king of Chalcis, by Avhom she had 2 sons. After 
the death of Herod, a. d. 48, Berenice, then 20 
years old, lived with her brother Agrippa II., not 
Avithout suspicion of an incestuous commerce Avith 
him. She gained the Ioa'c of Titus, Avho Avas only 
Avithheld from making her his Avife by fear of 
offending tiie Romans by such a step. 

Berenice (Bepej/i'/cr? : BepeviKevs). the name of 
several cities of the period of the Ptolemies. 1. 
Formerly Eziongeber (Ru. nr. Ahabah), in Arabia, 
at the head of the Sinus Aelanites, or E. branch of 
the Red Sea,"»-»3. In Upper Egypt (for so it Avas 
considered, though it lay a little S. of the parallel 
of Syene), on the coast of the Red Sea, on a gulf 
called Sinus Immundus {aKaQaprus koXttos, noAv 
Foul Bay), Avhere its ruins are still visible. It 
Avas named after the mother of Ptolemy II. Phila- 
I delphus, who built it, and made a road hence to 

I 4 



120 



BERGISTANI. 



BIDULUS. 



Coptos, so that it became a cliief enipoiium for the 
commerce of Ep^ypt with Arabia and India. Under 
the Romans it was the residence of a praefectus.—- 
3. B. Panchxysos (B. Trdyxpva-os or tj Kara 2a- 
€as), on the Re i Sea coast in Acthiopia, consider- 
ably S. of the above. — 4. B. Epidires (B. eV) 
Aetp/js), on tlie Prom. Dira, on the W. side of 
the entrance to the Red Sea [Straiis of Buh-el- 
Mojuleh). 5. (Ben Ghazi\ Ru.), in Cyrenaica, 
formerly Hesperis {'Ea-irepls), the fabled site of the 
Gardens of the Ilesperides. It took its later name 
from the wife of Ptolemy III. Euerirctes. and was 
the W.-most of the 5 cities of the Lybiau Penta- 
polis. — There were other cities of the name, 

Bergistani, a peophj in the N. E. of Spain be- 
tween the Iberus and the Pyrenees, whose capital 
was Bergium. 

Bergomum (BergomnS. -atU : Bergamo), a town 
of the Orobii in Gallia Cisalpiiia, between Comum 
and Brixia, afterwards a municipium. 

Beroe (Bept^rji, a Trojan woman, wife of Dory- 
clus, one of the companions of Aeneas, whose form 
Iris assumed when she persuaded the women to 
set fire to the ships of Aeneas in Sicily. 

Beroea (Be'poia, also Beppoia, Bepdrj : Bepoieus, 
Bfpoialos). 1. ( Vern'a), one of the most ancient 
towns of Macedonia, on one of the lower ranges of 
Mt. Bermius, and on the Astraeus, a tributary of 
the Haliacmon, S.W. of Pella, and about 20 miles 
from the sea. —2. (Beria)^ a town in the interior 
of Thrace, was under the later Roman empire, 
together with Philippopolis, one of the most impor- 
tant military posts. — 3. (Aleppo or I/alel), a 
town in Syria near Antioch, enlarged by Seleucus 
Nicator. who gave it the Macedonian name of Be- 
roea. It is called Helbo7i or Chelbon in Ezekicl 
(xxvii. 18), and Chalep in the Byzantine writers, 
a name still retained in the modern Halcb, for 
v.-hich Europeans have substituted Aleppo. 

Berdsus (BripwaSs or B-qpcaaaos), a priest of 
Belus at Babylon, lived in the rci;rn of Antioch us 
II. (b. c. 261 — 246), and wrote in Greek a history 
of Babylonia, in ?> books (called BaSuAwj/nca, ai:;I i 
sometimes XaASai'/ca or larop'iai "KaKZaiiiai). It] 
embraced the earliest traditions about the human 
race, a description of Babylonia and its population, 
and a chronological list of its kings down to the 
time of the great Cyrus. Berosus says that he 
derived the materials for his work from the ar- 
chives in the temple of Behas. The work itself is 
lost, but considerable fragments of it are preserved 
in Josephus, Eusebius. Syncellus, and the Christian 
fathers : the best editions of the fragments are by 
Richter, Lips. 1825, and in Didot's Franmcnta 
Hisioi'icoruia Graecorum, vol. ii. Paris, 184<). 

Ber^TlS (BTjpurds : B-npvTLos : Beirut, Ru.), 
one of the oldest sea-ports of Phoenicia, stood on a 
promontory near the mouth of the river Magoras 
{Nahr Beirut), half waj' between Byblus and 
Sidon. It was destroyed by the Syrian king Try- 
phon (b. c. 140), and restored by Agrippa under 
Augustus, v.-ho made it a colony. It afterwards 
became a celebrated scat of learning. 

Besa. [Antixoopolis.] 

Bessi, a fierce and powerful Thracian people, who 
dwelt along the whole of u\It. Haemus as far ;is the 
Euxin?, After the conqu?st of Macedonia by the 
Romans (e. c, 168), the Bessi were attacked by 
the latter, and subdued after a severe struggle. 

Bessus {Briaaos), satrap of Bactria under Da- 
rius III., seized Darius soon after the battle of 



Arbela, B.C. Z?A . Pursued by Alexander in the 
following year, Bessus put Darius to death, and 
fled to Bactria, where he assumed the title of king. 
He was b trayed by two of his followers to Alex- 
ander, who put him to death. 

Bestia, Calpurnius. 1. L., tribune of the plebs, 
n. c. 121. and consul 1 11, when he carried on war 
against Jugurtha, but having received large bribes 
he concluded a peace with the Numidian. On his 
return to Rome he was in consequence accused 
and condemned. — 2. L., one of the Catilinarian 
cons])irators, B. c. Go, was at the time tribune of 
the plebs designatus, and not actually tribune as 
Sallust says. In 59 he was aedile, and in 57 was 
an unsuccessful candidate for the praetorship, not- 
withstanding his bribery, for which offence he was 
brought to trial in the following year and condemned, 
although he was defended by Cicero. 

Betasli, a people in Gallia Belgica, between the 
Tungri and Nervii in the neighbourhood of Bectz 
in Brabant. 

Bezira. [Bazira.] 

Bianor. 1. Also called Ocnus or Aucnus, son 
of Tiberis and Manto, is said to have built the 
iown. of Mantua, and to have called it after his 
motlier. — 2. A Bitliynian, the author of, 21 epi- 
grams in the Greek Anthologj', lived under Augus- 
tus and Tiberius. 

Bias (Bias). 1. Son of Amythaon, and brother 
of the seer Melampus. He married Pero, daughter 
of Neleus, v/hom her father had refused to give 
to any one unices he brought him the oxen of 
Ipliiclus. Those IMelampus obtained by his courage 
and skill, and so won the princess for his brother. 
Melampus also gained for Bias a third of the king- 
dom of Argos, in consequence of his curing the 
daughters of Proetus and the other Argive women 
of their madness. — 2. Of Priene in lon'a, one of 
the Seven Sages of Greece, flourished about B. c. 
550. 

Bibaculus, M. Furius, a Roman poet, born at 
Cremona, B.C. 10.">, wrote iambics, epigrams, and 
a poem on Caesar's Gaulish wars ; the opening 
line in the latter poem is parodied by Plorace. 
(F/irius hiienias cajia nive conspuet Alpes, Sat. ii. 
5. 41.) It is probable that Bibaculus also wrote a 
poem entitled AetJdopis, containing an account of 
the death ol' Memnon by Achilles, and that the 
turgidus Alpinus of Horace {Sat. i. 10. '36) is no 
other than Bibaculus. The attacks of Horace 
against Bibaculus ma}- probably be owing to the 
fact that the pooms of Bibaculus contained insults 
against the Caesars. (Tac. Ann. iv. 34.) 

Bibracte (Auiun), the chief town of the Aedui 
in Gallia Lugdunensis, aheTWcivds Atifftistodunuin. 

Bibrax (Bicvre), a town of the Remi in Gallia 
Belgica, not far from the Aisne. 

Bibiilus Calpurnius. I.M., curule aedile b.c. 
65, praetor 62, and constil 59, in each of which 
years he had C. Julius Caesar as his colleague. He 
was a staunch adherent of the aristocratical party, 
but was unable in his consulship to resist the 
powerful combination of Caesar, Pompey, and 
Crassus. After an ineffectual attempt to oppose 
Caesar's agrarian law, he withdrew from the 
popular assemblies altogether ; whence it was said 
in joke, that it was the consulship of Julius 
and Caesar. In 51 Bibulus was proconsul of Syria ; 
and in the civil war he commanded Pompey's 
fleet in the Adriatic, and died (48) while holding 
this command off Corcyra, He married Porcia, 



BIDTS. 



BLAESUS. 



121 



the dangliter of Cato Uticensis, by whom he had 
o sons, 2 of whom were murdered by the soldiers of 
Gabinius, in Egypt, 50. — 2. L., son of No. 1 , Avas 
a youth at his father's death, and was brought up 
by M. Brutus, who married his mother Porcia. He 
fought with Brutus at the battle of Philippi in 42, 
but he was afterwards pardoned by Antony, and 
was intrusted by the latter with important com- 
mands. He died shortly before the battle of 
Actium. 

Bidis (Bidinus, Bidensis), a small town in Si- 
cily, W. of Syracuse. 

Bigerra (Becerra?), a town of the Oretani in 
Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Bigerriones or Bigerri, a people in Aquitania 
near the Pyrenees. 

Eilbilis (Baubola), a town of the Celtiberi in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, and a municipiura with 
the surname Augusta, on the river Salo, also called 
Bilbilis (Xalon), was the birth-place of the poet 
Martial, and was celebrated for its manufactories 
in iron and. gold. 

Billaeus {Bi\\a7os : Filbas), a river of Bithy- 
nia, rising in the Hypii M., and falling into the 
Pontus Euxinus 20 stadia (2 geog. miles) E. of 
Tium. Some made it the boundary between 
Bithynia and Paphlagonia. 

Bingium (Bingen), a town on the Rhine in 
Gallia Belgica. 

Bl5ll (BtW), 1. Of Smyrna, a bucolic poet, 
flourished about B- c. 280, and spent the last years 
of his life in Sicily, where he was poisoned. He 
was older than Moschus, who laments his untimely 
death, and calls himself the pupil of Bion. (Mosch. 
Id. iii.) The style of Bion is refined, and his 
versification fluent and elegant, but he is inferior 
to Theocritus in strength and depth of feeling. — 
Udilions, including Moschus, by Jacobs, Gotha, 
1795 ; Wakefield, London, 1795 ; and Manso, 
Leipzig, 1807. — 2. Of Borysthenes, near the 
mouth of the Dnieper, flourished about B. c. 250. 
Pie was sold as a slave, when young, and received 
his liberty from his master, a rhetorician. He 
studied at Athens, and embraced the later Cyrenaic 
philosophy, as expounded by Theodorus, the 
Atheist. He lived a considerable time at the 
court of Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia. 
Bion was noted for his sharp sayings, whence 
Horace speaks of persons delighting Bioneis ser- 
monihus et sale nigro. {Epist. ii. 2. 60.) 

Bisaltia (Bio-aATi'a : BicraArTjs), a district in 
Macedonia on the W. bank of the Strymon. The 
Bisaltae were Thracians, and at the invasion of 
Greece by Xerxes (b. c. 480) they were ruled by 
a Thracian prince, who was independent of Mace- 
donia ; but at the time of the Peloponnesian war 
we find them subject to Macedonia. 

Bisanthe {BiadvQy] : 'Qiaavdrivos : Rodosto), 
subsequently RhaedesUim or Bhaedeslus, a town in 
Thrace on the Propontis, with a good harbour, was 
founded by the Samians, and was in later times 
one of the great bulwarks of the neighbouring 
Byzantium. 

Bistones (Biarwes), a Thracian people between 
Mt. Rhodope and the Aegean sea, on the lake 
Bistonis in the neighbourhood of Abdera, through 
whose land Xerxes marched on his invasion of 
Greece (b. c. 480). — From the worship of Diony- 
sus in Thrace the Bacchic women are called Bis- 
tomdcs. (Hor. Carm. ii. 19. 20). 

Bithynia {BiQwia : BiQwos)^ a district of Asia 



Minor, bounded on the W. by Mysia, on the N. 
by the Pontus Euxinus, on the E. by Paphlagonia, 
and on the S. by Phrygia Epictetus, was possessed 
at an early period by Thracian tribes from the 
neighbourhood of the Strymon, called Thj'ni (©ui/oi) 
and Bith3mi {BiQvvoi), of whom the former dwelt 
on the coast, the latter in the interior. The earlier 
inhabitants were the Bebryces, Caucones, and 
Mygdones, and the N.E. part of the district was 
possessed by the Maria ndyni. The country was 
subdued by the Lydians, and afterwards became a 
part of the Persian empire under Cyrus, and was 
governed by the satraps of Phrygia. During the 
decline of the Persian empire, the N. part of the 
country became independent, under native princes, 
called eirapxoi, who resisted Alexander and his 
successors, and established a kingdom, which is 
usually considered to begin with Zipoetes (about 
B. c. 287) or his son Nicomedes I. (b. c. 278), and 
which lasted till the death of Nicomedes III. (b. c. 
74), who bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. 
By them it was at first attached to the province of 
Asia, afterwards to that of Pontus, and, under 
Augustus, it was made a proconsular province. 
Several changes were made in its boundaries under 
the later emperors. — It was a fertile country, in- 
tersected with wooded mountains, the highets of 
which was the Mysian Olympus, on its S. border. 
Its chief rivers were the Sangarius and the 
Billaeus. 

Bithynium (BiSwioj/), aft. Claudiopolis, au 
inland city of Bithynia, the birth-place of Had- 
rian's favourite Antinoiis. 

Biton (Bira-f), a mathematician, the author of 
an extant work on Military Machines (KaracrKeval 
iroXsfjLiKcbu opyauuv Koi KaTarreXriKcov), whose 
history is unknown. The work is printed in Vet. 
Alathem. Op. Paris, 1693, p. 105, seq. 

Biton and Cleobis {KKioSis), sons of Cydippe, 
a priestess of Hera at Argos. were cele- 

brated for their affection to their mother, whose 
chariot they once dragged during a festival to the 
temple of Hera, a distance of 45 stadia. The 
priestess prayed to the goddess to grant them what 
was best for mortals ; and during the night they 
both died while asleep in the temple. 

Bituitus, in inscriptions Betultus king of 
the Arverni in Gaul, joined the Allobroges in their 
war against the Romans. Both the Arverni and 
Allobroges were defeated B.C. 121, at the confluence 
of the Rhone and the Isara, by Q. Fabius Maximus. 
Bituitus was subsequently taken prisoner and sent 
to Rome. 

Bituriges, a numerous and powerful Celtic peo- 
ple in Gallia Aquitanica, had in early times the 
supremacy over the other Celts in Gaul. (Liv. v. 
34.) They were divided into, 1. Bit. Cubi, sepa- 
rated from the Carnutes and Aedui by the Liger, 
and bounded on the S. by the Lemovices, in the 
country of the modern Buurges ; their capital was 
AvARicuM. 2. Bit. Vivisci or Ubisci on the 
Garumna: their capital was Burdigala, 

Bladus, Blandus, or Blaudus (BAo-, BAa?/-, 
BAaCSos : BKavbr\v6s : Blaudesius), a city of Phry- 
gia, near the borders of Mysia and Lydia. 

Blaesus, C. Sempromus, consul with Cn. Ser- 
vilius Caepio, B. c. 253, in the 1st Punic war. The 
2 consuls sailed to the coast of Africa, and on 
their return were overtaken off" cape Palinurus by a 
tremendous storm, in which 150 ships perished. 

Blaesus, Junius, governor of Pannonia at the 



122 



BLANDA. 



BOETHIUS. 



death of Augustus, a. d. 1 4, Avlien the forniiiluble 
insurrection of the legions broke out in that pro- 
vince. He obtained the government of Africa in 
21, where he gained a victory over Tacfarinas. On 
the fall of his uncle Scjanus in 31. he was deprived 
of the priestly offices which he held, and in 36 put 
an end to his own life, to avoid falling by the 
hand of the executioner. 

Blanda. 1. (Bla/los), a town of the Laeetani in 
Ilispania Tarraconensis. — 2. (St. Biasio), a town 
ill Lucania. 

Blascon (Brescou)^ a small island in the Gallicus 
Sinus, off the town of Agatha. 

Blasio, M. Helvius, praetor b. c. 197, defeated 
the Celtiberi in Spain, and took Illilurgi. 

Blavia {Dlaye)^ a town of the Santones, in 
Gallia Aquitanlca, on the Garumna. 

Blemyes (BAe^wey, BAejUAiues), an Aethiopian 
people, on the borders of Upper Egypt, to which 
their predatory incursions were voiy troublesome 
ill the times of the Roman emperors. 

Blera (Bleranus : Bieda), a town in Etruria, on 
the Via Clodia, between Forum Clodii and Tus- 
cania: there are many remains of the ancient town 
at Bieda. 

Blosins or Slossius, the name of a noble family 
in Campania. — One of this family, C. Blosius of 
Cumae, was a philosopher, a disciple of Antipatcr 
of Tarsus, and a friend of Tib. Gracchus. After 
the death of Gracchus (b. c. 133) he fled to Aris- 
tonicus, king of Pergamus, and on the conquest of 
Aristonicus by the Romans, Blosius put an end to 
his own life for fear of falling into the hands of the 
Romans. 

Boadicea, queen of the Iceni in Britain, having 
been shamefulh- treated by the Romans, who 
even ravished her '2 daughters, excited an insur- 
rection of the Britons against their oppressors 
during the absence of Suetonius Paulinus, the Ro- 
man governor, on an expedition to the island of 
Mona. She took the Roman colonies of Camalo- 
dunum, Londinium, and other places, and slew 
nearl\' 70,000 Romans and their allies. She was 
at length defeated with great loss hj Suetonius 
Paulinus. and put an end to her own life, a. d. 61. 

BoagTlUS (Boa7pios), a river in Locris, also 
called Manes, flows past Thronium into the Sinus 
Maliacus. 

Bocchus (BJkxos). 1. King of Mauretania, 
and father-in-law of Jugurtha, with whom at first 
he made war against the Romans, but whom he 
afterwards delivered up to Sulla, the quaestor of 
Marius, B. c. 106. — 2. Son of the preceding, 
reigiied along vrith his brother Bogud, over Maure- 
tania. Bocchus and Bogud assisted Caesar in his 
war against the Porapcians in Africa, B, c. 4G ; and 
in 45 Bogud joined Caesar in his war in Spain. 
After the murder of Caesar, Bocchus sided with 
Octavianus, and Bogud v\'ith Antony. When 
Bogud was in Spain in 38, Bocchus usurped the 
sole government of Mauretania, in which he was 
confirmed by Octavianus. He died about 33, 
Avhereupon his kingdom became a Roman province. 
Bogud had previously betaken himself to Antony, 
and was killed on the capture of Methone by 
Agrippa in 31. 

Bodencus or Bodincus. [Padus.] 

Bodiocasses, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis : 
their capital was Augusto durum {Bayezuc). 

Bodotria or Boderia Aestuarhun {Firth of 
Forik)^ an aestuary on the E. coast of Scotland. 



Boeae (Bota/: BoiarTjs: Vatka)^ a town in the 
S. of Laconica, near C. Malea. 

BoebB (Boj'gTj : Bojgeus), a town in Pelasgiotis in 
Thessaly, on the W. shore of the lake Boebeis 
(BozgTjts), into which several rivers of Thessalv 
flow. 

Boedromius (Bo775po/iios), " the help?r in dis- 
tress." a sumame of Apollo at Athens, because he 
had assisted the Athenians. {See Diet, of A 7it. 
art. Boedromia.) 

Boeotia (Boiwrta: Boj&>t(5s : part of Livadia), 
a district of Greece, bounded N. by Opuntian 
Locris, E. by the Eubocan sea, S. by Attica, Me- 
garis, and the Corinthian Gulf, and W. by Phocis. 
It is nearly surrounded by mountains, namely 
Helicon and Parnassus on the W., Cithaeron and 
Parnes on the S., the Opuntian mountains on the 
N., and a range of mountains along the whole sea- 
coast on the E. The country contains several 
fertile phiins, of v/hich the two most important 
were the valley of the Asopus in the S., the in- 
habitants of which v/ere called Parosopii, and the 
valley of the Cephissus in the N. (the upper 
part of which, however, belonged to Phocis), the 
inhabitants of which were called Epicephisii. In 
the former valley the chief towns were Thebae, 
TAXAGRA,THESPiAE,and Plataeae ; in the latter 
the chief towns were Orcho.aienmis, Chaerone.a. 
Coronea, Lebadea, and Haliartus ; the latter 
valley included the lake Copais. The surface of 
Boeotia is said to be 1080 square miles. The 
atmosphere was damp and thick, to which circum- 
stance some of the ancients attributed the dullness 
of the Boeotian intellect, with which the Athenians 
frequently made merry ; but the deficiency of the 
Boeotians in this respect was more probabl}'- owing, 
as has been well remarked, to the extraordinary 
fertility of their country, which probabl}' depressed 
their intellectual and moral energies. — In the ear- 
liest times Boeotia v/as inhabited by various tribes, 
the Aoues (whence the countr}' was called Aonia), 
Temniiccs, Hyantes, Thracians, Leleg.'s, &c. Or- 
chomeiius was inhabited by the powerful tribe 
of the Minyans, and Thebes by the Cadmeans, the 
reputed descendants of Cadmus. The Boeotians 
were an Aeolian people, who originally occupied 
Arne in Thessaly, from which they were expelled bj- 
the Thessalians 60 years after the Trojan war, and 
migrated into the country called after them Boeotia, 
partly expelling and partly incorporating with 
themselves the ancient inhabitants of the land. 
Boeotia was then divided into 14 independent 
states, v.'hich formed a league, w-ith Thebes at its 
head. The chief magistrates of the confederac}' 
were the Bceotarchs, elected annually, 2 by 
Thebes and 1 by each of the other states ; but as 
the number of the states was different at different 
times, that of the Boeotarchs also varied. The 
government in most states was an aristocracy. 
(See Did. of Ant. art. Boeotarches.) 

Boetkius, whose full name was Anicius ^Ian- 
Lius Severinus Boethius, a Roman statesman 
and author, was bern betw^een a. D. 470 and 475. 
He was famous for his general learning, and espe- 
cially for his knowledge of Greek philosophy, 
which according to a common account (though of 
doubtful authority), he studied under Proclus at 
Athens. He was consul in 510, and was treated 
with great distinction by Theodoric the Great ; but 
having incurred the suspicions of the latter, by ad- 
vocating the cause of the Italians against the op- 



BOETHUS. 

pressions of the Goths, he was put to death by 
Theodoric about 524. During his imprisonment 
he wrote his celebrated work De Consolatiom PJd- 
losophiae, in 5 books, which is composed alternately 
in prose and verse. The diction is pure and elegant, 
and the sentiments are noble and exalted, showing 
that the author had a real belief in prayer and Pro- 
vidence, though he makes no reference to Christian- 
ity. Boethius was the last Roman of an}^ note who 
understood the language and studied the literature 
of Greece. He translated many of the works of 
the Greek philosophers, especially of Aristotle, and 
wrote commentaries upon them, several of which 
have come down to us. He also v/rote a commen- 
tary, in 6 books, upon the Topica of Cicero, which 
is also extant. In the ignorance of Greek writers 
which prevailed from the 6th to the 14th century, 
Boethius was looked upon as the head and type of 
all philosophers, as Augustin was of all theology 
and Virgil of all litsrature ; but after the introduc- 
tion of the works of Aristotle into Europe m the 
13th century, Boethius 's f ime graduallj' died away. 
— The best editio^i of his collective works was 
printed at Basel, 1570 ; the last edition of his De 
Consolatione is by Obbarius, Jcnae, 1843. 

Boethus (BoTj^o's). 1. A Stoic philosopher of 
uncertain date, wrote several works, from one of 
which Cicero quotes. 2. A Peripatetic philoso- 
pher, was a native of Sidon in Phoenicia, a disciple 
of Andronicus of Rhodes, and an instructor of the 
philosopher Strabo. He therefore flourishe('^ about 
B. c. 30. He wrote several works, all of which are 
noAV lost. 

Soeuin (BoitJv, Boior, BoLov : BozaTTjs), an an- 
cient town of the Dorian Tetrapolis. 

Bogud. [BoccHus, No. 2.] 

Boii, one of the most poworfal of the Celtic 
people, said to have dwelt originally in Gaul 
(Transalpina). but in what part of the country is 
uncertain. At an early time they migrated in 
two great swarms, one of which crossed the Alps 
and settled in the country between the Po and 
the Apennines ; the other crossed the Rhine and 
.settled in the part of Germany called Boihemum 
{Bohemia) after them, and between the Danube 
and the Tyrol. The Boii in Italj^ long carried on 
a fierce struggle with the Romans, but they v/ere at 
length subdued by the consul P. Scipio in b. c. 
191, and were subsequently incorporated in the 
province of Gallia Cisalpina. The Boii in Ger- 
many maintained their power longer, but were at 
length subdued by the Marcomanni, and expelled 
from the country. We find 32,000 Boii taking 
part in the Helvetian migration ; and after the 
defeat of the Helvetians (b. c. 58), Caesar allowed 
these Boii to dwell among the Aedui. 

Boioriz, a chieftain of the Boii, fought against 
the Romans in Cisalpine Gaul, b. c. 194. 

Bola, Bolae or Volae (Bolanus), an ancient 
town of the Aequi, belonging to the Latin league 
not mentioned in later times. 

Bolanus, Vettius, governor of Britain in a. d. 
69, is praised by Statins in the poem {Silv. v. 2), 
addressed to Crispinus, the son of Bolanus. 

Bolb© {B6x§-r] : BesJiek), a lake in Macedonia, 
empties itself by a short river into the Strymonic 
gulf near Bromiscus and i\ulon : the lake is now 
about 12 miles in length, and 6 or 8 in breadth. — 
There was a town of the same name upon the lake. 

Bolbitine (BoAStTj^Tj: BoX§iTLvfiTr]s: Rosetta), 
a city of Lower Egypt, near the m.outh of a branch 



BORBETOMAGUS. 123 

of the Nile (the W.-most but one), which was 
called the Bolbitine mouth (rh Bo\§ltiuuv crTOfxa). 

Eoiine (BoA:V77 : BoA/va?os), a town in Achaia, 
the inhabitants of Avhich Augustus transplanted to 
Patrae. 

Bolissus (BoXiacros : Boklcronos), a town on 
the W. coast of Chios. 

Bomilcar (Bo/^fA/cas, BoafilXicas). 1. Com- 
mander, Avith Hanno, of the Carthaginians against 
Agathocles, when the latter invaded Africa, b. c. 
310. In 308 he attempted to seize the govern- 
ment of Carthage, but failed, and was crucified. 

2. Commander of the Carthaginian supplies sent 
to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, 216. He 
afterwards attempted to relieve Syracuse, when 
besieged by Marcellus, but v/as unable to accom- 
plish any thing, — 3. A Niimidian, deep in the 
confidence of Jugurtha, Wlien Jugurtha was at 
Rome, 109, Bomilcar effected for him the assas- 
sination of Massiva. In 107 he plotted against 
Jugurtha. 

Bomus Ifons (Bwwios and ol Bw/xot), the W. 
part of Mt. Oeta in Aetolia, inhabited by the Bo- 
mienses (Bwfiiels). 

Bona Dea, a Roman divinity, is described as 
the sister, wife, or daughter of Faunus, and was 
herself called Fauna, Fatua^ or Oina. She was 
worshipped at Rome as a chaste and prophetic 
divinity ; she revealed her oracles only to females, 
as Faunus did only to males. Her festival was 
celebrated every year on the 1st of May, in the 
house of the consul or praetor, as the sacrifices on 
that occasion were offered on laehalf of the whole 
Roman people. The solemnities were conducted 
by the Vestals, and no male person was allowed to 
be in the house at one of the festivals. P. Clodius 
profaned the sacred ceremonies, by entering the 
house of Caesar in the disguise of a woman, B.C. 62. 

BonifaciUS, a Roman general, governor of Africa 
under Valentin ian III. Believing that the empress 
Placidia meditated his destruction, he revolted 
against the emperor, and invited Genseric, king of 
the Vandals, to settle in Africa. In 430 he was 
reconciled to Placidia, and attempted to drive the 
Vandals out of Africa, but without success. He 
quitted Africa in 431, and in 432 he died of a 
v/ound received in combat with his rival Aetius. 

Bonna {Bonn), a town on the left bank of the 
Rhine in Lower Germany, and in the territory of 
the Ubii, Avas a strong fortress of the Romans and 
the regular quarters of a Roman legion. Here 
Drusus constructed a bridge across the Rhine. 

Eononia (Bononiensis ). 1. {Boloc/na), a toxvrx 
in Gallia Cispadana, originally called Felsina, was 
in ancient times an Etruscan city, and the capital 
of N. Etruria. It afterwards fell into the hands of 
the Boii, but it Avas colonized by the Romans on 
the conquest of the Boii, B.C. 191, and its name of 
Felsina Avas then changed into Bononia. It fell 
into decay in the civil wars, but it Avas enlarged 
and adorned by Augustus, 32. — 2. {Boulogne) a 
town in the N. of Gaul. See Gesoriacus. 3. 
{Banostor?), a toAvn of Pannonia on the Danube. 

Bonosus, a Spaniard by birth, serA'^ed with dis- 
tinction under Aurelian, and usurped the imperial 
title in Gaul in the reign of Probus. He was de- 
feated and slain by Probus, A, D. 280 or 281. 

Bootes. [Arcturus.] 

Borbetomagus ( Worms), also called Yangiones, 
at a later time Wormatia, a town of the Vangionea 
J on the left bank of the Rhine in Upper Germany. 



BOREAS. 



BRANCHIDAE. 



Boreas (Bope'aj or Bopaj), the N. wind, or more 
strictly the wind from the N.N.E., was, in mytho- 
logy, a son of Astraous and Eos, and brother of 
Hesperus, Zephyrus, and Notns. He dwelt in a 
cave of mount Haenius in Thrace. He cari'ied off 
Orithyia, daughter of Erechthous, king of Attica, 
by whom he begot Zetes, Calais, and Cleopatra, 
wife of Phineus, who are therefore called Boreades. 
In the Persian war, Boreas showed his friendly 
disposition towards the Athenians by destroying 
the ships of the barbarians. According to an 
Homeric tradition (//. xx. 223), Boreas begot 12 
horses by the mares of Erichthonius, which is 
commonly explained as a figurative mode of ex- 
pressing the extraordinary swiftness of those horses. 
Boreas was worshipped at Athens, where a festival, 
Boreasmi, was celebrated in his honour. 

Boreum (Bopeiou). 1. {Malin Head), the 
N. promontory of Hibernia {Ireland). ^2. (Has 
Teyonas), a promontory on the W. coast of Cyre- 
naica, forming the E. headland of the Great Syrtis. 
— 3. The N. extremity of tlie island of Taprobane 
(Ceylon). 

Boreus Itlons (BJ/jewv ^pos), a mountain in Ar- 
cadia, on the borders of Laconia, containing the 
sources of the rivers Alpheus and Eurotas. 

Boreus Portus (^op^Los Kiixiiv), a harbour in 
the island of Tencdos, at the mouth of a river of 
the same name. 

Borsippa (ra Bo'pcrtTrTra: Bopaiinr'qvos : Boursa), 
a city of Babylonia, on tlie W. bank of the Eu- 
phrates, a little S. of Babylon, celebrated for its 
manufactures of linen, and as the chief residence 
of the Chaldaean astrologers. Tlie Greeks held it 
sacred to Apollo and Artemis. 

Borysthenes (BopvaOevris: Dnieper), afterwards 
Danapris, a river of European Sarmatia, flows into 
the Euxine, but its sources were unknown to the 
ancients. Near its mouth and at its junction with 
the Hypanis, lay the town Borysthenes or Bory- 
sthenis (Kudal-), also called Olbia, Olbiopolis, 
and Miletopolis, a colony of jNIiletus, and the most 
important Greek city on the N. of the Euxine. 
(Ethnic, Bopuad£v'iT7}S, 'OA§io7roAm]s.) 

Bosporus (Boa-Topos), Or-ford, the name of 
any straits among the Greeks, but especially applied 
to the 2 following. — 1. The Thracian Bosporus 
(Channel of Co>isla?itlnople), unites the Propontis 
or Sea of Marmora with the Euxine or Black Sea. 
According to the legend it was called Bosporus 
from lo, who crossed it in the form of a heifer. 
At the entrance of the Bosporus were the cele- 
brated SvMPLEGADES. Darius constructed a 
bridge across the Bosporus, when he invaded 
Scythia. — 2, The Cimmerian Bosporus (Straits 
of Kaffa\ unites the Palus Maeotis or Sea of 
Azof with the Euxine or Black Sea. It formed, 
with the Tanais (Don) the boundary between 
Asia and Europe, and it derived its name from the 
CiMiMERii, who were supposed to have dwelt in 
the neighbourhood. On the European side of the 
Bosporus, the modern Crimea, the Milesians founded 
the town of Panticapaeum, also called Bosporus, 
and the inhabitants of Panticapaeum subsequently 
founded the town of Phanagoria on the Asiatic side 
of the Straits. These cities, being favourably si- 
tuated for commerce, soon became places of con- 
siderable importance ; and a kingdom gradually 
arose, of which Panticapaeum was the capital, and 
which eventually included the whole of the Crimea. 
The first kings we read of were the Archaeanac- 



tidae, who reigned 42 years, from B. c. 40C to 138. 
They were succeeded by Spartacus I. and his de- 
scendants. Several of these kings were in close 
alliance with the Athenians, who obtained annu.ally 
a large supply of corn from the Bosporus. The 
last of these kings was Paerisades, who, being hard 
pressed by the Scythians, voluntarily ceded his do- 
minions to Mithridates the Great. On the death 
of Mithridates, his son Pharnaccs was allowed by 
Porapey to succeed to the dominion of Bosponis ; 
and we subsequently find a series of kings, who 
reigned in the country till a late period, under the 
protection of the Roman emperors. 

Bostar (Bwo-Twp, Biio-rapos). 1. A Cartha- 
ginian general, who, with Hamilc;ir and Hasdrubal, 
the son of Hanno, fought against ^M. Atilius Rc- 
gulus, in Africa, ii. c. 256, but was defeated, taken 
prisoner, and sent to Rome, where he is said to 
have perished in consequence of the barbarous 
treatment which he received from the sons of 
Regulus.— 2. A Carthaginian general, under Has- 
drubal, in Spain, set at liberty the Spanish hostages 
kept at Saguntum, hoping thereby to secure the 
affections of the Spaniards. 

Bostra (to. Boa-rpa, 0. T. Boznih : Bocttt^vos 
and -oios : Z?i/sra7/, Ru.), a city of Arabia, in an 
Oasis of the Syrian Desert, a little more than 1° 
S. of Damascus. It was enlarged and beautified 
by Trajan, who made it a colony. Under the 
later emperors it was the seat of an archbishoprick. 

Bottia, Eottiaea, Bottiaeis (BoTTi'a, BoTnaia, 
BoTTiaits : BoTTia?os), a district in ^Macedonia, on 
the right bank of the river Axius, extended in the 
time of Thucydides to Pieria on the . It con- 
tained the towns of Pella and Ichnae near the sea. 
Tlie Bottiaei w'ere a Thracian people, who, being 
driven out of the country by the ^Macedonians, 
settled in that part of the Macedonian Chalcidice 
N. of Olynthus, which was called Botiice (Bottiki]). 

Bottice. [BoTTiA.] 

Eovianum (Bovianius: Bojano). the chief toAvn 
of the Pentri in Samnium, was taken by the Ro- 
mans in the Saranite wars, and was colonized by 
Augustus with veterans. 

Bovillae (Bovillensis), an ancient town in La- 
tium at the foot of the Alban mountain, on the 
Appian Way about 10 miles from Rome. Near it 
Clodius was killed by ]Milo (b. c. 52) ; and here 
was the sacrarium of the Julia gens. 

Bracara Augusta (Draga), the chief town of 
the Callaici Bracarii in Hispania Tai raconensis : at 
Braga there are the ruins of an amphitheatre, 
aqueduct, &c. 

Brachmanae or -i (Bpaxp-av^s), is a name used 
by the ancient geographers, sometimes for a caste 
of priests in India (the Brahmins), sometimes, ap- 
parently, for all the people whose religion was 
Brahminism, and sometimes for a particular tribe. 

Brach5des or Caput Vada (Bpax^^^ns &Kpa. -. 
Ras Kapoudiah), a promontory on the coast of 
Byzacena in N. Africa, forming the N. headland 
oi' the Lesser Syrtis. 

Brachylles or Brachyllas (Bpax^KX-qs, Bpa- 
X^AAas), a Boeotian, supported the ^Macedonian 
interests in the reigns of Antigonus Doson and 
Philip V. At the battle of Cynoscephalae. B. c. 
197. he commanded the Boeotian troops in Philip's 
army, and was murdered in 196 at Thebes by the 
Ptoman party in that city. 

Branchidae (at Bpayx'^^ai : Jeronda, Ru.), aft. 
Didyma, or -i (ra AtSw oi A'lSvfjLoi), a place on 



BRANCHUS. 



BRITANNIA. 



125 



the sea-coast of Ionia, a little S. of Miletus, cele- 
brated for its temple and oracle of Apollo surnamed 
Didyraeus (AiBv^uevs). This oracle, which the 
lonians held in the highest esteem, was said to 
have been founded by Branchus, son of Apollo or 
Smicrus of Delphi, and a Milesian woman. The 
reputed descendants of this Branchus, the Bran- 
chidae (ol BpayxiSai) were the hereditary minis- 
ters of this oracle. They delivered up the treasures 
of the temple to Darius or- Xerxes ; and, when 
Xerxes returned from Greece, the Branchidae, 
fearing the revenge of the Greeks, begged him 
to remove them to a distant part of his empire. 
They were accordingly settled in Bactria or Sog- 
diana, where their descendants are said to have 
been punished by the army of Alexander for the 
treason of their forefathers. The temple, called 
Didymacum, which was destroyed by Xerxes, was 
rebuilt, and its ruins contain some beautiful spe- 
cimens of the Ionic order of architecture. 

Branchus (Bpdyxos). [Branchidae,] 

Brannovices. [Aulerci.J 

Brasidas (BpaaiSas), son of Tellis, the most 
distinguished Spartan in the first part of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. In b. c. 424, at the head of a 
small force, he effected a dexterous march through 
the hostile country of Thessaly, and joined Per- 
diccas of Macedonia, who had promised co-opera- 
tion against the Athenians. By his military skill, 
and the confidence which his character inspired, 
he gained possession of many of the cities in 
Macedonia subject to Athens ; his greatest acquisi- 
tion was Amphipolis. In 422 he gained a brilliant 
victory over Cleon, who had been sent, with an 
Athenian force, to recover Amphipolis, but he was 
slain in the battle. He Avas buried within the city, 
and the inhabitants honoured him as a hero, by 
yearly sacrifices and by games. (Did. of Ant. art. 
Bmsideia.) 

Bratuspantium {Bratuspante nr. Breteuil), the 
chief town of the Bellovaci in Gallia Belgica. 

Brauron (Bpavpuu : Bpavpwvios : Vraona or 
Vrana)., a demus in Attica on the E. coast on the 
river Erasinus, with a celebrated temple of Ar- 
temis, who was hence called Brauronia, and in 
whose honour the festival Brauronia was celebrated 
in this place. {Did. of Ant. s.v.) 

Bregetio (nr. Szonp, Ru., E. of Comom), a Ro- 
man municipium in Lower Pannonia on the Da- 
nube, where Valentinian I. died. 

Brennus. 1. The leader of the Senonian Gauls, 
who in B.C. 390 crossed the Apennines, defeated 
the Romans at the Allia, and took Rome. After 
besieging the Capitol for 6 months, he quitted the 
city upon receiving 1000 pounds of gold as a ran- 
som for the Capitol, and returned home safe with 
his booty. But it was subsequently related in the 
popular legends that Camillus and a Roman army 
appeared at the moment that the gold was being 
weighed, that Brennus was defeated by Camillus, 
and that he himself and his whole army were slain 
to a man. — 2. The chief leader of the Gauls who 
invaded Macedonia and Greece, B. c. 280, 279. In 
280 Ptolemy Ceraunus Avas defeated by the Gauls 
under Belgius and slain in battle ; and Brennus in 
the following year penetrated into the S. of Greece, 
but he was defeated near Delphi, most of his men 
were slain, and he himself put an end to his own 
life. 

Breuci, a powerful people of Pannonia near 
the confluence of the Savus and the Danube, took 



an active part in the insurrection of the Panno- 
nians and Dalmatians against the Romans, a. n. G. 

Breuni, a Rhaetian people, dwelt in the Tyrol 
near the Brenner. (Hor. Carm. iv. 14. 11.) 

Eriareus. [Aegeox.] 

Ericianiae {Bpikiwio.l), a place in Sicily not 
far from Leontini. 

Erigantes, the most powerful of the British 
tribes, inhabited the whole of the N. of the island 
from the Abus {Humher) to the Roman wall, with 
the exception of the S. E. corner of Yorkshire, 
which was inhabited by the Parisii. The Bri- 
gantes consequently inhabited the greater part of 
Yorkshire, and the whole of Lancashire, Durham, 
Westmoreland, and Cumberland. Their capital 
was Eboracum. They were conquered by Peti- 
lius Cerealis in the reign of Vespasian. — There 
was also a tribe of Brigantes in the S. of Ireland, 
between the rivers Birgus {Barroiv) and Dalirona 
(Blackwater), in the counties of Waterford and 
Tipperarj'-. 

Brigantii, a tribe in Vindelicia on the lake 
Brigantinus, noted for their robberies. 

Brigantinus Lacus (Bodcnsce or Lake of Con- 
stance), aho called Venetus and Acronius, through 
which the Rhine flows, was inhabited by the Hel 
vetii on the S., by the Rhaetii on the S.E., and by 
the Vindelici on the N. Near an island on it, 
probably Beichcnau, Tiberius defeated the Vinde- 
lici in a naval engagement. 

Brigantium. 1. (Briangon), a town of the 
Segusiani in Gaul at the foot of the Cottian Alps. 
— 2. (Corunna), a sea-port town of the Lucenses 
in Gallaecia in Spain with a light-house, which is 
still used for the same purpose, having been re- 
paired in 1791, and which is now called La Torre 
de Hercides. — 3. {Bregenz), a town of the Brigan- 
tini Vindelici on the lake of Constance. 

Brilessus (^piXriaaos), a mountain in Attica 
N.E. of Athens. 

Bnmo (Bpifj-do), " the angry or the terrifying," 
a surname of Hecate and Persephone. 

Briniates, a people in Liguria S. of the Po near 
the modern Brignolo. 

Eriseis (Bpiariis), daughter of Briseus of Lyr- 
nessus, fell into the hands of Achilles, but was 
seized by Agamemnon. Hence arose the dire feud 
between the 2 heroes. [Achilles.] Her proper 
name was Hippodamia. 

Britannia (t? BpeTTavini} or BpeTaviK-f], sc. 
v'Oaos, 7] Bperravia or Bperavia : Bp^TTuvoi, Bpc- 
ravoi, Britanni, Brittones), the island of England 
and Scotland, which was also called Albion ("AA.- 
gioi', 'KXovLwv, Insula Alhionum). HiBERNiA or 
Ireland is usually spoken of as a separate island, 
but is sometimes included under the general name 
of the Insulae Eritannicae {Bp^TavuioX i/rjaoL), 
which also comprehended the smaller islands around 
the coast of Great Britain. — The etymology of the 
word Britannia is uncertain, but it is derived by 
most writers from the Celtic word brith or brii 
'• painted," with reference to the custom of the 
inhabitants of staining their bodies with a blue 
colour : Avhatever may be the etymology of the 
word, it is certain that it was used by the inha- 
bitants themselves, since in the Gaelic the inha- 
bitants are called Bri/ihon and their language Bri/- 
tlioneg. The name Albion is probably derived from 
the white cliffs of the island ; but writers, who 
derived the names of all lands and people from a 
mythical ancestor, connected the name with one 



126 



BRITANNIA. 



BRITOMARTIS. 



Albion, the son of Neptune. — The Britons were 
Celts, beloncring to that branch of the race called 
Cyniry, and were apparently the aboriginal inha- 
bitants of the country. Their manners and cus- 
toms were in general the same as the Gauls ; but 
separated more than the Gauls from intercourse 
with civilised nations, they preserved the Celtic 
religion in a purer state than in Gaul, and hence 
Druidism, according to Caesar, was transplanted 
from Gaul to Britain. The Britons also retained 
many of the barbarous Celtic customs, which the 
more civilised Gauls had laid aside. They painted 
their bodies with a blue colour extracted from 
woad, in order to appear more terrible in battle, 
and they had wives in common. At a later time 
the Belgae crossed over from Gaul, and settled on 
the S. and E. coasts, driving the Britons into the 
interior of the island. — It was not till a late pe- 
riod that the Greeks and Romans obtained any 
knowledge of Britain. In early times the Phoe- 
nicians visited the Scilly islands and the coast of 
Cornwall for the purpose of obtaining tin ; but 
Avhatever knowledge they acquired of the country 
they jealously kept secret, and it only transpired 
that there were Cassiterides or Tin Islands in 
the N. parts of the ocean. The first c?rtain know- 
ledge which the Greeks obtained of Britain was 
from the merchants of Massilia about the time of 
Alexander the Great, and especiallj^ from the 
voyages of Pytheas, v/ho sailed round a great 
part of Britain. From this time it was generally 
believed that the island was in the form of a tri- 
angle, an error which continued to prevail even at 
a later period. Another important mistake, which 
likewise prevailed for a long time, was the position 
of Britain in relation to Gaul and Spain. As the 
N.W. coast of Spain v»'as supposed to extend too 
far to the N., and the W. coast of Gaul to run 
N. E., the lower part of Britain was believed to lie 
between Spain and Gaul. — The Ptomans first be- 
came personally acquainted with the island by 
Caesar's invasion. He tv/ice landed in Britain 
(b. c. 55, 54), and though on the second occasion 
he conquered the greater part of the S. E. of the 
island, yet he did not take permanent possession 
of any portion of the country, and after his de- 
parture the Britons continued as independent as 
before. The Romans made no further attempts 
to conquer the island for nearly 100 years. In 
the reign of Claudius (a. d. 43) they again 
landed in Britain, and permanently subdued the 
country S. of the Thames. They now began to 
extend their conquests over the other parts of the 
island; and the great victory (61) of Suetonius 
Paulinus over the Britons who had revolted under 
BoADiCEA, still further consolidated the Roman 
dominions. In the reign of Vespasian, Peti- 
lius Cerealis and Julius Frontinus made several 
successful expeditions against the Silures and the 
Brigantes ; and the conquest of S. Britain was 
at length finally completed by Agricola, who in 7 
campaigns (78 — 84), subdued the whole of the 
island as far N. as the Frith of Forth and the 
Clyde, between which he erected a series of forts 
to protect the Roman dominions from the incur- 
sions of the barbarians in the N. of Scotland. The 
Roman part of Britain was now called Britannia 
Roinana, and the N. part inhabited by the Cale- 
donians Britannia Barbara or Caledonia. The 
Romans however gave up the N. conquests of 
Agricola in the reign of Hadrian, and made a ram- ; 



part of turf from the Aestuarium Itmia (Solway 
Frith) to the German Ocean, which formed the N. 
boundary of their dominions. In the reign ot 
Antoninus Pius the Romans again extended their 
boundary as far as the conquests of Agricola, and 
erected a rampart connecting the Forth and the 
Clyde, the remains of which are now culled Grimes 
Dj/kc, Grime in the Celtic language signifying great 
or powerful. The Caledonians afterwards broke 
through this wall ; land in consequence of their 
repeated devastations of the Roman dominions, 
the emperor Severus went to Britain in 208, in 
order to conduct the war against them in person. 
He died in the island at Eboracum ( York) in 21 1, 
after erecting a solid stone wall from the Solway 
to the mouth of the Tyne, a little N. of the ram- 
part of Hadrian, After tlie death of Severus, the 
Romans relinquished for ever all their conquests 
N, of this Avail. In 287 Carausius assumed the 
purple in Britain, and reigned as emperor, inde- 
pendent of Diocletian and Maximian, till his assas- 
sination by AUectus in 293. Allectus reigned 3 
years, and Britain was recovered for the emperors 
in 296. Upon the resignation of the empire by 
Diocletian and Maximian (305), Britain fell to 
the share of Constantius, who died at Eboracum in 
306, and his son Constantino assumed in the island 
the title of Caesar. Shortly afterwards the Cale- 
donians, who nov/ appear under the names of Picts 
and Scots, broke through the wall of Severus, and 
the Saxons ravaged the coasts of Britain ; and the 
declining power of the Roman empire was unable 
to afford the province any effectual assistance. In 
the reign of Valentinian I., Theodosius, the father 
of the emperor of that name, defeated the Picts 
and Scots (367) ; but in the reign of Honorius, 
Constantine, who had been proclaimed emperor in 
Britain (407), v.-ithdrew all the Roman troops 
from the island, in order to make himself master 
of Gaul. The Britons were thus left exposed to 
the ravages of the Picts and Scots, and at length, 
in 447, thej called in the assistance of the Saxons, 
who became the masters of Britain. — The Roman 
dominions of Britain formed a single province till 
the time of Severus, and were governed by a le- 
gatus of the emperor. Severus divided the countr\' 
into 2 provinces, Britannia Superior and Inferior, 
of Avhich the latter contained the earlier conquests 
of the Romans in the S. of the island, and the 
former the later conquests in the N., the territories 
of the Silures, Brigantes, &c. Upon the new di- 
vision of the provinces in the reign of Diocleti:in, 
Britain Avas governed by a Vicuri2is, subject to the 
Prae/ectus Praetorio of Gaul, and Avas divided 
into 4 provinces, (1) Britannia prima., the coimtrj^ 
S. of the Thames : (2) Britannia Secunda., Wales : 
(3) Maxima Cacsarie?isis^ the countrj'- between the 
Thames and the Humber : (4) Flavia Caesariensis, 
the country betAA-een the Humber and the Roman 
Avail. Besides these, there Avas also a fifth pro- 
vince, Vale?itia, AA'hich existed for a short time, 
including the conquests of Theodosius beyond the 
Roman AA^all. 

Britannicus, son of the emperor Claudius and 
Messalina,AA'as bom a. d. 42. Agrippina, the second 
Avife of Claudius, induced the emperor to adopt her 
oAA'n son, and give him precedence over Britannicus. 
This son, the emperor Nero, ascended the throne 
in 54, and caused Britannicus to be poisoned in 
the folloAving year. 

Britomartis (BpirSixapTis, usually derived from 



BRIXELLUM. 



BRUTUS. 



227 



^piTvs, sweet or blessing, and /xapTLs, a maiden) 
was a Cretan nymph, daughter of Zens and Carme, 
and beloved by Minos, who pursued her 9 months, 
till at length, she leaped into the sea and was 
changed by Artemis into a goddess. She seems 
to have been originally a Cretan divinity who pre- 
sided over the sports of the chase ; on the intro- 
duction of the worship of Artemis into Crete she 
was naturally placed in some relation Avith the 
latter goddess ; and at lengtli the 2 divinities be- 
came identified, and Britomartis is called in one 
legend the daughter of Leto. At Aegina Brito- 
martis was worshipped under the name of Aphaea. 

Brixellum (Brixellanus : Bregella or Brescellu)^ 
a town on the right bank of the Po in Gallia Cis- 
alpina, where the emperor Otho put himself to 
death, A. d. 69. 

Brixia (Brixianus : Brescia), a town in Gallia 
Cisalpina on the road from Comum to Aquileia, 
through which the river Mella flowed {fiavus quam 
molli j)ercurrit flumine Mella, Catull. Ixvii. 33). 
It was probably founded by the Etruscans, was 
afterwards a town of the Libui and then of the 
Cenomani, and finally became a Roman municipium 
with the rights of a colony. 

Bromilis (Bpofxios), a surname of Dionysus, i. e, 
the noisy god, from the noise of the Bacchic revel- 
ries (from fipeixco). 

Brontes. [Cyclopes.] 

Bruchium. [Alexandria.] 

Bructeri, a people of Germany, dwelt on each 
side of the Amisia (Ems) and extended S. as far 
as the Luppia (Lippe). The Bructeri joined the 
Batavi in their revolt against the Romans in a. d. 
69, and the prophetic virgin, Veleda, who had so 
much influence among the German tribes, was a 
native of their country. A few years afterwards 
the Bructeri were almost annihilated hy the Cha- 
mavi and Angrivarii. (Tac. Germ. 33.) 

Brimdusium or Brundisium (Bpeprricxiov, Bpsv- 
Teaiou : Brundusinus : Brindisi), a town in Cala- 
bria, on a small bay of the Adriatic, forming an 
excellent harbour, to which the place owed its im- 
portance. The Appia Via terminated at Brundu- 
sium, and it was the usual place of embarkation 
for Greece and the East. It was an ancient town, 
and probably not of Greek origin, although its 
foundation is ascribed by some writers to the 
Cretans, and by others to Diomede. It was at 
first governed by kings of its own, but was con- 
quered and colonized by the Romans, B. c. 245. 
The poet Pacuvius was born at this town, and Virgil 
died here on his return from Greece, b. c. 19. 

Bruttium, Bruttius and Bruttiorum Ager 
(Bpima : Bruttius), more usually called Bruttii 
after the inhabitants, the S. extremity of Italy, 
separated from Lucania by a line drawn from the 
mouth of the Laus to Thurii, and surrounded on 
the other 3 sides by the sea. It was the country 
called in ancient times Oenotria and Italia. The 
country is mountainous, as the Apennines run 
through it down to the Sicilian Straits ; it con- 
tained excellent pasturage for cattle, and the val- 
leys produced good corn, olives, and fruit. — The 
earliest inhabitants of the country were Oenotriansr 
Subsequently some Lucanians, who had revolted 
from^ their countrymen in Lucania, took possession 
of the country, and were hence called Bruttii or 
Bretlii, which word is said to mean "rebels" in 
the language of the Lucanians. This people, how- 
ever, inhabited only the iriterior of the land ; the 



coast was almost entirely in the possession of the 
Greek colonies. At the close of the 2nd Punic war, 
in which the Bruttii had been the allies of Han- 
nibal, they lost their indepe)idence and were treated 
by the Romans with great severity. They were 
declared to be public slaves, and were employed 
as lictors and servants of the magistrates. 

Brutus, Junius. 1. L., son of M. Junius and 
of Tarquinia, the sister of Tarquinius Supcrbus. 
His elder brother was murdered by Tarquinius, 
and Lucius escaped his brother's fate only by 
feigning idiotcy, whence he received the surname 
of Brutus. After Lucretia had stabbed herself, 
Brutus roused the Romans to expel the Tarquins ; 
and upon the banishment of the latter he was 
elected first consul with Tarquinius Collatinus. 
He loved his country better than his children, and 
put to death his 2 sons, v/ho had attempted to re- 
store the Tarquins. He fell in battle the same 
year, fighting against Aruns, the son of Tarquinius. 
Brutus was the great hero in the legends about the 
expulsion of the Tarqtiins, but we have no means 
of determining what part of the account is histori- 
cal.— 2. D,, surnamed Scaeva, magister equitum 
to the dictator Q. Publilius Philo, e. c. 339, and 
consul in 325, when he fought against the Vestini. 
— - 3. D., surnamed Scaeva, consul 292, conquered 
the Faliscans. — 4. M., tribime of the plebs 195, 
praetor 191, when he dedicated the temple of the 
Great Idaean Mother, one of the ambassadors sent 
into Asia 189, and consul 178, when he subdued 
the Istri. He Avas one of the ambassadors sent 
into Asia in 171.-=- 5. P., tribune of the plebs 
195, curule aedile 192, praetor 190, propraetor in 
Further Spain, 189. -=-6. B., surnamed Gallae- 
cus (Callaecus) or Callaicus, consul 138, 
commanded in Further Spain, and conquered a 
great part of Lusitania. From his victory over the 
Gallaeci he obtained his surname. He was a pa- 
tron of the poet L. Accius, and well versed in 
Greek and Roman literature. — 7. B,, son of No. 
6, consul 77, and husband of Sempronia, who 
carried on an intrigue with Catiline. «=■ 8. D,, 
adopted by A. Postumius Albinus, consul 99, and 
hence called Brutus Albi?ius. He served under 
Caesar in Gaul and in the civil war. He com- 
manded Caesar's fleet at the siege of Massilia, 49, 
and was afterwards placed over Further Gaul. On 
his return to Rome Brutus was promised the prae- 
torship and the government of Cisalpine Gaul for 
44. Nevertheless, he joined the conspiracy against 
Caesar. After the death of the latter (44 ) he 
went into Cisalpine Gaul, which he refused to sur- 
render to Antony, who had obtained this province 
from the people. Antony made war against him, 
and kept him besieged in Mutina, till the siege 
was raised in April 43 by the consuls Hirtius and 
Pansa, and Octavianus. But Brutus only obtained 
a short respite. Antony was preparing to march 
against him from the N. with a large army, and 
Octavianus, who had deserted the -senate, was 
marching against him from the S. His only re- 
source was flight, but he was betrayed by Camil- 
lus, a Gaulish chief, and was put to death by 
Antony, 43.-9. M., praetor 88, belonged to the 
party of Marius, and put an end to his own life in 
82, that he might not fall into the hands of Pora- 
pey, who commanded Sulla's fleet, 10, L., also 
called Damasippus, praetor 82, when the younger 
Marius was blockaded at Praeneste, put to death 
at Rome by order of Marius several of the most 



128 



BRYAXIS. 



BURGUNDIONES. 



eminent senators of the opposite party. -—11. M., 
nnuTied Servilia, the half-sister of Cato of Utica. 
He Avas tribune of the plebs, 83 ; and in 77 he 
espoused the cause of Lepidus, and was placed in 
command of the forces in Cisalpine Gaul, wliore he 
was slain by command of Pompey. — 12. M., the 
so-called tyrannicide, son of No. 1 1 and Servilia. 
He lost his father when he was only 8 years old, 
and was trained by his uncle Cato in the princi- 
ples of the aristocratical party. Accordingly, on 
the breaking out of the civil war, 49, he joined 
Pompey, although he was the murderer of his 
father. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was 
not only pardoned by Caesar, but received from 
him the greatest marks of confidence and favour. 
Caesar made him governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 46, 
and praetor in 44, and also promised him the go- 
vernment of Macedonia. But notwithstanding all 
the obligations he was under to Caesar, he was per- 
suaded by Cassius to murder his benefactor under 
the delusive idea of again establishing the republic. 
[Caesar.] After the nmrder of Caesar Brutus 
spent a short time in Italy, and then took possession 
of the province of Macedonia. He was joined by 
Cassius who commanded in Syria, and their united 
forces were opposed to those of Octavian and An- 
tony. Two battles were fought in the neiglibour- 
hood of Philippi (42), in ths former of which Brutus 
was victorious though Cassius was defeated, but in 
the latter Brutus also was defeated and put an end 
to his own life. — Brutus's wife was Porcia, the 
daughter of Cato. — Brutus was an ardent student 
of literature and philosophy, but he appears to 
have been deficient in judgment and original power. 
He wrote several works, all of which have perished. 
He was a literary friend of Cicero, who dedicated 
to him his Tuscukuiae Disputatiojies, De Finihus, 
and Orator^ and who has given the name of Brutus 
to his dialogue on illustrious orators. 

Eryaxis (Bpua|is), an Athenian statuary in 
stone and metal, lived B. c. 372 — 312. 

Brygi or Bryges {Bpvyoi, Bpr/es), a barbarous 
people in the N. of Macedonia, probably of Tllyrian 
or Thracian origin, Avho were still in jNIacedonia at 
the time of the Persian war. The Phrygians were 
believed by the ancients to have been a portion of 
this people, who emigrated to Asia in early times. 
[Phrygia.] 

Bubassus (Bvgao-o-os), an ancient city of Caria, 
E. of Cnidus, which gave name to the bay (Bu- 
bassius Sinus) and the peninsula (r/ Xepcroz/Tjcos 
rj BySaacTLr]), on whicli it stood. Ovid speaks of 
Bubdsic/es nurus {Met. ix. 643). 

Bubastis {Bov§aaTis), daughter of Osiris and 
Isis, an Egyptian divinity, whom the Greeks iden- 
tified with Artemis, since she was the goddess of 
the moon. The cat was sacred to her, and she 
was represented in the form of a cat, or of a female 
with the head of a cat. 

Bubastis or -us (Bov§a(rTis or -os : BovSuctt'i- 
T7]s : Tel Basta, Ru.), the capital of the Nomos 
Bubastites in Lower Egypt, stood on the E. bank of 
the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, and was the chief 
seat of the worship of Bubastis, whose annual festival 
was kept here. Under the Persians the city was 
dismantled, and lost much of its importance. 

Bubulcus, C. Junius, consul jb. c. 317, a second 
time in 313, and a third time in 311 ; in the last 
of these years he carried on the war against the 
Samuites with great success. He was censor in 
309, and dictator in 302, when he defeated the 



Acquians ; in his dictatorship he dedicated the 
temple of Safety which he had vowed in his third 
consulship. The walls of this temple were adorned 
with paintings by C. Fabius Pictor. 

Bucephala or -la ( BovKdcpaXa or -aXeia : JJie 
/«?«), ^ city on the Hydaspes {Jhelum) in N. 
India (the Punjab)^ built by Alexander, after his 
battle with Poms, in memory of his favourite 
charger Bucephalus, whom he buried here. It 
stood at the place where Alexander crossed the 
river, and where General Gilbert crossed it (Feb. 
1849) after the battle of Goojerat. 

Bucephalus {BovK4(pa\os), the celebrated horse 
of Alexander the Great, which Philip purchased 
for 13 talents, and which no one was able to break 
in except the youthful Alexander. This horse 
carried Alexander through his Asiatic campaigns, 
and died in India B. c. 327. See Bucephal^. 

Budalia, a town in Lower Pannonia near Sir- 
mium, the birth-place of the emperor Decius. 

Budini (BouStvot), a Scythian people, who dwelt 
N. of the Sauromatae in the steppes of S. Russia. 
Herodotus (iv. 108) calls the nation yXavKSp rc- 
Kai irvpftof, which some interpret " with blue eyes 
and red hair," and others " painted blue and red." 

Budoron (BovSopov), a fortress in Salamis on a 
promontory of the same name opposite Megara. 

Bulls (BovAis) and SpertMas (^nepeirjs)^ two 
Spartans, voluntarily went to Xerxes and oifered 
themselves for pimishment to atone for the murder 
of the heralds whom Darius had sent to Sparta ; 
but they were dismissed uninjured by the king. 

Biilis (BovAis : BovAios), a town in Phocis on 
the Corinthian gulf, and on the borders ofBoeotia. 

Bullis (Bullinus, Bullio -onis, BuUiensis), a 
town of Illyria on the coast, S. of Apollonia. 

Bupalus and his brother Athenis, sculptors of 
Chios, lived about b. c. 500, and are said to have 
made caricatures of the poet Hipponax, which the 
poet requited by the bitterest satires. 

Buphras (Bovcppds), a mountain in Messenia 
near Pylos. 

Buprasium {Bovirpd(rLov: -crieus, -cr'iwv^ -ci'Stjs), 
an ancient town in Elis, mentioned in the Iliad, 
which, had disappeared in the time of Strabo. 

Bura {Bovpa : Bovpatos, Bovpios), one of the 12 
cities of Achaia, destroyed by an earthquake, toge- 
ther with Helice, but subsequently rebuilt. 

Burdigala (Bovp^iyaXa : Bordeaux)^ the capital 
of the Bituriges Vivisci in Aquitinia, on the left 
bank of the Garumna {Garonne)^ was a place of 
great commercial importance, and at a later time 
one of the chief seats of literature and learning. 
It was the birth- place of the poet Ausonius. 

Burgundiones or Burgundii, a powerful nation • 
of Gemiany, dwelt originally between the Viadus 
{Oder) and the Vistula, and -were of the same race 
as the Vandals or Goths. They pretended, how- 
ever, to be descendants of the Romans, whom 
Drusus and Tiberius had left in Germany as gar- 
risons, but this descent was evidently invented by 
them to obtain more easily from the Romans a 
settlement W. of the Rhine. They were driven 
out of their original abodes between the Oder and 
the Vistula by the Gepidae, and the greater part 
of them migrated W. and settled in the country on 
the Main, where they carried on frequent wars 
Avith their neighbours the Alemanni. In the 5th 
century they settled W. of the Alps in Gaul, where 
they founded the powerful kingdom of Burgundy. 
Their chi-?f tovras were Geneva and Lyons. 



BELLEEOPHON. BOREAS. 




Boreas, 

( Relief from Temple of the Winds at Athens.) Page 124. 




COIXS OF CITIES A^D COUXTRIES. ASSUS— BRUNDIJSnTM. 




BURII. 



BYZANTIUM. 



129 



Burli, a people of Germany, dwelt near the 
sources of the Oder and Vistula, and joined the 
Marcomanni in their war against the Romans in 
the reign of M. Aurelius. 

Burrus, Afranius, was appointed by Claudius 
praefectus praetorio, a. d. 52, and in conjunction 
with Seneca conducted the education of Nero. He 
opposed Nero's tyrannical acts, and was at length 
poisoned by command of the emperor, 63. 

Bursa. [Plancus.] 

Bursao (Bursaoensis, Bursavolensis), a town of 
the Autrigonae in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Busiris {Bovaipis)^ king of Egypt, son of Posei- 
don and Lysianassa, is said to have sacrificed all 
foreigners that visited Egypt. Hercules, on his 
arrival in Egypt, was likewise seized and led to the 
altar, but he broke his chains, and slew Busiris. 
This myth seems to point out a time when the 
Egyptians were accustomed to offer human sacri- 
fices to their deities. 

Busiris (Bovaipis: Bovcnp'iTTjs). 1. (Abousir, 
Ru.), the capital of the Nomos Busirites in Lower 
Egypt, stood just in the middle of the Delta, on 
the W. bank of the Nile, and had a great temple 
of Isis, the remains of which are still standing. — 
2. {Abousir near Jizeh\ a small town, a little 
N.W. of Memphis. 

Buteo, Fabius. 1. N., consul b. c. 247, in the 
first Punic war, was employed in the siege of 
Drepanum. — 2. M., consul 245, also in the first 
Punic war. In 216 he was appointed dictator to 
fill up the vacancies in the senate occasioned by 
the battle of Cannae. — 3. Q., praetor 181, with 
the province of Cisalpine Gaul. In 179 he was 
one of the triumvirs for founding a Latin colony in 
the territory of the Pisani. 

Butes (BovTTjs), son of either Teleon or Pandion 
sr Amycus, and Zeuxippe. He was one of the Ar- 
gonauts, and priest of Athena and of the Erechthean 
Poseidon. The Attic family of the Butadae or 
Eteobutadae derived their origin from him ; and in 
the Erechtheum on the Acropolis there was an altar 
dedicated to Butes. 

Butlirotum (BovOpcDrou : BovdpuTios : Butrin- 
fo), a town of Epirus on a small peninsula, opposite 
Corcyra, was a flourishing sea-port and was colo- 
nized by the Romans. 

Buto (BouTw), an Egyptian divinity, worshipped 
principally in the town of BuTO. She was the 
nurse of Horus and Bubastis, the children of Osiris 
and Isis, and she saved them from the persecutions 
of Typhon by concealing them in the floating island 
of Chemnis. The Greeks identified her with Leto, 
and represented her as the goddess of night The 
shrew-mouse {ixvyaKri) and the hawk were sacred 
to her. 

Buto (BouTcJ, BouTTj, or Bovtos : BouTOiYrjy : 
Baltim ? Ru.), the chief city of the Nomos Chem- 
mites in LoAver Egypt, stood near the Sebennytic 
branch of the Nile, on the Lake of Buto {Bovtikii 
XiixvT], also '^€§evvvTLKT})^ and was celebrated for 
its oracle of the goddess Buto, in honour of whom 
a festival was held at the city every year. 

Buxentum ( Buxentlnus, Buxentius : Policastro), 
originally Pyxus (Uu^ovs), a town on the W. coast 
of Lucania and on the river Buxentius, was 
founded by Micythus, tyrant of Messana, b. c. 
471, and was afterwards a Roman colony. 

Byblini Montes (ra Bv§\iva oprj), the moun- 
tains whence the Nile is said to flow in the my- 
thical geography of Aeschylus (Prom. 811). 



Byblis (Bv§\ls), daughter of Miletus and Ido- 
thea, was in love with her brother Caunus, whom 
she pursued through various lands, till at length 
worn out with sorrow, she was changed into a 
fountain. 

Byblus (Bv§\os : BvgXios : Jebeil), a very an- 
cient city on the coast of Phoenicia, between Bery- 
tus and Tripolis, a little N. of the river Adonis. 
It was the chief seat of the worship of Adonis. 
It was governed by a succession of petty princes, 
the last of whom was deposed by Pompey. 

Bylaz5ra (BvXd^wpa), a town in Paeonia, in 
Macedonia, on the river Astycus. 

Byrsa (Bup(ra),the citadel of Carthago. 

Byzacium or Byzacena Eegio {Bv(dKiov, Bu- 
CaKLS xwpa : S. part of Tunis), the S. portion of 
the Roman province of Africa. [Africa, p. 23, b.] 

Byzantini Script5res, the general name of the 
historians, who have given an account of the Eastern 
or Byzantine empire from the time of Constantine 
the Great, a. d. 325, to the destruction of the em- 
pire, ] 453. They all wrote in Greek, and maybe 
divided into different classes. 1. The historians, 
whose collected works form an uninterrupted his- 
tory of the Byzantine empire, and whose writings 
are therefore called Corpus Historiae Byzaniinae. 
They are: (1) Zonaras, who begins Avith 
the creation of the world, and brings his his- 
tory down to 1188. (2) Nicephorus Acomina- 
Tus, whose history extends from 1 1 88 to 1206. (3) 
Nicephorus Gregoras, whose history extends 
from 1204 to 1331. (4) Laonicus Chalcondy- 
LES, whose history extends from 1297 to 1462 : 
his work is continued by an anonymous writer to 
1565. — 2. The chronographers, who give a brief 
chronological summary of universal history from 
the creation of the world to their own times. These 
writers are very numerous : the most important of 
them are Georgius Syncellus, Theophanes, 
Nicephorus, Cedrenus, Simeon Metaphras- 
tes, Michael Glycas, the authors of the Chro- 
nicon Faschale, «Scc. — 3. The writers who have 
treated of separate portions of Byzantine history, 
such as ZosiMUS, Procopius, Agathias, Anna 
CoMNENA, &c. — 4. The writers who have treated 
of the constitution, antiquities, &c., of the empire, 
such as Laurentius Lydus, Constantinus VI. 
Porphyrogennetus. — A collection of the By- 
zantine writers was published at Paris by command 
of Louis XIV. in 36 vols. fol. 1645—1711. A 
reprint of this edition, with additions, was pub- 
lished at Venice in 23 vols. fol. 1727—1733. A 
new edition of the Byzantine writers was com- 
menced by Niebuhr, Bonn, 1828, 8vo., and is still 
in course of publication. 

Byzantium {Bv^dvTiov : Bv^dvTios, Byzantius : 
Constantinople), a town on the Thracian Bosporus, 
founded by the Megarians, B. c. 658, is said to 
have derived its name from Byzas, the leader of 
the colony and the son of Poseidon. It was situated 
on 2 hills, was 40 stadia in circumference, and its 
acropolis stood on the site of the present seraglio. 
Its favourable position, commanding as it did the 
entrance to the Euxine, soon rendered it a place of 
great commercial importance. It Avas taken by 
Pausanias after the battle of Plataea, b. c 479 ; 
and it was alternately in the possession of the 
Athenians and Lacedaemonians during the Pelo- 
ponnesian Avar. The Lacedaemonians Avere expelled 
from Byzantium by Thrasybulus in 390, and the 
1 city remained independent for some years. After- 

K 



130 CABALIA. 

wards it became subject in succession to the Mace- 
donians and the Romans. In the civil war between 
Pescennius Niger and Severiis, it espoused the 
cause of tlie former : it was taken by Severus a. d. 
196 after a siege of 3 years, and a considerable 
part of it was destroyed. A new city was built 
by its side (330) by Constantine, who made it the 
capital of the empire, .and changed its name into 

CONSTANTINOPOLIS. 



c. 

Cabalia or -is {KaSaXia, KaSaXts: KagaAeus, 
Ka§d\ios), a small district of Asia Minor, between 
Lycia and Pamphylia, with a town of the same 
name. 

Cabasa or -us (KdSaaos : KaSaaiT-rjs), the chief 
city of tlie Nomos Cabasites, in Lower Egypt. 

Cabillonum {Chalons-sur-Saone)^ a town of the 
Aedui on the Arar {SaSne) in Gallia Lugdunen- 
sis, was a place of some commercial activity when 
Caesar Vv^as in Gaul (b. c. 53), At a later time 
the Romans kept a small fleet here. 

Cabira (ra KdSeipa : Sivas), a place in Pontus, 
on the borders of Armenia, near M. Paryadres : a 
frequent residence of Mithridates, who was de- 
feated here by Lucullus, B.C. 71. Pompey made 
it a cit3% and named it Diospolis. Under Augustus 
it was called Sebaste. 

Cabiri (Kd§eipoi), mystic divinities who occur 
in various parts of the ancient world. The mean- 
ing of their name, their character and nature, are 
quite uncertain. They were chiefly Avorshipped at 
Samothrace, Lemnos, and Imbros, and their mys- 
teries at Samothrace Avere solemnized with great 
splendour. {See Diet, of A?it. avt. Cabeina.) They 
were also worshipped at Thebes, Anthedon, Per- 
gamus, and elsewhere. Most of the early writers 
appear to have regarded them as the children of 
Hephaestus and as inferior divinities dv»^elling in 
Samothrace, Lemnos, and Imbros. Later writers 
identify them with Demeter, Persephone, and Rhea, 
and regard their mysteries as solemnized in honour 
of one of these goddesses. Other Avriters identif}'' 
the Cabiri v/ith the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), 
and others again Avith the Roman Penates ; but 
the latter notion seems to have arisen Avith those 
writers AA'-ho traced eA-erj'' ancient Roman insti- 
tution to Troy, and thence to Samothrace. 

Cabyle (kagu At? : Ka§vA7]v6s : Golowitza), a 
town in the interior of Thrace, conquered b}'' M. 
Lucullus, probably the Goloe of the Byzantine 
Avriters. 

Cacus, son of Vulcan, Avas a huge giant, Avho 
inl. bited a cave on Mt. Aventine, and plundered 
the surrounding country. When Hercules came 
to Italjr with the oxen Avhich he had taken from 
Geryon in Spain, Cacus stole part of the cattle 
while the hero slept ; and, as he dragged the ani- 
mals into his cave by their tails, it Avas impossible 
to discover their traces. But Avhen the remaining 
oxen passed by the cave, those Avithin began to 
bellow, and Avere thus discovered, AA^hereupon Cacus 
was slain by Hercules. In honour of his victory, 
Hercules dedicated the ara maxima^ AA-hich conti- 
nued to exist ages after\A'ards in Rome. 

Cacyparis {KaKv-napis or KanoTrapis : Cassibili), 
a river in Sicily, S. of Syracuse. 

Cadena (ra KdSrjva)^ a strong city of Cappa- 
docia, the residence of the last king, Archelaiis. 



CADUSIL 

Cadi (KdSoi : Ka5r}u6s : Kodiis\ a city of 
Phrygia Epictetus, on the borders of Lydia. 
Cadmea. [Thebae.J 

Cadmus (KaS/^os). 1. Son of Agenor, king of 
Phoenicia, and of Telephassa, and brother of Eu- 
ropa. Another legend makes him a natiA-e of 
Thebes in Egypt. When Europa Avas carried off 
by Zeus to Crete, Agenor sent Cadmus in search 
of his sister, enjoining him not to return Avithout 
her. tenable to find her, Cadmus settled in Thrace, 
but having consulted the oracle at Delphi, he was 
commanded by the god to foUoAV a cow of a cer- 
tain kind, and to build a town on the spot where 
the coAV should sink down Avith fatigue. Cadmus 
found the coav in Phocis and followed her into 
Boeotia, Avhcre she sank doAvn on the spot on 
Avhich Cadmus built Cadmea, afterwards tlie ci- 
tadel of Thebes. Intending to sacrifice the cow 
to Athena, he sent some persons to the neighbour- 
ing Avell of Ares to fetch AA'ater. This Avell Avas 
guarded by a dragon, a son of Ares, Avho killed 
the men sent by Cadmus. Thereupon Cadmus sleAv 
the dragon, and, on the advice of Athena, sowed 
the teeth of the monster, out of Avhich armed men 
grcAv up called Sparti or the Sovm, Avho killed 
each other, Avith the exception of 5, Avho Avere the 
ancestors of the Thebans. Athena assigned to 
Cadmus the government of Thebes, and Zeus gave 
him Harmonia for his Avife. The marriage solem- 
nity Avas honoured by the presence of all the 
Olympian gods in the Cadmea. Cadmus gave to 
Harmonia the famous peplus and necklace Avhich 
he had received from Hephaestus or from Europa, 
and he became by her the father of Autonoe, Ino, 
Semele, Agave, and Polydorus. Subsequently 
Cadmus and Harmonia quitted Thebes, and Avent 
to the Enchelians ; this people chose Cadmus as 
their king, and Avith his assistance they conquered 
the Illyrians. After this, Cadmus had another 
son, Avliom he called lUyrius, In the end, Cadmus 
and Harmonia Avere changed into serpents, and Avere 
removed by Zeus to Elysium. — Cadmus is said to 
have introduced into Greece from Phoenicia or 
Egj^pt an alphabet of 1 6 letters, and to have been 
the first Avho Avorked the mines of mount Pangaeon 
in Thrace. The story of Cadmus seems to suggest 
the immigration of a Phoenician or Egyptian colony 
into Greece, by means of Avhich the alphabet, the 
art of mining, and civilization, came into the coun- 
try. But many modern AA'riters deny the existence 
of any such Phoenician or Egyptian colony, and 
regard Cadmus as a Pelasgian divinit}''. — 2. Of 
Miletus, a son of Pandion, the earliest Greek his- 
torian or logographer, lived about B. c. 540. He 
vrrote a Avork on the foundation of Miletus and the 
earliest history of Ionia generally, in 4 books, but 
the AVork extant in antiquity under the latter name 
Avas considered a forgery. 

Cadmus (KaS,uor). 1. (M. Baba) a mountain 
in Caria, on the borders of PhrA'^gia, containing the 
sources of the rivers Cadmus and Lycus. — 2. A 
small river of Phrygia, floAving N. into the Lj'cus. 

Cadurci, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, in the 
country now called Q2ierci{a corruption of Cadurci), 
Avere celebrated for their manufactories of linen, 
coA^erlets, &c. Their capital Avas Divona, after- 
Avards Civitas Cadurcornm, noAv Caliors, Avhere 
are the remains of a Roman amphitheatre and of 
an aqueduct. A part of the town still bears tlie 
name Ics Cadurcas. 

Cadusii (KaSovcrtoi), or Grelae (I'^Aat), a poAvor- 



CADYTIS. 

ful Scythian tribe in the mountains S.W. of the 
Caspian, on the borders of Media Atropatene. 
Under the Medo-Persian empire they ^vere trou- 
blesome neighbours, but the Sj-rian kings appear 
to have reduced them to tributary auxiliaries. 

Cadytis (KdSvTis). according to Herodotus, a 
great city of the Syrians of Palestine, not much 
smaller than Sardis, Avas taken b}- Necho, kino; of 
Egypt, after his defeat of the " Syrians " at Mag- 
dolus. It is now pretty well established that by 
Cadytis is meant Jerusalem, and that the battle 
mentioned by Herodotus is that in which Necho 
defeated and slew king Josiah at Megiddo, b. c. 
608. (Comp. Herod, ii, 159, iii. 5, with 2 Kings 
xxiii. and 2 Oiron. xxxv. xxxvi.) 

Caecilia. 1. Caia, the Roman name of Tana- 
QUIL, wife of Tarquinius Priscus. -—2. Metella, 
daughter of L. Metellus Dalmaticus, consul b. c. 
119, was first married to jNI. Aemilius Scaurus, 
consul in 115, and afterwards to the dictator Sulla. 
She fell ill in 81, during the celebration of Sulla's 
triumphal feast ; and as her recovery was hopeless, 
Sulla for religious reasons sent her a bill of divorce, 
and had her removed from his house, but honoured 
her memory with a splendid funeral. — 3. Daughter 
of T. Pomponius Atticus, called Caecilia, because 
her father took the name of his uncle, Q. Caecilius, 
by whom he was adopted. She was married to 
M. Vipsanius Agrippa. [Atticus.] 

Caecilia Gens, plebeian, claimed descent from 
Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste, or Caecas, 
the companion of Aeneas. Most of the Caecilii 
are mentioned under their cognomens, Bassus, 
Metellus, Rufus : for others see below. 

Caecilius. 1. Q=, a wealthy Roman eques, who 
adopted his nephew Atticus in his will, and left 
the latter a fortune of 10 millions of sesterces.— 
2. Caecilius Calactinus, a Greek rhetorician at 
Rome in the time of Augustus, was a native of 
Cale Acte in Sicily (whence his name Calactinus). 
He wrote a great number of works on rhetoric, 
grammar, and historical subjects. All these works 
are now lost ; but they were in great repute with 
the rhetoricians and critics of the imperial period. 

— 3. Caecilius Statius, a Roman comic poet, the 
immediate predecessor of Terence, was by birth an 
Insubrian Gaul, and a native of Milan. Being a 
slave he bore the servile appellation of Statius, 
Avhich was afterwards, probably when he received 
his freedom, converted into a sort of cognomen, and 
he became known as Caecilius Statius. He died 
B. c. 168. We have the titles of 40 of his dramas, 
but only a few fragments of them are preserved. 
They appear to have belonged to the class of Pal- 
liatae, that is, were free translations or adaptations 
of the works of Greek writers of the neAV comedy. 
The Ptomans placed Caecilius in the first rank of 
comic poets, classing him with Plautus and Terence. 

Caecina, the name of a family of the Etruscan 
city of Volaterrae, probably derived from the river 
Caecina, which flows by the town. — 1. A. Caeci- 
na, whom Cicero defended in a law-siut, B. c. 69. 

— 2. A. Caecina, son of the preceding, published 
a libellous work against Caesar, and Avas in con- 
sequence sent into exile after the battle of Phar- 
salia, B. c. 48. He afterwards joined the Pom- 
peians in Africa, and upon the defeat of the latter 
in 46, he surrendered to Caesar, vv-ho spared his 
life. Cicero wrote seA-eral letters to Caecina, and 
speaks of him as a man of ability. Caecina Avas 
the author of a work on the Etrusca Disciplina. 



CAENEUS. 131 
I 3. A. Caecina Severus, a distinguished general 
in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He was 
governor of Moesia in a. d. 6, Avhen he fought 
against the two Batos in the neighbouring pro- 
vinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia. [Bato.] In 
15 he fought as the legate of Germanicus, against 
Arminius, and in consequence of his success re- 
ceived the insignia of a triumph. — 4. Caecina 
Tuscus, son of Nero's nurse, appointed governor 
of Egypt by Nero, but banished for making use 
of the baths Avhich had been erected in antici- 
pation of the emperor's arrival in Egypt. He re- 
turned from banishment on the death of Nero, a.d. 
68.-5. A. Caecina Alienus, was quaestor in Bae- 
tica in Spain at Nero's death, and Avas one of the 
foremost in joining the party of Galba. He was 
reAvarded by Galba Avith the command of a legion 
in Upper Germany ; but, being detected in em- 
bezzling some of the public money, the emperor 
ordered him to be prosecuted. Caecina, in revenge, 
joined Vitellius, and Avas sent by the latter into 
Italy Avith an army of 30,000 men towards the 
end of 68. After raA-aging the country of the Hel- 
vetii, he crossed the Alps by the pass of the Great 
St. Bernard, and laid siege to Placentia, from Avhich 
he was repulsed by the troops of Otho, Avho had 
succeeded Galba. Subsequently he AA'as joined by 
Fabiiis Valens, another general of Viteilius, and 
their imited forces gained a victory over Otho's 
army at Bedriacura. Vitellius having thus gained 
the throne, Caecina AA'as made consul on the 1st of 
September, 69, and AA'as shortly after v,-ards sent 
against Antonius Primus, the general of Vespa- 
sian. But he again proved a traitor, and espoused 
the cause of Vespasian. Some j^ears afterwards 
(79), he conspired against Vespasian, and AA^as 
slain by order of Titus. — 6. Decius Albinus 
Caecina, a Roman satirist in the time of Arca- 
dius and Honorius. 

Caecinus (KaiKivos or KaiKivos), a river in Brut- 
tium flowing into the Sinus Scj^lacius by the tOAA-n 
Caecinum. 

Caecubus Ager, a marshy district in Latium, 
bordering on the gulf of Amyclae close to Fundi, 
celebrated for its wine (Caecuhum) in the age of 
Horace. In the time of Pliny the reputation of 
this Avine was entirely gone. (See Diet, of Ant. 
p. 1207, a, 2nd ed.) 
! Caeculus, an ancient Italian hero, son of Vulcan, 
is said to haA-e founded Praeneste. 

Caeles or Caelius Vibenna, the leader of an 
Etruscan army, is said to have come to Rome in 
I the reign either of Romulus or of Tarquinius Pris- 
cus, and to have settled Avith his troops on the hill 
called after him the Caelian. 

Caelius or Coelius. 1. Antipater. [Antipater.] 
— 2. Aurelianus. [Aurelianus.] — 3. Caldus. 
[Caldus.] — 4. Eufus. [Rufus.] 

Caelius or Coelius Mens. [Roma.] 

Caenae {Kaivai : Senn).. a city of Mesopotamia, 
on the W. bank of the Tigris, opposite the mouth 
I of the Lycus. 

Caene, Caenepolis, or Neapolis (Kaiv-n -rrokis^ 
NeTj -KoXis : Keneh), a city of Upper Egypt, on the 
right bank of the Nile, a little below Coptos and 
opposite to Tentyra. 

Caeneus {Kaiv&vs), one of the Lapithae, son of 
Elatus or Coronus, v>'as original]}" a maiden named 
Caenis, AA'ho Avas beloA-ed by Poseidon, and AA^as by 
this god clianged into a man, and rendered invul- 
nerable. As a man he took part in the Argonaiitic 



132 



CAEN I. 



CAESAR. 



expedition and the Calydonian liiint. In the battle 
between the Lapithae and the Centaurs at the 
marriage of Pirithous, he was buried by the Cen- 
taurs under a mass of trees, as they were unable to 
kill him, l)Ut he was changed into a bird. In the 
lower world Caeneus recovered his female form. 
(Virg. Ae/i. vi. 44i'>.) 

Caeni or Caenici, a Thracian people between 
the Black Soa and the Panysus. 

Caenina (Caeninensis), a town of the Sabines 
in Latium, whose king Acron is said to have car- 
ried on the first war against Rome. After their 
defeat, most of the inhabitants removed to Rome. 

Caenis. [Caeneus.] 

Caenys (Kaiuvs : Capo di Cuvallo or Coda di 
Volpe), a promontory of Bruttium opposite Sicily. 

Caeparius, M,, of Tarracina, one of Catiline's 
conspirators, was to induce the shepherds in Apulia 
to rise : he escaped from the city, but was over- 
taken in his flight, and was executed with the 
other conspirators u. c. (>'.'. 

Caepio, Servilius. 1. Cn., consul b, c. 253, in 
the first Punic war, sailed with his colleague, C. 
Sempronius Blaesus, to the coast of Africa. — 2. 
Cn., curule aedile 207, praetor 20.5, and consul 
203, when he fought against Hannibal near Croton 
in the S. of Italy. lie died in the pestilence in 
174. — 3. Cn., son of No. 2, curule aedile 179, 
praetor 174, with Spain as his province, and consul 
in 169. — 4. Q., son of No. 3, consul 142, was 
adopted by Q. Faljius Maximus. [Maximus.] — 

5. Cn., son of No. 3, consul 141, and censor 125.— 

6. Cn., son of No. 3, consul 140, carried on war 
against Viriathus in Lusitania, and induced two of 
the friends of Viriathus to murder the latter. — 7. 
Q., son of No. G, was consul 106, when he proposed 
a law for restoring the judicia to the senators, of 
which they had been deprived by the Sempronia 
lex of C. Gracchus. He was afterwards sent into 
Gallia Narbonensis to oppose the Cimbri, and 
was in 105 defeated by the Cimbri, along with 
the consul Cn. Mallius or Manlius. 80,000 
soldiers and 40,000 camp-followers are said to have 
perished. Caepio survived the battle, but 10 
years afterwards (95) he was brought to trial by 
the tribune C. Norbanus on account of his mis- 
conduct in this war. He Avas condemned and cast 
into prison, where according to one account he 
died, but it was more generally stated that he 
escaped from prison, and lived in exile at Smyrna. 
— 8. Q,., quaestor urbanus 100, opposed the lex 
frumentaria of Saturninus. In 91 he opposed the 
measures of Drusus, and accused two of the most 
distinguished senators, M. Scaurus and L. Philip- 
pus. He fell in battle in the Social War, 90. 

Caepio, Fannius, conspired with Murena against 
Augustus B. c. 22, and was put to death, 

Caere (Caerites, Caeretes, Caerctani : Cervetri), 
called by the Greeks Agylla ( *'A7i;A\a : Ayyllina 
urbs, Virg. Ae7i. vn. 652), a city in Etniria situa- 
ted on a small river (Caeritis amnis), W. of Veii 
and 50 stadia from the coast. It was an ancient 
Pelasgic city, the capital of the cruel Mezentius, 
and was afterwards one of the 12 Etruscan cities, 
with a territory extending apparently as far as the 
Tiber. In early times Caere was closely allied 
with Rome ; and when the latter city was taken 
by the Gauls, b. c, 390, Caere gave refuge to the 
^'e^tal virgins. It was from this event that the 
Romans traced the origin of their word cacrimonia. 
The Romans out of gratitude are said to have 



conferred upon the Caerites the Roman franchise 
without the suflfragium *, though it is not impro- 
bable that the Caerites enjoyed this honour pre- 
viously. In 353, however, Caere joined Tarquinii 
in making war against Rome, but was obliged to 
purchase a truce with Rome for 100 years by the 
forfeiture of half of its territory. From this time 
Caere gradually sunk in importance, and was pro- 
Vjably destroyed in the wars of Marius and Sulla. 
It was restored by Drusus, who made it a muni- 
cipium ; and it continued to exist till the 13th 
century, when part of the inhabitants removed to 
a site about 3 miles oif, on which they bestowed 
the same name (now Cm), while the old town 
was distinguished by the title of Vetus or Caere 
Vetera, corrupted into Cervetri, which is a small 
village with 100 or 200 inhabitants. Here have 
been discovered, within the last few years, the 
tombs of the ancient Caere, many of them in a 
state of complete preservation. — The country 
round Caere produced wine and a great quantity 
of corn, and in its neighbourhood were warm baths 
which were much frorpiented. Caere used as its 
sea-port the town of Pykgi. 

Caerellia, a Roman lady frequently mentioned 
in the correspondence of Cicero as distinguished 
for her acquirements and her love of philosophy. 

Caesar, the name of a patrician family of the 
Julia gens, which traced its origin to lulus, the 
son of Aeneas. [Julia Gens.] Various etymo- 
logies of the name are given hy the ancient writers ; 
but it is probably connected with the Latin word 
caes-ar~ies, and the Sanskrit ktsa, " hair," for it is 
in accordance with the Roman custom for a surname 
to be given to an individual from some peculiarity 
in his personal appearance. The name was as- 
sumed by Augustus as the adopted son of the 
dictator C. Julius Caesar, and was by Augustus 
handed down to his adopted son Tiberius. It 
continued to be used by Caligula, Claudius, and 
Nero, as members either by adoption or female 
descent of Caesar's family ; but though the family 
became extinct with Nero, succeeding emperors 
still retained the name as part of their titles, and 
it was the practice to prefix it to their own name, 
as for instance, Imperator Caesar Domilianus Au- 
yuslus. When Hadrian adopted Aelius Verus, he 
allowed the latter to take the title of Caesar ; and 
from this time, though the title of Augustus con- 
tinued to be confined to the reigning prince, that 
of Caesar was also granted to the second person in 
the state and the heir presumptive to the throne. 

Caesar, Julius. 1. Sex., praetor b. c. 208, with 
Sicily as his province. — 2. Sex., curule aedile, 165, 
when the Hecyra of Terence was exhibited at the 
Megalesian games, and consul lii/, — 3. L., consul 
90, fought against the Socii, and in the course of 
the same year proposed the Lex Julia de Civitate^ 
which granted the citizenship to the Latins and the 
Socii who had remained faithful to Rome, Caesar 
was censor in 89 ; he belonged to the aristocratical 
party, and was put to death by Marius in 87.— 
4. C., sumamed Strabo Vopiscus, brother of 
No. 3, was curale aedile 90, was a candidate for 
the consulship in 88, and was slain along with his 

* The Caerites appear to have been the first body of 
Roman citizens who did not enjoy the sufTrage. Thus, 
when a Roman citizen was struck out of his tribe by the 
Censors and made an aerarian, he was said to become 
one of the Caerites, since he had lost the suffrage : hence 
we find the expressions in tabulas Caeritum re/erre and 
uerariuin facere used as synonymous. 



CAESAR. 



CAESAR. 



133 



brother "by Marius in 87. He was one of the 
chief orcitors and poets of his age, and is one of 
the speakers in Cicero's dialogue De Orators. Wit 
was the chief characteristic of his oratory ; but he 
was deficient in power and energy. The names of 
2 of his tragedies are preserved, the Adrashis and 
Tecmessa.—^b. L., son of No. 3, and uncle by his 
sister Julia of M. Antony the triumvir. He was 
consul 64, and belonged, like his father, to the 
aristocratical party. He appears to have deserted 
this party afterwards ; we find hirn in Gaul in 52 
as one of the legates of C. Caesar, and he continued 
in Italy during the civil war. After Caesar's death 
(44) he sided with the senate in opposition to his 
uncle Antony, and was in consequence proscribed 
by the latter in 43, but obtained his pardon through 
the influence of his sister Julia. — 6. L., son of 
No. 5, usually distinguished from his father by the 
addition to his name of filius or adolescefis. He 
joined Pompey on the breaking out of the civil 
Avar in 49, and Avas sent by Pompey to Caesar with 
proposals of peace. In the course of the same year, 
he crossed over to Africa, where the command of 
Ciupea was entrusted to him. In 46 he served as 
proquaestor to Cato in Utica, and after the death 
of Cato he surrendered to the dictator Caesai-, and 
was shortly afterwards put to death, but probably 
not by the dictator's orders.-— 7. C, the father of 
the dictator, was praetor, but in what year is un- 
certain, and died suddenly at Pisae in 84. — - 8. 
Sex., brother of No. 7, consul 91. — 9. C, the 
Dictator, son of No. 7 and of Aurelia, Avas born 
on the 12th of July, 100, in the consulship of C 
Marius (VI.) and L. Valerius Flaccus, and Avas 
consequently 6 years younger than Pompey and 
Cicero. He had nearly completed his 56th year 
at the time of his murder, I5tli of March, 44. 
Caesar Avas closely connected with the popular 
party by the marriage of his aunt Julia Avith the 
great Marius ; and in 83, though only 17 years of 
age, he married Cornelia, the daughter of L. Cinna, 
the chief leader of the Marian party. Sulla com- 
manded him to put away his wife, but he refused 
to obey him, and Avas consequently proscribed. 
He concealed himself for some time in the country 
of the Sabines, till his friends obtained his pardon 
from Sulla, who is said to have observed, Avhen they 
pleaded his youth, that that boy Avould some day 
or another be the ruin of the aristocracy, for that 
there were many Mariuses in him." Seeing that 
he Avas not safe at Rome, he Avent to Asia, Avhere 
he served his first campaign under M. Minucius 
Thermus, and, at the capture of Mj'tilene (80), 
Avas rewarded Avith a civic croAvn for saving the 
life of a felloAA'-soldier. On the death of Sulla in 
78, he returned to Rome, and in the following 
year gained great renown as an orator, though he 
Avas only 22 years of age, by his prosecution of 
Cn. Dolabella on account of extortion in his pro- 
vince of Macedonia. To perfect himself in oratorj-, 
he resolved to study in Rhodes under Apollonius 
Molo, but on his voyage thither he Avas captured 
by pirates, and only obtained his liberty hj a 
ransom of 50 talents. At Miletus he manned 
some vessels, overpoAA'ered the pirates, and con- 
ducted them as prisoners to Pergamus, Avhere he 
crucified them, a punishment Avith Avhich he had fre- 
quently threatened them in sport Avhen he Avas their 
prisoner. He then repaired to Rhodes, Avhere he 
studied under Apollonius, and shortly afterwards 
returned to Rome. He now devoted all his ener- 



gies to acquire the favour of the people. His 
liberality Avas unbounded, and as his private for- 
tune Avas not large, he soon contracted enormous 
debts. But he gained his object, and became the 
faA'ourite of the people, and was raised by them in 
succession to the higli offices of the state. He Avas 
quaestor in 68, and aedile in 65, Avhen he spent 
enormous sums upon the public games and build- 
ings. He Avas said by many to have been privy 
to Catiline's conopiracy in 63, but there is no satis- 
factory evidence of his guilt, and it is improbable 
that he Avould have embarked in such a rash scheme. 
In the debate in the senate on the punishment of 
the conspirators, he opposed their execution in a 
very able speech, Avhich made such an impres- 
sion, that their lives Avould haA'e been spared but 
for the speech of Cato in reply. In the course of 
this year (63), Caesar Avas elected Pontifex Maxi- 
mus, defeating the other candidates, Q. Catulus 
and Servilius Isauricus, Avho had both been consuls, 
and Avere two of the most illustrious men in the 
state. — In 62 Caesar Avas praetor, and took an 
active part in supporting the tribune Metellus in 
opposition to his colleague Cato ; in consequence of 
the tumults that ensued, the senate suspended both 
Caesar and Metellus from their offices, but Avere 
obliged to reinstate him in his dignity after a feAV 
daj's. In the folloAving year (61) Caesar Avent as 
propraetor into Farther Spain, Avhere he gained 
great victories OA^er the Lusitanians. On his return 
to Rome, he became a candidate for the consul- 
ship, and Avas elected notwithstanding the stre- 
nuous opposition of the aristocracy, Avho succeeded 
however in carrying the election of Bibulus as 
his colleague, Avho Avas one of the Avarmest sup- 
porters of the aristocracy. After his election, but 
before he entered upon the consulship, he formed 
that coalition Avith Pompey and M. Crassus, usually 
knoAvn by the name of the first triumvirate. Pom- 
pey had become estranged from the aristocracy, 
since the senate had opposed the ratification of his 
acts in Asia and an assignment of lands Avhich he 
had promised to his A-eterans. Crassus in conse- 
quence of his immense Avealth Avas one of the most 
poAverful men at Rome, but Avas a personal enemy 
of Pompey. They Avere reconciled by means of 
Caesar, and the 3 entered into an agreement to 
support one another, and to divide the power in the 
state betAveen them, — In 59 Caesar Avas consul, 
and being supported by Pompey and Crassus he 
Avas able to carry all his measures. Bibulus, from 
Avhom the senate had expected so much, could 
ofi^er no effectual opposition, and, after making a 
A-ain attempt to resist Caesar, shut himself up in 
his own house, and did not appear again in public 
till the expiration of his consulship. Caesar's first 
measure was an agrarian laAv, by Avhich the rich 
Campanian plain Avas divided among the poorer 
citizens. He next gained the faA-our of the equites 
by relieving them from l-3rd of the sum Avhich 
they had agreed to pay for the farming of the taxes 
in Asia. He then obtained the confirmation of 
Pompey's acts. Having thus gratified the people, 
the equites, and Pompej^ he Avas easily able to 
obtain for himself the provinces Avhich he Avished. 
By a vote of the people, proposed by the tribune 
Vatinius, the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illy- 
ricum Avere granted to Caesar with 3 legions for 5 
years ; and the senate added to his government the 
province of Transalpine Gaul, with another legion, 
for 5 years also, as they saAv that a bill Avould be 

K 3 



134 



CAESAK. 



CAESAR. 



proposed to the people for that purpose, if they did 
not grant the province themselves. Caesar foresaw 
that the struggle between the different parties at 
Rome must eventually be terminated by the sword, 
and he had therefore resolved to obtain an army, 
"which he might attach to himself by victories and 
rewards. In the course of the same year Caesar 
united himself more closely to Pompey by giving 
him his daughter .Tulia in marriage. During the 
next 9 years Caesar was occupied with the subju- 
gation of Gaul. He conquered the Avhole of Trans- 
alpine Gaul, which had hitherto been independent 
of the Romans, with the exception of the S. E. part 
called Provincia ; he twice crossed the Rhine, and 
twice landed in Britain, which had been previously 
unknown to the Romans. — In his 1st campaign (58) 
Caesar conquered the Helvetii, who had emigrated 
from Switzerland with the intention of settling in 
Gaul. He next defeated Ariovistus, a German 
king, who had taken possession of part of the ter- 
ritories of the Aedui and Sequani, and pursued him 
as far as die Rhine. At the conclusion of the cam- 
paign Caesar went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to 
the civil duties of his province and to keep up his 
communication with the various parties at Rome. 
During the whole of his campaigns in Gaul, he 
spent the greater part of the winter in Cisalpine 
'Gaul. — In his 2nd campaign (57) Caesar carried 
on war with the Belgae, v/ho dwelt in the N.E. of 
Gaul between the Sequana {Seine) and the Rhine, 
and after a severe struggle completely subdued 
them. — Caesar's 3rd campaign in Gaul (5G) did 
not commence till late in the year. He was de- 
tained some months in the N. of Italy by the state 
of affairs at Rome. At Luca {Lucca) he had in- 
terviev/s with most of the leading men at Rome, 
among others with Pompey and Crassus, who 
visited him in April. He made arrangements with 
them for the continuance of their power ; it was 
agreed between them that Crassus and Pompey 
should be the consuls for the following year, that 
Crassus should have the province of Sj^ria, Pompey 
the 2 Spains, and that Caesar's government, which 
would expire at the end of 54, should be prolonged 
for 5 years after that date. After making these 
arrangements he crossed the Alps, and carried on war 
with the Veneti and the other states in the N.W. 
of Gaul, who had submitted to Crassus, Caesar's 
legate, in the preceding year, but who had now 
risen in arms against the Romans. They were 
defeated and obliged to submit to Caesar, and 
during the same time Crassus conquered Aquitaiiia. 
Thus, in 3 campaigns, Caesar subdued the whole 
of Gaul ; but the people made several attempts to 
recover their independence ; and it was not till 
their revolts had been again and again put down 
by Caesar, and the flower of the nation had pe- 
rished in battle, that they learnt to submit to the 
Roman yoke. — In his 4th campaign (55) Caesar 
crossed the Rhine in order to strike terror into the 
Germans, but he only remained 18 days on the 
further side of the river. Late in the summer he 
invaded Britain, but more with the view of obtain- 
ing some knowledge of the island from personal 
observation, than with the intention of permanent 
conquest at present. He sailed from the port Itius 
(probably Wiisand, between Calais and Boulogne), 
and effected a landing somewhere near the South 
Foreland, after a severe struggle with the natives. 
The late period of the year compelled him to re- 
turn to Gaul after remaining only a short time in 



the island. In this year, according to his arrange- 
ment with Pompej' and Crassus, who were now 
consuls, his government of the Gauls and lUyricum 
was prolonged for 5 years, namely, from the 1st 
of Januar}', 53, to the end of December, 49. — 
Caesar's 5th campaign (54) was chiefly occupied 
with his 2nd invasion of Britain. He landed in 
Britain at the same place as in the former year, 
defeated the Britons in a series of engagements, 
and crossecj the Tamesis {Tliamcs). The Britons 
submitted, and promised to pay an annual tri- 
bute; but their subjection was only nominal, for 
Caesar left no garrisons or military establish- 
ments behind him, and Britain remained nearly 
100 years longer independent of the Romans. 
During the winter one of the Roman legions, 
which had been stationed under the command of 
T. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta, in 
the country of the Eburoncs, was cut to pieces by 
Ambiorix and the Eburones. Ambiorix then pro- 
ceeded to attack the camp of Q. Cicero, the brother 
of the orator, who was stationed with a legion 
among the Nervii ; but Cicero defended himself 
witli bravery, and was at length relieved by Caesar 
in person. In September of this year, Julia, 
Caesar's only daughter and Pompey's Avife, died in 
childbirth. — In Caesar's Cth campaign (53) seve- 
ral of the Gallic nations revolted, but Caesar soon 
compelled them to return to obedience. The Tre- 
viri, who had revolted, had been supported by the 
Germans, and Caesar accordingly^ again crossed the 
Rhine, but made no permanent conquests on the 
further side of the river. — Caesar's 7th cam- 
paign (52) was the most arduous of all. Almost 
all the nations of Gaul rose simultaneously in 
revolt, and the supreme command was given to 
Vercingetorix, by far the ablest general that Caesar 
had yet encountered. After a most severe struggle 
in which Caesar's military genius triumphed over 
every obstacle, the war was brought to a conclu- 
sion by the defeat of the Gauls before Alesia and 
the surrender of this city. — The 8th and 9th cam- 
paigns (51, 50) were employed in the final subju- 
gation of Gaul, which had entirely'- submitted to 
Caesar by the middle of 50. Meanwhile, an 
estrangement had taken place between Caesar and 
Pompey. Caesar's brilliant victories had gained 
him iresh popularity and influence ; and Pompey 
saw with ill-disguised mortification that he was 
becoming the second person in the state. He was 
thus led to join again the aristocratical party, by 
the assistance of which he could alone hope to re- 
tain his position as the chief man in the Roman 
state. The great object of this party was to de- 
prive Caesar of his command, and to compel him 
to come to Rome as a private man to sue for the 
consulship. They would then have formally ac- 
cused him, and as Pompey was in the neighbour- 
hood of the city at the head of an army, the trial 
would have been a mocker}'-, and his condemnation 
would have been certain. Caesar offered to resign 
his command if Pompey would do the same ; but 
the senate \vould not listen to any compromise. 
Accordingly, on the 1st of January, 49, the senate 
passed a resolution that Caesar should disband his 
army by a certain day, and that if he did not do 
so, he should be regarded as an enemy of the state. 
Two of the tribunes, M. Antonius and Q. Cassius,put 
their veto upon this resolution, but their opposition 
was set at nought, and they fled for refuge to Caesar's 
camp, render the plea of protecting the tribunes. 



CAESAR. 



CAESAR. 



135 



Caesar crossed the Rubicon, whicli separated his 
province from Italy, and marched towards Rome. 
Pompe}', who had been entrusted by the senate with 
the conduct of the war, soon discovered how greatly 
he had overrated his own popularity and influence. 
His own troops deserted to his rival in crowds ; 
town after town in Italy opened its gates to Caesar, 
whose march was like a triumphal progress. The 
only town which offered Caesar any resistance was 
Corfinium, into which L. Domitius Ahenobarbus 
had thrown himself Avith a strong force ; but even 
this place was obliged to surrender at the end of a 
few days. Meantime, Pompey, with the magistrates 
and senators, had fled from Rome to Capua, and 
now, despairing of opposing Caesar in Ital}^ he 
marched from Capua to Brundusium, and on the 
17th of March embarked for Greece. Caesar pur- 
sued Pompey to Brundusium, but he was unable 
to follow him to Greece for want of ships. He 
therefore marched back from Brundusium, and re- 
paired to Rome, having thus in 3 months become 
master of the Avhole of Italy. After remaining a 
short time in Rome, he set out for Spain, Avhere 
Pompey's legates, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, 
commanded powerful armies. After defeating 
Afranius and Petreius, and receiving the submis- 
sion of Varro, Caesar returned to Rome, where he 
liad meantime been appointed dictator by the prae- 
tor M. Lepidus. He resigned the dictatorship at 
the end of 11 days, after holding the consular co- 
mitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia 
Isauricus were elected consuls for the next year. 
— At the beginning of January, 48, Caesar crossed 
over to Greece, Avhere Pompey had collected a 
formidable army. At first the campaign was in 
Pompey's favour ; Caesar was repulsed before 
Dyrrhachium v/ith considerable loss, and was ob- 
liged to retreat towards Thessaly. In this country 
on the plains of Pharsalus or Pharsalia, a decisive 
battle was fought between the 2 armies on the 9th 
of August, 48, in which Pompey v/as completely 
defeated. Pompey fled to Egypt, pursued by 
Caesar, but he was murdered before Caesar arrived 
in the country. [Pompeius.] His head was 
brought to Caesar, who turned away from the 
sight, shed tears at the untimely death of his 
rival, and put his murderers to death. When the 
news of the battle of Pharsalia reached Rome, 
various honours v/ere conferred upon Caesar. He 
was appointed dictator for a whole year and consul 
for 5 years, and the tribunician power was con- 
ferred upon him for life. Pie declined the consul- 
ship, but entered upon the dictatorship in September 
in this year (48), and appointed M. Antony his 
master of the horse. On his arrival in Egypt, 
Caesar became involved in a war, which gave the 
remains of the Pompeian party time to rally. This 
war, usually called the Alexandrine war, arose 
from the determination of Caesar that Cleopatra, 
whose fascinations had won his heart, should 
reign in common with her brother Ptolemy ; but 
this decision was opposed by the guardians of the 
young king, and the v.-ar which thus broke out, 
was not brought to a close till the latter end of 
March, 47. It was soon after this, that Cleopatra 
had a son by Caesar. [Caesabion.j Caesar re- 
turned to Rome through Syria and Asia Mi- 
nor, and on his march through Pontus attacked 
Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates the Great, who 
had assisted Pompey. He defeated Pharnaces 
near Zela with such ease, that he infoiined the 



senate of his victory by the words, Ve?ii, vidi, vici. 
He reached Rome in September (47), was ap- 
pointed consul for the following year, and before 
the end of September set sail for Africa, where 
Scipio and Cato had collected a large army. The 
war was terminated by the defeat of the Pompeian 
army at the battle of Thapsus, on the 6th of April, 
46. Cato, unable to defend Utica, put an end to 
his own life. — Caesar returned to Rome in the 
latter end of July. He was now the undisputed 
master of the Roman world, but he used his vic- 
tory with the greatest moderation. Unlike other 
conquerors in civil wars, he freely forgave all who 
had borne arms against him, and declared that he 
would make no difference between Pompeians and 
Caesarians. His clemency was one of the bright- 
est features of his character. At Rome all parties 
seemed to vie in paying him honour: the dictator- 
ship was bestowed on him for 10 years, and the 
censorship, under the new title of Fraefectus 
Morum, for 3 years. He celebrated his victories 
in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa by 4 magni- 
ficent triumphs. Caesar nov/ proceeded to correct 
the various evils Avhich had crept into the state, 
and to obtain the enactment of several laws suit- 
able to the altered condition of the commonwealth. 
The most important of his measures this year (46) 
was the reformation of the calendar. As the Ro- 
man year Avas now 3 months in advance of the 
real time, Caesar added 90 days to this year, and 
thus made the whole j^ear consist of 445 days ; 
and lie guarded against a repetition of sim.ilar 
errors for the future by adapting the year to the 
sun's course. {Diet of Ant. art. Calendar ium.) — 
Meantime the 2 sons of Pompey, Sextus and 
Cneius, had collected a new army in Spain. Caesar 
set out for Spain towards the end of the year, and 
brought the war to a close by the battle of Munda, 
on the 17th of March, 45, in which the enemy 
were only defeated after a most obstinate resistance. 
Cn. Pompey was killed shortly afterwards, but 
Sextus made good his escape. Caesar reached 
Rome in September, and entered the city in 
triumph. Fresh honours awaited him. His por- 
trait was to be struck on coins ; the month of 
Quintilis was to receive the name of Julius in liis 
honour ; he received the title of imperator for life ; 
and the whole senate took an oath to watch over his 
safety. To reward his followers, Caesar increased 
the number of senators and of the public magistrates, 
so that there were to be 16 praetors, 40 quaestors, 
and 6 aediles. He began to revolve vast schemes for 
the benefit of the Roman world. Among his plans of 
internal improvement, he proposed to frame a digest 
of all the Roman laws, to establish public libraries, to 
drain the Pomptine marshes, to enlarge the harbour 
of Ostia, and to dig a canal through the isthmus of 
Corinth. To protect the boundaries of the Roman 
empire, he meditated expeditions against the Par- 
thians and the barbarous tribes on the Danube, 
and had already begun to make preparations for 
his departure to the East. Possessing royal power, 
he now wished to obtain the title of king, and 
Antony accordingly offered him the diadem in 
public on the festival of the Lupercalia (the 15th 
of Febniary) ; but, seeing that the proposition was 
not favourably received by the people, he declined 
it for the present. — But Caesar's power was not 
Avitnessed Avithout envy. The Roman aristocracy, 
Avho had been so long accustomed to rule the Ro- 
man world and to pillage it at their pleasure, could 

K 4 



136 



CAESAR. 



CAESETIUS. 



ill brook a master, and resolved to remove him by 
assassination. The conspiracy against Caesar's 
life had been set afoot by Cassius, a personal enemy 
of Caesar's, and there were more than 60 persons 
privy to it. Many of these persons had been raised 
l)v Caesar to -wealth and honour : and some of 
them, such as ^I. Brutus, lived with hira on terms 
of the most intimate friendship. It has been the 
practice of rhetoricians to speak of the murder of 
Caesar as a glorious deed, and to represent Brutus 
and Cassius as patriots ; but the mask ought to be 
stripped off these false patriots ; they cared not for 
the republic, but only for themselves ; and their 
object in murdering Caesjir was to gain power for 
themselves and their party. Caesar had many 
warnings of his approaching fate, but he disre- 
garded them all, and fell by the daggers of his 
assassins on the Ides or 15th of March, 44. At 
an appointed signal the conspirators surrounded 
him ; Casca dealt the first blow, and the others 
quickly drew their swords and attacked him ; Cae- 
sar at first defended himself^ but when he saw 
that Brutus, his friend and favourite, had also 
drawTi his sword, he exclaimed Tu quoque Brule! 
pulled his toga over his face, and sunk pierced 
with wounds at the foot of Ponipey's statue. — 
Julius Caesar was the greatest man of antiquity. 
He was gifted by nature with the most various 
talents, and was distinguished by the most extra- 
ordinary attainments in the most diversified pur- 
suits. He was at one and the same time a gene- 
ral, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, an orator, 
a poet, an historian, a philologer, a mathematician, 
and an architect. He was equally fitted to excel 
in all, and has given proofs that he would have 
surpassed almost all other men in any subject to 
which he devoted the energies of his extraordinary 
mind. Diu-ing the whole of his busy life he found 
time for literary pursuits, and was the author of 
ruany works, the majority of which has been lost. 
The purity of his Latin and the clearness of his 
style were celebrated by the ancients themselves, 
and are conspicuous in his Commentarii, which are 
his only works that have come down to us. They 
relate the history of the first 7 years of the Gallic 
Avar in 7 books, and the history of the Civil war 
down to the commencement of the Alexandrine in 3 
books. Neither of these works completed the his- 
tory of the Gallic and Civil wars. The history of 
the fomier was completed in an 8th book, which 
is usually ascribed to Hirtius, and the history of 
the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars were 
written in 3 separate books, which are also ascribed 
to Hirtius, but tboir authorship is uncertain. The 
lost works of Caesar are : — 1. Aniicaio, in reply 
to Cicero's Cafo, which Cicero WTOte in praise of 
Cato after the death of the latter in 46. 2. 
De Aiiwopla^ or, as Cicero explains it, De Ratione 
Latine Ictquemli, dedicated to Cicero, contained in- 
vestigations on the Latin language, and were writ- 
ten by Caesar while he was crossing the Alps. 3. 
Lihri Auspiciorum, or Auguralia. 4. De Astris. 
5. Apophthegmata, or Dicta coUe-clanea, a collection 
of good sayings. 6. Poemata. Two of these writ- 
ten in his youth, Laudcs Herculis and a tragedy 
Oedipus, were suppressed by Augustus. Of the 
numerous editions of Caesar's Commentaries the 
best are by Oudondorp, Lugd. Cat. 1737, Stutt- 
gard, 1822; bv Morus, Lips. 1780 ; and by 
Oberlin, Lips. 1005, 1819. 
C. Caesar and L. Caesar, the sons of M. Vip- 



sanius Agrippa and Julia, and the grandsons ot 
Augustus. L. Caesar died at Massilia, on his way 
to Spain, A. D. 2, and C. Caesar in Lycia, a. d. 4, 
of a wound which he had received in Armenia. 

CaesaraugUSta {Zararjoza or Suragossa), more 
anciently Salduba, a town of the Edetani on the 
Iberus in Hispania Tarraconensis, was colonized 
by Augustus B. c. 27, and was the seat of a Con- 
ventus Juridicus. It was the birth-place of the 
poet Prudentius. 

Caesarea {Kaiadpeia: Kziaapevs: Caesariensis), 
a name given to several cities of the Roman empire 
in honour of one or other of the Caesars. — 1. C. ad 
Argaeum, formerly Mazaca, also Eusebia (K. tj 
Trphs T&> 'Apya'ici}, ra Md^aKa, EvcreSeia ; KesaricJt^ 
Ril). one of the oldest cities of Asia Minor, stood 
upon Mount Argaeus, about the centre of Cappa- 
docia, in the district (praefectura) called Cilicia, 
It was the capital of Cappadocia. and when that 
country was made a Roman province by Tiberius 
(a. d. 18), it received the name of Caesarea. It 
was ultimately destroyed by an earthquake. — 2. 
C. Philippior Paneas" (K. ?) ^tAiVTrou, N. T. ; K. 
Tlaveids : Banias), a city of Palestine, at the S. 
foot of M. Hermon, on the Jordan, just below its 
source [Panium]. built by Philip the tetrarch, 
B. c. 3 : King Agrippa called it Xeronias, but it 
soon lost this name. — 3. C. Palaestinae, formerly 
Stxat5nis Tnrris {'S.Tpdru-vos irvpyos Kaisariyelt, 
Ru.\ an important city of Palestine, on the sea- 
coast, just above the boundary line between Samaria 
and Galilee. It was surrounded Avith a wall and 
decorated with splendid buildings by Herod the 
Great (b. c. 13), who called it Caesarea. in honour 
of Augustus. He also made a splendid harbour 
for the city. Under the Romans it was the capital 
of Palestine and the residence of the procurator. 
Vespasian made it a colony, and Titus conferred 
additional favours upon it ; hence it was called 
Colonia Flavia. — 4. C. Mauretaniae, formerly 
lol ('IwA Kaiadpeia : ZershcU, Ru.). a Phoenician 
city on the X. coast of Africa, with a harbour, the 
residence of King Juba, who named it Caesarea, 
in honour of Augustus. When Claudius erected 
]\Iauretania into a Roman province, he made 
Caesarea a colony, and the capital of the middle 
division of the province, which was thence called 
Maure'^ania Caesariensis. — 5. C. ad Anazarbum. 
[AxAZARBUS.] There are several others, which 
are better known by other names, and several 
which are not important enough to be mentioned 
here. 

Caesarion, son of C. Julius Caesar and of Cleo- 
patra, originally called Ptolemaeus as an Egyptian 
prince, was born B. c. 47. In 42 the triumvirs al- 
lowed hira to receive the title of king of Egypt, 
and in 34 Antony conferred upon him the title of 
king of kings. After the death of his mother in 
30 he was executed by order of Augustus. 

Caesarodunum (Tours), chief to\vn of the Tu- 
rones or Turoai, subsequently called Turoni, on 
the Liger (Loire) in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Caesaromagns. L (Beauvais), chief towTi of 
the Bellovaci in Gallia Belgica.— 2. {Chelmsford), 
a town of the Trinobantes in Britain. 

Caesena (Caesenas -atis : Cesena), a town ir; 
Gallia Cispadana on the Via Aemilia not fax from 
the Rubico. 

Caesennius Lento. [Lento.] 

Caesennius Paetus. [Paetus.] 

Caesetins Flavus. [Flavus.] 



CAESIA. 



CALENUS. 



137 



Caesia, a surname of Minerva, a translation of 
tlie Greek yXavKwTfis. 

Caesia Silva {H'dsernwald), a forest in Ger- 
many between the Lippe and the Yssel. 

Caesonia, first the mistress and afterwards the 
wife of the emperor Caligula, was a woman of 
the greatest licentiousness, and was put to death 
with Caligula together with her daughter, a. b. 41, 

M. Caesonius, a judex at the trial of Oppianicus 
for the murder of Cluentius, B. c. 74, and aedile 
with Cicero in 69. 

Caicus {KoUkSs: Akson or BaJcir), a river of 
Mysia, rising in M. Temnus and flowing past 
Pergamus into the Cumaean Gulf. 

Caieta (Caietanus : Gaeta), a town in Latium 
on the borders of Campania, 40 stadia S. of For- 
miae, situated on a promontory of the same name 
and on a bay of the sea called after it Sinus Caie- 
tanus. It possessed an excellent harbour (Cic. 
pro Leg. Man. 12), and was said to have derived 
its name from Caieta, the nurse of Aeneas, who, 
according to some traditions, was buried at this 
place. 

Caius, the jurist. [Gaius,] 
Caius Caesar. [Caligula.] 
Calaber. [Quintus Smyrnaeus.] 
Calabria (Calabri), the peninsula in the S. E. of 
Italy, extending from Tarentura to the Prom, 
lapygium, formed part of Apulia. 

Calacta {Kakri 'Akttj : KaXaKTlvos : nr. Caro- 
nia, Ru.), a town on the N. coast of Sicily, founded 
by Ducetius, a chief of the Sicels, about b. c. 447. 
Calacta was, as its name imports, originally the 
name of the coast. (Herod, vi. 22.) 

Calactinus. [Caecilius Calactinus.] 
Calagurris (Calagurritanus: Calahorra), a. town 
of the Vascones and a Roman municipium in His- 
pania Tarraconensis near the Iberus, memorable 
for its adherence to Sertorias and for its siege by 
Pompey and his generals, in the course of which 
mothers killed and salted their children, B.C. 71. 
(Juv. XV. 93.) It was the birth-place of Quin- 
tilian. 

Calais, brother of Zetes. [Zetes.] 
Calama. ] . (Kalma, Ru.) an important town 
in Numidia, between Cirta and Hippo Regius, on 
the E. bank of the Rubricatus (Seibous) . — 2. 
(Kalat-al-Wad), a town in the W. of Mauretania 
Caesariensis, on the E. bank of the Malva, near its 
mouth. 

Calamine, in Lydia, a lake with floating islands, 
sacred to the nymphs. 

Calamis [KdAa/xis), a statuary and embosser at 
Athens, of great celebrity, was a contemporary of 
Phidias, and flourished B. c. 467 — 429. 

Calamus (KaKa/xos : El-Kulmon), a town on the 
coast of Phoenicia, a little S. of Tripolis. 

Calanus (KdAauos), an Indian gj'mnosophist, 
followed Alexander the Great from India, and 
having been taken ill, burnt himself alive in the 
presence of the Macedonians, 3 months before the 
death of Alexander (b. c. 323), to whom he had 
predicted his approaching end. 

Calasiries (KaXaaipies), one of the two divisions 
(the other being the Hermotybii) of the warrior- 
caste of Egypt. Their greatest strength Avas 
250,000 men, and their chief abode ia the W. 
part of the Delta. They formed the king's body 
guard. 

Calatia (Calatlnus : Cajazzo), a town in Sara- 
nium on the Appia Via between Capua and Bene- 



ventum, was conquered by the Romans B.C. 313, 
and was colonized by Julius Caesar with his 
veterans. 

Calatinus, A. Atilius, consul b. c. 258, in the 
first Punic war, carried on the war Avith success in 
Sicily. He was consul a 2nd time, 254, when he 
took Panormus ; and was dictator, 249, when he 
again carried on the Avar in Sicily, which was the 
first instance of a dictator commanding an army 
out of Italy. 

Calaurea -ia (KaAaupetoi, KaKavpia: KaXavpeL 

T7]s : Po7-o), a small island in the Saronic gulf oflF 
the coast of Argolis and opposite Troezen, possessed 
a celebrated temple of Poseidon, which Avas re- 
garded as an inviolable asylum. Hither Demos- 
thenes fled to escape Antipater, and here he took 
poison, B.C. 322. This temple was the place of 
meeting of an ancient Amphictvonia. (See Diet, 
of Ant. p. 79, b, 2d ed.) 

Calavius, the name of a distinguished family at 
Capua, the most celebrated member of which Avas 
Pacuvius Calavius, Avho induced his fellow-citizens 
to espouse the cause of Hannibal after the battle of 
Cannae, B. c. 216. 

Calbis (o Ka\gis), also Indus {Quingi or Tanas)., 
a considerable river of Caria, Avhich rises in M. 
Cadmus, above Cibyra, and after receiving (ac- 
cording to Pliny) 60 small rivers and 100 mountain 
torrents, falls into the sea W. of Caunus and op- 
posite to Rhodes. 

Calchas (KaAxas), son of Thestor of Mycenae 
or Megara, the wisest soothsayer among the Greeks 
at Troy, foretold the length of the Trojan Avar, ex- 
plained the cause of the pestilence Avhich raged in 
the Greek armA% and advised the Greeks to build 
the Avooden horse. An oracle had declared that 
Calchas should die if he met Avith a soothsayer 
superior to himself ; and this came to pass at Claros, 
near Colophon, for here Calchas met the soothsayer 
Mopsus, Avho predicted things which Calchas 
could not. Thereupon Calchas died of grief. After 
his death he had an oracle in Daunia. 

Caldus, C, Caelius. 1, Rose from obscurity by 
his orator}', Avas tribune of the plebs B, c. 107, 
Avhen he proposed a lex tabellaria, and consul 94. 
In the civil Avar between Sulla and the party of 
Marius, he fought on the side of the latter, 83. — - 
2. Grandson of the preceding, was Cicero's quaes- 
tor in Cilicia, 50. 

Cale {Oporto), a port-town of the Callaeci in 
Hispania Tarraconensis at the mouth of the Durius. 
From Porto Cale the name of the connivj Portugal 
is supposed to have come. 

Caledonia. [Britannia.] 

Calentum, a town probably of the Calenses 
Emanici in Hispania Baetica, celebrated for its 
manufacture of bricks so light as to swim upon 
Avater, 

Calenus, Q, Fufius, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 
61, when he succeeded in saving P. Clodius from 
condemnation for his violation of the mysteries of 
the Bona Dea. In 59 he Avas praetor, and from 
this time appears as an active partizan of Caesar. 
In 51 he Avas legate of Caesar in Gaul, and served 
under Caesar in the civil war. In 49 he joined 
Caesar at Brundusium and accompanied him to 
Spain, and in 48 he Avas sent by Caesar from Epi- 
rus to bring over the remainder of the troops from 
Italy, but most of his ships Avere taken by Bibulus. 
After the battle of Pharsalia (48) Calenus took 
many cities in Greece. In 47 he was made consul 



133 



CALES. 



CALLIAS. 



by Caesar. After Caesar's death (44) Calenus 
joined M. Antony, and subsequently had the com- 
mand of Antony's legions in the N. of Italy. At 
the termination of the Pcrusinian war (41) Calenus 
died, and Octavianus was thus enabled to obtain 
possession of his array. 

Cales or -ex {Kd?^vs or -v^: Halahli), a river 
of Bithynia, S.W. of Heraclea Pontica. (Thuc. 

iv. 75.) 

Cales (-is, usually PI. Cales -ium : Calenus : 
Calvi), chief town of the Caleni, an Ausonian 
people in Campania, on the Via Latina, said to 
have been founded by Calais, son of Boreas, and 
therefore called Thre'icia by the poets. Cales was 
taken and colonized by the Romans, B. c. 335. It 
was celebrated for its excellent wine. 

Caletes or -i, a people in Belgic Gaul near the 
mouth of the Seine : their capital was J (jlioboxa. 

Caletor {KaX-nrcop), son of Clytius, slain at Troy 
by the Telamonian Ajax. 

' Calidius. 1. Q., tribune of the plebs b. c. 99, 
carried a law for the recall of Q. ]\Ietellus Numi- 
dicus from banishment. He was praetor 79, and 
had tlie government of one of the Spains, and on 
his return was accused by Q. Lollius, and con- 
demned.— 2. M., son of the preceding, distin- 
guished as an orator. In 57 he was praetor, and 
supported the recal of Cicero from banishment. 
In 51 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the 
consulship, and on the breaking out of the civil 
war, 49, he joined Caesar, who placed him over 
Gallia Togata, where he died in 48. 

Caligiila, Roman emperor, a. d. 37 — 41, son of 
Germanicus and Agrippina, was bom A. D. 12, and 
was brought up among the legions in Germany, 
His real name was Cuius Caesar, and he was al- 
ways called Cuius by his contemporaries : Culifjukc 
was a surname given liim by the soldiers from his 

v. -eariiig in liis boyhood small caligae, or soldiers' 
boots. Having escaped the fate of his mother and 
brother, he gained the favour of Tiberius, wlio raised 
him to offices of honour, and held cut to him hopes 
of the succession. On the death of Tiberius (37), 
which was either caused or accelerated b}" Caligula, 
the latter succeeded to the throne. He was saluted 
by the people with the greatest enthusiasm as the 
son of Germanicus. His first acts gave promise 
of a just and beneficent reign. He pardoned all 
the persons who had appeared as witnesses or ac- 
cusers against his family ; he released all the state- 
prisoners of Tiberius ; he restored to the magistrates 
full power of jurisdiction without appeal to his 
person, and promised the senate to govern according 
to the laws. Towards foreign princes he behaved 
with great generosity. He restored Agrippa, the 
grandson of Herod, to his kingdom of Judaea, and 
Antiochus IV. to his kingdom of Commagene. But 
at the end of 8 months the conduct of Caligula became 
suddenly changed. After a serious illness, which 
probably weakened his mental powers, he appears 
as a sanguinarj'- and licentious madman. He put 
to death Tiberius, the grandson of his predecessor, 
compelled his grandmother Antonia and other 
members of his family to make away with them- 
selves, often caused persons of both sexes and of 
all ages to be tortured to death for his amusement 
while taking his meals, and on one occasion, during 
the exhibition of the games in the Circus, he ordered 
a great number of the spectators to be seized, and 
to be throvvn before the wild beasts. Such was 
his love of blood that he wished the Roman 



people had only one head, that he might cut it off 
with a blow. His obscenity was as great as his 
cruelty. He carried on an incestuous intercourse 
with his own sisters, and no Roman woman was 
safe from his attacks. His marriages were dis- 
gracefully contracted and speedily dissolved ; and 
the only woman who exercised a permanent in- 
fluence over him was his last wife Caesonia. In 
his madness he considered himself a god ; he even 
built a temple to himself as Jupiter Latiaris, and 
appointed priests to attend to his worship. He 
sometimes officiated as his ovn\ priest, making his 
horse Incitatus, which he afterwards raised to the 
consulship, his colleague. His monstrous extrava- 
gancies soon exhausted the colters of the state. 
One instance may show the senseless way in which 
he spent his money. He constructed a bridge of 
boats between Baiae and Puteoli, a distance of 
about 3 miles, and after covering it with earth he 
built houses upon it. When it was finished, he 
gave a splendid banquet in the middle of the bridge, 
and concluded the entertainment by tlirowing num- 
bers of tiie guests into the sea. To replenish the 
treasury he exhausted Italy and Rome by his ex- 
tortions, and then marched into Gaul in 40, which 
he plundered in all directions. With his troops 
he advanced to the ocean, as if intending to cross 
over into Britain ; he drew them up in battle array, 
and then gave them the signal — to collect shells, 
which he called the spoils of conquered Ocean. 
The Roman Avorld at length grew tired of such a 
mad tyrant. Four months after his return to the 
city, on the 24th of January 41, he v.-as murdered 
by Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a praetorian cohort, 
Cornelius Sabinus and others. Plis wife Caesonia 
and his daughter were likewise put to death. 

Calingae, a numerous people of India intra 
Gangeiii, on the E. coast, below the mouths of the 
Ganges. 

Calinipasa {Canongef a little above 27° N. 
lat.), a city on the Ganges, N. of its confluence 
with the Jomanes (Jum?ia), said to have been the 
furthest point in India reached by Seleucus Ni- 
cator. 

Callaici, Callaeci. [Gallaeci.] 

Callatis {KdWans, Kd\aTis : KaXariavos: 
Kollat, KoUuti), a town of Moesia, on the Black 
Sea, originally a colony of Miletus, and afterwards 
of Heraclea. 

Calliarus {KaXXiapos), a town in Locris, men- 
tioned by Homer. 

Caliias and Hipponicus (KaAAtas, 'l-mroviKos), 
a noble Athenian family, celebrated for their wealth. 
They enjoyed the hereditarv' dignity of torch- 
bearer at the Eleusinian mysteries, and claimed 
descent from Triptolemus. 1. Hipponicus I •J ac- 
qtiired a large fortune by fraudulently making use 
of the information he had received from Solon 
respecting the introduction of his creKraxdeia, b. c. 
594. (Plut. Sol. 15.) — 2. Caliias I., son of Phae- 
nippus, an opponent of Pisistratus, and a conqueror 
at the Ohmpic and Pythian games. —3. Bttppo- 
nicus II., surnamed Ammon, son of No. 2.-4. 
Caliias II., son of No. 3, fought at the battle of 
Marathon, 490. He was afterwards ambassador from 
Athens to Ar taxerxes, and according to some accounts 
negotiated a peace with Persia, 449, on terms most 
humiliating to the latter. On his return to Athens, 
he was accused of having taken bribes, and was 
condemned to a fine of 50 talents. — 5. Hipponi- 
CUS m., son of No. 4, one of the Athenian gene- 



CALLIAS. 



CALLIPOLIS. 



139 



rals in their incursion into the territory of Tanagra, 
426, Jilso commanded at the battle of Delium, 
424, where he was killed. It was his divorced 
Avife, and not his widow, whom Pericles married. 
His daughter Hipparete was married to Alcibiades, 
with a dowry of 10 talents : another daughter was 
married to Theodoras, and became the mother of 
Isocrates the orator. =—6. Callias III., son of No. 
5, by the lady who married Pericles, dissipated 
all his ancestral wealth on sophists, flatterers, and 
women. The scene of Xenophon's Banquet, and 
also that of Plato's Protagoras is laid at his house. 
He is said to have ultimately reduced himself to 
absolute beggary. In 400 he was engaged in the 
attempt to crush Andocides. In 392 he com- 
manded the Athenian heavy-armed troops, when 
Iphicrates defeated the Spartans; and in 371 he 
was one of the envoi's empowered to negotiate 
peace with Sparta. 

Callias. 1. A wealthy Athenian, who, on con- 
dition of marrymg Cimon's sister, Elpinice, paid 
for him the fine of 50 talents which had been im- 
posed on Miltiades. He appears to have been 
unconnected with the nobler family of Callias and 
Hipponicus. 2. Tyrant of Chalcis in Euboea, 
and the rival of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria. He 
was defeated by the Athenians under Phocion, b. c, 
350, and thereupon betook himself to the Macedo- 
nian court ; but as he could not obtain aid from 
Philip, he formed an alliance with the Athenians, 
and by their means obtained the supremacy in the 
island. 3. A poet of the old comedy, flourished 
B, c. 412 ; the names of 6 of his comedies are pre- 
served. —4. Of Syracuse, a Greek historian, was 
a contemporary of Agathocles, and Avrote a history 
of Sicily in 22 books, embracing the reign of Aga- 
thocles, B.^c. 317—289. 

Callicrates {KaXXinpaTris). 1. An Achaean, 
exerted all his influence in favour of the Ro- 
mans. On the conquest of Macedonia by the 
Romans, B. o. 168, Callicrates pointed out iOOO 
Achaeans, as having favoured the cause of Perseus, 
who were taken to Rome ; and among them was 
the historian Polybius. Callicrates died at Pthodes, 
149. — 3. One of the architects of the Parthenon j 
on the Acropolis of Athens.— -4. A Lacedaemonian | 
sculptor, made ants and other animals out of ivory, 
so small that one could not distinguish the different 
limbs. 

Callicratidas (KaWiKpariSas), a Spartan, suc- 
ceeded Lysander as admiral of the Lacedaemonian 
fleet, B. c. 406, took Methymna, and shut up Conon 
in Mytilene ; but the Athenians sent out a fleet of 
150 sail, and defeated Callicratidas off the Arginusae. 
Callicratidas fell in the battle. Callicratidas v/as a 
plain, blunt Spartan of the old school. Witness 
his answer, when asked Avhat sort of men the loni- 
ans were : " Bad freemen, but excellent slaves." 

Callidromus or -urn (KaXXiSpo/xos), part of the 
range of Mt. Oeta, near Thermopylae. 

Callifae (Callifanus : Calvisi), a town in Sam- 
nium, perhaps in the territory of Allifae. 

Callimaclius (KaXAijuaxos). 1. The Athenian 
polemarch, commanded the right wing at Mara- 
thon, where he was slain, after behaving with 
much gallantry, B. c. 490. This is the last re- 
corded instance of the polemarch perfoming the 
military duties which his name implies. —-2. A 
celebrated Alexandrine grammarian and poet, v/as 
a native of Cyrene in Africa, and a descendant of 
the Battiadae, whence he is sometimes called Bat- 



Hades. He lived at Alexandria in the reigns of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus and Euergetes, and was 
chief librarian of the famous library of Alexandria, 
from about B. c. 260 until his death about 240. 
He founded a celebrated grammatical school at 
Alexandria, and among his pupils were Eratos- 
thenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, and Apollonius 
Rhodius. We have no other particulars of the 
life of Callimachus except his enmity with his 
former pupil Apollonius Rhodius, which is related 
elsewhere. [Apollonius, No. 6.] He is said to 
have written 800 works, in prose and in verse, on 
an infinite variety of subjects, but of these we 
possess only some of his poems, which are charac- 
terized rather by labour and learning than by real 
poetical genius. Hence Ovid (Am. i. 15. 14) saj^s 
of Callimachus, Quamvis ingenio nan valet, arte 
valet. The extant works of Callimachus are 6 
Hymns in hexameter verse, 5 in the Ionic dialect, 
and 1, on the bath of Pallas, in the Doric dialect, 
and 72 Epigrams, which belong to the best speci- 
mens of this kind of poetrj^, and were incorporated 
in the Greek Anthology at an early time. We 
have only a few fragments of his elegies, which 
enjoyed great celebrity, and were imitated by the 
Roman poets, the most celebrated of whose imita- 
tions is the De Coma Bei'enices of Catullus. Of 
the lost poems of Callimachus the most important 
were, A'lTia, Causes, an epic poem in 4 books, on the 
causes of the various mythical stories, &c., and an 
epic poem entitled Hecale, the name of an aged 
woman Avho received Theseus hospitably when he 
went out to fight against the Marathonian bull. 
— Editions. By Spanheim, Ultraj. 1697, re-edited 
by Ernesti, Lugd. Batav. 1761 ; bv Blomfield, 
Lond. 1815 ; by Volzer, Lips. 1817. — 3. An 
architect and statuary, of uncertain country, who is 
said to have invented the Corinthian column, and 
who must have lived before B. c. 396. He was so 
anxious to give his works the last touch of perfec- 
tion that he lost the grand and sublime ; whence 
Dionysius compares him to the orator Lysias. Cal- 
limachus was never satisfied Avith himself, and 
therefore received the epithet Kaici^orex^^^i which 
Pliny interprets as calumniator sui. 

Callimedon (KaAA/jueSw?/), one of the orators at 
Athens in the Macedonian interest, and a friend 
of Phocion, was condemned to death by the Atho 
nians in his absence, B. c. 317. 

Callinicus Seleucus. [Seleucus.] 

Callinus {KaXXlvos), of Ephesus, the earliest 
Greek elegiac poet, probably flourished about B. c. 
700. Only one of his elegies is extant, consisting 
of 21 lines, in which he exhorts his countrymen to 
courage and perseverance against their enemies. 
Printed in Bergk's Poetae Lyrici Graeci, p. 303. 

Calliope. [Musae.] 

Calliope (KaXXioTTT]), a considerable city in the 
W. of Parthia, founded, or else enlarged, by 
Seleucus Nicator. 

Galliplioil (KaXXicpctiv), a Greek philosopher, 
and probably a disciple of Epicurus, is condemned 
by Cicero as making the chief good of man to con- 
sist in an union of virtue (honestas) and bodily 
pleasure (ijdovT], voluptas). 

Callipolis (KaXXiiroXis : KaXXnroXhrjs). 1. 
{Gallipoli), a Greek town on the Tarentine gulf in 
Calabria. «— • 2. A town on the E. coast of Sicily 
not far from Aetna. — 3. (Gallipoli)^ a town in 
the Thracian Chersonese opposite Lampsacus. — 4. 
A town in Aetolia, See Gallium. 



140 CALLIPPIDE?. 

Callippides (KaA\i7r7n'57js), of Athens, a cele- 
brated tnigic actor, a contemporary of Alcibiades 
and Agcsilaus. 

Callippus (KaAAiTTTTos). 1. An Athenian, ac- 
companied Dion to Syracuse, where he murdered 
the latter B. c. 353. Callippus now usurped the 
government of Syracuse, but was expelled the city 
at the end of 13 months, and after wandering 
about Sicily with his mercenaries was at length 
put to death by his own friends. — 2. An astrono- 
mer of Cyzicus, came to Athens, where he assisted 
Aristotle in rectifying and completing the disco- 
veries of Eudoxus. Callippus invented the period 
or cycle of 76 years, called after him the Callippic, 
which commenced I3. c. 330. 

CallirrhoeCKaA\t^^Jrj). 1. Daughter of Oceanus, 
wife of Chrysaor, and mother of Geryones and 
Echidna. — > 2. Daughter of Achelous and Avife of 
Alcmaeon, induced her husband to procure her the 
peplus and necklace of Harmonia, by which she 
caused his death. [Alcmaeon.] — 3. Daughter 
of Scamuuder, wife of Tros, and mother of Ilus 
and Ganymedes. 

Callirrhoe {KaWi^pori), afterwards called En- 
neacrunus (^EweaKpowos) or the " Nine Springs," 
because its water was distributed by 9 pipes, was 
tiie most celebrated well in Athens, and still re- 
tains its ancient name Callirrlioe. It was situated 
in the S. E. extremity of the city between the 
Olympic-urn and the Ilissus. 

Callisthcnes (KaAAio-fleVrjs), of Olynthus. a 
relation and a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied 
Alexander the Great to Asia. In his intercoui-se 
with Alexander he was arrogant and bold, and 
took every opportunity of exhibiting his independ- 
ence. He expressed his indignation at Alexander's 
adoption of Oriental customs, and especially at the 
requirement of the ceremony of adoration. He 
thus rendered himself so obnoxious to the king, 
that he was accused of being privy to the plot of 
Hennolaus to assassinate Alexander ; and alter 
being kept in chains for 7 months, was either put 
to death or died of disease. Callisthcnes wrote an 
account of Alexander's expedition ; a histor}- of 
Greece, in 10 books, from the peace of Antalcidas 
to the seizure of the Delphic temple bj' Philome- 
lus (B.C. 387 — 357) ; and other works, all of 
which have perished. 

Callisto (KaAAtcTTco), an Arcadian nymph, hcnco 
called Nonacr'ina virgo (Ov. ^1/e^.ii. 409) from No- 
nacris, a mountain in Arcadia, was daughter either 
of Lycaon or of Nycteus or of Ceteus, and a compa- 
nion of Artemis in the chase. She was beloved by 
Zeus, who metamorphosed her into a she-bear that 
Hera might not become acquainted with the 
amour. But Hera leanit the truth, and caused 
Artemis to slay Callisto during the chase. Zeus 
placed Callisto among the stars under the name of 
Jrclos, or the Bear. Arcas was her son by Zeus. 
According to Ovid Jupiter (Zeus) overcame tlie 
virtue of Callisto by assuming the form of Arte- 
mis ; Juno (Hera) then metamorphosed Callisto 
into a bear ; and when Arcas during the chase 
i\-as on the point of killing his mother Jupiter 
placed both among the stars. [Arctos.] — Ac- 
cording to a modern scholar Callisto is merely ano- 
ther form of Calliste, a surname of Artemis, and she 
is therefore the same as this goddess. The she- 
bear was the symbol of the Arcadian Artemis. 

Callistratia (KaWia-TpaTla), a town in Paphla- 
gonia, on the coast of the Euxine. 



CALVENTIUS. 

Callistratus (KaAAiVrpaTos). 1. An Athenian 
orator, son of Callicrates of Aphidna. His oratory 
was greatly admired by Demosthenes, and his 
speech on the affair of Oropus, b. c. 366. is said to 
have excited the emulation of Demosthenes, and 
to have caused the latter to devote himself to ora- 
tory. After taking an active part in public affairs, 
generally in favour of Sparta, Callistratus was 
condemned to death by the Athenians in 361, 
and went into banishment to Methone in Mace- 
donia. He ultimately returned to Athens, and 
was put to death. During his exile he is said to 
have founded the city of Datum, afterwards Phi- 
lippi. — 2. A Greek grammarian, and a disciple of 
Aristophanes of Byzantium. —3. A Roman jurist, 
frequently cited in the Digest, wrote at least as 
late as the reign (a. d. 198 — 211) of Severus and 
Antoninus (i.e. Septimius Severus and Caracalla). 

Callistus, C. Julius, a freedman of Caligula, 
possessed great influence in the reigns of Caligula 
and Claudius, and is the person to whom the 
physician Scribonius Largus dedicates his work. 

Gallium (KaAAiov: KaAAiei^s), called Callipolis 
by Livy (xxxvi. 30), a town in Aetolia in the 
valley of the Spercheus, S.W. of Hypata. 

Callixeuus (KaAAi'le^os), tlie leader in the pro- 
secution of the Athenian generals who had con- 
quered at Arginusae, b. c. 406. Not long after 
the execution of the generals, the Athenians re- 
pented of their unjust sentence, and decreed the 
institution of criminal accusations against Callixe- 
nus, but he escaped from Athens. On the restora- 
tion of democracy, 403, Callixenus took advantage 
of the general amnesty, and returned to Athens, but 
no man would give him either water or light for his 
fire, and he perished miserably of hunger. 

Gallon {KdKKuv). 1. An artist of Aeginn, 
flourished B.C. 516. — 2. An artist of Elis, lived 
before B. c. 436. 

Galor. 1. A river in Samnium, flows past Be- 
neventum and falls into the Vulturnus. —2. (Cu- 
lore), a river in Lucania, falls into the Silarus. 

Galpe (KaATTTj : Gibrulter), a mountain in the S. 
of Spain on the Straits between the Atlantic and 
Mediterranean. This and M. Abyla opposite to it 
on the African coast, were called the Columns of 
Hercules. [Abyla.] 

Galpe (KaA-TTTj : Kirpeh), a river, promonton,', 
and town on the coast of Bithynia, between the 
rivers Psilis and Sangarius. 

Galpurnia, daughter of L. Calpumius Piso, 
consul B. c. 58, and last wife of the dictator Caesar, 
to whom she was married in 59. The reports re- 
specting the conspiracy against Caesar's life filled 
Calpurnia with the liveliest apprehensions ; she in 
vain entreated her husband not to leave home on 
the Ides of March, 44. 

Galpurnia Gens, plebeian, pretended to be de- 
scended from Calpus, a son of Numa. It was 
divided into the families of Bestia, Bibulus, 
Flamma, and Piso. 

T. Galpurnius Siculus, tiie author of 1 1 Ec- 
logues in Latin verse, which are close imitations 
of Virgil, perhaps lived about a. d. 290. — Edi- 
tio7is. In the Poetae Latini Minores of Wernsdorif ; 
and by Glaeser, Gotting. 1842. 

Calva, a surname of Venus at Rome, probably 
in honour of the Roman women, who are said, 
during the war with the Gauls, to have cut off 
their hair for the purpose of making bow-strings. 
I Galventius, an Insubrian Gaul, of the town of 



CALVINUS. 



CAMERINUS. 



141 



Placentia, whose daughter married L. Piso, the 
father of L. Piso Caesoninus, consul b. c. 58. In 
his speech against the latter, Cicero upbraids him 
with the low origin of his mother, and calls him 
Caesoninus Semiplacentinus Calventius. 

Calvinus, Domitius. 1. Cn., curule aedile, 
B. c. 299, consul 283, and dictator and censor 280. 
In his consulship he, together with his colleague 
Dolabella, defeated the Gauls and Etruscans, and 
hence received the surname Maximus.'^2. Cn., 
tribune of the plebs, 59, when he supported Bibu- 
lus against Caesar, praetor 56, and consul 53, 
through the influence of Pompey. In the civil 
war he joined Caesar. In 49 he fought under 
Curio in Africa ; and in 48 he fought under Caesar 
in Greece, and commanded the centre of Caesar's 
army at the battle of Pharsalia. In 47 he had the 
command of Asia, and in 46 he fought in Africa 
against the Pompeian party. After Caesar's death 
(44) he fought under Octavian and Antony against 
the republicans. In 40 he was consul a 2nd time, 
and in 39 went as proconsul to Spain, where he 
defeated the revolted Cerretani. 

Calvinus, L. Sextius, consul b. c. 124, defeated 
the Salluvii and other people in Transalpine Gaul, 
and in 123 founded the colony of Aquae Sextiae 
(Aix). 

Calvinus, T. Veturius, twice consul, b. c. 334 
and 321. In his second consulship he and his 
colleague Sp. Postumius Albinus were defeated by 
the Sabines at Caudium. For details see Albi- 
nus, No. 3. 

Calvisius Sabinus. [Sabinus.] 

Calvus, Licinius. [Licinius.] 

Calycadnus (KahvKaSuos). 1. {GUukSooyoo\ 
a considerable river of Cilicia Tracheia, navigable 
as far up as Seleucia.— 2. The promontory of this 
name, mentioned by Polybius (xxii. 26) and Livy 
(xxxviii. 38), appears to be the same as Anemu- 

RIUM. 

Calydnae {KaXvlvai vrjaoL). 1. Two small 
islands off the coast of Troas, between Tenedos 
and the Prom. Lectum. — 2. A group of islands 
off the coast of Caria, N.W. of Cos, belonging to 
the Sporades. The largest of them was called 
Calydna, and afterwards Calymna (now Kalimno). 

Calydon {KaXvZuv : KaXvZwvios), an ancient 
town of Aetolia on the Evenus in the land of the 
Curetes, said to have been founded by Aetolus or 
his son Calydon. The surrounding country pro- 
duced wine, oil, and corn ; and in the mountains 
in the neighbourhood took place the celebrated 
hunt of the Calydonian boar. The inhabitants 
were removed by Augustus to NicopOLis. 

Calymna. [Calydnae.] 

Calynda (KdXwZa : KaAuj/Seus), a city of Caria, 
E. of Caunus, and 60 stadia (6 geog. miles) from 
the sea. The Calyndians formed a part of the 
fleet of Xerxes, under their king Damasithymus : 
afterwards they were subject to the Caunians ; and 
both cities were added by the Romans to the ter- 
ritory of Rhodes. 

Calypso (KaAi;\|/cJ), daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, or of Nereus, or, according to Homer, of 
Atlas, was a nymph inhabiting the island of Ogygia, 
on which Ulysses was shipwrecked. Calypso loved 
the unfortimate hero, and promised him immor- 
tality if he would remain with. her. Ulysses re- 
fused, and after she had detained him 7 years, the 
gods compelled her to allow him to continue his 
journey homewards. 



Camalodunum (Colchester), the capital of the 
Trinobantes in Britain, and the first Roman co- 
lony in the island, founded by the emperor Clau- 
dius, A. D. 43. 

Camarina (Ka/xapiva : Kafj.apiva7os : Camerina), 
a town on the S. coast of Sicily, at the mouth of 
the Hipparis, founded by Syracuse, b. c. 599. It 
was several times destroyed by Syracuse ; and in 
the 1st Punic war it was taken by the Romans, 
and most of the inhabitants sold as slaves. Scarcely 
any vestiges of the ancient town remain. In the 
neighbourhood was a marsh, which the inhabitants 
drained contrary to the command of an oracle, and 
thus opened a way to their enemies to take the 
town : hence arose the proverb /j-t] Kivei Ka/.iapiuav, 
ne moveas Camarinam. 

CamMni Montes, the mountains which sepa- 
rate Macedonia and Thessaly. 

Cambysen© (Ka^guo-TjvTj), a district of Armenia 
Major, on the borders of Iberia and Colchis. 

Cambyses {Kaix§v(jr]s). 1. Father of Cyrus 
the Great. — 2. Second king of Persia, succeeded 
his father Cyras, and reigned B.C. 529 — 522. In 
525 he conquered Egypt ; but an army which he 
sent against the Ammonians perished in the sands, 
and the forces, which he led in person against the 
Aethiopians S. of Egypt, were compelled by failure 
of provisions to return. On his return to Memphis 
he treated the Egyptians with great cruelty ; he 
insulted their religion, and slew their god Apis 
with his own hands. He also acted tyrannically 
towards his own family and the Persians in ge- 
neral. He caused his own brother Smerdis to be 
murdered ; but a Magian personated the deceased 
prince, and set up a claim to the throne. [Smer- 
dis.] Cambyses forthwith set out from Egypt 
against this pretender, but died in Syria, at a place 
named Ecbatana, of an accidental wound in the 
thigh, 522. 

Cambyses {KafxSvaris). 1. (lora), a river of 
Iberia and Albania, which, after uniting with the 
Alazon (Alasnn), falls into the Cyrus. — 2. A 
small river of Media, falling into the Caspian be- 
tween the Araxes and the Amardus. 

Camenae (not Camoenae), also called Casmenae, 
Carmenae. The name is connected with carmen, a 
" prophecy." The Camenae accordingly were pro- 
phetic nymphs, and they belonged to the religion of 
ancient Italy, although later traditions represent their 
worship as introduced into Italy from Arcadia, and 
some accounts identify them with the Muses. The 
most important of these goddesses was Carmenta 
or Carmentis, who had a temple at the foot of the 
Capitoline hill, and altars near the porta Carmen- 
talis. Respecting her festival see Did. of Ant. 
art. Carmentalia. The traditions which assigned 
a Greek origin to her worship, state that her ori- 
ginal name was Nicostrate, and that she was the 
mother of Evander by Hermes, with whom she 
fled to Italy. 

Cameria (Camerinus), an ancient town of La- 
tiumj conquered by Tarquinius Prisons. 

Camerinum or Camarinum, more anciently 
earners (Camertes : Camerino), a town in Umbria 
on the borders of Picenum, an ally of the Romans 
against the Etruscans, B. c. 308, and also an ally 
of the Romans in the 2nd Punic war, subsequently 
a Roman colony. 

Camerinus, the name of a patrician family of 
the Sulpicia gens, the members of which frequently 
held the consxilship in the early times of the republic 



142 



CAMERINUS. 



CAMPI. 



(B.C. 500, 490, 461, 393, 345). After b. c. 345 
the Canierini disappear from history for 400 years, 
1)ut they are mentioned again as one of the noblest 
Roman families in the early times of the empire. 

Camerinus, a Roman poet, contemporary with 
Ovid, wrote a poem on the capture of Troy by 
Hercules. 

Camicus (Ku/xikSs : KafiUios), an ancient town 
of the Sicani on the S, coast of Sicily on a river of 
the same name, occupied the site of the citadel of 

AgRIGENTUiM. 

Camilla, daughter of king Metabus of the Vol- 
scian town of Privernum, was one of the swift- 
footed servants of Diana, accustomed to the chase 
and to war. She assisted Tumus against Aeneas, 
and after sla5-ing nimibcrs of the Trojans was at 
length killed by Aruns. 

Camillus, Furius. 1. M., one of the great he- 
roes of the Roman republic. He Avas censor b. c. 
403, in which year Livy erroneously places his 
first consular tribunate. He Avas consular tribune 
for the first time in 401, and for the second time 
in 398. In 396 he was dictator, when he gained 
a glorious victory over the Faliscans and Fidenates, 
took Veii, and entered Rome in triumph, riding in 
a chariot drawn by w^hite horses. In 394 he was 
consular tribune for the third time, and reduced the 
Faliscans. The story of the schoolmaster who at- 
tempted to betray the town of Falerii to Camillus, 
belongs to this campaign. In 391, Camillus Avas 
accused of having made an unfair distribution of 
the booty of Veii, and went voluntarily into exile 
at Ardea. Next year (390) the Gauls took Rome, 
and laid siege to Ardea. The Romans in the Ca- 
pitol recalled Camillus, and appointed him dictator 
in his absence. Camillus hastily collected an 
armj', attacked the Gauls, and defeated them com- 
pletel}'. [Brennus.] His fellow-citizens saluted 
him as the Second Romulus. In 389 Camillus was 
dictator a third time, and defeated the Volscians, 
Aequians, and other nations. In 386 he was 
consular tribune for the fourth, in 384 for the fifth, 
and in 381 for the sixth time. In 368 he was 
appointed dictator a fourth time to resist the roga- 
tions of C. Licinius Stole. Next 3'ear, 367, he 
was dictator a fifth time, and though 80 years of 
age, he completely defeated the Gauls. He died 
of the pestilence, 365. Camillus was the great 
general of his age, and the resolute champion of 
the patrician order. His history has received 
much legendary and traditional fable, and requires 
a careful critical sifting. — 2. Sp., son of No, ]., 
first praetor 367.-3, L., also son of No, 1, Avas 
dictator 350 in order to hold the comitia, and 
consul 349, when he defeated the Gauls. — - 4. L,, 
son of No. 2, consul 338, Avhen he took Tibur, and 
in conjunction with his colleague Maenius com- 
pleted the subjugation of Latium. In 325 he Avas 
consul a second time, — 5. M., proconsul of Africa 
in the reign of Tiberius, defeated the Nuniidian 
Tacfarinas, A. D. 17. — 6. M., surnamed Scriboni- 
ANUs, consul A. D, 32, under Tiberius, At the 
beginning of the reign of Claudius he was legate 
of Dalmatia, where he revolted, but w^as conquered, 
42, sent into exile, and died 53. 

Camirus (Kdtieipos : Ka,uetpei5s), a Dorian town 
on the W, coast of the island of Rhodes, said to 
have been foimded hy Camirus, son of Cercapluis 
and Cydippe, and the principal toAvn in the island 
before the foundation of Rhodes, It v:v.s the 
birth-place of the poet Pisander. 



Camisa (Kajuio-a), a fortress in Cappadocia, 23 
Roman miles E, of Sebastc. 

Camoenae. [Camexae.] 

Campania (Campanus : Terra di Lavoro), a 
district of Italy, the name of which is probably 
deriA-ed from campus " a plain," Avas bounded on 
the N.W. by Latium, N, and E. by Samnium, 
S. E. by Lucania, and S. and S. W. by the Tyr- 
rhenian sea. It AA'as separated from Latium by 
the riA-er Liris, and from Lucania at a later time 
by the river Silarus, though in the time of Au- 
gustus it did not extend further S. than the pro- 
montory of Minerva. In still earlier times the 
Agcr Campanus included only the country round 
Capua, The country along the coast from the 
Liris to the Promontory of Minerva is a plain 
inclosed by the Apennines Avhich sweeps round it 
in the form of a semicircle. Campania is a vol- 
canic country, to Avhich circumstance it was mainly 
indebted for its extraordinary fertility, for AA'hich 
it Avas celebrated in antiquity above all other 
lands. It produced corn, wine, oil, and CA-ery 
kind of fruit in the greatest abundance, and in 
many parts crops could be gathered 3 times in the 
year. The fertilitj' of the soil, the beauty of the 
scenerj-, and the softness of the climate, the heat 
of AA'hich AA'as tempered by the delicious breezes of 
the sea, procured for Campania the epithet Felix^ 
a name Avhich it justly deserved. It Avas the fa- 
A'ourite retreat in summer of the Roman nobles, 
Avhose villas studded a considerable part of its 
coast, especially in the neighbourhood of Baiae. 
The principal river Avas the V ui.turxus : the 
minor riA-ers were the Liris, Savo, Claxics, 
Sebethus, Sarnus, and Silarus, The chief 
lakes Avere Lucrinus, Acherusia, Averxus, 
and LiTERXA, most of them craters of extinct 
volcanos, — The earliest inhabitants of the country 
were the Ausones and Osci or Opici. They 
Avere subsequently conquered by the Etruscans, 
Avho became the masters of almost all the country. 
In the time of the Romans Ave find 3 distinc 
people, besides the Greek population of Cumae 

1. The Campani, properly so called, a mixed race^ 
consisting of Etruscans and the original inhabitants 
of the countr}-, dwelling along the coast from Si 
nuessa to Paestum. They were the ruling race : 
their history is giA-en under Capua, their chief city. 

2. SiDiciNL an Ausonian people, in the N.W. of 
the country on the borders of Samniiun. 3. Pl- 
CEXTIXJ in the S. E, of the country. 

Campe (Ko^uttt?), a monster AA^hich guarded th~ 
Cyclops in Tartarus, Avas killed by Zeus when h' 
AA-anted the assistance of the Cyclops against th 
Titans. 

Campi Lapidei (vreSioi/ Ai^wSes ; la Crau\ 
'• Plain of Stones " in the S. of Gaul, E. of the 
Rhone, near the ^Mediterranean, and on the road 
from Aries to Marseilles. These stones Avere pro- 
bably deposited by the Rhone and the Druentia 
{Durance), Avhen their course Avas different from 
Avhat it is at present. This singular plain Avas 
known even to Aeschylus, Avho says that Zeus 
rained down these stones from heaA-en to assist 
Hercules in his flight wnth the Ligurians, after the 
hero had shot aAA^ay all his arroAvs, A sweet 
herbage groAvs underneath and between the stones, 
and consequently in ancient as well as in modern 
times, flocks of sheep AA^ere pastured on this ])lain. 

Campi Macri (Mawpoi Kc^ttoj), the " Long 
Plains," a tract of country between Parma and 



CAMPI. 



CANULEIUS. 



143 



Modena, celebrated for the wool of its sheei?. 
There appears to have been a place of the same 
name, where annual meetings of the neighbouring 
people were held even in the time of Strabo, 

Campi Raudii, a plain in the N. of Italy near 
Vercella, where Marius and Catulus defeated the 
Cimbri, b. c. 101. 

Campus Martius, the " Plain of Mars," fre- 
quently called the Campus simply, was, in its 
Avidest signification, the open plain at Rome out- 
side the city-walls, lying between the Tiber and 
the hills Capitolinus, Quirinal, and Pincius ; but 
it was more usually used to signify the N. W. 
portion of the plain lying in the bend of the Tiber, 
which nearly surrounded it on 3 sides. The S. 
portion of the plain in the neighbourhood of tlie 
Circus Flaminius was called Circus Flaminius or 
Campus Flaminius or Prata Flaminia, The 
Campus Martius is said to have belonged originally 
to the Tarquins, and to have become tlie property 
of the state, and to have been consecrated to Mars 
upon the expulsion of the kings. Here the Roman 
youths were accustomed to perform their gj^mnas- 
tic and warlike exercises, and here the comitia of 
the centuries were held. At a later time it was 
surrounded by porticoes, temples, and other public 
buildings. It was included within the city walls 
by Aurelian. — Some modern writers make 3 divi- 
sions of the Campus Martius, and suppose that 
there was a portion of the plain lying between the 
Campus Martius proper and the Circus Flaminius, 
called Campus Tiberinus or Campus Minor, but 
this supposition does not rest on sufficient evidence. 
The Campus Minor mentioned by Catullus (Iv. 3) 
probably refers to another Campus altogether. 
Respecting the other Campi see Roma. 

Canae (KdmL), a sea-port of Aeolis, in Asia 
Minor, opposite to Lesbos. 

Canace (Kkvo/ctj), daughter of Aeolus and Ena- 
rete, had several children by Poseidon. She en- 
tertained an unnatural love for her brother Maca- 
reus, and on this account was killed by her own 
father ; but according to others, she put an end to 
her life. 

Canachus (KaVax"^)- !• -A- Sicyonian artist, 
flourished B. c. 540 — 508, and executed, among 
ather works, a colossal statue of Apollo Philesius 
it Miletus, which was carried to Ecbatana by 
Xerxes, 479.-2. A Sicyonian artist, probably 
grandson of the former, from whom he is not dis- 
tinguished by the ancients. He and Patrocles cast 
the statues of 2 Spartans, who had fought in the 
battle of Aegospotamos, b. c. 405. 

Canastrum or Canastraeum (Kdvacrrpov, Ea- 
marpaloy, sc. aKpooT-tipiov^ 7] Kavaarpair] aKprj : C. 
Paillari)^ the S. E. extremity of the peninsula Pai- 
lene in Macedonia. 

Candaci (KavZaKti), a queen of the Aethiopians 
3f Meroe, invaded Egypt e. c. 22, but was driven 
back and defeated by Petronius, the Roman go- 
vernor of Egypt. Her name seems to have been 
:ommon to all the queens of Aethiopia. 

Candaules (Kaj/SauATjs), also called Myrsilus, 
last Heraclid king of Lydia. His Avife compelled 
Gyges to put her husband to death, because he 
had exhibited to Gyges her unveiled charms. 
Gj'ges then married the queen and mounted the 
throne, b. c. 716. 

Candavia, Candavii Montes, the mountains 
separating Illyricum from Macedonia, across Avhich 
the Via Egnatia ran. 



Candidum Pr. (Ras-el-Abiad, Caj) Bianco)^ 
N.W. of Hippo Zaritus on the N. coast of Zeugi- 
tana, in Africa, forms the W. headland of the 
Sinus Hipponensis. 

Canicula. [Canis.] 

Canidia, whose real name was Gratidia, was a 
Neapolitan courtezan beloved by Horace ; but when 
she deserted him, he revenged himself by holding 
her up to contempt as an old sorceress. {Epod. 5, 
17, Sat. i. 8.) 

Canmius Gallus. [Gallus.] 

Caniuus Rebilus. [Rebilus.] 

Canis (Kvav), the constellation of the Great 
Dog. The most important star in this constella- 
tion was specially named Canis or Canicula^ and 
also Sinus. About B. c. 400 the heliacal rising of 
Sirius at Athens, corresponding with the entrance 
of the sun into the sign Leo, marked the hottest 
season of the sea, and this observation being taken 
on trust by the Romans, Avithout considering 
Avhether it suited their age and country, the Dies 
Caniculares became proverbial among them, as the 
Dog Days are among ourselves. — The constella- 
tion of the Litlle Dog was called Procyon (Upoicvwu)^ 
literally translated Ante canem, Antecanis, because 
in Greece this constellation rises heliacally before 
the Great Dog. When Bootes Avas regarded as 
Icarius [Arctos], Procycn became Maera, the 
dog of Icarius. 

Cannae (Caxmensis : Canne), a village in Apu- 
lia, N. E. of Canusium, situated in an extensive 
plain E. of the Aufidus and N. of the small river 
Vergellus, memorable for the defeat of the Romans 
by Hannibal, B. c. 216. 

Canninefates. [BATAAa.] 

Canobus or CanopUS (KdvaSos or Kaz^wiros), 
according to Grecian story, the helmsm.an of Me- 
nelaus, Avho on his ret'irn from Troy died in Egypt, 
and was buried on the site of the town of Cano- 
bus, which derived its name from him. 

Canobus or Canopus (Kdvoi>§os, KdvuTros : Kavu. 
€lTr)s : Piu. W. of Ahouhir)^ an important city on 
the coast of Lower Egj-pt, near the W.-most 
mouth of the Nile, Avhich Avas hence called the 
Canopic Mouth {rh KavoaSiKou (rr6jxa). It Avas 
120 stadia (12 geog. miles) E. of Alexandria, and 
was (at least at one time) the capital of the Nomos 
Menelaites. It had a great temple of Serapis, and 
a considerable commerce ; and its inhabitants were 
proverbial for their luxury {KavwSicrixos). After 
the establishment of ChristianitA', the city rapidly 
declined. 

Cantabri, a people in the N. of Spain. The 
P.,cmans originally gave this name to all the people 
on the N. coast of Spain ; but Avhen they became 
better acquainted Avitli the country, the name Avas 
restricted to the people bounded on the E. by the 
Astures and on the W. by the Autrigones. The 
Cantabri Avere a fierce and Avarlike people, and 
Avere only subdued hy Augustus after a struggle 
of seA'eral years (b. c. "25 — 19). 

Ca,ntliaru3 (KdvQapos)^ a statuary and embosser 
of Sicyon, flourished about b. c. 268. 

Ganthus {Kdvdos), an Argonaut, son of Cane- 
thus or of Abas of Euboea, AA^as slain in Libya by 
Cephalion or Caphaurus. 

Cantium (Cantii : Kent), a district of Britain, 
nearly the same as the modern Kent., but included 

LoNDlNIUiAI. 

Ganuleius, C, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 445, 
proposed the Iuaa', establishing co?inubium, or the 



144 



CANUSIUM. 



CAPITOLIUM. 



right of intermarriage, between the patricians and 
plebs. He also proposed tliat the people should 
have the right of choosing the consuls from either 
the patricians or the plebs ; but this proposal was 
not carried, and it was resolved instead, that mili- 
tary tribunes, with consular power, should be 
fleeted from either order in place of the consuls. 

Canusium (Canusinus: Canosa), a town in 
Apulia, on the Aufidus, and on the high road from 
Rome to Brundusium, founded, according to tra- 
dition, by Diomede, whence the surrounding coun- 
try was called Campus Diomedis. It was at all 
events a Greek colony, and both Greek and Oscan 
were spoken there in the time of Horace. {Canu- 
sini more bilingnis, Hot. Sat. i. 10. 30.) Canusium 
was a town of considerable importance, but suffered 
greatly, like most of the other towns in the S. of 
Italy, during the 2nd Punic war. Here the re- 
mains of the Roman army took refuge after their 
defeat at Cannae, B.C. 216. It was celebrated for 
its mules and its woollen manufactures, but it had 
a deficient supply of water. (Hor. Sa(. i. 5. 91.) 
There are still ruins of the ancient town near 
Canosa. 

Cantitms, or Cannutius. 1. P., a distinguished 
orator, frequently mentioned in Cicero's oration for 
Cluentius. — 2. Ti., tribune of the plebs, B. c. 44, 
a violent opponent of Antony, and, after the esta- 
blishment of the triumvirate, of Octavian also. He 
was taken prisoner at the capture of Perusia, and 
was put to death by Octavian, 40. 

Capaneus (Ka/rcfeus), son of Hipponous and 
Astynome or Laodice, and father of Sthenelus, 
w^as one of the 7 heroes who marched from Argos 
against Thebes. He was struck by Zeus with 
lightning, as he was scaling the walls of Thebes, 
because he had dared to defy the god. While his 
body was burning, his wife Evadne leaped into the 
flames and destroyed herself. 

Capella, the star. [C^pra.] 

Capella, Martianus Mineus Felix, a native of 
Carthage, probably flourished towards the close of 
the fifth century of our aera. He is the author of a 
work in 9 books, composed in a medley of prose 
and various kinds of verse, after the fashion of the 
Satyra Menippea of Varro. It is a sort of ency- 
clopaedia, and was much esteemed in the middle 
ages. The first two books, which are an introduc- 
tion to the rest, consist of an allegory, entitled the 
Nuptials of Philology and Mercury, while in the 
remaining 7 are expounded the principles of the 7 
liberal arts. Grammar, Dialectics, Rhetoric, Geo- 
metry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music, in- 
cluding Poetry. — Editions. Bv Hugo Grotius, 
Lugd. Bat. 1599; and by Kopp,' Francf. 1836. 

Capena (Capenas, -atis : Civiiucola, an uninha- 
bited hill), an ancient Etruscan town founded b}- 
and dependent on Veii, submitted to the Romans 
B. c. 395, the year after the conquest of Veii, and 
subsequently became a Roman municipium. In its 
territory was the celebrated grove and temple of 
Feronia on the small river Capenas. [Feronia.] 

Capena Porta. [Roma.] 

Caper, Flavius, a Roman grammarian of uncer- 
tain date, whose works are quoted repeatedly b}' 
Priscian, and of whom we have 2 short treatises 
extant: printed by Putschius, G rammat. Latin. Auct. 
AntiQU., pp. 2239—2248, Hanov. 1605. 

Capetus Silvius. [Silvius.] 

Capliareus (Ka^Tjpevs : Capo d' Oro), a rocky 
and dangerous promontory on the S. E. of Euboea, 



where the Greek fleet is said to have been wrecked 
on its return from Troy. 

Caphyae ( Ka(pvai Kadueus, Ka</)uaT72s), a 
town in Arcadia, N. W. of Orchomenus. 

Capito, C. Ateius. 1. Tribune of the plebs 
B. c. 55, when he opposed the triumvirs. — 2. Son 
of No. 1, an eminent Roman jurist, was ap- 
pointed Curator aquavum puhlicarum in a. d. 
13, and held this office till his death, 22. He 
gained the favour of both Augustus and Tibe- 
rius by flattery and obsequiousness. He wrote 
numerous legal works, which are cited in the 
Digest and elsewhere. Capito and his contem- 
porary Labeo were reckoned the highest legal 
authorities of their day, and were the founders of 
2 legal schools, to which most of the great jurists 
belonged. The schools took their respective names 
from distinguished disciples of those jurists. The 
followers of Capito were called from Masurius 
Sabinus, Sahiniani ; and afterwards from Cassius 
Longinus, Cassiaiii. The followers of Labeo took 
from Proculus the name Proculeiani. 

Capito, C. Fonteius, a friend of M. Antony, 
accompanied Maecenas to Brundisium, B. c. 37, 
when the latter was sent to effect a reconciliation 
between Octavianus and Antony. (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 
32.) Capito remained with Antony, and went 
with him to the East. 

Capitolinus, Julius, one of the Scriptores His- 
toriae Augusiae, lived in the reign of Diocletian 
(a. d. 284 — 305), and wrote the lives of 9 empe- 
rors : — 1. Antoninus Pius, 2. M. Aurelius, 3. L. 
Verus, 4. Pertinax, 5. Clodius Albinus, 6. Opilius 
Macrinus, 7. the 2 Maximini, 8. the 3 Gordiani, 
9. Maxiraus and Balbinus. The best editions of 
the Scriptores Historiae Augustae are by Salmasius, 
Par. 1620 ; Schrevelius, Lugd. Bat. 1671. 
Capitolinus, Manlius. [Manlius.] 
Capitolinus Mons. [Capitolium : Roma.] 
Capitolinus, Petillius, was, according to the 
Scholiast on Horace {Sat. i. 4. 94), entrusted with 
the care of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol 
(whence he was called Capitolinus), and was ac- 
cused of having stolen the crown of Jupiter, but 
was acquitted by the judges in consequence of his 
being a friend of Augustus. The surname Capi- 
tolinus appears, however, to have been a regular 
family-name of the gens. 

Capitolinus, Quintius. [Quintius.] 
Capitolium, the temple of Jupiter Optimus 
Maximus at Rome, was situated on the Mons Ca- 
pitolinus, which derived its name from the temple. 
This hill is in figure an irregular oblong, with two 
more elevated summits at the N. and S. ends. 
The N. summit, which is somewhat higher and 
steeper, was the Arx or citadel of Rome, and is 
now occupied by the church of Ara Celi : while the 
S. summit, which is now covered in part by the 
Palazzo Caffarelli, was the site of the Capitolium. 
The temple is said to have been called the Capi- 
tolium, because a human head (caput) was disco- 
vered in digging the foundations. The building of 
it was commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, and it 
was finished by Tarquinius Superbus, but was not 
dedicated till the 3rd year of the republic, B. c. 
507, by the consul M. Horatius. It was burnt 
down in the civil wars, 83, but was rebuilt by 
Sulla, and Avas dedicated by Q. Catulus, G9. It 
was burnt down a 2nd time by the soldiers of 
Vitellius, A. D. 69, and was rebuilt by Vespasian ; 
but it was burnt down a 3rd time in the reign of 



CAPITOLIUM. 



1 •, 




Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored. Pages 144, 145. 




Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. (From Arch of Tabularium on the Capitoline Hill, 

a Coin of Vespasian.) Pages 144, 145. (.See Diet, of Geography, Vol. II. p. 770.) 




Supposed Tarpeian Rock. Pages 144, 145. 



ITofucep. 144. 



CAPPADOCIA. 



CAPSA. 



145 



Titus, 80, and was again rebuilt by Domitian with 
greater splendour than before. The Capitol con- 
tained 3 cells under the same roof : the middle cell 
was the temple of Jupiter, hence described as 
" media qui sedet aede Deus" (Ov. ex Pont. iv. 9. 
32), and on either side were the cells of his attend- 
ant deities, Juno and Minerva. The Capitol was 
one of the most imposing buildings at Rome, and 
was adorned as befitted the majesty of the king of 
the gods. It was in the form of a square, namely, 
200 feet on each side, and Avas approached by a 
flight of 100 steps. The gates were of bronze, 
and the ceilings and tiles gilt. The gilding alone 
of the building cost Domitian 12,000 talents. In 
the Capitol were kept the Sibylline books. Here 
the consuls upon entering on their office offered sacri- 
fices and took their vows ; and hither the victorious 
general, who entered the city in triumph, was car- 
ried in his triumphal car to return thanks to the 
Father of the gods. — Although the words Ai-x 
Capitoliumque are properly used to signify the 
whole hill, yet we sometimes find the term ^ra; 
applied alone to the whole hill, since the hill 
itself constituted a natural citadel to the city, 
and sometimes the term Capitolium to the whole 
hill, on account of the importance and reverence 
attaching to the temple. Moreover, as the Capitol 
was nearly as defensible as the Arx, it is sometimes 
called Aroc Tarpeia or Capitolwa, but the epithet 
Tarpeia or Capitolina is applied to distinguish it 
from the Arx properlj'- so called. 

Cappadocia (KaTTTraSoKi'a: KaTTTraSo^, Cappa- 
dox), a district of Asia Minor, to which different 
boundaries were assigned at different times. Under 
the Persian empire it included the whole country 
inhabited by a people of Syrian origin, who were 
called (from their complexion) White Syrians 
(Aeu/cdcvpot), and also Cappadoces, which appears 
to have been a word of Persian origin. Their 
country seems to have embraced the whole N, E. 
part of Asia Minor E. of the Halys and N. of the 
Taurus. Afterwards (but whether under the Per- 
sians or after the Macedonian conquest, is a dis- 
puted point) the country was divided into two 
parts, which were named respectively from their 
proximity to the Euxine and to the Taurus, the N, 
part being called Cappadocia ad Pontum and then 
simply PoNTUs, the S. part Cappadocia ad Tau- 
rum, and then simply Cappadocia : the former was 
also called Cappadocia jNIinor and the latter Cap- 
padocia Major. Under the Persian Empire, the 
whole country was governed by a line of here- 
ditary satraps, who traced their descent from 
Anaphas, an Achaemenid, one of the 7 chieftains 
that slew the pseudo-Smerdis, and who soon raised 
themselves to the position of tributary kings. After 
a temporar}-- suspension of their power during the 
wars between the successors of Alexander, when 
Ariarathes I. was defeated and slain by Perdiccas 
(b. c. 322), the kings of S. Cappadocia (respecting 
the other part see Pontus) recovered their in- 
dependence under Ariarathes II., whose history and 
that of his successors will be found under Ariara- 
thes and Ariobarzanes. In a. d. 17, Arche- 
laiis, the last king, died at Rome, and Tiberius 
made Cappadocia a Roman province. [Arche- 
LAfis, No. 6.] Soon afterwards the districts of 
Cataoniaand Melitene, which had before belonged 
to Cilicia, were added to Cappadocia, and the pro- 
vince then comprised the 10 praefecturae of Meli- 
tene, Cataonia, Cilicia, Tyanitis, Garsauritis, La- 



viniasene, Sargarausene, Sarauravene, Chamanene, 
and Morimene. There were other divisions under 
the later emperors. Cappadocia was a rough and 
generally sterile mountain region ; bordered by the 
chains of the Paryadres on the N., the ScY- 
uissEs on the E., and the Taurus on the S., and 
intersected by that of the Anti-Taurus, on the 
side of whose central mountain, Argaeus, stood 
the capital Mazaca, aft. Caesarea ad Argaeum. 
Its chief rivers were the IIalvs and the Melas. 
Its fine pastures supported abundance of good 
horses and mules. 

Cappadox {KainrdSo^: Konax), a tributary of 
the Halys, rising in M. Lithrus, in the chain of 
Paryadres, and forming tlie N.W. boundary of 
Cappadocia, on the side of Galatia. 

Capra, or Capella (A?|), the brightest star in the 
constellation of the Auriga, or Charioteer, is some- 
times called Olenia Capella, because it rested on 
the shoulder (eTrl ttjs wAcVtjs) of the Auriga. This 
star was said to have been originally the nymph or 
goat who nursed the infant Zeus in Crete. [ Aega ; 
Amalthea.] Its heliacal rising took place soon 
before the winter solstice, and thus it was termed 
signum pluviale. 

Capraria or Caprasia. 1. (Capraja), a small 
island off the coast of Etruria between Populonia 
and the N. extremity of Corsica, inhabited only 
by wild goats, whence its name : called by the 
Greeks A^'Yl\ov.--2. {Cabrera), a small island 
off the S. of the Balearis Major {Majorca), dan- 
gerous to ships.— 3. See Aegates.— 4. See FoR- 
tunatae Insulae. 

Capreae {Capri), a small island, 9 miles in cir- 
cumference, off Campania, at the S. entrance of the 
gulf of Puteoli, and 2| miles from the promontory 
of Minerva, from which the island had been separated 
by an earthquake. It is composed of calcareous 
rocks, which rise to 2 summits, the highest of 
which is between 1600 and 1700 feet above the 
sea. The scenery is beautiful, and the climate 
soft and geniah According to tradition, it was 
originally inhabited by the Teleboae, but after- 
wards belonged to the inhabitants of Neapolis,. 
from whom Augustus either purchased it or ob- 
tained it in exchange for the island Pithecusa. 
Here Tiberius lived the last 10 years of his reign,, 
indulging in secret debaucherj-, and accessible only 
to his creatures. He erected many magnificer:;t 
buildings on the island, the chief of which was 
the Villa Jovis, and the ruins of which are still to 
be seen. 

Capria {Kaivpio.), a large salt lake in Pamphylia, 
near the coast, between Perge and Aspendus. 

Capricornus (^Kl'y6Kep<jos), the Goaf, a sign of 
the Zodiac, between the Archer and the Waterman, 
is said to have fought with Jupiter against the 
Titans. 

Caprus (KoTrpo?). 1. {Little Zah), a river of 
Assyria, rising in Mt. Zagros {Mts. of Kurdistan)^ 
and flowing S.W. into the Tigris, opposite to Cae- 
nae. ■— 2. A little river of Phrygia, rising at the 
foot of M. Cadmus, and flowing N. into the Lycus. 

Capsa (Capsetanus : Ghafsah), a strong and 
ancient city in the S.W. of Byzacena in N. Africa,, 
in a fertile oasis, surrounded by a sandy desert 
abounding in serpents. Its foundation was ascribed 
by tradition to the Libyan Hercules. In the war 
with Jugurtha, who used it as a treasure-city, it 
was destroyed by Marius ; but it was afterwards 
rebuilt and erected into a colony. 

L 



146 



CAPUA. 



CARBO. 



Capua (Capuanus, Capuensis, but more com- 
monly Campanus : Capua), originally called "Vul- 
tnrnum, the chief city of Campania after tlie fall 
of CuMAE, is said to have derived its name from 
Capys. Capua was either founded or colonized by 
the Etruscans, according to some 50 years before 
the foundation of Rome, and it became at an early 
period the most prosperous, wealthy, and luxurious 
city in the S. of Italy. In b. c. 420 it was con- 
quered by the warlike Saranitcs ; and the popula- 
tion, which had always been of a mixed nature, 
now consisted of Ausonians, Oscans, Etruscans, 
and Samnites. At a later time Capua, again at- 
tacked by the Samnites, placed itself under the 
protection of Rome, 343. It revolted to Hannibal 
after the battle of Cannae, 216, but was taken by 
the Romans in 211, was fearfully punished, and 
never recovered its former prosperity. It was now 
governed b}^ a Praefectus, Avho was sent annually 
to the city from Rome. It received a Roman 
colony by the lex agraria of Julius Caesar, 5.9, and 
luider Nero a colony of veterans was settled there. 
It was subsequently destroyed by the barbarians 
who invaded Italy. The modern town of Capua is 
built about 3 miles from the ancient one, the site 
of which is indicated by the ruins of an amphi- 
theatre. 

Caput Vada Prom. [Brachodes.] 

Capys (KaTTus). 1. Son of Assaracus and Hie- 
romnemone, and father of Anchises. — 2. A com- 
panion of Aeneas, from whom Capua was said to 
have derived its name. 

Capys Silvius. [Silvius.] 

Capytium or Capitium (Capizzi), called by 
Cicero Capitina Civitas, a town in Sicily near Mt. 
Aetna. 

Car (Kctp), son of Phoroneus, and king of Me- 
gara, from whom the acropolis of this town was 
called Caria. 

Caracalla, emperor of Rome, a. d. 211 — 217, 
was son of Septimius Severus and his 2nd wife 
Julia Domna, and was bom at Lyons, A.. D. 188. 
He was originally called Bassiamis after his ma- 
ternal grandfather, but afterwards M. Aurelius 
Antoninus, which became his legal name, and ap- 
pears on medals and inscriptions. Caracalla was 
a nickname derived from a long tunic worn by the 
Gauls, v/hich he adopted as his favourite dress 
after he became emperor. In 198 Caracalla, when 
10 years old, was declared Augustus, and in the 
same year accompanied his father Severus in the 
expedition against the Parthians. He returned 
with Severus to Rome in 202, and married Plau- 
tilla, daughter of Plautianus, the praetorian prae- 
fect. In 208 he went with Severus to Britain ; and 
on the death of the latter at York, 211, Caracalla 
and his brother Geta succeeded to the throne, ac- 
cording to their father's arrangements. Caracalla's 
first object was to obtain the sole government by 
the murder of his brother ; and after making seve- 
ral unsuccessful attempts upon the life of Geta, he 
at length pretended to be reconciled with him, and 
having thus thrown him off his guard, he caused 
him to be murdered in the arms of his mother, 212. 
The assassination of Geta was followed by the 
execution of many of the most distinguished men 
of the state, whom Caracalla suspected of favouring 
his brother's cause : the celebrated jurist Papinian 
was one of his victims. His cruelties and extra- 
vagancies knew no bounds ; and after exhausting 
Italy by his extortions, he resolved to visit the 



different provinces of the empire, which became the 
scenes of fresh atrocities. In 214 he visited Gaul, 
Germany, Dacia, and Thrace ; and, in consequence 
of a campaign against the Alemanni, he assumed the 
surname Alemannicus. In 215 he went to Syria 
and Egypt ; his sojourn at Alexandria was marked 
by a general slaughter of the inhabitants, in order 
to avenge certain sarcastic pleasantries in which 
they had indulged against himself and his mother. 
In 216 he crossed the Euphrates, laid waste Meso- 
potamia, and returned to Edessa, whore he win- 
tered. Next year he again took the field, intending 
to cross the Tigris, but was murdered near Edessa 
by Macrinus. the praetori;m praefect. Caracalla 
gave to all free inhabitants of the empire the name 
and privileges of Roman citizens. 

Caractacus, king of the Silures in Britain, 
bravely defended his country against the Romans, 
in the reign of Claudius. He was at length de- 
feated by the Romans, and fled for protection to 
Cartimandua, queen of the Brigantes ; but she be- 
trayed him to the Romans, who carried him to 
Rome, A. D. 51. When brought before Claudius, 
he addressed the emperor in so noble a manner 
that the latter pardoned him and his friends. 

Caralis or Carales (Caralitanus : Cayliari), the 
chief town of Sardinia, with an excellent harbour, 
situated oq the Sinus Caralitanus and on a pro- 
montory of the same name {Capo S. Elia). It was 
founded by the Carthaginians ; under the Romans 
it was the residence of the praetor, and at a later 
period enjoyed the Roman franchise. 

Carambis (Kapa^u^is a^pa: Kerempe), a pro- 
montor}', with a city of the same name, on the 
coast of Paphlagonia, almost exactly opposite the 
Kriu Metopon or S. promontory of the Chersonesus 
Taurica {Crimea). An imaginary line joining these 
two headlands would make an almost equal divi- 
sion of the Euxine, which was hence called 5tdv/xr] 
^dxaarra. (Soph. Aniig. 978.) 

Caranus (Kaaaj/os). 1. Of Argos, a descendant 
of Hercules, and a brother of Phidon, is said to 
have settled at Edessa in Macedonia with an Ar- 
give colony about b. c. 750, and to have become 
the founder of the dynasty of Macedonian kings. 
■=-2. Son of Philip and half-brother of Alexander 
the Great. -="3. A general of Alexander the 
Great. 

CaraiiEius, born among the Mcnapii in Gaul, 
was entrusted by Maximian with the command of 
the fleet wliich was to protect the coasts of Gan! 
against the ravages of the Franks. But Maxi- 
mian, having become dissatisfied with the conduct 
of Carausius in this command, gave orders for the 
execution of the latter. Carausius forthwith crossed 
over to Britain, where he assumed the title of Au- 
gustus, A. D. 287. After several ineffectual attempts 
to subdue him, Diocletian and Maximian acknow- 
ledged him as their colleague in the empire, and he 
continued to reign in Britain till 293, when he was 
murdered by his chief ofiicer, Allectus. 

Carbo, Papirius. 1. C, a distinguished orator, 
and a man of great talents, but of no principle. He 
commenced public life as one of the 3 commissioners 
or triumvirs for carrying into effect the agrarian 
law of Tib. Gracchus. His tribuneship of the plebs, 
E. c 131, was characterized by the most vehement 
opposition to the aristocracy ; and he v/as thought 
even to have murdered Scipio Africanus, the cham- 
pion of the aristocratical party, 129. But after 
the death of C. Gracchus (121), he suddenly 



CARCASQ. 

deserted the popular party, and in his consulship 
(120) actually undertook the defence of Opimius, 
who had murdered C. Gracchus. In 119 Carbo 
was accused by L. Licinius Crassus, who brought a 
charge against him, and as he foresaw his condem- 
nation, he put an end to his life, — 2. Cn., consul 
113, was defeated by the Cimbri near Noreia, and 
being afterwards accused by M. Antonius, he put 
an end to his own life. — =3. C, with the surname 
Arvina, son of No. 1, was a supporter of the aristo- 
cracy. In his tribuneship (90), Carbo and his col- 
league, M. Plautius Silvanus, carried a law (Lex 
Papiria Plautia),giyiug the Roman franchise to the 
citizens of the federate towns. Carbo was murdered 
in 82, by the praetor Brutus Damasippus, at the com- 
mand of the younger Marius. [Brutus, No. 10.] 
— 4. Cn., son of No. 2, Avas one of the leaders of 
the Marian party. He was thrice consul, namely-, 
in 85, 84, and 82. In 82 he carried on war against 
Sulla and his generals, but was at length obliged 
to abandon Italy : he fled to Sicily, where he was 
taken prisoner, and put to death by Pompey at 
Lilybaeura, in the course of the same year. 

Carcaso (Carcassone), a town of the Tectosages 
in Gallia Narbonensis. 

CarcatMocerta (KapKaeioKepTa Kaiipurt or 
Diarbehr), the capital of the district of Sophene in 
Armenia Major. 

Carcmus (KapKivos). 1. A comic poet and a 
contemporary of Aristophanes {Nub. 1263, Pacv, 
794). — »2. A tragic poet, lived about b. c. 380. 

CardamylQ (KapSa/^uATy : KapdafAvAirrjs). 1. 
A town in Messenia, one of the 7 towns promised 
by Agamemnon to Achilles. ■=» 2. An island near 
or perhaps a town in Chios. 

Cardea, a Roman divinity protecting the hinges 
of doors (cardo), was a nymph beloved by Janus, 
who rewarded her for her favours by giving her 
the protection of the hinges of doors, and the power 
of preventing evil daemons from entering houses. 
Ovid (Fast. vi. 101, seq.) confoimds this goddess 
with Carna. 

Cardia (Kapdia : KapSiav 6s), a town on the W. 
side of the Thracian Chersonese on the gulf of 
Melas, founded by Miletus and Clazomenae, and 
subsequently colonized by the Athenians under 
Miltiades. It was destroyed by Lysimachus, who 
built the town of Lysimachia in its immediate 
neighbourhood. Cardia was the birth-place of 
Eumenes and of the historian Hieronymus. 

CarducM (Kapdovxoi), a powerful and v/arlike 
people in the S. E. of Great Armenia, on the N. E. 
margin of the Tigris valley, probably the same as 
the Topdvaioi and Topdv7]uoi of the late geographers 
and the Kurds of modern times. They dwelt in 
the mountains which divided Assyria on the 
N. E. from Armenia (Mts. of Kurdistan), and were 
never thoroughly subdued by the Persians, Greeks, 
or Romans. 

Caresus (Kdpr\(ros), a town of the Troad, on a 
river of the same name flowing into the Aesepus : 
destroyed before the time of Strabo. 

Caria (Kap'ia : Kap), a district of Asia Minor, 
in its S. W. corner, bounded on the N. and N. E. , 
by the mountains Messogis and Cadmus, Avhich 
divided it from Lydia and Phrygia, and adjacent 
to Phrygia and Lycia on the E. and S. E. It is 
intersected by low mountain chains running out 
far into the sea in long promontories, the N.-most 
of which was called Mycale or Trogilium (opposite 
to Samos), the next Posidium (on which stood 



CARlNUb. 147 
Miletus and Branchidae), the next is the long 
tongue of land terminated bj' tlie 2 headlands of 
Zephj^rium and Termerium (with Halicarnassiis on 
its S. side), next the Cnidian Chersonesus, termi- 
nated by the cape Triopium and the city of Cnidus, 
then the Rhodian Chersonesus, the S. point of 
which was called Cynossema, opposite to Rhodes, 
and, lastly, Pedalium or Artemisium, forming the 
W. headland of the bay of Glaucus. The chief 
gulfs formed by these promontories were the 
Maeandrian, between Trogilium and Posidium ; 
the lassian, between Posidium and Zephyrium ; 
and the Ceraunian or Dorian, between Termerium 
and Triopium. The valleys between these moun- 
tain chains were well Avatered and fertile. The 
chief river was the Maeander, between the chaiuo 
of Messogis and Latmus, to the S. of v.-liich the 
country Avas Avatered by its tributaries, the Mar- 
syas, Harpasus, and Mosynus, besides some streams 
floAAdng W. and S. into the sea, the most consider- 
able of Avhich Avas the Calbis. (See the articles.) 
The chief products of the country were corn, v.-ine, 
oil, and figs ; for the last of AA'hich Caunus, on the 
S. coast, Avas very famous. An extensive commerce 
Avas carried on by the Greek colonies on the coast. 
— Even before the great colonization of the coasts 
of Asia Minor, Dorian settlements existed on the 
Triopian and Cnidian promontories, and this part 
of Caria, with the adjacent islands, received at that 
time other Dorian colonies, and obtained the name 
of Doris ; Avhile to the N. of the lassian Gulf, 
the coast AA'as occupied by Ionian colonies, and 
thus formed the S. part of Ionia. The inhabitants 
of the rest of the country Avere Carians (Kapes), a 
Avide- spread race of the Indo-Germanic stock, nearly 
allied to the Lydians and Mysians, Avhich appears, 
in the earliest times of Avhich Ave knoAV any thing, 
to haA^e occupied the greater part of the W. coast 
of Asia Minor and several islands of the Aegean, 
in conjunction with the Leleges, from whom the 
Carians are not easily distinguishable. The con- 
nection between the Carians, Lydians, and My- 
sians is attested by their common Avorship of Zeujj 
Carios at Mylasa : the Carians had also a common 
sanctuary of Zeus Chrysaoreus. — Their language 
Avas reckoned by the Greeks as a barbarian tongue 
(i. e. unintelligible), though it early received an 
intermixture of Greek. The people Avere considered 
mean and stupid, cA-en for slaves. — The country 
AA^as governed by a race of native princes, Avho 
fixed their abode at Halicarnassus after its exclu- 
sion from the Dorian confederacy. [Halicar- 
nassus.] These princes Avere subject allies of 
Lydia and Persia, and some of them rose to great 
distinction in Avar and peace. [See Artemisia, 
Mausolus, and Ada.] After the Macedonian 
conquest, the S. portion of the country became sub- 
ject to Rhodes [Rhodus], and the N. part to the 
kings of Pergamus. Under the Romans, Caria 
formed a part of the province of Asia. 
Carinae. [Roma.] 

Carinus, M. Aurelms, the elder of the 2 sons 
of Cams, AA-as associated Avith his father in the go- 
vernment, A. D. 2 ^3, and remained in the W., 
Avhile his father md brother Numerianus pro- 
ceeded to the E. to carry on AA^ar against the Per- 
sians. On the death of his father, in the course of 
the same year, Carinus and Numerianus succeeded 
to the empire. In 284 Numerianus Avas slain, and 
Carinus marched into Moesia to oppose Diocletian, 
who had been proclaimed emperor, A decisive 

L 2 



]48 



CARMAN A. 



CARTHAEA. 



battle was fought near Margum, in which Carinus 
gained the victory, but, in the moment of triumph, 
he was slain by some of his own officers, whose 
wives he had seduced, 285. Carinus was one of the 
most profligate and cruel of the Roman emperors. 

Cannana (Kap/xava : Kerman, Ru.), the capital 
of Carmania Propria, 3° long. E. of Persepolis. 

Carmania (Ka/j^uavi'a : Kirman), a province of 
the ancient Persian empire, bounded on the W. 
l)y Persis, on the N. by Parthia, on the E. by 
Gedrosia, and on the S. by the Indian Ocean. It 
Avas divided into 2 parts, C. Propria and C De- 
serta, the former of which was well watered by 
several small streams, and abounded in corn, wine, 
and cattle. The country also yielded gold, silver, 
copper, salt, and cinnabar. The people were akin 
to the Persians. 

Carmanor {Kapjxavwp)^ a Cretan, said to have 
purified Apollo and Artemis, after slaying the 
monster Python. 

Carmelus, and -urn {KdpiniXos : Jebel-Elyas)^ 
a range of mountains in Palestine, branching off, 
on the N. border of Samaria, from the central chain 
(which extends S. and N. between the Jordan and 
the Mediterranean), and running N. and N. W. 
through the S. W. part of Galilee, till it termi- 
nates in the promontory of the same name {Cape 
Carmel), the height of which is 1200 feet above the 
Mediterranean, 

Cannenta, Carmentis. [Camenae.] 

Carmo {Carmona), a fortified town in Hispania 
Baetica, N. E. of Hispalis. 

Cama, a Roman divinity, whose name is pro- 
bably connected with caro, flesh, for she was re- 
garded as the protector of the physical well-being 
of man. Her festival was celebrated June 1st, 
and was believed to have been instituted by Brutus 
in the first year of the republic. Ovid confounds 
this goddess with C ardea. 

Carneades (Kapvea.ZT}s\ a celebrated philoso- 
pher, bom at Cyrene about b. c. 213, was the 
founder of the Third or New Academy at Athens. 
In 155 he was sent to Rome, with Diogenes and 
Critolaus, by the Athenians, to deprecate the fine 
of 500 talents which had been imposed on the 
Athenians for the destruction of Oropus. At Rome 
he attracted great notice from his eloquent decla- 
mations on philosophical subjects, and it was here 
that he first delivered his famous orations on Jus- 
tice. The 1st oration was in commendation of the 
virtue, and the next day the 2nd answered all the 
arguments of the 1st, and showed that justice was 
not a virtue, but a matter of compact for tlie main- 
tenance of civil society. Thereupon Cato moved 
the senate to send the pliilosopher home to his 
school, and save the Roman youth from his de- 
moralizing doctrines. Carneades died in 129, at 
the age of 85. He was a strenuous opponent 
of the Stoics, and maintained that neither our 
senses nor our understanding supply us with a sure 
criterion of truth. 

Carneus (Kapi/eTos), a surname of Apollo, under 
which he was worshipped by the Dorians, is 
derived by some from Camus, a son of Zeus and 
Leto, and by others from Camus, an Acarnanian 
soothsayer. The latter was murdered b}' Hippotes, 
and it was to propitiate Apollo that the Dorians 
introduced his worship under the surname of 
Cameus. The festival of the Carnta^ in honour of 
Apollo, was one of the great national festivals of 
the Spartans. {Diet, of Ant. s. v.) 



Cami, a Celtic people, dwelling N. of the W 
neti in the Alpes Carnicae. [See p. 40.] 

Carnuntam {Kapwovs, -ovvtos : Ru. between 
Dcutsch-AUenburg and Petronell), an ancient Celtic 
town in Upper Pannonia on the Danube, E. of 
Vindobona ( Vienna), and subsequently a Roman 
municipium or a colony. It was one of the chief 
fortresses of the Romans on the Danube, and was 
the residence of the emperor M. Aurelius during 
his wars with the Marcomanni and Quadi. It was 
the station of the Roman fleet on the Danube and 
the regular quarters of the 14th legion. It was 
destroyed by the Germans in the 4th century, but 
was rebuilt and was finally destroyed by the Hun- 
garians in the middle ages. 

Carnus. [Carneus.] 

Camutes or -i, a powerful people in Gallia Lug- 
dunensis between the Liger and Sequana: their 
capital was Gexabum. 

Carpasia {KapTraaia : Karpass), a town in the 
S. E. of Cypms. 

Carpates, also called Alpes Bastarnicae (Car- 
■pathian Mountains), the mountains separating 
Dacia from Sarrnatia. 

CarpatllUS {KapwaOos : Scarpanto), an island 
between Crete and Rhodes, in the sea named after 
it : its chief towns were Posidium and Nisyrus. 

Carpetani, a powerful people in Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, with a fertile territory on the rivers Anas 
and Tagus, in the modern Castille and Estrema- 
dura : their capital was Toletum. 

Carpi or Carpiani, a German people between 
the Carpathian mountains and the Danube. 

Carrae or Carrhae {Kappai : Haran or Charran, 
S.S. : Harran), a city of Osroene in Mesopotamia, 
not far from Edessa. It was here that Crassus 
met his death after his defeat by the Parthians, 
B. c. 53. 

Carrinas or Carinas. 1. C, one of the com- 
manders of the Marian party, fought B.C. 83 against 
Pompey, and in 82 against Sulla and his generals. 
After the battle at the Colline gate at Rome, in 
which the Marian army was defeated, Carrinas 
took to flight, but was seized, and put to death. 
— 2. C, son of No. 1, was sent by Caesar, in 45, 
into Spain against Sext. Pompeius, but he did not 
accomplish anything. In 43 he was consul, and 
afterwards served as one of the generals of Octa- 
vian against Sext. Pompeius in Sicily, in 36, and 
as proconsul in Gaul in 31. — 3. Secundus, a 
rhetorician, expelled by Caligula from Rome, be- 
cause he had, by way of exercise, declaimed against 
tj-rants in his school. 

Carseoli (Carseolanus : Carsoli), a town of the 
Aequi in Latium, colonized by the Romans at an 
early period. 

Carsulae (Carsulanus : Monte Castrilli), a town 
in Umbria, originally of considerable importance, 
but afterwards declined. 

Carteia (also called Carthaea, Carpia, Carpes- 
sus : Crantia), more anciently Tartessus, a cele- 
brated town and harbour in the S. of Spain, at the 
head of the gulf of which M. Calpe forms one side, 
founded by the Phoenicians, and colonized B. c. 
170 by 4000 Roman soldiers, whose mothers were 
Spanish women. 

CartennaorCartiima(7e«nez), a colony on the 
coast of !Mauretania Caesariensis in N. Africa, 
founded by Augustus. 

Carthaea {KapQaia : Poles, Ru.),a town on the 
S. side of the island of Ceos. 



CARTHAGO. 



CARTHAGO. 



Caithago, Magna Carthago (Kapxr}5u>u: Kap- 
^7ld6u>.vs^ Cartliaginiensis, Poenus : Ru. near £Jl- 
Marsa, N.E. of Tunis), one of the most celebrated 
cities of the ancient Avorld, stood in the recess 
of a large bay (Sinus Cartliaginiensis) enclosed by 
the headlands Apollinis and Mercurii (C. Furma 
and C.Bo7i), in tlie middle and N.-most part of the 
N. coast of Africa, inlat. about 36° 55' N.,and long, 
about 10° 20' E. The coast of this part of Africa 
has been much altered by the deposits of the river 
Bagradas and the sand which is driven seawards 
by the N. W. winds. In ancient times Carthage 
stood upon a peninsula surrounded by the sea on 
all sides except the W. : but now the whole space 
between the N. side of this peninsula and the S. 
side of the Apollinis Pr, (C. Farina)^ is filled up 
and converted into a marsh ; Utica, which was on 
the sea-shore, being left some miles inland ; and 
the course of the Bagradas itself being turned con- 
siderably N. of its original channel, so that, instead 
of flowing about half-way between Utica and Car- 
thage, it now runs close to the ruins of Utica, and 
fells into the sea just under C. Farina. The N. E. 
and S. E. sides of the peninsula are still open to the 
sea, which has indeed rather encroached here, for 
ruins are found under water. The S. side of the 
peninsula was formed by an enclosed bay, con- 
nected with the sea only by a narrow opening (now 
called the Goletta, or, in Arabic, Hakpt-el-Wad, 
i. e. Throat of the River\ which still fonris the 
port of Tunis (anc. Tunes), which stands at its 
furthest end ; but it is nearly choked up with the 
deposit of the sewers of the cit}'. The circuit of 
the old peninsula may be estimated at about 30 
miles : the width of the isthmus is 3 milas. The 
greatest circumference of the city itself was pro- 
bably about 1 5 miles. The original city appears 
to have stood on the N. E. part of the peninsula, 
between Ras Ghammart and lias Bousaid (C. Car- 
thage), where the remains of cisterns are seen under 
water: these, and the aqueduct, whose ruins may 
be traced for 52 iniles to Zagliivan, are the only 
remains of the old city. Its port, called Cothon, 
was on the N. W. side of the peninsula, where 
a little village (now inland) still retains the 
name of Fl-Marsa, i. e. the Port. The Roman 
city, which was built after the destruction of the 
original Carthage, lay to the S. of it. — The Tyrian 
colony of Carthage was founded, according to tra- 
dition, about 100 years before the building of 
Rome, that is, about b. c. 853. There were several 
more ancient Phoenician colonies along the same 
coast, between 2 of which, Utica and Tunes, the 
new settlement was fixed, about 27 miles (Roman) 
from the former, and 10 from the latter. The 
mythical account of its foundation is given imder 
Dido. The part of the city first built was called, 
in the Phoenician language, Betzura or Bosra, i. e. 
a castle, which was corrupted by the Greeks into 
Byrsa (Bvpaa), i. e. a hide, and hence probably 
arose the story of the way in which the natives 
v/ere cheated out of the ground. As the city 
grew, the Byrsa formed the citadel : it stood on 
a low hill ; but its site can no longer be identified, 
as there are several such hills within the circuit of 
the ancient city. The Cothon, or Port, is said to 
have been excavated, and the quarter of the city 
adjoining to it built, 40 years later, B.C. 813. 
This Cothon was the inner harbour, and was used 
for ships of war : the outer harbour, divided from 
it by a tongue of land 300 feet wide, was the sta- 



tion for the merchant ships. The fortifications of 
the city consisted of a single wall on the side to- 
wards the sea, where the steep shore formed a 
natural defence, and a triple wall of great height, 
with battlements and towers, on the land side ; — 
on this side were barracks for 40,000 soldiers, and 
stables for 300 elephants and 4000 horses. Beyond 
the fortifications was a large suburb, called Magara 
or Magalia, containing many beautiful gardens and 
villas. The aqueduct already mentioned is sup- 
posed, on good grounds, to have been built at an 
early period of the existence of the city. The 
most remarkable buildings mentioned within the 
city Avere the temple of the god whom the Greeks 
and Romans identified with Aesculapius, and that 
of Apollo (Baal or the Sun) in the market-place. 
Tlie population of Carthage, at the time of the 3rd 
Punic war, is stated at 700,000. — The constitu- 
tion of Carthage was a municipal oligarchy, some- 
what resembling that of Venice. The two chief 
magistrates, called Suffetes (probably the same 
word as the Hebrew Shophetim, i. e. Jiulyes) ap- 
pear to have been elected for life ; the Greek and 
Roman writers call them kings. The generals and 
foreign governors were usually quite distinct from 
the suffetes ; but the 2 offices were sometimes 
united in the same person. The governing body 
was a Senate, parti)' hereditary and partly elective, 
within which there was a select body of 100 or 
1 04, called Gerusia,whose chief office was to controul 
the magistrates, and especially the generals returning 
from foreign service, Avho might be suspected of at- 
tempts to establish a tyranny. The Gerusia was 
first formed about B. c. 400, when the power of the 
house of Mago excited suspicion ; and its efficacj^ 
was shown in the defeat of the attempts made by 
Hanno (b. c. 340) and Hamilcar (b. c. 306) to 
seize the supreme power. Its members are said 
by Aristotle to have been elected by the pentar- 
chies, bodies of which we have very little inform- 
ation, but which appear to have been committees 
of five, chosen from the most eminent members of 
the senate, and entrusted with the controul of the 
various departments of the government. Important 
questions, especially those on which the senate and 
the suffetes disagreed, were referred to a general 
assembly of the citizens ; but concerning the mode 
of proceeding in this assembly, and the extent of 
its powers, we know very little. It seems to have 
elected the magistrates ; the senate having either 
the power of previous nomination or of a veto, it is 
not clear which. The generals Avere chosen by 
the gerusia, and approved by the assembly of the 
citizens. — The general tone of social morality at 
Carthage appears to have been high, at least during 
its earlier history : there was a censorship of public 
morals, under the care of the gerusia ; and all the 
magistrates were required, during their term of 
office, to abstain from wine : the magistrates were 
also unpaid. Their punishments were very severe, 
and the usual mode of inflicting death was by cru- 
cifixion. — The religion of Carthage was that of 
t!ie mother country : especial mention is made of 
the cruel rites of'their tutelar deity Melcarth (i. e. 
kinri of the city, no doubt the same as Moloch), 
which were abolished b}' the treaty with Gelon of 
Syracuse, b. c. 480 ; and also of the worship of 
Ashtaroth and Astarte, and Aesculapius. — The 
chief occupations of the people were commerce and 
agriculture : in the former they rivalled the mother 
citv, Tvre ; and the latter thev pursued with such 

L 3 



50 



CARTHAGO. 



success that the country around the city was one 
of the best cultivated districts in the ancient world, 
and a great work on agriculture, in 28 books, was 
composed by ^lago, a suffete. — The revenues of 
the state were derived from the subject provinces ; 
and its army was composed of mercenaries from 
the neighbouring country, among whom the Numi- 
dian cavalry were especially distinguished. — Of 
the History of Carthage a brief sketch will suffice ; 
as the most important portions of it are related in 
the ordinary histories of Rome. The first colonists 
preserved the character of peaceful traders, and 
maintained friendly relations with the natives of 
the country, to whom they long continued to pay 
a rent or tribute for the ground on which the city 
was built. Gradually, however, as their commerce 
brought them power and wealth, they Avere enabled 
to reduce the natives of the district round the city, 
first to the condition of allies, and then to that of tri- 
butaries. Meanwhile, they undertook military ex- 
peditions at sea, and possessed themselves, first of 
the small islands near their own coast, and after- 
wards of Malta, and the Lipari and Balearic is- 
lands : they also sent aid to Tyre, when it was 
besieged by Nebuchadnezzar (b. c. 600), and took 
part in wars between the Etruscans and the Pho- 
caean colonies. On the coast of Africa they founded 
numerous colonies, from the Pillars of Hercules to 
the bottom of the Great Sj'rtis, where they mot 
the Greek colonists of Cyrenaica : the people of 
these colonies became intermixed with, the Libyans 
around them, forming a population who are called 
Libyo-Phoenicians. In connection with their com- 
mercial enterprizes, they no doubt sent forth various 
expeditions of maritime discovery ; among which 
we have mention of 2, which were undertaken 
during the long peace which followed the war witli 
Gelon in b. c. 480, to explore the W. coasts of 
Europe and Africa respectively. The record of 
the latter expedition, under Hanno, is still pre- 
served to us in a Greek translation [Hanxo], 
from which we Icam that it reached probably as 
far S. as 10° N. lat., if not further. The relations 
of the Carthaginians with the interior of N. Africa 
appear to have been very extensive, but the coun- 
try actually subject to them, and which formed 
the true Carthaginian territory, was limited to the 
district contained between the river Tusca {Zain) 
on the "VV. and the lake and river Triton, at the 
bottom of the Lesser Syrtis, on the S., correspond- 
ing very nearly to the modern regency of Tunis ; 
and even within this territory there Avere some an- 
cient Phoenician colonies, which, though in alliance 
with Carthage, preserved their independent muni- 
cipal government, such as Hippo Zaritus, Utica, 
Hadrumetum, and Leptis. — The first great deve- 
lopment of the power of Carthage for foreign con- 
quest was made by Mago (about B. c. 550 — 500), 
who is said to have first established a sound difci- 
pline in the armies of the republic, and to have 
freed the city from the tribute which it still paid 
to the Libyans. His sons, Hasdrubal and Hamil- 
car, reduced a part of the island of Sardinia, where 
the Carthaginians founded the colonies of Caraiis 
and Sulci ; and this time the fame of Carthiiao 
had spread so far, that Darius is said to have s-ent 
to ask her aid against the Greeks, which, however, 
was refused. The Carthaginians, hov/ever, took 
advantage of the Persian war to attempt the con- 
quest of Sicily, whither Hamilcar was sent with a 
great force, in u. c. 480, but his army was de- 



CARTHAGO. 
stroyed and himself killed in a great battle under 
the walls of Himera, in which the Sicilian Greeks 
were commanded by Gelon the tyrant of Syracuse, 
and which was said to have been fought on tlie 
same day as the battle of Salamis. Their next 
attempt upon Sicily, in B. c. 4 1 0, led to a protracted 
war, which resulted in a treaty between the Syra- 
cusans, under Timolcon, and the Carthaginians, bv 
which the latter were confirmed in the possession 
of the W. part of the island, as far as the river 
Halicus. From B. c. 310—307 there v/as another 
war between Syracuse and the Carthaginians, 
which was chiefly remarkable for the bold step 
taken by Agathocles, who invaded the Carthagi- 
nian territory in Africa, and thus, though unable 
to maintain himself there, set an example which 
was followed a century later by Scipio, Avith fatal 
results to Carthage. Passing over the Avars Avith 
Pyrrhus and Hiero, we come to the long struggle 
between Rome and Carthage, known as the Punic 
Wars, which are fully related in the Histories of 
Rome. [See also Hamilcar.] The first lasted 
from B. c. 265 — 242, and resulted in the loss to 
Carthage of Sicily and the Lipari islands. It was 
iollowed by a fierce contest of some 3'ears between 
Carthage and her disbanded mercenaries, Avhich is 
called the Libyan War, and which Avas terminated 
by Hamilcar Barcas. After a hollow peace, during 
which tiie Romans openly violated the last treat}-, 
and the Carthaginians conquered Spain as far as 
the Iberus (Ebro), the Second Punic War, the 
decisive contest betAveen the two rival states, AA-hich 
Avere too powerful to co-exist, began Avith the siege 
of Sagimtum (B. c. 218) and terminated (b. c. 201) 
Avith a peace by Avhich Carthage AA-as stripped of 
all her power. [Hannibal ; Scipio.] Her de- 
struction Avas now only a question of time, and, 
though she scrupulously observed the terms of the 
last peace for 50 years, in spite of eA-ery proA'ocation 
from the Romans and their ally Masinissa, the 
kir.g of Numidia, a pretext was at length found for 
a new AA-ar (b. c. 149), AA'hich lasted only 3 years, 
during which the Carthaginians, driA'en to despair 
by the terms proposed to them, sustained a siege 
so destructive that, out of 700,000 persons, Avho 
vrerc liA-ing in the cit}' at its commencement, only 
o0,000 surrendered to the Romans. The city Avas 
razed to the ground, avid remained in ruins for 30 
years. At the end of that time a colony was esta- 
blished on the old site by the Gracchi, which re- 
mained in a feeble condition till the times of Julius 
and Augustus, under Avhom a nev/ city was built 
S. of the former, on the S. E. side of the peninsula, 
Avith the name of Colonia Carthago. It soon grcAv 
so much as to cover a great part (if not the Avhole) of 
the site of the ancient Tyrian city : it became the first 
city of Africa, and occupied an important place in ec- 
clesiastical as AA'-ell as in civil history-. It A\'as taken 
by the Vandals in a. d. 439, retaken by Belisarius 
in A. D. 533, and destroyed by the Arab con- 
querors in A. D. 698. — Respecting the territory of 
Carthage under the Romans, see Africa, No. 2. 

Carthago ITova (Kapx''75<i'*' 7j vea: Carthagena\ 
a tov.-n on the E. coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, 
founded by the Carthaginians under Hasdnibal, 
r,. c. 243, and subsequently conquered and colo- 
nized by the Romans, from Avhich time its full 
name Avas Colonia Vidrix Julia Nova Carthago. 
It is situated on a promontory running out into 
the sen, ar.d possesses une of the finest harbours in 
the world; at the entrance of the i 1 arbour aa'us a 



CARURA. 



CASPIT. 



151 



small island called Scombraria, from the great 
number of scombri or mackerel caught here, from 
which such famous pickle was made. In ancient 
times Carthago Nova was one of the most import- 
ant cities in all Spain ; its population was nume- 
rous, its trade flourishing, and its temples and 
other public buildings handsome and imposing. It 
was, together with Tarraco, the residence of the 
Roman governor of the province. In the neigh- 
bourhood were valuable silver mines ; and the 
country produced an immense quantity of Spartuni 
or broom, whence the town bore the surname 
Spartaria, and the country was called Campus 
Spartarius. 

Carura (ra Kapovpd: Sarildvi), a Phrygian 
city, in the territory of Caria, on the left bank of 
the Maeander, celebrated for its hot springs and its 
temple of Men Carus. 

Carus, M. Aurelms, Roman emperor a. d. 282 
— 283, probably born at Narbo in Gaul, was prae- 
fectus praetorio under Probus, and on the murder of 
the latter was elected emperor. After defeating 
the Sarmatians, Carus invaded the Persian domi- 
nions, took Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and was pre- 
paring to push his conquests beyond the Tigris, 
when he was struck dead by lightning, towards 
the close of 283. He was succeeded by his sons 
Carinus and Numerianus. Carus was a vic- 
torious general and able ruler, 

Carusa (tj Kapovcra : Kerzeli)^ a city on the coast 
of Paphlagonia, S. of Sinope. 

Carventum, a town of the Volsci, to which the 
Carventana Arx mentioned by Livy belonged, a 
town of the Volsci between Signia and the sources 
of the Trerus. 

Carvilius Maximus. 1. Sp., twice consul, b. c. 
293 and 273, both times with L. Papirius Cursor. 
In their first consulship they gained brilliant vic- 
tories over the Samnites, and in their second they 
brought the Samnite war to a close. — - 2. Sp., son 
of the preceding, twice consul, 234 and 228, was 
alive at the battle of Cannae, 21 G, after Avhich he 
proposed to fill up the vacancies in the senate from 
the Latins. This Carvilius is said to have been 
the first person at Rome who divorced his wife. 

Caryae {Kapvai : Ka.pvarris, fem. Kapvaris), a 
town in Laconia near the borders of Arcadia, ori- 
ginally belonged to the territory of Tegea in 
Arcadia. It possessed a temple of Artemis Caryatis, 
and an .annual festival in honour of this goddess 
was celebrated here by the Lacedaemonian maidens 
with national dances. Respecting the female figures 
in architecture called Caryatides, see Did. of 
A nt. s. V. 

Caryanda (ra Kapvav^a: Kapvau^evs: Kara- 
koyan), a city of Caria, on a little island, once pro- 
bably united with the mainland, at the N.W. ex- 
tremity of the peninsula on which Hallcarnassus 
stood. It once belonged to the Ionian league ; and 
it was the birthplace of the geographer Scj'lax. 

Caryatis. [Caryae.] 

Carystius {Kapvcmos), a Greek grammarian of 
Pergamus, lived about B.C. 120, and wrote nume- 
rous works, all of which arc lost. 

Carystus {Kapvaros: Kapvarios : Karysio or 
Castel Rosso), a town on the S. coast of Euboea, at 
the foot of Mount Oche, founded by Dryopes ; 
called, according to tradition, after Carystus, son of 
Chiron. In the neighbourhood was excellent mar- 
ble, which was exported in large quantities ; and 
the mineral, called Asbestos, was also found here. 



Casca, P. Servilius, tribune of the plebs, b.c. 
44, was one of the conspirators against Caesar, and 
aimed the first stroke at his assassination. He 
fought in the battle of Philippi (42), and died 
shortly afterwards. — C. Casca, the brother of the 
precednig, was also one of the conspirators against 
Caesar. 

Cascellius, A., an eminent Roman jurist (Hor. 
Ai'. Pott. 371), contemporary with Caesar and 
Augustus, was a man of stem republican principles, 
and spoke freely against the proscriptions of the 
triumvirs. 

Casilinum (Casilinas, -atis), a town in Cam- 
pania on the Vulturnus, and on the same site as 
the modem Capua, celebrated for its heroic defence 
against Hannibal B.C. 216. It received Roman 
colonists by the Lex Julia, but had greatly de- 
clined in the time of Phny. 

Casinum (Caslnas, -atis : S. Germano), a town 
in Latium on the river Casinus, and on the Via 
Latina near the borders of Campania ; colonized 
by the Romans in the Samnite wars ; subsequently 
a municipium ; its citadel containing a temple of 
Apollo occupied the same site as the celebrated 
convent Monte Cassino : the ruins of an amphi- 
theatre are found at S. Germane. 

Casiotis. [Casius.J 

C^lUS. 1. {Ras Kasaroun), a mountain on the 
coast of Egypt, E. of Pelusium, with a temple of 
Jupiter on its summit. Here also was the grave of 
Pompey. At the foot of the mountain, on the land 
side, on the high road from Egypt to Syria, stood 
the town of Casium (Katieh). The surrounding 
district Avas called Casiotis.— 2. {Jebel Okrah), a 
mountain on the coast of Syria, S. of Antioch and 
the Orontes, 531 8 feet above the level of the sea. 
The name of Casiotis was applied to the district on 
the coast S. of Casius, as far as the N. border of 
Phoenicia. 

Casmena, -ae {Ka(Tix4u7], Herod. : Kaaixeuai,. 
Time. : ¥^aaiuLeva7os), a town in Sicily, founded by 
Syracuse about B. c. 643. 

Casperia or Casperula, a town of the Sabines, 
N.W. of Cures, on the river Himella (Aspra), 

Caspiae Portae or Pylae (Kdcnriai irvKai, i. e.. 
ilie Caspian Gates), the principal pass from Media 
into Parthia and Hyrcania, through the Caspii 
MoNTES, was a deep ravine, made practicable b}' 
art, but still so narrow that there was only room 
for a single waggon to pass between the lofty over- 
hanging walls of rock, from the sides of which a 
constant drip of salt water fell upon the road. The 
Persians erected iron gates across the narrowest 
part of the pass, and maintained a guard for its 
defence. This pass was near the ancient Rhagae 
or Arsacia ; but there were other passes through 
the mountains round the Caspian, which are called 
by the same name, especially that on the W. shore 
of the Caspian, through the Caucasus near Derhent, 
which was usually called Albaniae or Caucasiae 
Portae. The Caspian gates, being the most im- 
portant pass from Vi^'estern to Central Asia, were 
regarded by many of the ancients as a sort ot 
central point, common to the boiindaries between 
W. and E. Asia and N. and S. Asia ; and dis- 
tances were reckoned from them. 

Caspii {Yida-TXLoi), the name of certain Scythian 
tribes near the Caspian Sea, is used rather loosely 
by the ancient geographers. The Caspii of Strabo 
are on the W. side of the sea, and their country, 
Caspiane, forms a part of Albania. Those of Hero- 

L 4 



152 



CASPU 



dotus and Ptolemy are in the E, of Media, on the 
borders of Parthia, in the neighbourhood of the 
Caspiae Pvlae. Probably it would not be far 
wrong to apply the name generally to the people 
round the S. W. and S. shores of the Caspian in 
and about the Caspii ]Montes. 

Caspii Montes (to, Kdaina opt] : Ellurz Mis.) 
or Caspius Mons, is a name applied generally to 
the whole range of mountains which surround the 
Caspian Sea, on the S. and S, "W., at the distance 
of from 15 to 30 miles from its shore, on the bor- 
ders of Armenia, Media, Hyrcania, and Parthia; 
and more specifically to that part of this range S. 
of the Caspian, in which was the pass called 
Caspiae Pvlae. The term was also loosely 
applied to other mountains near the Caspian, 
especially, by Strabo, to the E. part of the Cau- 
casus, between Colchis and the Caspian. 

Caspiri or Caspiraei {Kdaireipoi^ KaaTnpouot)^ a 
people of India, whose exact position is doubtful : 
they are generally placed in Cashmecr and NepauL 

Caspium Mare (tj Kaaw'ia ^d\aaaa, the Casjnan 
Sea)^ also called Hyrcanium, Albanum, and 
Scythicum, all names derived from the people 
who lived on its shores, is a great salt-water lake 
in Asia, according to the ancient division of the 
continents, but now on the boundan,' between Eu- 
rope and Asia. Its average width from E. to "W. 
is about 210 miles, and its length from N. to S., in 
a straight line, is about 740 miles ; but, as its X. 
part makes a great bend to the E., its true length, 
measured along a curve drawn through its middle, 
is about 900 miles ; its area is about 180,000 square 
miles. The notions of the ancients about the Cas- 
pian varied very much ; and it is curious that two 
of the erroneous opinions of the later Greek and 
Roman geographers, namely, that it was united 
both with the Sea of Aral and with the Arctic 
Ocean, expressed what, at some remote period, 
Avere probably real facts. Their other error, that 
its greatest length lay "VV. and E., ver\' likely 
arose from its supposed union with the Sea of Aral. 
Another consequence of this error was the suppo- 
sition that the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes flowed 
into the Caspian. That the former really did so at 
some time subsequent to the separation of the two 
lakes (supposing that they were once united) is 
pretty well established ; but whether this has been 
the case within the historical period cannot be de- 
termined [Oxus]. The country between the two 
lakes has evidently been greatly changed, and the 
sand-hills which cover it have doubtless been accu- 
mulated by the force of the E. winds bringing down 
sand from the steppes of Tartary. Both lakes j 
have their surface considerably below that of the , 
Black Sea, the Caspian between nearly 350 feet, i 
and the Aral about 200 feet, lower than the level 
of the Black Sea, and both are still sinking by 
evaporation. Moreover, the whole country between ^ 
and around them for a considerable distance is a 
depression, surrounded by lofty mountains on every ; 
side, except where the valley of the Irtish and Obi j 
stretches away to the Arctic Ocean. Besides a 
number of smaller streams, two great rivers flow 
mto the Caspian ; the Bha ( Volga) on the N., and j 
the united Cyrus and Araxes (Kour) on the W. ; 
but it loses more by evaporation than it receives j 
from these rivers. j 

Cassandane (Kao-frai/Sctj/Tj), wife of Cyrus the 
Great, and mother of Cambyses. 

Cassander [Kdaaaydpos), son of Antipater. His 



CASSANDRA. 

father, on his death-bed (b. c. 319), appointed Po- 
lysperchon regent, and conferred upon Cassander 
only the secondary dignity of Chiliarch. Being dis- 
satisfied with this arrangement, Cassander strength- 
ened himself by an alliance with Ptolemy and An- 
tigonus, and entered into war with Polysperchon. 
In 318 Cassander obtained possession of Athens 
and most of the cities in the S. of Greece. In 317 
he was recalled to Macedonia to oppose Olympias. 
He kept her besieged in Pydna throughout the 
winter of 317, and on her surrender in the spring 
of the ensuing year, he put her to death. The 
way now seemed open to hira to the throne of 
Macedon. He placed Roxana and her young son, 
Alexander Aegus, in custody at Amphipolis, not 
thinking it safe as yet to murder them ; and he 
connected himself with the regal family by a mar- 
riage with Thessalonica, half-sister to Alexander 
the Great. In 315 Cassander joined Seleucus, 
Ptolemj', and Lysimachus in their war against 
Antigonus, of whose power they had all become 
jealous. This war was upon the whole unfavour- 
able to Cassander, who lost most of the cities in 
Greece. By the general peace of 311, it was pro- 
vided that Cassander was to retain his authority in 
Europe till Alexander Aegus should be grown to 
manhood. Cassander thereupon put to death the 
young king and his mother Roxana. In 310 the 
war was renewed, and Hercules, the son of Alex- 
ander by Barsine, was brought forward by Poly- 
sperchon as a claimant to the Macedonian throne ; 
but Cassander bribed Polysperchon to murder the 
young prince and his mother, 309. In 306 Cas- 
sander took the title of king, when it was assumed 
by Antigonus, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy. In the 
following years, Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of 
Antigonus, carried on the war in Greece with great 
success against Cassander ; but in 302 Demetrius 
was obliged to pass into Asia, to support his father ; 
and next year, 301, the decisive battle of Ipsus 
was fought, in which Antigonus and Demetrius 
were defeated, and the former slain, and which 
gave to Cassander Macedonia and Greece. Cas- 
sander died of dropsy in 297, and was succeeded 
by his son Philip. 

Cassandra (Kao-cravSpa), daughter of Priam and 
Hecuba, and twin-sister of Helenus. She and her 
brotlier, when young, were left asleep in the sanc- 
tuary of Apollo, when their ears were purified b}' 
serpents, so that they could understand the divine 
sounds of nature and the voices of birds. Cassandra 
sometimes used to sleep afterwards in the same 
temple ; and when she grew up her beauty won 
the love of Apollo. The god conferred upon her 
the gift of prophec}', upon her promising to comply 
with his desires ; but wlien she had become pos- 
sessed of the prophetic art, she refused to fulfil her 
]n-omise. Thereupon the god in anger ordained 
that no one should believe her prophecies. She 
predicted to the Trojans the ruin that threatened 
them, but no one believed her ; she was looked 
upon as a madwoman, and, according to a late ac- 
count, was shut up and guarded. On the capture of 
Troy she fled into the sanctuary of Athena, but 
was torn away from the statue of the goddess by 
Ajax, son of O'ileus, and, according to some ac- 
counts, was even ravished by him in the sanctuary. 
On the division of the booty, Cassandra fell to the 
lot of Agamemnon, Avho took her with him to 
IMycenae. Here she was killed by Clytaem- 
uestra. 



CASSANDREA. 



CASSIUS. 



153 



Cassandrea. [Potidaea.] 

Cassia Gens. [Cassius.] 

Cassiepea, Cas^opea, or Cassiope (Kacro-ieTrem, 
Karrcrioireia^ or KaaaidTrr]), wife of Cepheus in Ae- 
thiopia, and mother of Andromeda, whose beaiity 
she extolled above that of the Nereids. [Andro- 
meda.] She was afterwards placed among the 
stars. 

Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius, a distinguished 
statesman, and one of the few men of learning at 
the downfal of the Western Empire, was born 
about a. d. 468, at Scylacium in Bruttlura, of an 
ancient and wealthy Roman family. He enjoyed 
the full confidence of Theodoric the Great and his 
successors, and under a variety of ditferent titles he 
conducted for a long series of years the government 
of the Ostrogothic kingdom. At the age of 70 he 
retired to the monastery of Viviers, wliich he had 
founded in his native province, and there passed 
the last 30 years of his life. His time was de- 
voted to study and to the composition of elemen- 
tary treatises on liistorv, metaphysics, the 7 liberal 
arts, and divinity; while his leisure hours were 
employed in the construction of philosophical toys, 
such as sun-dials, water-clocks, &c. Of his nu- 
merous writings the most important is his Varia- 
rum (Epistolarum) Lihri XII. ^ an assemblage of 
state papers drawn up by Cassiodorus in accord- 
ance with the instructions of Theodoric and his 
successors. The other works of Cassiodorus are of 
less value to us. The principal are : 1. CUronicon^ 
a summary of Universal History ; 2. De Oiiho- 
graphia Liher; 3. De Arte Grammutica ad Donati 
Mentem; 4. De Artibiis ac Disciplinis Liberaliuui 
Litemrum, much read in the middle ages ; 5. De 
Aninia ; 6. Libri XII. De Rebus Gestis Gotltoruiii, 
known to us only through the abridgement of Jor- 
nandes ; 7. De Institutione Divinariim Literarum, 
an introduction to the profitable study of the Scrip- 
tures. There are also several other ecclesiastical 
works of Cassiodorus extant. — The best edition 
of his collected works is by D. Garet, Rouen, 1679, 
2 vols, fob, reprinted at Venice, 1729. 

Cassiopa {YiaaaLdivif])^ a town in Corcyra on a 
promontory of the same name, with a good harbour 
and a temple of Zeus. 

Cassiopea. [Cassiepea.] 
Cassiterides. [Britannia, p. 126, a.] 
Cassius, the name of one of the most distin- 
guished of the Roman gentes, originally patrician, 
afterwards plebeian. 1. Sp. Cassius Viscellinus, 
thrice consul : first B. c. 502, when he conquered 
the Sabines ; again 493, wlien he made a league 
with the Latins ; and, lastly, 486, when he made a 
league with the Hernicans, and carried his cele- 
brated agrarian law, the first which was proposed 
at Rome. It probably enacted that the portion of 
the patricians in the public land should be strictly 
defined, and that the remainder should be divided 
among the plebeians. In the following year he 
was accused of aiming at regal power, and was put 
to death. The manner of his death is related dif- 
ferentl}% but it is most probable that he was ac- 
cused before the comitia curiata by the quaestores 
parricidii, and was sentenced to death by his fellow 
patricians. His house was razed to the ground, 
and his property confiscated. His guilt is doubt- 
ful ; he had made hhiiself hateful to the patricians 
by his agrarian law, and it is most likely that the 
accusation was invented for the purpose of getting 
rid of a dangerous opponent. He left 3 sons ; but 



' as all tne subsequent Cassii are plebeians, his sons 
were perhaps expelled from the patrician ordei, or 
may have voluntarily passed over to the plebeians, 
on account of the murder of their fatlier. — 2. C. 
Cass. Longinus, consul 171, obtained as his pro- 
vince Italy and Cisalpine Gaul, and without the 
authority of the senate attempted to march into 
Macedonia through Illyricum, but was obliged to 
return to Ital3^ In 154 he was censor with M. 
Messala ; and a theatre, which these censors had 
built, was pulled down by order of the senate, 
at the suggestion of P. Scipio Nasica, as injurious 
to public morals.— 3. Q. Cass. Longinus, praetor 
urbanus b. c. 167, and consul 164, died in his con- 
sulship.— 4. L. Cass. Longinus Eavilla, tribune 
of the plebs, 1 37, when he proposed a law for voting 
by ballot (tabellaria lex) ; consul 127, and censor 
125. He was very severe and just as a judex.— 
5. L. Cass. Longinus, praetor 111, when he 
brought Jugurtha to Rome ; consul 107, with C. 
Marius, and received as his province Narbonese 
Gaul, in order to oppose the Cimbri, but was de- 
feated and killed by the Tigurini. — 6. L. Cass. 
Longinus, tribune of the plebs 104, brought for- 
ward many laws to diminish the power of the 
aristocracy.— 7. C. Cass. Longinus Varus, consul 
72, brought forward, with his colleague M. Teren- 
tius, a law (lex Terentia Cassia), by which corn was 
to be purchased and then sold in Rome at a small 
price. In 72 he was defeated by Spartacus near 
JMutina ; in 66 he supported the Manilian law for 
giving the command of the Mithridatic war to 
Pompey ; and in his old age Avas proscribed by 
the triumvirs and killed, 43. — 8. C. Cass. Longi- 
nus, the murderer of Julius Caesar. In 53 he 
was quaestor of Crassus in his campaign against 
the Parthians, in v/hich he greatly distinguished 
himself by his prudence and military skill. After 
the death of Crassus, he collected the remains of 
the Roman arm}-, and made preparations to defend 
Syria against the Parthians. In 52 he defeated 
the Parthians, who had crossed the Euphrates, and 
in 51 he again gained a still more important vic- 
tory over them. Soon afterwards he returned to 
Rome. In 49 he was tribune of the plebs, joined 
the aristocratical party in the civil war, and fled 
with Pompey from Rome. In 48 he commanded the 
Pompeian fleet ; after the battle of Pharsalia he 
went to the Hellespont, where he accidentally fell 
in with Caesar, and surrendered to him. He was 
not only pardoned by Caesar, but in 44 was made 
praetor, and the province of Syria was promised 
him for the next year. But Cassius had never 
ceased to be Caesar's enemy ; it was he who formed 
the conspiracy against the dictator's life, and gained 
over M. Brutus to the plot. After the death of 
Caesar, on the 15th of March, 44 [Caesar], Cas- 
sius remained in Italy for a few months, but in 
Jul}'- he went to Syria, which he claimed as his 
province, although the senate had given it to Do- 
labella, and had conferred upon Cassius Gyrene in 
its stead. He defeated Dolabella, who put an end 
to his own life ; and after plundering Syria and 
Asia most unmercifully, he crossed over to Greece 
with Brutus in 42, in order to oppose Octavian 
and Antony. At the battle of Philippi, Cassius 
was defeated by Antony, while Brutus, who com- 
manded the other wing of the armj--, drove Octa- 
vian off the field ; but Cassius, ignorant of the 
success of Brutus, commanded his freedman to put 
an end to his life. Brutus mourned over his com- 



154 



CASSIUS. 



CASTRA. 



panion, calling him the last of the Romans. Cas- 
sius was married to Junia Tertia or TertuUa, half- 
sister of M. Brutus, Cassius was well acquainted 
■vvith Greek and Roman literature ; he '>vas a fol- 
lower of the Epicurean philosophy ; his abilities 
were considerable, but he was vain, proud, and 
revengeful. — 9. L, Cass. Longinus, brother of 
No. 8, assisted M. Laterensis in accusing Cn. 
Plancius, who was defended by Cicero in .■"54. He 
joined Caesar at the commencement of the civil 
war, and was one of Caesar's legates in Greece in 
48. In 44 he was tribune of the plebs, but was 
not one of the conspirators against Caesar's life. 
He subsequently espoused the side of Octavian, in 
opposition to Antony ; and on their reconciliation 
in 43, he fled to Asia: he was pardoned by Antony 
in 41. — 10. Q. Cass. Longinus, the f rater or 
first-cousin of No. 8. In 54 ho went as the quaes- 
tor of Pompey into Spain, where he was univer- 
sally hated on accoimt of his rapacity and cruelty. 
In 49 he was tribune of the plebs. and a warm 
supporter of Caesar, but was obliged to leave the 
city and take refuge in Caesar's camp. In the 
same year he accompanied Caesar to Spain, and 
after the defeat of Afranius and Petreius, the 
legates of Pompey, Caesar left him governor of 
Further Spain. His cruelty and oppressions ex- 
cited an insurrection against him at Corduba, but 
this was quelled by Cassius. Subsequently 2 legions 
declared against him, and M. Marccllus, the quaes- 
tor, put himself at their head. He v/as saved from 
this danger by Lepidus, and left tlie province in 47, 
but his ship sank, and he was lost, at the mouth of 
the Iberus. — 11. L. Cass. Longinus, a competitor 
with Cicero for the consulship for 63 ; was one of 
Catiline's conspirators, and undertook to set the 
city on fire ; he escaped the fate of his comrades 
by quitting Rome before their apprehension. — 
12. L. Cass. Longinus, consul a. d. 30, married to 
Drusilla, the daughter of Germanicus, with whom 
her brother Caligula afterwards lived. Cassius was 
proconsul in Asia a. d. 40, and v/as commanded by 
Caligula to be brought to Rome, because an oracle 
had warned the emperor to beware of a Cassius : 
the oracle v/as fulfilled in the murder of the em- 
peror by Cassius Chaerea. — 13. C. Cass. Longi- 
nus, the celebrated jurist, governor of Syria, a. d. 
50, in the reign of Claudius. He was banished 
by Nero in a. d. 66, because he had, among his 
ancestral images, a statue of Cassius, the murderer 
of Caesar. He was recalled from banishment by 
Vespasian. Cassius wrote 10 books on the civil law 
{Lihri Juris C'ivilis)^ and Commentaries on Vitellius 
and Urseius Ferox, which are quoted in the Digest. 
He was a follower of the school of Ateius Capito ; 
and as he reduced the principles of Capito to a more 
scientific form, the adherents of this school re- 
ceived the name of Cassiani. —1^. L. Cass. He- 
mina, a Roman annalist, lived about b. c. 140, and 
A\Tote a history of Rome from the earliest times to 
the end of the 3rd Punic war.— -15. Cass. Par- 
mensis, so called from Parma, his birth-place, was 
one of the murderers of Caesar, B.C. 43 ; took an 
active part in the war against the triumvirs ; and, 
after the death of Brutus and Cassius, carried over 
the fleet which he commanded to Sicily, and joined 
Sex. Pompey ; upon the defeat of Pompey, he 
surrendered himself to Antony, whose fortunes he 
followed imtil after the battle of Actium, when he 
went to Athens, and was there put to death by 
the command of Octavian, B. c. 30. Cassius was a 



poet, and his productions were prized by Horace 
(Ep. i. 4. 3.). He -vvrote 2 tragedies, entitled Thi/- 
estes and Brntus, epigrams, and other works.— 
16. Cass. Etruscus, a poet censured by Horace 
(Sat i. 10. 61), must not be confounded with No. 
15.-17. Cass. Avidius, an able general of M. 
Aurelius, was a native of Syria. In the Parthiaji 
war (a. D. 162 — 165), he commanded the Roman 
army as the general of Verus, and after defeatin- 
the Parthians, he took Seleucia and Ctesiphon. 
He was afterwards appointed governor of all the 
Eastern provinces, and discharged his trust for 
several years with fidelity ; but in A. d, 1 75 he 
proclaimed himself emperor. He reigned only a 
few months, and was slain by his own officers, be- 
fore M. Aurelius arrived in the East. [See p. 1 1 ] . J 
—18. Lionysius Cassius, of Utica, a Greek writer, 
lived about b. c. 40, and translated into Greek the 
work of the Carthaginian Mago on agriculture.— 
19. Cass. Felix, a Greek physician, probably lived 
under Augustus and Tiberius ; wrote a small work 
entitled 'larpiKal ^Airopiai kol Tlpo§\i\fxa.ra^v(nK6., 
Quaestiones Medicae et Prollemata Naturaliu : 
printed in Ideler's Physici et Medici Graeci Mi- 
nores, Berol. 1841. — 20. Cass. Chaerea. [Chae- 
rea.]— 21. Cass. Dion. [Diox Cassius.] —22. 
Cass. Severus. [Sever cs.] 

Cassivelaunus, a British chief, ruled over the 
country N. of the Tamesis {Thames)^ and was en- 
trusted by the Britons with the supreme command 
on Caesar's 2nd invasion of Britain, B.C. 54. He 
v. as defeated by Caesar, and was obliged to sue for 
peace. 

Cassope {Kaacu-Kf) ; Kacro-WTroios), a tovvn in 
Thesprotia near the coast. 

Castabala (to. KacrraSaXa). 1. A city of Cap- 
padocia, near Tyana, celebrated for its temple of 
Artemis Perasia. — 2. A town in Cilicia Campes- 
tris, near Issus. 

Castalia (Kao-ToAi'a), a celebrated fountain on 
Mt. Parnassus, in which the Pythia used to bathe ; 
sacred to Apollo and the Muses, who were hence 
called Castalides ; said to have derived its name 
from Castalia, daughter of Achelous, who threw 
herself into the fountain when pursued by Apollo. 

Castor, brother of Pollux. [Dioscuri.] 

Castor (KocTTwp). 1. A Greek grammarian, 
siimamed Philoromaeus^ probably lived about B. c. 
150, and wrote several books ; a portion of his 
Te'vi/Tj pr]TopiK7) is still extant and printed in 
Walz's Rhetores Graeci, vol. iii. p. 712, seq. — 2. 
Grandson of Deiotarus. [Deiotarus.] 

Castra, a "camp," the name of several towns, 
v/hich were originally the stationary quarters of 
the Roman legions. 1. Constantia, in Gaul, near 
the mouth of the Sequana (.S'ezV/e). — 2. Haiini- 
balis, in Bruttium, on the S. E. coast, N. of Scy- 
lacium, arose out of the fortified camp which 
Hannibal maintained there during the latter years 
of the 2nd Punic war. — 3. Herculis, in Batavia, 
perhaps near Heussen. — 4. Minervae (Caslro), 
in Calabria, with a temple of Minerva, S. of Hy- 
druntum ; the most ancient town of the Salentini, 
subsequently colonized by the Romans ; its har- 
bour was called Portus Veneris {PoHo Badisco). 
— 5. Vetera {Xanten), in Gallica Belgica, on the 
Rhine : many Roman remains have been found at 
Xanten. — 6. Comelia (Ghellah), a place in the Car- 
thaginian territory (Zeugitana) in N. Africa, whore 
Scipio Africanus the elder established his camp 
when he invaded Africa in the Second Punic War. 



CASTRUM. 



CATILINA. 



155 



It was between Utica and Carthage, on the N, 
side of the river Bagradas, but its site is now S. of 
the river in consequence of the alterations described 
under Carthago. 

Castrum. 1. Inui, a town of the Rutuli, on 
the coast of Latiiim, confounded by some writers 
with No. 2.-2. Novum {Torre di Cliiaruccia), 
a town in Etruria, and a Roman colony on the 
coast. 3. Novum {Giulia Nova), a town in Pi- 
cenum, probably at the mouth of the small river 
Batinum (Salmello), colonized by the Romans, 
B,c. 264, at the commencement of the 1st Punic 
war. 

Castillo (Y.aa-raXwv : CazIo7ia), a town of the 
Oretani on the Baetis, and near the frontiers of 
Baetica, at the foot of a mountain Avhich bore a 
great resemblance to Parnassus, was under the 
Romans an important place, a municipium with 
the Jus Latii, and included in the jurisdiction of 
Carthago Nova : its inhabitants were called Cae- 
sari venules. In the mountains (Saltus Castulo- 
nensis) in the neighbourhood were silver and lead 
mines. The wife of Hannibal was a native of 
Castulo. 

Casuentus (Basiento), a river in Lucania, flows 
into the sea near Metapontum. 

Casystes (Kacruo-TTys : Chismeli), a fine sea-port 
on the coast of Ionia ; the harbour of Erythrae. 

Catabathmus Magnus {KaTaSaOuos, i. e. c/e- 
^erd ; Marsa Sollern^ i.e. Port of the Ladder), a 
mountain and sea port, at the bottom of a deep 
bay on the N. coast of Africa (about 25° 5' E. long.), 
was generally considered the boundary between 
Egypt and Cj'renaica. Ptolemy distinguishes from 
this a place called Catabathmus Parvus, in the 
interior of Africa, near the borders of Egypt, above 
Paraetonium. 

Catadupa or -i (tcc KaraSouTra, ol KardSouTroi), 
a name given to the cataracts of the Nile, and also 
to the parts of Aethiopia in their neighbourhood. 

[NiLUS.] 

Catalauni or Catelauni, a people in Gaul in 
the modern Cliampagne, mentioned only by later 
writers : their capital was Burocatelauni or Ca- 
telauni (Chdlo?is sur Martie), in the neighbour- 
hood of which Attila was defeated by Aetius and 
Theodoric, a. d. 451. 

Catamitus, the Roman name for Ganymedes, of 
Avhich it is only a corrupt form. 

Catana or Catina {Kardvr] -. F^aramios : Cata- 
nia), an important town in Sicily on the E. coast 
at the foot of Mt. Aetna, founded b. c. 730 by 
Naxos, which was itself founded b}'' the Chalci- 
dians of Euboea. In B. c. 476 it was taken by 
Hiero I., who removed its inhabitants to Leontini, 
and settled 5000 Syracusans and 5000 Pelopon- 
nesians in the town, the name of w^hich he changed 
into Aetna. Soon after the death of Hiero (467), 
the former inhabitants of Catana again obtained 
possession of the town, and called it by its original 
name, Catana. Subsequently Catana was con- 
quered by Dionysius, was then governed by native 
tyrants, next became subject to Agathocles, and 
finally in the 1st Punic Avar fell under the domi- 
nion of Rome. It was colonized by Augustus Avith 
some veterans. Catana frequently suffered from 
earthquakes and eruptions of Mt. Aetna. It is 
now one of the most flourishing cities in Sicily. 

Cataonia (KaTaouia), a district in the S. E. part 
of Cappadocia, to Avhich it was first added under 
the Romans, with Melitene, which lies E, of it. 



These two districts form a large and fertile plain, 
lying between the Anti-Taurus and the Taurus 
and Amanus, and watered by the river Pyramus. 
Cataonia had no large toAvns, but several strong 
mountain fortresses. 

Catarrhactes (KarappaKT-ns). 1. (Duden-Soo), 
a river of Pamphylia, Avhich descends from the 
mountains of Taurus, in a great broken Avaterfall 
(Avhence its name, fr. KaTappriyvvfii), and which, 
after flowing beneath the earth in two parts of its 
course, falls into the sea E. of Attalia. — 2. The 
term is also applied, first b}' Strabo, to the cata- 
racts of the Nile, Avhich are distinguished as C. 
Major and C. Minor [NiLus], in Avhich use it 
must of course be regarded as a common noun, 
equivalent to the Latin caiaracta, but Avh ether de- 
rived from the name of the Pamphylian river, or 
at once from the Greek A-erb, cannot be deter- 
mined. 

Catelauni. [Catalauni.] 

Cathaei {KaOaToi), a great and warlike people 
of India intra Gangem, upon whom Alexander 
made Avar. Some of the best Orientalists suppose 
the name to be that, not of a tribe but, of the 
warrior caste of the Hindoos, the Kshatriyas. 

Catilina, L. Sergius, the descendant of an an- 
cient patrician family Avhich had sunk into poverty. 
His youth and early manhood Avere stained by 
eA-ery vice and crime. He first appears in history 
as a zealous partizan of Sulla ; and during the hor- 
rors of the proscription, he killed, Avith his own 
hand, his brother-in-laAV, Q. Caecilius, a quiet in- 
offensive raan, and put to death by torture M. 
Marius Gratidianus, the kinsman and fellow-toAvns- 
man of Cict-ro. He was suspected of an intrigue 
Avith the vestal Fabia, sister of Terentia, and Avas 
said and belieA'ed to have made aAvay Avith his 
first Avife and afterAA'-ards Avith his son, in order that 
he might marry Aurelia Orestilla, aa^^o objected to 
the presence of a groAvn-up step-child ; but not- 
Avithstanding this infamy he attained to the dignity 
of praetor in B. c. 68, was governor of Africa du- 
ring the folloAving year, and returned to Rome in 
66, in order to sue for the consulship. The elec- 
tion for 65 was carried by P. Autronius Paetus and 
P. Cornelius Sulla, both of Avhom Avere soon after 
convicted of bribery, and their places supplied by 
their competitors and accusers, L. Aurelius Cotta 
and L. Manlius Torquatus. Catiline had been 
disqualified for becoming a candidate, in conse- 
quence of an impeachment for oppression in his 
province, preferred by P. Clodius Pulcher, after- 
Avards so celebrated as the enemy of Cicero. 
Exasperated by their disappointment, Autronius 
and Catiline formed a project, along Avith Cn. 
Piso, to murder the neAV consuls Avhen they 
entered upon their office upon the 1st of January. 
This design is said to have been frustrated solely 
by the impatience of Catiline, who, upon the ap- 
pointed day, gave the signal prematurely, before 
the Avhole of the armed agents had assembled. 
Encouraged rather than disheartened by a failure 
Avhich had so nearly proved a triumph, Catiline 
now determined to organize a more extensive con- 
spiracy, in order to overthroAv the existing govern- 
ment, and to obtain for himself and his followers 
all places of power and profit. Having been ac- 
quitted in 65 upon his trial for extortion, he was 
left unfettered to mature his plans. The time was 
propitious to his schemes. The j^ounger nobility 
Avere thoroughly demoralised, Avith ruined for- 



156 



CATILINA. 



CATO. 



tunes, and eager for any change which might re- 1 
lieve them from their embarrassments ; the Roman 
populace were restless and discontented, ready to 
follow at the bidding of any demagogue ; while 
many of the veterans of Sulla, who had squandered 
their ill-gotten wealth, were now anxious for a re- 
newal of those scenes of blood which they had 
found so profitable. Among such men Catiline 
soon obtained numerous supporters ; and his great 
mental and physical powers, which even his ene- 
mies admitted, maintained his ascendency over his 
adherents. The most distinguished men who 
joined him, and were present at a meeting of the 
conspirators which he called in June, 64, were P. 
Cornelius Lentulus Sura, who had been consul in 
B. c. 71, but having been passed over by the cen- 
sors, had lost his seat in the senate, which he 
was now seeking to recover by standing a second 
time for the praetorship ; C. Cornelius Cethegus, 
distinguished throughout by his headstrong impe- 
tuosity and sanguinary violence ; P. Autronius, 
spoken of above ; L. Cassias Longinus, at this 
time a competitor for the consulship ; L. ^'a^gun- 
teius, who had been one of the colleagues of Cicero 
in the quaestorship, and had subsequently been 
condemned for bribery ; L. Calpuniius Bestia, 
tribune elect ; Publius and Servius Sulla, ne- 
phews of the dictator ; M. Porcius Laeca, &c. 
The first object of Catiline Avas to obtain the 
consulship for himself and C. Antonius, whose co- 
operation he confidently anticipated. But in this 
object he was disappointed : Cicero and Antonius 
were elected consuls. This disappointment ren- 
dered him only more vigorous in the prosecution of 
his designs ; more adherents were gained, and troops 
were levied in various parts of Italy, especially in 
the neighbourhood of Faesulae, under the super- 
intendence of C. Manlius, one of the veteran cen- 
turions of Sulla. IMeantime, Cicero, the consul, was 
unrelaxing in his efforts to preserve the state from the 
threatened danger. Through the agencj' of Fulvia, 
the mistress of Curius, one of the conspirators, he 
became acquainted with every circumstance as soon 
as it occurred, and was enabled to counteract all 
the machinations of Catiline. Cicero at the same 
time gained over his colleague Antonius, by pro- 
raising him the province of Macedonia. At length 
Cicero openly accused Catiline, and the senate, now 
aware of the danger which threatened the state, 
passed the decree, "that the consuls should take 
care that the republic received no harn),"" in virtue 
of Avhich the consuls were invested for the time 
being with absolute power, both civil and military. 
In the consular elections which followed soon after- 
wards, Catiline was again rejected. On the night 
of the 6th of November, B.C. 63 he met the ring- 
leaders of the conspiracj^ at the dwelling of 
Porcius Laeca, and informed them that he had re- 
solved to wait no longer, but at once to proceed to 
open action. Cicero, informed as usual of these 
proceedings, summoned the senate on the 8th of 
November, and there delivered tlie first of his 
celebrated orations against Catiline, in which he 
displayed a most intimate acquaintance with all 
the proceedings of the conspirators. Catiline, who 
was present, attempted to justify himself, but 
scarcely had he commenced when his words were 
drowned by the shouts of '* enemy " and " parri- 
cide " which burst from the whole assembly. 
Finding that he could at present effect notliing 
at Rome, he quitted the city in the ight (8th — 



9th November), and proceeded to the camp of 
Manlius, after leaving the chief controul of affairs 
at Rome in the hands of Lentulus and Cethegus. 
On the .0th, when the flight of Catiline was 
known, Cicero delivered his second speech, ad- 
dressed to the people in the forum, in which he 
justified his recent conduct. The senate declared 
Catiline and Manlius public enemies, and soon 
afterwards Cicero obtained legal evidence of the 
guilt of the conspirators within the city, through 
the ambassadors of the Allobroges. These men 
had been solicited by Lentulus to join the plot, and 
to induce their own countrymen to take part in the 
insurrection. They revealed what they had heard 
to Q. Fabius Sanga, the patron of their state, who 
in his turn acquainted Cicero, By the instructions 
of the latter, the ambassadors affected great zeal in 
the undertaking, and having obtained a written 
agreement, signed b)"- Lentulus, Cethegus, and 
Statilius, they quitted Rome soon after midnight 
on the 3d of December, but were arrested on 
the IMilvian bridge, by Cicero's order. Cicero 
instantly summoned the leaders of the conspi- 
racy to his presence, and conducted them to 
the senate, which Avas assembled in the temple of 
Concord (-Jth of December). He proved the guilt of 
the conspirators by the testimony of witnesses and 
their own signatures. They were thereupon con- 
signed to the charge of certain senators. Cicero 
then summoned the people, and delivered what 
is called his 3d oration against Catiline, in 
Avhich he informed them of all that had taken 
place. On the following day, the nones (5th) of 
December, the day so frequenth'- referred to by 
Cicero in after times with pride, the senate was 
called together to deliberate respecting the punish- 
ment of the conspirators. After an animated de- 
bate, of which the leading arguments are expressed 
in the 2 celebrated orations assigned by Sallust to 
Caesar and to Cato, a decree was passed, that Len- 
tulus and the conspirators should be put to death. 
The sentence was executed the same night in 
the prison. Cicero's speech in the debate in the 
senate is preserved in his 4 th oration against Cati- 
line. The consul Antonius was then sent against 
Catiline, and the decisive battle v/as fought early 
in 62. Antonius, however, unwilling to fight 
against his former associate, gave the command on 
the day of battle to his legate, M. Petreius. Cr.ti- 
line fell in the engagement, after fighting with the 
most daring valour. — The history of Catiline's 
conspiracy has been Avritten by Sallust. 

Catius, an Epicurean philosopher, a native of 
Gallia Transpadana (Insuber), composed a trea- 
tise in 4 books on the nature of things and on the 
chief good (de Reruin Nalura ei de summo Bono); 
died B. c. 45. 

Cato, Bionysius, the author of a small work, 
entitled Disticha de. Alorihus ad Filium, consisting 
of a series of sententious moral precepts. Nothing 
is known of the author or the time when he lived, 
but many Avriters place him under the Antonines. 
The best edition is hy Arntzcnius, Amsterdam, 
1754. 

Cato, Porcms. 1. M., frequently surnamed 
Censorius or Censor, also Cato Major, to distin- 
guish him from his great-grandson Cato Uticensis 
[No. 8]. Cato Avas born at Tusculum, B. c. 234. 
and Avas brought up at his father's fiu-m, situated 
in the Sabine territory. In 217 he served liis 
first campaign in bis 17th year, and during the 



CATO. 

remaining years of the 2d Punic war, he greatly 
distinguished himself by his courage and militarj"^ 
abilities. In the intervals of war, he returned to 
his Sabine farm, which he had inherited from his 
father, and there led the same frugal and simple 
life, which characterised him to his last days. En- 
couraged by L. Valerius Flaccus, a young noble- 
man in the neighbourhood, he went to Rome, 
and became a candidate for office. He obtained 
the quaestorship in 204, and served under the pro- 
consul Scipio Africanus in Sicily and Africa. From 
this time we may date the enmity which Cato 
always displayed towards Scipio ; their habits 
and views of life were entirely different ; and Cato 
on his return to Rome denounced in the strongest 
terms the luxury and extravagance of his com- 
mander. On his voyage home he is said to have 
touched at Sardinia, and to have brought the poet 
Ennius from the island to Italy. In 199 he was 
aedile, and in 198 praetor; he obtained Sardinia 
as his province, which he governed with justice 
and economy. He had now established a reputa- 
tion for pure morality and strict virtue. In 195 
he was consul with his old friend and patron 
L. Valerius Flaccus. He carried on war in Spain 
with the greatest success, and received the honour 
of a triumph on his return to Rome in 194. 
In 191 he served, under the consul M'. Acilius 
Glabrio, in the campaign against Antiochus in 
Greece, and the decisive victory at Thermopylae 
was mainly owing to Cato. From this time Cato's 
military career, which had been a brilliant one, 
appears to have ceased. He now took an active 
part in civil affairs, and distinguished himself by 
his vehement opposition to the Roman nobles, who 
introduced into Rome Greek luxury and refinement. 
It was especially against the Scipios that his most 
violent attacks were directed and whom he pursued 
with the bitterest animosity. He obtained the con- 
demnation of L. Scipio, the conqueror of Antiochus, 
and compelled his brother P. Scipio to quit Rome 
in order to avoid the same fate. [Scipio.] In 184 
he was elected censor with L. Valerius Flaccus, 
having been rejected in his application for the office 
in 189. His censorship was a great epoch in his 
life. He applied himself strenuously to the duties 
of his office, regardless of the enemies he was 
making : but all his efforts to stem the tide of 
luxury which was now setting in proved unavail- 
ing. His strong national prejudices appear to 
have diminished in force as he grew older and 
wiser. He applied himself in old age to the study 
of Greek literature, with which in youth he had 
no acquaintance, although he was not ignorant of 
the Greek language. But his conduct continued to 
be guided by prejudices against classes and nations, 
whose influence he deemed to be hostile to the 
simplicity of the old Roman character. He had an 
antipathy to physicians, because they were mostly 
Greeks, and therefore unfit to be trusted with Ro- 
man lives. When Athens sent Cameades, Diogenes, 
and Critolaus as ambassadors to Rome, he recom- 
mended the senate to send them from the city an 
account of the dangerous doctrines taught by Car- 
neades. [Carneades.] Cato retained his bodily 
and mental vigour in his old age. In the year 
before his death he was one of the chief instigators 
of the third Punic war. He had been one of the 
Roman deputies sent to Africa to arbitrate between 
Masinissa and the Carthaginians, and he was so 
stiTick with the flourishing condition of Carthage that 



CATO. 1^7 

on his return home he maintained that Rome would 
never be safe as long as Carthage was in existence. 
From this time forth, whenever he was called upon 
for his vote in the senate, though the subject of 
debate bore no relation to Carthqge, his words were 
Delenda est Carthago. Very shortly before his 
death, he made a powerful speech in accusing 
Galba on account of his cruelty and perfidy in Spain. 
He died in 149, at the age of 85. — Cato wrote 
several works, of which only the De Re Rusiica has 
come down to us, though even this work is not exactly 
in the form in which it proceeded from his pen : it 
is printed in the Scriptures Rci Rusticae, edited by 
Gesner (Lips. 1773—4), and Schneider (Lips. 1794 
— 7). His most important work was entitled Ori- 
c/ines, but only fragments of it have been preserved. 
The 1st book contained the history of the Roman 
kings ; the 2d and 3d treated of the origin of the 
Italian towns, and from these two books the whole 
work derived its title. The 4th book treated of 
the first Punic war, the 5th book of the second 
Punic war, and the 6th and 7th continued the nar- 
rative to the year of Cato's death. 2. son of 
No. 1., by his first wife Licinia, and thence called 
Licinianus, was distinguished as a jurist. In the 
war against Perseus, 168, he fought with great 
bravery under the consul Aerailius Paulus, whose 
daughter, Aemilia Tertia, he afterwards married. 
He died when praetor designatus, about 152. — 3. 
M., son of No. 1, by his second wife Salonia, and 
thence called Salonianus, was bom 154, when his 
father had completed his 80th year. — 4. M., son of 
No. 2, consul 118, died in Africa in the same year. 
— 5. C, also son of No. 2, consul 114, obtained 
Macedonia as his province, and fought unsuccess- 
fully against the Scordisci. He was accused of 
extortion in Macedonia, and was sentenced to pay 
a fine. He afterwards went to Tarraco in Spain, 
and became a citizen of that town. — 6. M., son 
of No. 3, tribunus plebis, died when a candidate 
for the praetorship. — 7. L., also son of No. 3, 
consul 89, was killed in battle against the Socii. — 
8. M., son of No. 6 by Livia, great-grandson of 
Cato the Censor, and surnamed Uticensis from 
Utica, the place of his death, was born 95. In 
early childhood he lost both his parents, and was 
brought up in the house of his mother's brother, 
M. Livius Drusus, along with his sister Porcia and 
the children of his mother by her second husband, 
Q. Servilius Caepio. In early years he discovered 
a stern and unyielding character ; he applied him- 
self with great zeal to the study of oratory and 
philosophy, and became a devoted adherent of the 
Stoic school ; and among the profligate nobles of 
the age he soon became conspicuous for his rigid mo- 
rality. He served his first campaign as a volunteer, 
72, in the servile war of Spartacus, and afterwards, 
about 67, as tribunus militum in Macedonia. In 
65 he was quaestor, when he corrected numerous 
abuses which had crept into the administration of 
the treasury. In 63 he was tribune of the plebs, 
and supported Cicero in proposing that the Catili- 
narian conspirators should suffer death. [Cati- 
LiNA.] He now became one of the chief leaders 
of the aristocratical party, and opposed with the 
utmost vehemence the measures of Caesar, Pompey, 
and Crassus. In order to get rid of him, he was 
sent to Cyprus in 58 with the task of uniting the 
island to the Roman dominions. He returned in 56 
and continued to oppose the triumvirs ; but all his 
efforts were vain, and he was rejected Avhen ho 



158 CATO. 
became a candidate for the praetorship. On the 
breaking out of the civil war (49), he was entrusted, 
as propraetor, with the defence of Sicily ; but, on 
the landing of Curio with an overwhelming force, 
he abandoned the island and joined Pompey in 
Greece. After Ponipey's victory at Dyrrachium, 
Cato was left in charge of the camp, and thus was 
not present at the battle of Pharsalia (4o). After 
this battle, he set sail for Corcyra, and thence 
crossed over to Africa, where he joined Met^llus 
Scipio, after a terrible march across the desert. 
The array wished to be led by Cato ; but he yielded 
the command to the consular Scipio. In opposition 
to the advice of Cato, Scipio fought with Caesar, 
and was utterlj- routed at Thapsus (April Gth, 46). 
All Africa now, with the exception of Utica, sub- 
mitted to Caesar. Cato wanted the Romans in 
Utica to stand a siege ; but when he saw that they 
were inclined to submit, he resolved to die rather 
than fall alive into the hands of the conqueror. 
Accordingly, after spending the greater part of the 
night in perusing Plato's Phaedo several times, he 
stabbed himself below the breast. In falling he 
overturned an abacus : his friends, hearing the 
noise, ran up, found him bathed in blood* and, 
while he Avas fainting, dressed his v.-ound. When, 
however, he recovered feeling, he tore open the 
bandages, let out his entrails, and expired at tlie 
age of 49. — Cato soon became the subject of bio- 
graphy and panegyric. Shortly after his death ap- 
peared Cicero's Cato, which provoked Caesar's 
Aniicato. In Lucan the character of Cato is a 
personification of godlike virtue. In modern times, 
the closing events of his life have been often 
dramatised ; and few dramas have gained more 
celebrity than the Cato of Addison. 9. M., a son 
of No. 8, feU at the battle of Philippi, 42. 

Cato, Valerius, a distinguished grammarian and 
poet, lost his property in his youth during the 
usurpation of Sulla. He is usually considered the 
author of an extant poem in 183 hexameter verses, 
entitled Edited by Putsch, Jena, 1828. 

Catti or Chatti, whose name is connected with 
the old German word cat or cad " war." one of the 
most important nations of Germany, bounded by the 
Visurgis ( Weser) on the E., the Agri Decumates 
on the S., and the Rhine on the "W., in the nio- 
dern Hesse and the adjacent countries. They 
Avere a branch of the Hermiones, and are first 
mentioned by Caesar tmder the erroneous name 
of Suevi. Although defeated by Drusus, Ger- 
manicus, and other Roman generals, they v.- ere 
never completely subjugated by the Romans ; and 
their power was greatly augmented on the decline 
of the Cherusci. Their capital was Mattium. 

Catullus, Valerius, a Roman poet, born at Ve- 
rona or in its immediate vicinity, b. c. 87. Catul- 
lus inherited considerable property from his father, 
who was the friend of Julius Caesar; but he 
squandered a great part of it by indulging 
freely in the pleasures of the metropolis. In 
order to better his fortunes, he went to Bithynia 
in the train of the praetor jMemraius, but it 
appears that the speculation was attended with 
little success. It was probably during this ex- 
pedition that his brother died in the Troad — a 
loss which he deplores in the affecting elegy to 
Hortalus. On his return he continued to reside at 
Rome or at his country-seats on the promontory of 
Sirmio and at Tibur. He probably died about 
B. c. 47. The extant works of Catullus consist of 



CAUCASUS. 
116 poems, on a variety of topics, and composed 
in different styles and metres. Some are lyrical, 
others elegies, others epigrams ; while the Nuptials 
of Peleus and Thetis, in 409 Hexameter lines, is an 
heroic poem. Some of liis poems are translations 
or imitations from the Greek, as, for instance, his 
De Coma Berenices^ which was taken from Calli- 
machus. In consequence of the intimate acquaint- 
nnce which Catullus displays with Greek literature 
and mythology, he was called doctus by Tibullus, 
Ovid, and others. Catullus adorned all lie touched, 
and his shorter poems are characterised by original 
invention and felicity of expression. — Editions. 
By Volpi, Patav. 1710 ; by Doering, Altona, 1834, 
2nd ed. ; and by Lachmann, Berol. 1829. 

Cat-alus, Lutatius. 1. C., consul b. c. 242, de- 
feated as proconsul in the following year the Car- 
thaginian lleet off the Aegates islands, and thus 
brought the first Punic war to a close, 241.— 
2. Q., consul 102 witli C. Miiritis IV., and as 
proconsul next year gained along with Marius a 
decisive victory over the Cimbri near Vercellac 
( VcrceUi), in the N. of Ital}-. Catulus claimed 
tiie entire honour of this victory, and asserted that 
Marius did not meet with the enemy till the day 
was decided ; but at Rome the whole merit was 
given to !Marius. Catulus belonged to the aristn- 
cratical party ; he espoused the cause of Sulla ; was 
included by Marius in the proscription of 87 ; .and 
as escape was impossible, put an end to liis life by 
tlie vapours of a charcoal fire. Catulus was well 
acquainted with Greek literature, and famed for the 
grace and purity vdth which he spoke and wrote 
his ov/n language. He was the author of several 
orations, of an historical work on his ov.ti Consul- 
ship and the Cimbric Avar, and of poems ; but all 
these have perished with the exception of 2 epi- 
grams. -—3. Q., son of No. 2, a distinguished 
leader of the aristocracy, also won the respect and 
confidence of the people by his upright character 
and conduct. Being consul Avith M. Lepidus in 
78, he resisted the efforts of his colleague to ab- 
rogate the acts of Sulla, and the following spring 
he defeated Lepidus in the battle of the Milvian 
bridge, and forced him to take refuge in Sardinia. 
He opposed the Gabinian and Manilian laws AA'hich 
conferred extraordinary powers upon Pompey (67 
and G6). He was censor with Crassus in 65, and 
died in 60. 

Caturiges, a Ligurian people in Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, near the Cottian Alps : their chief toA\Tis 
Avere Egurodunu?j, and Caturigae or Catori- 
magus (Cliorffss). 

Catus Deeianus, procurator of Britain in the 
reign of Nero, was by his extortion one of the chief 
causes of the revolt of the people under Boadicea, 
A.D.62. He fled to Gaid.* 

Cauca {Coca), a toAvn of the Vaccaei in His- 
pania Tarraconensis ; birth-place of the emperor 
Theodosius I. 

Caucasiae Pylae. [Caucasus.] 

Caucasus, Caucasii Montes (o KavKaaros, rh 
KavKaaiov opos, ra Kavicdaia 6pi] : Caucasus). 1. 
A ofreat chain of mountains in Asia, extending 
\V. N.W. and E. S. E. from the E. shore of the 
Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea) to the W. shore of 
the Caspian. Its length is about 700 miles ; its 
greatest breadth 120, its least GO or 70. Its 
greatest height exceeds that of the Alps, its lofti- 
est summit (Mt. Elbrooz, nearly in 43° N. lat. 
and 43° E. long.), being 16,800 feet above the sea. 



CAUCL 



CECROPS. 



and to the E. of this tliere are several other summits 
above the line of perpetual snow, Avhich, in the 
Caucasus, is from 1 0,000 to 1 1 ,000 feet above the 
sea. The W. part of the chain is much lower, no 
summit W. of Mt. EVorooz rising above the snow 
line. At both extremities the chain sinks down 
to low hills. There are two chief passes over the 
chain, both of v/hich were known to the ancients : 
the one, between its E. extremity and the Caspian, 
near Derbent^ was called Albaniae and sometimes 
Caspiae Pylae: the other, nearly in tlie centre 
of the range, was called Caucasiae Pylae {Pass of 
Dariel). In ancient times, as is still the case, the 
Caucasus was inhabited by a great variety of tribes, 
speaking different languages (Strabo says, at least 
70), but all belonging to that family of the human 
race, which has peopled Europe and W. Asia, and 
which has obtained the name of Caucasian from 
the fact that in no other part of the world are such 
perfect examples of it found, as among the moun- 
taineers of the Caucasus. — That the Greeks had 
some vague knowledge of the Caucasus in very 
early times, is proved by the myths respecting 
Prometheus and the Argonauts, from which it 
seems that the Caucasus was regarded as at the 
extremity of the earth, on the border of the river 
Oceanus. The account which Herodotus gives is 
good as far as it goes (i. 203) ; but it Avas not till 
the march of Pompey, in the Mithridatic War, 
extended to the banks of the Cyrus and Araxes 
and to the foot of the great chain, that means 
were obtained for that accurate description of the 
Caucasus which Strabo gives in his 11th book. 
The country about the E. part of the Caucasus 
was called Albania : the rest of the chain divided 
Iberia and Colchis, on the S., from Sarmatia 
AsiATicA on the N. — 2. When the soldiers of 
Alexander advanced to that great range of moun- 
tains which formed the N. boundary of Ariana, 
the Paropamisus, they supposed that they had 
reached the great Caucasian chain at the extremity 
of the world mentioned by the early poets, and 
they applied to it the name of Caucasus : after- 
wards, for the sake of distinction, it Avas called 
Caucasus Indicus. [Paropamisus.] 
Cauci. [Chauci.] 

Caucones (Kau/cwj^es), the name of peoples botli 
in Greece and Asia, but Avhether of the same or 
different tribes cannot be determined Avith cer- 
tainty. The Caucones in the N.W. of Greece, 
in Elis and Achaia, were supposed by the ancient 
geographers to be an Arcadian people. The Cau- 
cones in the N.W. of Asia Minor are mentioned 
by Homer as allies of the Trojans, and are placed 
in Bithynia and Paphlagonia by the geographers, 
Avho regarded them as Pelasgians, though some 
tliought them Scythians. 

Caudium. (Caudinus), a toAvn in Samnium on 
the road from Capua to Beneventum. In the 
neighbourhood Avere the celebrated Eurculae Cau- 
dinae, or Caudine Forks, narrow passes in the 
mountains, Avhere the Roman army surrendered 
to the Samnites, and Avas sent under the yoke, 
B. c. 321 : it is noAv called the A'alley of Arpaia. 

Gaul5n orCaulonia (Cauloniata: Castel Fetere), 
a town in Bruttium, N. E. of Locri, originally 
called Aulon or Aulonia ; founded by the inhabitants 
of Croton or by the Achaeans ; destroyed by Dio- 
nysius the elder, Avho removed its inhabitants to 
Syracuse and gave its territory to Locri ; after- 
wards rebuilt, but again destroyed in the Avar Avith 



Pyrrhus ; rebuilt a third time and destroyed a 
third time in the 2nd Punic Avar. It Avas cele- 
brated for its Avorship of the Delphian Apollo. Its 
name is preserved in the hill Caulone in the neigh- 
bourhood of Castel Fetere. 
Caiiniis. [Byblis.] 

Cauniis Kavuos : Kavvios : Kaigucs), one of 
the chief cities of Caria, on its S. coast, a little E. 
of the mouth of the Calbis, in a very fertile but 
unhealthy situation. It had a citadel called Im- 
bros, an enclosed harbour for ships of Avar, and 
safe roads ibr merchant vessels. It Avas founded 
by the Cretans. Its dried figs (Cauneae ficus) Avere 
highly celebrated. The painter Protogenes was 
born here. 

Caurus, the Argestes {'Apy4orTr]s) of the Greeks, 
the N.W. Avind, is in Italy a stormy Avind. 

Cavares, or -i, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, 
E. of the Rhone, between the Druentia and the 
Isara. 

Cavarinus, a Senonian, Avhom Caesar made king 
of "his people, Avas expelled by his subjects and 
compelled to fly to Caesar, b. c. 54. 

Caystrus (Kdva-Tpos, Ion. Kaiiarpoos : Kara Su, 
i. e. the Black River, or Kucliuk-Meinder, i. e. Lit- 
tle Maeander), a celebrated river of Lydia and 
Ionia, rising in the Cilbiani M. (the E. part of 
Tmolus), and floAving between the ranges of Trao- 
lus and Messogis into the Aegean, a little N. W, of 
Ephesus. To this day it abounds in swans, as it 
did in Homer's time. The valley of the Caystrus 
is called by Homer " the Asian meadow," and is 
probably the district to Avhich the name of Asia 
was first applied. There Avas an inland toAvn of 
the same name on its S. bank. 

Cebenna Mons or Gebenna (rh Ke/j.fievov 6po^ : 
Cevemies), mountains in the S. of Gaul, 2000 stadia 
in length, extending N. as fl^r as Lugdunum and 
separating the Arverni from the Helvii: Caesar 
found them in tlie Avinter covered Avith snoAV 6 
feet deep. 

Cebes (Kegrjs), of Thebes, a disciple and friend 
of Socrates, AA^as present at the death of his teacher. 
He Avrote 3 philosophical Avorks, one of Avhich, en- 
titled ritVal or Table, is extant. This Avork is an 
allegorical picture of human life, Avhich is explained 
by an old man to a circle of youths. The drift of 
the book is to shoAV, that only the development of 
our mind and the possession of real virtue can make 
us happy. Few Avorks have enjoj'-ed a greater po- 
pularity. Of the numerous editions the best are 
by Schweighaiiser, Argent, 1806, and by Coraes in 
his edition of Epictetus, Paris, 1826. 

Cebrene (KegpiV??), a city in the Troad, on M. 
Ida, which fell into decay when Antigonus trans- 
planted its inhabitants to Alexandria Troas. A 
little river, Avhich floAved past it, Avas called Cebren 
{KcSp-fjv), and the surrounding district Cebrenia 
(Ke^pwla). 

Gecropia. [Athenae, p. 102, b.] 

Cecrops (Ke/cpwi^), a hero of the Pelasgic race, 
said to have been the first king of Attica. He Avas 
married to Agraulos, daughter of Actaeus, by Avhom 
he hadason,Erysichthon,Avho succeeded him as king 
of Athens, and 3 daughters, Agraulos, Herse, and 
Pandrosos, In his reign Poseidon and Athena 
contended for the possession of Attica, but Cecropa 
decided in fa\"our of the goddess. [Athena.] 
Cecrops is said to have founded Athens, the citadel 
of Avhich Avas called Cecropia after hira, to have 
divided Attica into 12 communities, and to have 



160 CECRYPHALIA. 



CELTAE. 



introduced the first elements of civilized life ; he 
instituted raarriftge, abolished bloody sacrifices, and 
taught his subjects how to worship the gods. He 
is sometimes called 5i(pvris or (;emi?ius, an epithet 
which some explain by his having instituted mar- 
riage, while others suppose it to have reference to 
the legends, in which the upper part of his body 
was represented as that of a man and the lower 
part as that of a serpent. The hiter Greek writers 
describe Cecrops as a native of Sais in Egypt, who 
led a colony of Egyptians into Attica, and thus 
introduced from Egypt the arts of civilized life; 
but this account is rejected by some of the an- 
cients themselves, and by the ablest modern critics. 

Cecryplialia (Kc/cpv^aAem), a small island in 
tlie Saronic gulf, between Aegina and Epidaurus. 

Cedreae (KeSpe'ai or -e?aj, KeSpearTjs or -oios), 
a town of Caria, on the Ceramic Gulf. 

Cedrenus, Georgius, a Byzantine writer, of 
whose life nothing is known, the author of an his- 
torical work, which begins with the creation of the 
world, and goes down to a. d. 1057. The last 
edition is by Bekker, Bonn, 1838-39. 

Celaenae (KeXaiuai, KeXaiuh-ns), the greatest 
city of S. Phrygia, before the rise of its neighbour, 
Apamea Cibotus, reduced it to insignificance. It 
lay at the sources of the rivers Maeander and 
Marsyas. In the midst of it was a citadel built 
by Xerxes, on a precipitous rock, at the foot of 
Avhich, in the Agora of the city, the Marsyas took 
its rise, and near the river's source was a grotto 
celebrated by tradition as the scene of the punish- 
ment of Marsyas by Apollo. Outside of the city 
was a royal palace, with pleasure-gardens and a 
great park (7rapaSet{ros) full of game, which was 
generally tlie residence of a satrap. The Maean- 
der took its rise in the very palace, and flowed 
tlirough the park and the city, below which it re- 
ceived the Marsyas. 

Celaeno (KeKaLuw). 1. A Pleiad, daughter of 
Atlas and Pleione, beloved by Poseidon. — 2. One 
of the Harpies. [Harpyiae.] 

Celeia (Cil/t/), an important town in the S. E. of 
Noricum, and a Roman colony with the surname 
Claudia, was in the middle ages the capital of a 
Slavonic state called Zellia ; hence the modern 
name of the town, which possesses Roman remains. 

Celenderis (KeXevdepis : Kkelindreh), a sea-port 
town of Cilicia, said to have been founded by San- 
darus the Syrian, and afterwards colonized by the 
Saraians. 

Celer, together with Severus, the architect of 
Nero's immense palace, the golden house. He and 
Severus began digging a canal from the lake Aver- 
nus to the mouth of the Tiber. 

Celer, P. Egnatins. [Bare a.] 

Celetrum (Kastoria), a town in Macedonia on 
a peninsula of the Lacus Castoris, probably the 
same town afterwards called Diocletianopolis. 

Celeus (KTjAet^s), king of Eleusis, husband of 
Metanira, and father of Demophon and Triptole- 
mus. He received Demeter with hospitality at 
Eleusis, when she was wandering in search of her 
daughter. The goddess, in return, wished to make 
his son Demophon immortal, and placed him in the fire 
in order to destroy his mortal parts ; but Metanira 
screamed aloud at the sight, and Demophon was 
destroyed by the flames. Demeter then bestowed 
great favours upon Triptolemus. [Triptolemus.] 
Celeus is described as the first priest and his daugh* 
ters as the first priestesses of Demeter at Eleusis. 



Celsa (Velilla Ru., nr. Xelsa), a town in His- 
pania Tarraconensis on the Iberus, with a stone 
bridge over this river, and a Roman colony with 
the name Victrix Julia Celsa. 

Celsus. 1. One of the 30 tyrants, usurped the 
purple in Africa, and was slain on the 7th day of 
his reign, A. D. 265.-2. An Epicurean pliiloso- 
pher, lived in the time of the Antonines, and was 
a friend of Lucian. He is supposed to be the same 
as the Celsus M'ho wrote the work against Christi- 
anity called A6yos a\r\6T]s, which acquired so much 
notoriety from the answer written to it by Origen. 
[Origenes.] —3. A. Cornelius Celsus, probably 
lived under the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. 
He wrote several works, of which only one remains 
entire, his treatise De Medicina, " On Medicine," in 
8 books. The first two books are principally oc- 
cupied by the consideration of diet, and the general 
principles of therapeutics and pathology ; the re- 
maining books are devoted to the consideration of 
particular diseases and their treatment ; the third and 
fourth to internal diseases ; the fifth and sixth to ex- 
ternal diseases, and to pharmaceutical preparations ; 
and the last two to those diseases which more par- 
ticularly belong to surgery. The Avork has been 
much valued from the earliest times to the present 
day. — Editions. By Milligan, Edinb. 1826; by 
Ritter and Albers, Colon, ad Rhen. 1835.-4. 
Julius Celsus, a scholar at Constantinople in the 7th 
century after Christ, made a recension of the text of 
Caesar's Commentaries. Many modern writers have 
attributed to him the life of Caesar, which was in 
reality Avritten by Petrarch. — 5. P. Juventius 
Celsus, two Roman jurists, father and son, both of 
whom are cited in the Digest. Very little is 
kno-wn of the elder Celsus. The younger Celsus, 
who was the more celebrated, lived under Nerva 
and Trajan, by whom he Avas highly favoured. 
He wrote DigesLa in 39 books, Episfolae, Quaes- 
tiones, and Institutiones in 7 books. — 6. P. Ma- 
rius Celsus, an able general first of Galba and 
afterwards of Otho. After the defeat of Otho's 
army at the battle of Bedriacum, Celsus was par- 
doned by Vitellius, and was allowed by him to 
enter on the consulship in July (a. d. 69). 

Celtae, a powerful race, which occupied a great 
part of W. Europe. The Greek and Roman 
writers call them by 3 names, which are probably 
only variations of one name, namely Celtae (KeAroj, 
KeAroi), Galatae {VaXdrai), and Galli {VaKXoi). 
Their name was originally given to all the people 
of N. and W. Europe, who were not Iberians, and 
it was not till the time of Caesar that the Romans 
made any distinction between the Celts and the 
Germans : the name of Celts then began to be con- 
fined to the people between the Pyrenees and the 
Rhine. The Celts belonged to the great Indo-Ger- 
manic race, as their language proves. Like the 
other Indo-Germanic races, they came from the 
East, and, at a period long antecedent to all historical 
records, settled in the W. of Europe. The most 
powerful part of the nation appears to have taken 
up their abode in the centre of the country called 
after them Galli.a, between the Garumna in the 
S. and the Sequana and Matrona in the N. From 
this country they spread over various parts of 
Europe, and they appear in earl}' times as a mi- 
gratory race, ready to abandon their homes, and 
settle in any district which their swords could win. 
Besides the Celts in Gallia, there were 8 other dif- 
ferent settlements of the nation, Avhich may be dis- 



CALYPSO. CAMPUS MATITIUS. CASSANDRA. CHARITES (THE aHACES.) 




COINS OF PERSONS. BERENICE — CLAUDIUS. 




Britannicus, sou of Claudius, ob. A. d. 55. Page 126. 




C. Julius Caesar, the Dictator, ob. n.c. 44. In the latter 
coin, the natural baldness of his head is concealed by a 
crown of laurel. Page 133. 




C. Caesar and L. Caesar, grandsons of Augustus. Page lOG- 
To face p. IG).] 




Carau^ius, Roman Emperor, a. d. 287 — 293. Page 14G. 




Carinus, Roman Emperor, a. n. 2S3 — 285. Page 




Claudius I., Roman Emperor, a.d. 41 — 54. On the reverse 
is the head of liis wife Agrii)pina. Page 179. 



tinguislied by the follovring names: — 1. Iberian 
Celts, who crossed the Pyrenees and settled in 
Spain. [Celtiberl] 2. British Celts, the most 
ancient inhabitants of Britain. [Britannia.] 3. 
Belgic Celts, the earliest inhabitants of Gallia 
Belgica, at a later time much mingled with Gcr- 
nians. 4. Italian Celts, who crossed the Alps at 
different periods, and eventually occupied the greater 
part of the N. of Italy, which was called after 
them Gallia Cisalpina. 5. Celts in the Alps 
and on the Danube, namely the Helvetii, Gothini, 
Osi, Vindelici, Raeti, Norici, and Carni. 6. II- 
lyrian Celts, who, under the name of Scordisci, 
settled on Mt. Scordus. 7. Macedonian and 
I'hracian Celts, Avho had remained behind in Ma- 
cedonia, when the Celts invaded Greece, and who 
are rarelj'' mentioned, o. Asiatic Celts, the Tolisto- 
l.'ogi, Trocmi and Tectosages, Avho foimded tlie 
kingdom of Galatia. — Some ancient writers 
divided the Celts into two great races, one con- 
sisting of the Celts in the S. and centre of Gaul, in 
Spain, and in the N. of Italy, who were the proper 
Celts, and the other consisting of the Celtic tribes 
on the shores of the Ocean and in the E. as far as 
Scy thia, who were called Gauls : to the latter race the 
Cinibri belonged, and they are considered by some 
to be identical Avith the Cimmerii of the Greeks. 
This twof"old division of the Celts appears to cor- 
respond to the two races into which the Celts are 
at present divided in Great Britain, namely the 
Gael and the Kymry, who differ in language and 
customs, the Gael being the inhabitants of Ireland 
and the N. of Scotland, and the Kymry of Wales. 
— The Celts are described by the ancient writers 
:is men of large stature, of fair complexion, and 
with flaxen or red hair. They were brave and 
warlike, impatient of control and prone to change. 
They fought with long swords ; their first charge 
in battle was the most formidable, but if firmly 
resisted, they usually gave wa}'. They were long the 
terror of the llomans : once thej'- took Rome, and 
laid it in ashes (b.c. 3.^0). — For details respecting 
their later history and political organization, see 
Gallia. 

Celtiberi (KeATzgr/pss), a powerful people in 
Spain, consisting of Celts, Avho crossed the Py- 
renees at an early period, and became mingled 
with the Iberians, the original inhabitants of tlie 
country. Thej'- dwelt chiefly in the central part of 
Spain, in the highlands which separate the Iberus 
from the rivers which flow towards the W.. and 
in which the Tagus and the Durius rise. They 
were divided into various tribes, the Are vac a e, 
Berones, and Pelendones, which were the 
3 most important, the Lusones, Belli, Dittani, 
&c. Their chief towns were Segoeriga, Nu- 
MANTiA, BiLBiLis, &c. Their countr}- called 
Celtiberia was mountainous and unproductive. 
They Avere a brave and Avarlike people, and proved 
formidable enemies to the Romans. They sub- 
mitted to Scipio Africanus in the 2nd Punic Avar, 
but the oppressions of the Roman governors led 
them to reljel, and for many years they success- 
fully defied the poAver of Rome. They Avere re- 
duced to submission on the capture of Numantia 
by Scipio Africanus the younger (b.c. 134), but 
they again took up arms under Sertorius, and it J 
was not till his death (72) that they began to adopt 
the Roman customs and language, 

Celtici. 1. A Celtic people in Lusitania be- 
tAA'een the Tagus and Anas. — 2. A Celtic people 



CENTAURI. Kil 

in Gallaecia near the promontory Nerium, which 
Avas called Celticum after them (C. Finistcrre). 

Cenaeum {Kiovaiov uKpov : Kanaia or Litar)^ 
the N.W. promontory of I^uboea, opposite Ther- 
mopylae, Avith a temple of Zeus Cenaeus. 

Cenchreae (K67xpeai). 1. The E. harbour of 
Corinth on the Saronic gulf, important for the trade 
and commerce Avith the E. ■=-2. A town in Argolis, 
S. of Argos, on the road to Tegea. 

Cenomam, a poAverful Gallic people, originally 
a branch of the Aulerci, crossed the Alps at an 
early period, and settled in the N. of Italy in the 
country of Brixia, Verona, and Mantua, and ex- 
tended N. as far as the confines of Rhaetia. They 
Avere at constant feud Avith the neighbouring tribes 
of the Insubres, Boii, &c., and hence usually as- 
sisted the Romans in their Avars Avith these people. 

Censorinus. 1. One of the 30 tyrants, assumed 
the purple at Bologna, a. D. 270, but Avas shortly 
afterguards put to death by his OAvn soldiers. — 2. 
Author of a treatise entitled de Die Natali, Avhich 
treats of the generation of man, of his natal hour, of 
the influence of the stars and genii upon his career, 
and discusses the A-arious methods employed for 
the diA-ision and calculation of time. The book is 
dedicated to Q. Cerellius, and AA^as composed a. d. 
238. A fragment de Meiris and lost tracts de 
Accentihus and de Geometria are ascribed to this 
Censorinus. — Editions. By Plavercamp, Lug. Bat. 
1743 ; by Gruber, Noremb. 1805. 

Censorinus, Marcms. 1. C, son of C. Marcius 
Rutilus, first plebeian dictator (b. c. 356), Avas ori- 
ginally called Rutilus, and was the first member 
of the family Avho had the surname Censorinus. 
He AA'as consul in b, c. 31 0, and conducted the Avar 
in Samnium. He Avas censor 294, and a second 
time 265, the onlj-- instance in which a person held 
the office of censor tAvice. — - 2. L., consul 149, the 
first year of the third Punic Avar, conducted the 
AA-ar against Carthage Avith his colleague M'. Ma- 
nilius. — 3. C, one of the leaders of the Marian 
party, fought against Sulla in the battle near the 
CoUine gate, Avas taken prisoner, and put to death 
by Sulla's order. Censorinus Avas one of the ora- 
tors of liis time, and versed in Greek literature. — 
4. L., a partizan of M. Antony, praetor 43, and 
consul 39. — 6. C, consul B.C. 8, died in Asia 
A. D. 2, Avhile in attendance upon C. Caesar, the 
grandson of Augustus. 

Centauri (KeVravpo.), that is, the Bull-killers, 
Avere an ancient race, inhabiting Mount Pelion in 
Thessaly. They led a Avild and savage life, and 
are hence called cprip^s or Gripes in Homer. In 
later accounts they Avere represented as half-horses 
and half-men. Their origin is variously related. 
According to the most ancient account Centaurus, 
the offspring of Ixion and a cloud, begot the Hip- 
pocentaurs by mixing Avith Magnesian mares. From 
most accounts it Avould appear that the Centaurs 
and Hippocentaurs Avere originally regarded as tAA'O 
distinct classes of beings, although the name of 
Centaurs is applied to both by ancient as Avell as 
modern Avriters. The Centaurs are particularly 
celebrated in ancient story for their fight Avith the 
Lapithae, wdiich arose at the marriage-feast of Pi- 
rithous. This fight is sometimes placed in con- 
; nexion Avith a combat of Hercules with the Cen- 
taurs. It ended by the Centaurs being expelled 
from their country, and taking refuge on mount 
Pindus, on the frontiers of Epirus. Chiron is the 
most celebrated among the Centaurs. [Chiron.] 

M 



162 



CENTRITES. 



CEPHISODOTUS. 



We know that hunting the bull on horseback was 
a national custom in Thessaiy, and that the Thes- 
salians were celebrated riders. Hence ma}'- have 
arisen the fable that the Centaurs Avere half^men 
and half-horses, just as the Americans, when they 
first saw a Spaniard on liorscback, believed horse 
and man to be one being. The Centaurs were 
frequently represented in ancient works of art, ;ind 
generally, as men frojn the head to the loins, while 
the remainder of the body is that of a horse with 
its 4 feet and tail. 

Centrites (Kej/rpiVTjs: j5cc?&), a small river of 
Armenia, which it divided from the land of the 
Carduchi, N. of Assyria. It rises in the mountains 
S. of the Arsissa Palus {L. Van), and flows into 
the Tigris. 

Centumalus, Fulvius. 1. Cn., legate of the 
dictator M. Valerius Corvus B.C. 301 ; consul 298, 
Avhen he gained a victory over the Samnites ; and 
propraetor 295, when he defeated the Etinscans. 
— 2. Cn., consul 229, defeated the Illyrians sub- 
ject to the queen Teuta. — 3. Cn., curule aedile 
214; praetor 213, with Suessula as his province; 
and consul 211; in the next year he was de- 
feated by Hannibal near Ilcrdonia in Apulia, 
and was killed in the battle. — 4. M., praetor ur- 
banus 192, superintended the preparations for the 
war against Antiochus the Great. 

Centum Cellae (Civita VeccJda), a sea-port town 
in Etruria, first became a place of importance under 
Trajan, who built a villa here and constructed an 
excellent harbour. It was destroyed by the Sara- 
cens in the 9th century, but was rebuilt on its 
ancient site, and was hence called Civita Vecclda. 

Centuripae (ra KevropiTra, at KevTOvpnrai : 
K^VTopnT7vQS, in Thuc. oi Kavr op Lire's^ Centuri- 
plnus : Centorhi), an ancient town of the Siculi in 
Sicilj"-, at the foot of Mt. Aetna, on the road from 
Catana to Panormus, and not far from the river 
Symaethus ; in its neighbourhood a great quantity 
of corn was grovra, and it became under the Ro- 
mans one of the most flourishing cities in the 
island. 

Ceos (Ke'wy, Ion. Keos : Ketos, Ion. Ki^ios, Ceus: 
Zea), an island in the Aegean Sea, one of the Cy- 
clades, between the Attic promontory Sunium and 
the island Cythnus, celebrated for its fertile soil 
and its genial climate. It Avas inhabited by 
lonians, and originally contained 4 towns, lulis, 
Carthaea, Coressus, and Poeeessa; but the two 
latter perished by an earthquake. Simonides was 
a native of lulis in Ceos, whence we read of the 
Ceae munera neniae. (Hor. Carm. ii. 1. 38.) 

Cephale (Ke^aA??), an Attic demus, on the 
right bank of the Erasinus, belonging to the tribe 
Acamantis. 

Cephallenia {Kt^cpaXX-nvia, KecpaXrii^ia : Ked)a?v- 
X^v, pi. K€cf)aXX7jv(ss : CepJialotda), called by Ho- 
mer Same (SayUTj) or Samos (2a,uoy), the largest 
island in the Ionian sea, separated from Ithaca on 
the E. by a narrow channel, contains 348 square 
miles. It is said to have been originally inhabited 
by Taphians, and to have derived its name from 
the mythical Cephalus. Even in Homer its 
inhabitaiits are called Cephallenes, and arc the 
subjects of Ulysses : but the name Cephallenia 
first occurs in Herodotus. The island is very 
mountainous (TraiiraXoeacrT}) ; ;ind the highest 
mountain, called Aenos, on wliidi stood a temple 
of Zeus, rises more than 4000 feet above the sea. 
Cephallenia v/as a tctrapolis, containing the 4 



towns, Same, Pale, Cranii, and Proni. It 
never attained political importance. In the Per- 
sian wars the inhabitants of Pale are alone men- 
tioned. In the Peloponnesian war Cephallenia 
surrendered to the Atlienians. Same ventured to 
oppose the Romans, but was taken by M. Fulvius, 
B.C. 189. In modern times the island was for a 
long while in possession of the Venetians, but is 
now one of the 7 Ionian islands under the protec- 
tion of Great Britain. 

Cephaloedium (KecpaXoidLov : Cephaloeditunus; 
Cr/aii or Cephaht), a town on the N. coast of Si- 
cily in the territory of Ilimera. 

Cephalus (Ke^aAos). 1. Son of Hermes and 
Ilerse, was carried off by Eos (Aurora), who be- 
came by him the mother of Tithonus in Syria. — < 
2. Son of Deion and Diomede, and husband of 
Procris or Procne, daughter of Erechtheus, whom 
he tenderly loved. He was beloved b}' Eos, but 
as he rejected her advances from love to his wife, 
she advised him to try the fidelity of Procris. The 
goddess then metamorphosed him into a stranger, 
and sent him with rich presents to his house. 
Procris was tempted by the brilliant presents to 
yield to the stranger, who then discovered himself 
to be her husband, whereupon she fled in shame to 
Crete. Artemis made her a present of a dog and 
a spear, which were never to miss their object, and 
then sent her back to Cephalus in the disguise of 
a 5'outh. In order to obtain this dog and spear, 
Cephalus promised to love the youth, who then 
made herself known to him as his wife Procris. 
This led to a reconciliation between them. Procris 
however still feared the love of Eos, and therefore 
jealously watched Cephalus when he Avent out 
hunting, but on one occasion he killed her by acci- 
dent Avith the neA'er- erring spear. A someAvhat 
different version of the same story is given by 
Ovid. (Met. vii. 685, seq.) Subsequently Cepha- 
lus fought Avith Amphitrji-on against the Teleboans, 
upon the conquest of whom he Avas rcAvarded Avith 
the island Avhich he called after his OAvn name 
Cephallenia. 3. A Syracusan, and father of the 
orator Lysias, came to Athens at the iuAdtation of 
Pericles. He is one of the speakers in Plato's 
Republic. 4. An eminent Athenian orator of the 
Collytean demus, flourished B. c. 402. 

Cepiieus (Krjcpeus). 1. King of Ethiopia, son 
of Belus, husband of Cassiepeia, and father of 
Andromeda, Avas placed among the stars after his 
death. — 2. Son of Aleus and Nearea or Cleobule, 
one of the Argonauts. He Avas king of Tegea in 
Arcadia, and perished, Avith most of his sons, in 
an expedition against Hercules. 

CepMsia or CepMssia (K-ncpiaria more correct 
than Kr]cj)L(raia : K'/j^icrieuy : Kivisia)., one of the 12 
Cecropian toAA'ns of Attica, and afterwards a demus 
belonging to the tribe Erechtheis, N. E. of Athens, 
on the W • slope of Mt. Pentelicus. 

CepMsodorus (KTj^icroSwpos). 1. An Athenian 
comic poet of the old comcd}', flourished B. c. 402. 
=— 2. An Athenian orator, a disciple of Isocratcs, 
Avrote an apology for Isocrates against Aristotle, 
entitled al rrphs 'ApiaroTeX-q ai/riypatpai. 

CepMsodotus (KTj^io-o'So-ros), 1. An Athenian 
general and orator, is mentioned on various occa- 
sions from E. c. 371 to 355. -=-2. An Athenian 
sculptor, AA'hose sister AA^as the first wife of Phocion, 
flourished 372. He belonged to that younger 
school of Attic artists, Avho had abandoned the 
stern and mnjestic beauty of Phidias, and adopted 



CEPHISOPHON. 

a more animated and graceful style. — 3. An Athe- 
nian sculptor, usually called the Younger, a son of 
the great Praxiteles, flourished 300. 

CepMsopllon (K-ncpLaocpoju), a friend of Euri- 
pides, is said not only to have been the chief actor 
in his dramas, but also to have aided him with his 
advice in the composition of them. 

CepMsuS or CepMsSUS (Ktj^io-os, Krjcpiaaos). 
1. The chief river in Phocis and Boeotia, rises near 
Lilaea in Phocis, flows through a fertile valley in 
Phocis and Boeotia, and falls into the lake Copais, 
which is hence called CepJdsis in the Iliad (v. 709). 
[Copais.] ~ 2. The largest river in Attica, rises 
in the W. slope of Mt. Pentelicus, and flows past 
Athens on the W. into the Saronic gulf near Pha- 
lerum. — 3. There Avas also a river of this name 
in Argolis, Salamis, Sicyonia, and Scyros. 

Cer (Ki7p), the personified necessity of death 
(K^p or Kripes ^avaroio). The KTjpes are de- 
scribed by Homer as formidable, dark, and hate- 
ful, because they carry off men to the joyless house 
of Hades. According to Hesiod, they are the 
daughters of Nyx (Night) and sisters of the 
Moerae, and punish men for their crimes. 

Ceramus (•/? Kepafios : Keramo), a Dorian sea- 
port town on the N. side of the Cnidian Cherso- 
nesus on the coast of Caria, from which the Cera- 
mic gulf (6 Kepafxeuchs koAttos : Gzdf of Kos, or, 
Gol/o di Stanco) took its name, [Caria.] 

Cerasus {Kepacrovs : KepacrowTios : nr. Khere- 
soun)^ a flourishing colony of Sinope, on the coast 
of Pontus, at the mouth of a river of the same 
name ; chiefly celebrated as the place from which 
Europe obtained both the cherry and its name. 
Lucullus is said to have brought back plants of the 
cherry with him to Rome, but this refers probably 
only to some particular sorts, as the Romans seem 
to have had the tree much earlier. — Cerasus fell 
into decay after the foimdation of Pharnacia {Klic- 
rcsoun). 

Cerata (ra Kepara), the Horns, a mountain on 
the frontiers of Attica and Megaris. 

Ceraumi Montes {Kepavvia oprj : KJdinara), a 
range of mountains extending from the frontier 
of llbmcum along the coast of Epirus, derived their 
name from the frequent thunder-storms which oc- 
curred among them {icepavuos). These mountains 
made the coast of Epirus dangerous to ships. They 
Avere also called Acroceraunia, though this name 
was properly applied to the promontory separating 
the Adriatic and Ionian seas. The inhabitants 
of these mountains were called Ceraunii. 

Cerberus (Ke/jgepos), the dog that guarded the 
entrance of Hades, is mentioned as early as the 
Homeric poems, but simply as " the dog," and 
without the name of Cerberus. (//. viii. 368, Od. 
xi. 623.) Ilesiod calls him a son of Typhaon and 
Echidna, and represents him with 50 heads. Later 
writers describe him as a monster with only 3 
heads, with the tail of a serpent and with ser- 
pents round his neck. Some poets again call 
him many -headed or hundred-headed. The den 
of Cerberus is usually placed on the further side of 
the Styx, at the spot vrhere Charon landed the 
shades of the departed. 

Cercasorum, or -us, or -esura (K^pKaffapos 
TToXis, Herod., Kepiceaoupa, Strab. : El-Arkas), a 
city of Lower Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, 
at the point Avhere the river divided into its 3 
principal branches, the E. or Pelusiac, the W. or 
Canopic, and the N. between them. 



CERON. 163 

Cercetae or -ii (KepKera;, probably the Cir- 
cassians), a people of Sarmatia Asiatica, beyond 
the Cimmerian Bosporus, on the E. coast of the 
Palus Maeotis (Sea of A^ov). 

Cercetius, a mountain in Tliessaly, part of the 
range of Pindus. 

Cercina and Cercinitis (Kep/ciVct, K^piavlns 
Karlccnali Is., liamlah and Glicrha), 2 low islands 
olf the N. coast of Africa, in the mouth of the 
Lesser Syrtis, united by a bridge, and possessing 
a fine harbour. Cercina was the larger, and had 
on it a town of the same name. 

Cercine (Kep/ctVrj: Kura-dagh), a mountain in 
Macedonia, between the Axius and Strymon, form- 
ing the boundary between Sintice and Paeonia. 

Cercinitis (Kep/dz/trts), a lake in Macedonia, 
near the mouth of the Strymon, through which this 
river flows. 

Cercinium, a tov/n in Thessaly on the lake 
Bobeis. 

Cerco, Q,. Lutatius, consul with A. Manlius 
Torquatus, B. c. 241, in which year the first Punic 
war was brought to a close by the victory of C. 
Lutatius Catulus at the Aegates. Cerco, in con- 
junction with his colleague, subdued the Falisci 
or people of Falerii, who revolted from the Ro- 
mans. 

Cercopes (Kep/cwTres), droll and thievish 
gnomiCS, robbed Hercules in his sleep, but were 
taken prisoners by him, and either given to Om- 
phale, or killed, or set free again. Some placed 
them at Thermopylae (Herod, vii. 216) ; but the 
comic poem Cercopes, which bore the name of 
Homer, probably placed them at Oechalia in Eu- 
boea. Others transferred them to Lydia, or the 
islands called Pithecusae, which derived their 
name from the Cercopes v/ho were changed into 
monkeys by Zeus for having deceived him. 

Cereops (Kep/cwif/). 1. One of the oldest Orphic 
poets, also called a Pythagorean, was the author 
of an epic poem, " on the descent of Orpheus to 
Hades." -=-2. Of Miletus, the contemporary and 
rival of Hesiod, is said to have been the author of 
an epic poem called Aegimius, which is also as- 
scribed to Hesiod. 

Cercyon (Kep/cuw^'), son of Poseidon or Hephae- 
stus, a cruel tyrant at Eleusis, put to deatla his 
daughter Alope, and killed all strangers v\^hom he 
overcame in wrestling ; he was in the end con- 
quered and slain by Theseus. 

Cerdylmm (ILeplvKiov), a small town in Mace- 
donia on the right bank of the Strymon, opposite 
Amphipolis. 

Cerealis, Petiims, served under Vettius Bola- 
nus, in Britain, a. d. 61 ; was one of the generals 
who supported the claim of Vespasian to the em- 
pire, 69 ; suppressed the revolt of Civilis on the 
Rhine, 70 ; and was governor of Britain, 71, when 
he conquered a great part of the Brigantes. 

Cereatae, a town of the Hernici in Latium, be- 
tween Sora and Anagnia. 

Ceres. [Demeteii.] 

Cerilli (Cirella Vecchia), a town in Bruttium on 
the coast, a little S. of the mouth of the Laus. 

Cerintlius (KripLueos), a town on the E. coast of 
Euboeaj on the river Budorus. 

Cerne (Kepv)'}), an island off the W. coast of 
Africa, to which the Phoenicians appear to have 
traded. Its position is uncertain, and Strabo even 
denied its existence, 

Ceron, a fountain in Histiaeotis in Tliessaly, 

M 2 



1(14 CERRETANI. 

said to liavc made all the sheep black which diank 

of it. 

Cerretani, an Iberian people in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, inhabited the modern Cenhqne in the 
P3'renees, and were subsequently divided into the 
2 tribes of the Jidiani and Augustani : the}- were 
celebrated for their hams. 

Cersobleptes (K6/>(ro§Ae'7rT7]s),son of Cotys, kino; 
of Thrace, on whose death in b. c. 358 he inherited 
tlie kingdom in conjunction with Berisades and 
Amadocus, who were probably liis brothers. As 
an ally of the Athenians Cersobleptes became in- 
volved in war with Philip, by whom he was fre- 
ouently defeated, and was at length reduced to the 
condition of a tributary. 343. 

Cersus (Kepaos: Merkes), a river of Cilicia, 
flovi'ing through the Pylae Syro-Ciliciae, into the E. 
side of the Gulf of Issus. 

Certonium (KfprSpiov), a town in Mysia, men- 
tioned only by Xenophon (A nab. vii. 8. § 8). 

Cervidius Scaevola. [Scaevol.a.] 

Ceryx (^K-fipv^), an Attic hero, son of Hermes 
and Aglauros, from Avhom the priestly family of 
the Ceryces at Athens derived their origin. 

Oestrus (Keo-rpos: Ak-su), a considerable river 
of Pamphylia. flowing from the Taurus S.-wards 
into the Mediterranean. It was navigable in its 
lower course, at least as far as the city of Perge, 
which stood on its "W. bank, CO stadia (10 gcog. 
miles) above its mouth. 

Cetei (K7]T€ioi), a people of IMysia, the old in- 
habitants of the country about Pergamus, mentioned 
by Homer (Od. xi. 521). Their name is evidently 
connected with that of the river Cetius. 

Cethegus, Cornelius, an ancient patrician 
lamilj'. They seem to have kept up an old fashion 
of wearing their arms bare, to which Horace 
alludes in the words cii/cli/ii Cdhegi {Ars Fol't. 
50) ; and Lucan (ii. 543) describes the associate 
of Catiline thus, eisoiique i}iaji?>s vcsana Cdlicgi. 
1, M., ciirule aedile and pontifcx maximus B. c. 
213 ; praetor 211, when he had the charge of 
Apulia ; censor 209, and consul 204. In the next 
A'ear he commanded as proconsul in Cisalpine Gaul, 
where he defeated Mago, brother of Hannibal. He 
died 196. His eloquence was rated very high, so 
that Ennius gave him the name of Suada medulla^ 
and Horace twice refers to him as an ancient au- 
thority for the usage of Latin words. (Epist. ii. 2. 
1 16, Ars. Poi'f. 50.) -—2. C, commanded in Spain 
as proconsul 200; was aedile 199; consul 197, when 
he defeated the Insubrians and Cenomanians in 
Cisalpine Gaul ; and censor 194. — 3. P., curule 
aedile 187, praetor 185, and consul 181. The grave 
of Numa was discovered in his consulship. —4. 
M., consul 160, when he drained a part of the 
Pontine Marshes. -—5. P., a friend of Marius, pro- 
scribed by Sulla, 88, but in 83 went over to Sulla, and 
was pardoned. — 6. C, one of Catiline's crew, was 
a profligate from his early youth. When Catiline 
left Rome, 63, after Cicero's first speech, Cethegus 
stayed behind under the orders of Lentulus. His 
charge Avas to murder the leading senators ; but 
the tardiness of Lentulus prevented an^'thing being 
done. Cethegus was arrested and condemned to 
death with the other conspirators. 

Cetius (KijTejoi), a small river of Mysia, flow- 
ing from the K. through the district of Elaitis, and 
falling into the Caicus close to Pergamus. 

Ceutrones or Centrones, a people in Gallia 
Belgica, dependents of the Nervii. 



CHALCE. 

Ceyx (Kt/u^), king of Trachys, husband of 
Alcyone. His death is differently related. [Al- 
cyone.] He was the father of Hippasus, who fell 
fighting as the ally of Hercules. 

Chaboras. [Aborrhas.] 

Chabrias (XaSplas), a celebrated Athenian ge- 
neral. In B.C. 392 he succeeded Iphicrates in the 
connuand of the Athenian forces at Corinth. In 
388 he assisted Evagoras in Cyprus against the 
Persians. In 378 he was one of the commanders 
of the forces sent to the aid of Thebes against 
Agesilaus, when he adopted for the first time that 
manoeuvre for which he became so celebrated, — 
ordering his men to await the attack with their 
spears pointed against the enemy and their shields 
resting on one knee. A statue was afterwards 
erected at Athens to Chabrias in this posture. In 
376 he gained an important victory off Naxos over 
the Lacedaemonian fleet under the command of 
Pollis. In 361 he took the command of the naval 
force of Tachos, king of Egypt, who was in rebel- 
lion against Persia. In 358 he was sent as the 
Athenian commander in Thrace, but was compelled 
by Charidemus to make a peace unfavourable to 
Athens. On the breaking out of the Social war in 
357, Chabrias commanded the Athenian fleet. At 
the siege of Chios he sailed into the harbour before 
the rest of the fleet, and, when his ship was dis- 
abled, he I'efuscd to save his life by abandoning it, 
and fell fighting. 

Chaerea, C. Cassius, tribune of the praetorian 
cohorts, formed the conspiracy b,y which the em- 
peror Caligula was slain, a. d. 41. Chaerea was 
put to death b}' Claudius upon his accession. 

Cliaeremcn (Xaip-nuuv). 1. One of the most 
celebrated of the later tragic poets at Athens, flou- 
rished B. c. 330. He is erroneously called a comic 
poet by some writers. There are 3 epigrams as- 
cribed to Chaeremon in the Greek Anthology. — 
2. Of Alexandria, a Stoic philosopher, chief libra- 
rian of the Alexandrian library, was afterwards 
called to Rome, and became the preceptor of Nero, 
in conjunction with Alexander of Aegae. He 
wrote a histor}' of Egypt, on Hieroglyphics, on 
Comets, and a grammatical w^ork. Martial (xi. 
56) wrote an epigram upon him. 

Chaerephon {Xaipecpwv), a well-known disciple 
of Socrates, was banished by the Thirty tyrants, 
and returned to Athens on the restoration of demo- 
cracy, B.C. 403. He was dead when the trial of 
Socrates took place, 399. 

Chaeronea (Xaipuiv^La: Xatpwvevs: Capurna), 
the Homeric Arne according to Pausanias, a town 
in Boeoiia on the Cephisus near the frontier of 
Phocis, memorable for the defeat of the Athenians 
and the Boeotians in B.C. 338 by Philip, king of 
Macedon, and for Sulla's victory over the army of 
Mithridates, 86. Chaeronea was the birthplace of 
Plutarch. Several remains of the ancient city are 
to be seen at Capurna, more particularly a theatre 
excavated in the rock, an aqueduct, and the marble 
lion (broken in pieces) which adorned the se- 
pulchre of the Boeotians who fell at the battle of 
Chaeronea. 

Chalaeum (XdXaiov : XaXaTos), a port-town of 
the Locri Ozolae on the Crissaean gulf, on the fron- 
tiers of Phocis. 

Chalastra (XaXda-rpa, in Herod. XaAeVrpr;: 
XaXaarpalos : Culacia)^ a town in Mygdonia in 
Macedonia, at the mouth of the river Axius. 

Chalce or -ae or -ia (XciAktj, XaA/caj, XaX/cfa ; 



CHALCEDON. 



CHAOS 



165 



XaXKOios or -irrjs : Charki), an island of the Car- 
pathian sea, near Rhodes, with a town of the same 
name, and a temple of Apollo. 

Chalcedon (XaAftrjSa-i/, more correctly, KaXxV- 
Sa>u : Xa\Kr]B6uios : Ckalkedon, Grk., Kadi-Kioi, 
Turk., Ru.), a Greek city of Bithynia, on the coast 
of the Propontis at the entrance of the Bosporus, 
nearly opposite to Byzantimn, was founded by a 
colony from Megara in B. c. 685. After a long 
period of independence (only interrupted by its 
capture by the Persians and its recovery by the 
Athenians), it became subject to the kings of Bi- 
thynia. and suffered b}^ the transference of most of 
its inhabitants to the new city of Nicomedia (b. c. 
140). The Romans restored its fortifications, and 
made it the chief city of the province of Bithynia, 
or Pontica Prima. After various fortunes under 
the empire, it was entirely destroyed by the Turks. 
— The fourth oecumenical council of the Church 
met here, a. d. 4.t1. 

Glialcidice (XaXKi5^la^), a peninsula in Mace- 
donia between the Thermaic and Strymonic gulfs, 
)uns out into the sea like a 3-pronged fork, termi- 
nating in 3 smaller peninsulas, Pallene, Sitho- 
NiA, and AcTK or Athos. It derived its name 
from Chalcidian colonists. [Chalcis, No. ].] 

Glialcidms, a Platonic philosopher who lived 
probably in the Gth century of the Christian aera, 
translated into Latin the Timaeus of Plato, on 
which he likewise wrote a voluminous commentary. 
Edited by Meursius, Leyden, 1617, and by Fa- 
bricius, Hamburg, 1/18, at the end of the 2nd 
volume of the works of E[ippolytus. 

Chalcioeciis (XcJ^klolkos), "the goddess of the 
brazen house," a surname of Athena at Sparta, 
from the brazen temple which she had in that 
city. 

Chalcis (XaXKLs : XaXKidevs, Chalcidensis). 1. 
{Egripo or NegrojJOJite)^ the principal town of Eu- 
boea, situated on the narrowest part of the Euri- 
pus, and united with the mainland by a bridge. It 
was a very ancient town, originally inhabited by 
Abantes or Curetcs, and colonized by Attic loniaiis 
under Cothus. Its flourishing condition at an early 
period is attested by the numerous colonies which 
it planted in various parts of the Mediterranean. 
It founded so many cities in the peninsula in 
Macedonia between the Strymonic and Thermaic 
gulfs, that the whole peninsula was called Chalci- 
dice. In Italy it founded Cuma and in Sicily 
Naxos. Chalcis Avas usually subject to Athens 
during the greatness of the latter city, and after- 
wards passed into the hands of the Macedonians, 
Antiochus, Mithridates, and the Romans. It Avas 
a place of great military importance, as it com- 
manded the navigation between the N. and S. of 
Greece, and hence it was often taken and retaken 
by the different parties contending for the supre- 
macy in Greece. — The orator Isaeus and the poet 
Lycophron were born at Chalcis, and Aristotle died 
here. — 2. A town in Aetolia at the mouth of the 
Evenus, situated at the foot of the mountain Chalcis, 
and hence also called i7?/j)ocAa/m. — 3. [Kinnesrin, 
Ru.), a city of Syria, in a fruitful plain, near the 
termination of the river Chalus ; the chief city of 
the district of Chalcidice, which lay to the E. of 
the Orontes.— -4. A city of Syria on the Belus, 
in the plain of Marsyas. 

Chalcocondyles, or, by contraction, Clialcon- 
dyles, Laonicus or Mcolaus, a Byzantine histo- 
rian, flourished A. D. ]44G, and wrote a history of 



the Turks and of the later period of the Byzantine 
empire, from the year 1298 down to the conquest 
of Corinth and the invasion of the Peloponnesus by 
the Turks in 1463, thus including the capture of 
Constantinople in 1453. Edited by Fabrot, Paris, 
1650. 

Chaldaea {XaXlaia : XaXSatos), in the narrower 
sense, was a province of Babylonia, about the lower 
course of the Euphrates, the border of the Arabian 
Desert, and the head of the Persian Gulf. It was 
intersected by numerous canals, and was extremely 
fertile. In a wider sense, the term is applied to 
the whole of Babylonia, and even to the Babylo- 
nian empire, on account of the supremacy Avhich 
the Chaldaeans acquired at Babylon. [Babylon.] 
Xenophon mentions Chaldaeans in the mountains 
N. of Mesopotamia ; and we have other statements 
respecting this people, from which it is very diffi- 
cult to deduce a clear view of their early history. 
The most probable opinion is, that their original 
seat was in the mountains of Armenia and Kur- 
disfai?, Avhence they descended into the plains of 
Mesopotamia and Babylonia. Respecting the Chal- 
daeans as the ruling class in the Babylonian mo- 
narchy, see Babylon. 

Chalus (XdXos : Koweik), a river of N. Syria, 
flowing S. past Beroea and Chalcis, and terminating 
in a marshy lake. 

Chalybes (XaAuges), a remarkable Asiatic people, 
about whom we find various statements in the 
ancient Avriters. They are generally represented, 
both in the early poetic legends, and in the his- 
torical period, as dwelling on the S. shore of the 
Black Sea, about Themiscyra and the Thermodon 
(and probably to a wider extent, for Herodotus 
clearly mentions them among the nations W. of the 
Halys), and occupying themselves in the Avorking 
of iron. Xenophon mentions Chalybes in the 
mountains on the borders of Armenia and Meso- 
potamia, who seem to be the same people that he 
elscAvhere calls Chaldaeans ; and several of the 
ancient geographers regarded the Chalybes and 
Chaldaei as originally the same people. 

Chalybon (XaXvScau : 0. T. Helbon), a consi- 
derable city of N. Syria, probably the same as 
Beroea. The district about it Avas called Chaly- 
bonitis. 

Chamaeleon (Xap.aiXiwv)^ a Peripatetic philo- 
sopher of Heraclea on the Pontus, one of the imme- 
diate disciples of Aristotle, Avrote Avorks on several 
of the ancient Greek poets, and likeAvise on philo- 
sophical subjects. 

Chamavi, a people in Germany, who Avere com- 
pelled by the Roman conquests to change their 
abodes several times. They first appear in the 
neighbourhood of the Rhine, but afterwards mi- 
grated E., defeated the Bructeri, and settled be- 
tween the Weser and the Harz. At a later time 
thej^ dwelt on the Lower Rhine, and are men- 
tioned as auxiliaries of the Franks. 

Chaones (Xaoves), a Pelasgian people, one of 
the 3 peoples Avliich inhabited Epirus, Avere at an 
earlier period in possession of the Avhole of the 
country, but subsequently dwelt along the coast 
from the river Thyamis to the Acroceraunian pro- 
montory, Avhich district was therefore called Ghao- 
nia. By the poets Chaonius is used as equivalent 
to ^Ipirot. 

Chaos (Xctos), the vacant and infinite space 
which existed according to the ancient cosmogonies 
previous to the creation of the world and out of 

3 



166 



CHARADRA. 



CHARTS. 



which the pods, men, and all things arose. Chaos 
was called the motiier of Erihos and Nyx. 

Charadra (Xapdopa : Xapadpaios). 1. A town 
in Phocis on the river Charadrns, situated on an 
eminence not far from Lilaca. — 2. A town in Epi- 
rus, N.W. of Ambracia. — 3. A town in Mcssc- 
nia, built by Pel ops. 

Charadi'us (XdpaSpos). 1. A small river in 
Phocis, a tributary of the Cephisu>. •— 2, A small 
river in Argolis, a tributary of the Inachus. — 13. A 
small river in !Messenia, rises near Oechalia. 

Charas (Xapa|), of Pergamus, an historian, 
wrote a work in 40 books, called 'EWt^ulkol, and 
another named Xpouiicd. 

Charax (Xc£pa|, i. e. a palisaded camp : Xapa- 
/cTji/Jy), the name of several cities, which took their 
origin from military stations. The most remarkable 
of them stood at the mouth of the Tigris. [Alex- 
andria, No. 4.] There v/erc others, which only 
need a bare mention, in the Chersonesus Taurica, 
in N. Media, near Celaenae in Phrygia, in Corsica, 
and on the Great Syrtis in Africa, and a few more. 

Cliarazus {Xdpa^os) of :Myti]ene, son of Sca- 
mandronymus and brother of Sappho, fell in love 
with RiiODOPis. 

Chares (Xdprjs). 1. An Athenian general, wlio 
for a long series of years contrived by profuse cor- 
ruption to maintain his influence with the people, 
in spite of his very disreputable character. In 
B. c. .367 he was sent to the aid of the Phliasians, 
who were hard pressed by the Arcadians and Ar- 
rives, and he succeeded in relieving them. In 
the Social war, after the death of Chabrias, 356, 
he had the command of the Athenian fleet along 
with Iphicrates and Timotheus. His colleagues 
having refused, in consequence of a storm, to risk 
an engagement, Chares accused them to the people, 
and they were recalled. Being no v.- left in the 
sole command, and being in v/ant of money, he 
entered into the service of Artabazus, the revolted 
satrap of Western Asia, but Avas recalled hy the 
Athenians on the complaint of Artaxerxcs III In 
the Olynthian war. 349, he commanded the merce- 
naries sent from Athens to the aid of Olynthus. In 
340 he commanded the force sent to aid Byzantium 
against Philip ; but he effected nothing, and Avas 
accordingly superseded by Phocion. In 33S i;e 
was one of the Athenian commanders at the battle 
of Chaeronea. "When Alexander invaded Asia in 
334, Chares was living at Sigeum ; and in 333 he 
commanded for Darius at Mytilene. — 2. Of Myti- 
lene, an officer at the court of Alexander the Great, 
wrote a history of Alexander in 10 books. -=- 3. Of 
Lindus in Rhodes, a statuary in bronze, the favourite 
pupil of Lysippus, flourished B.C. 290. His chief 
work was the statue of the Sun, which, under the 
name of " The Colossus of Rhodes," was celebrated 
as one of the 7 wonders of the world. Its height 
was upwards of 105 English feet, it was 12 years 
in erecting, and cost 300 talents. It stood at the 
entrance of the harbour of Pthodes, but there is no 
authority for the statement that its legs extended 
over the mouth of the harbour. It was overthrown 
and broken to pieces by an earthquake 56 years 
after its erection, B. c. 224. The fragments re- 
mained on the ground 923 j^ears, till they were 
sold by the general of the caliph Othman IV., to a 
Jew of Emesa, who carried them away on 900 
camels, a. I). 672. 

Charicles (XapiKhris). 1. An Athenian dema- 
gogue, son of Apollodorus, was one of the commis- 



sioners appointed to investigate the affair of the 
mutilation of the Hermae, B.C. 415 ; was or.e of 
the commanders of the Athenian fleet, 413 ; and 
one of the 30 tyrants on the capture of Athens hy 
Lysander, 404. —2. An eminent physician a: 
Rome, attended the emperor Tiberius. 

Chariclo (XapLicXco). 1. A nymph, daughter rf 
Apollo, wife of the centaur Chiron, and mother of 
i Carystus and Ocyro j. 2. A nymph, wife of 
Eueres and mother of Tiresias. 

Charidemus (Xaplorifios). 1. Of Oreus in 
Euboea, of mean origin, became the captain of a 
band of mercenaries, and served in this capacity 
xmder the Athenian generals Iphicrates and Timo- 
theus. He next entered the service of the satrap 
Artabazus, who had revolted against Artaxerxcs 
III., and subsequently of Cotys, king of Thrace, 
whose daughter he married. On the murder of 
Cotys, 358, Charidemus adhered to the cause of 
his son Ccrsobleptes, and on behalf of the latter 
carried on the struggle with the Athenians for the 
possession of the Chersonesus, In 349 he was 
appointed by the Athenians conmiander in the 
Olynthian war, but next year v/as superseded and 
replaced by Chares.-— 2. An Athenian, one of the 
orators whose surrender v.-as required by Alexan- 
der in B. c. 335, after the destruction of Thebes, 
fled to Asia, and took refuge with Darius, by 
whose orders he was put to death, 333, shortly 
before the battle of Issus. 

Cliarilaus, or Charillus (XapiXaos, XaptAAos), 
king of Sparta, son of Polydectes, is said to have 
received his nnme from the general joy excited by 
the justice of his uncle Lycurgus when he placed 
him, yet a new-bom infant, on the royal seat, and 
bade the Spartans acknowledge him for their king. 
He carried on war against Argos and Tegea ; he 
v.-as taken prisoner by tlie Tegeans, but was dis- 
missed without ransom on giving a promise (which 
he did not keep), that the Spartans should abstain 
in future from attacking Tegea. 

Charis (Xa/>.s), the personincation of Grace and 
Beauty. In the Iliad (xviii. 382) Charis is de- 
scribed as the wife of Plephaestus, but in the 
Odj'ssey Aphrodite appears as the wife of Hephaes- 
tus, from Avhich we may infer, if not the identity 
of Aphrodite and Charis, at least a close connection 
in the notions entertained about the 2 divinities. 
The idea of personified grace and beauty was at an 
early period divided into a plurality of beings, and 
even in the Homeric poems the plural Charites oc- 
curs several times. — 'The Chariles, called Gratiae 
by the Romans, are usually described as the 
daughters of Zeus, and as 3 in number, namely, 
Euphrospte, Aglaia, and Thalia. The names of 
the Charites sufficiently express their character. 
They were the goddesses v.'ho enhanced the en- 
joyments of life by refinement and gentleness. 
They are mostly described as in the service of 
other divinities, and they lend their grace and 
beauty to every thing that delights and elevates 
gods and men. The gentleness and gracefulness 
which they impart to man's ordinary pleasures are 
expressed by their moderating the exciting in- 
fluence of wine (Hor. Carm. iii. 19. 15), and by 
their accompanying Aphrodite and Eros. Poetry, 
however, is the art which is especially favoured 
by them, and hence they are the friends of the 
Muses, with whom they live together in Olympus. 
In early times the Charites were represented 
dressed, but afterwards their figures were always 



CHARISIUS. 



CHEPHREN. 



167 



naked : specimens of both representations of the 
Charites are still extant. They appear unsuspi- 
cious maidens in the full hloom of life, and they 
usually embrace each other. 

Charisius. 1. Aurelius Arcadius, a Roman 
jurist, lived in the reign of Constantine the Great, 
and wrote 3 works, De Testihus^ De Munerihus 
civilibus, and De Officio Praefecd praetorio, all of 
which are cited in the Digest. =»2. Flavius Sosi- 
pater, a Latin grammarian, who flourished a. d. 
400, author of a treatise in 5 books, drawn up for 
the use of his son, entitled Instilutioncs Gramma- 
iicae, which has come down to us in a verj'^ im- 
perfect state. Edited by Putschius in Gramma- 
iicae Laiinae Auctores Antiqui, Planov. 1605, and 
by Lindemann, in Corpus Grammat. Latin. Vde- 
ru7n. Lips. 1840. 

Charites. [Chakis.] 

Chanton (XapiVcoi/), of Aphrodisias, a town of 
Caria, the author of a Greek romance, in 8 books, 
on the Loves of Chaereas and Callirrhoe. The 
name is probably feigned (from x"/"^ ^"^^ "AcppoSi- 
rr]), as the time and position of the author cer- 
tainly are. He represents him.self as the secretary 
of the orator Athenagoras, evidently referring to 
the Syracusan orator mentioned by Thucydides 
(vi. 35, 36) as the political opponent of Hermo- 
crates. Nothing is known respecting the real life 
or the time of the author ; but he probably did not 
live earlier than the 5th century after Christ. 
Edited by D'Orville, 3 vols. Amst. 1750, with a 
valuable commentary ; reprinted Avith additional 
notes by Beck, Lips. 1783. 

Charmande (Xapfxai'dr) -. nr. Haditlia or Hit), 
a great city of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates. 

Cliarmides (Xap/.u'§77s). 1. An Athenian, son 
of Glaucon, cousin to Critias, and uncle by the 
mother's side to Plato, who introduces him in the 
dialogue which bears his name as a very young 
man at the commencement of the Peloponnesian 
war. In b. c. 404 he was one of the Ten, and 
was slain fighting against I'hrasyliulus at the Pi- i 
raeus. — 2. Called also Charmadas by Cicero, a 
friend of Philo of Larissa, in conjunction with 
whom he is said by some to have been the founder 
of a 4th Academy. He flourished B. c. 100. 

Charon {Xdpau). 1. Son of Erebos, convej^ed 
in his boat the shades of the dead across the rivers 
of the lower world. For this service he was paid 
with an obolus or danace, which coin v/as placed 
in the mouth of every corpse previous to its burial. 
He is represented as an aged man with a dirty 
beard and a mean dress. — 2. A distinguished 
Theban, concealed Pelopidas and his fellow-con- 
spirators in his house, when they returned to 
Thebes with the view of delivering it from the 
Spartans, B. c. 379. — 3. An historian of Lampsacus, 
flourished B. c. 464, and wrote works on Aethiopia, 
Persia, Greece, &c,, the fragments of which are 
collected by Muller, Fragm. Histor. Grace. Paris, 
1841. 

Charondas (XapavSas), a lawgiver of Catana, 
who legislated for his own and the other cities of 
Chalcidian origin in Sicily and Itah'. His date 
is imcertain. He is said by some to have been a 
disciple of Pythagoras ; and he must have lived 
before the time of Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium, 
B. c. 494 — 476, for the Rhegians used the laws of. 
Charondas till they were abolished by Anaxilaus. 
The latter fact sufficiently refutes the common ac- 
count that Charondas drev/ up a code of laws for 



Thurii, since this city was not founded till 443. A 
tradition relates that Charondas one day forgot to 
lay aside his sword before he appeared in the as- 
sembly, thereby violating one of his own laws, and 
that on being reminded of this by a citizen, he 
exclaimed, "By Zeus, I will establish it," and 
immediately stabbed himself. The laws of Cha- 
rondas were probably in verse. 

Charops (Xapoi//)^ 1. A chief among the Epi- 
rots, sided with the Romans in their war with 
Philip v., B.C. 19 8.°=- 2. A grandson of the above. 
He received his education at Rome, and after his 
return to his own country adhered to the Roman 
cause ; but he is represented by Polybius as a 
monster of cruelty. He died at Brundisium, 157. 

Cliarybdis. [Scylla.] 

Cliasiiari, or Chasuarii, or Chattuani, a people 
of Germany, allies or dependents of the Cherusci. 
Their position is uncertain. They dwelt N. of the 
Chatti ; and in later times they appear between 
the Rhine and the Maas as a nart of the Franks. 

Chatti. [Catti.] 

Chauci or Caiici, a powerful people in the N.E. 
of Germany between the Amisia {Ems) and the 
Albis (Elbe), divided by the Visurgis ( Weser), 
which flowed through their territory into Majores 
and Minores, the former W. and the latter E. of 
the river. They are described by Tacitus as the 
noblest and the justest of the German tribes. They 
formed an alliance Avith the Romans A. d. 5, and 
assisted the latter in their v/ars against the Che- 
rusci ; but this alliance did not last long. They 
were at war with the Romans in the reigns of 
Claudius and Nero, but were never subdued. They 
are mentioned for the last time in the 3rd century, 
when they devastated Gaul, but their name sub- 
sequently became merged in the general name of 
Saxons. 

Chelidon, the mistress of C. Verres, often men- 
tioned by Cicero. 

Chelidonis (XeAiSom), Avife of Cleonymus, to 
whom she proved unfaithful in consequence of a 
passion for Acrotatus, son of Areus I. 

Chelidoniae Insuiae (XeA:5oj/mi vriaoi : KJic- 
Hdom), a group of 5 (Strabo only mentions 3) 
small islands, surrounded by dangerous shallows, 
off the promontory called Hicra or Chelidonia 
(Khelidoni) on the S. coast of Lycia. 

Chelonatas {XsAco-yaTas : C. Tomese), a pro- 
montory in Elis, opposite Zacynthus, the most 
westerly point of the Peloponnesus. 

Chemmis aft. Panopolis (Xe^t/^ty, UavoTtoXis: 
Xe/,t^.'T7js : Ekhnim, Ku,), a great city of the 
Thebais, or Upper Egypt, on the E. bank of the 
Nile, celebrated for its manufactures of linen, its 
stone- quarries, and its temples of Pan and Perseus. 
It was the birthplace of the poet Nonnus. 

Chenohoscia (X-qvoSoaida : Kasces-Said, Ru.), a 
city of Upper Egypt, on the right bank of the 
Nile, opposite Diospolis Parva. 

Cheops (Xeo'^), an early king of Egypt, godless 
and tyrannical, reigned 50 years, and built the 
first and largest pyramid by the compulsory labour 
of his subjects. 

Chephren (Xe^pvjj/), king of Egypt, brother and 
successor of Cheops, whose example of tyranny he 
followed, reigned 56 years, and built the second 
pyramid. The Egyptians so hated the memory of 
these brothers, that thej^ called the pyramids, not 
by their names, but by that of Philition, a shepherd 
who at that time fed his flocks near the place. 

M 4 



168 CHERSIPHRON. 

Chersipliroii (Xepa-'Kp-puy) or Ctesiphon, 
architect of Cnossus in Crete, in conjunction with 
his son Metaaenes, built, or commenced building, 
the great temple of Artemis at Ephesiis. lie flou- 
rished B. c. 500. 

ChersoneGUS {XepaSfoaos, Att. Xcp^iorTjcos), 
" a land-island," that is, " a peninsula" (from 
XfpTos '"land" and vr,(ros "island"). 1. Ch. 
Thracica {Pcji'msula of the Dardanelles or cf Gal- 
lijioli), usually called at Athens '* The Chersone- 
?us" without any distinguishing epithet, the naiTOw 
slip of land, 420 stadia in length, running between 
the Hellespont and the Gulf of Melas, and con- 
nocted with the Thracian mainland by an isthmus, 
which was I'ortified by a v/all, 36 stadia across, 
near Cardia. The Chersonese was colonized by 
the Athenians und>r Miltiadcs, the contemporary 
of Pisistratus.— 2. Taurica orSeytMea {Crimea), 
the peninsula between the Pontus Euxinus, the 
Cimmerian Bosporus, and the Pal us Macotis, united 
to the mainland b}' an isthmus 40 stadia in width. 
The ancients compared this peninsula with the 
Peloponnesus both in form and size. It produced 
a great quantity of corn, which was exported to 
Athens and other parts of Greece. The E. part 
of the peninsula was called Tpiix^r] or the Rugged 
(Herod, iv. 99). Respecting the Greek kingdom 
established in this country see Bosporus. — There 
was a town on the S. coast of this peninsula called 
Chersonesus, founded by the inliai)itnnts of the 
Pontic Heraclea, and situated on ;i small p ninsula, 
called r? iniKpa Xep. to distinguijli it liom the 
larger, of which it formed apart.— -3. Cimbrica 
(Jutland.) See Ciimbri. — 4. (C. Cuersonisi), a 
promontorj'- in Argolis between Epidaurus and 
Troezen. — 5. {Chersoneso)^?L town in Crete on the 
Prom. Zephyriura, the harbour of Lyctus in the 
interior. 

Clierusci, the most celebrated of all the tribes of j 
ancient German}'. The limits of their territory 
cannot be fixed with accuracy, since the an- 
cients did not distinguish between the Cherusci 
proper and the nations belonging to the league of 
which the Chcru&ci were at the head. The Che- 
rusci proper dwelt on both sides of the Visurgis 
{Weser), and their territories extended to the Harz 
and the Elbe. They were originalh- in alliance 
with the Romans, but they subsequently formed a 
powerful ler.gue of tht German tribes for the pur- 
pose of expelling tlie Romans from the countn,', 
and under the chief Arminius they destroyed the 
army of Varus and drove the Romans beyond the 
Rhine, a. d. 9. In consequence of internal dissen- 
sions among the German tribes the Cherusci soon 
lost their influence. Their neiglibours the Catti 
succeeded to their power. 

Chesiuin (Xtjo-ioi/), a promontory of Samos, 
with a temple of Artemis, who was worshipped 
here under the surname of X?;(n'as-. Near it was 
a little river Chesius, flowing past a town of the 
same name. 

CllTloll (XeiAo)!'. XiAcof), of Lacedaenion, son of 
Daraagetus, and one of the Seven Sages, flourished 
B.C. 590. It is said that he died of joy when his 
son gained the prize for boxing at the Olympic 
games. The institution of the Ephoralty is erro- 
neously ascribed by some to Chilon. 

Chimaera (Xifxaipa'), a fire-breathing monster, 
the fore part of Avhose body was that of a lion, the 
hind part that of a dragon, and the middle that of 
a goat. According to Hcsiod, she was a daughter 



CHIOS. 

of Typhaon and Echidna, and had 3 heads, one of 
each of the 3 animals before mentioned. She made 
great havoc in Lycia and the surrounding countries, 
and was at length killed by Bellerophon. Virgil 
places her together with other monsters at the en- 
trance of Orcus. The origin of the notion of this 
fire-breathing monster must probably be sought for 
in the volcano of the name of Chimaera near Pha- 
selis, in Lycia. In the works of art recently dis- 
covered in Lycia, we find several representations 
of the Chimaera in the simple form of a species of 
lion still occurring in that country. 

Chimerion, a promontory and harbour of Thes- 
protia in Epirus. 

Cllioil (Xtajv), of Heraclea on the Pontus, a dis- 
ciple of Plato, put to death Clearchus, the tyrant 
of his native town, and was in consequence killed, 
u. c. 353. There are extant 13 letters which are 
ascribed to Chion, but which are undoubtedly of 
later origin. Edited by Coberus, Lips, and Dresd. 
1765, and by Orelli, in his edition of Memnon, 
Lips. 181G. 

Chione (XioVtj). 1. Daughter of Boreas and 
Orithj'ia, became by Poseidon the mother of Eu- 
molpus. — 2. Daughter of Daedalion, beloved by 
Apollo and Hermes, gave birth to twins, Autolycus 
and Pliihunmon, the former a son of Hermes and 
the latter of Apollo. She was killed by Artemis 
for having compared her beauty to tiiat of the 
goddess. 

Cilionides (Xloot/'iBtjs and XioviSris), an Athenian 
poet of the old comedy, flourished B. c. 460, and 
was the fi-rst poet who gave the Athenian comedv 
that form which it retained down to the time of 
Aristophanes. 

Chios (Xi'os: X?os, Chuti; : Grk. Khio, Ital. 
Scio, Turk. Saki-Andassi, i.e. Mastic -island), one 
of the largest and most famous islands of the 
Aegean, lay opposite to the peninsula of Clazomenae, 
on the coast of Ionia, and was reckoned at 900 
stadia (90 geog. miles) in circuit. Its length from 
N. to S. is about 30 miles, its greatest breadth 
about 10, and the width of the strait, which divides 
it from the mainland, about 8. It is said to have 
boi'ne, in the earliest times, the various names of 
Aethalia, Macris, and Pit^-usa, and to have been 
inhabited by Tyrrhenian Pelasgians and Leleges. 
It was colonized by the lonians at the time of their 
great migration, and became an important member 
of the Ionian league ; but its population was mixt. 
It remained an independent and powerful maritime 
state, under a democratic form of government, till 
the great naval defeat of the Ionian Greeks by the 
Persians, B. c. 494, after vv hich the Chians, who 
had taken part in the fight with 100 ships, were 
subjc'ctcd to the Persians, and their island was laid 
waste and their young women carried off into sla- 
very. The battle of Mycale, 479, freed Chios 
from the Persian yoke, and it became a member 
of the Athenian league, in which it was for a long 
time the closest and most favoured ally of Athens ; 
but an unsuccessful attempt to revolt, in 412, led to 
its conquest and devastation. It recovered its in- 
dependence, with Cos and Rhodes, in 350, and 
afterwards shared the fortunes of the other states 
of IONIA. — Chios is covered with rocky mountains, 
clothed with the richest vegetation. It was cele- 
brated for its wine, which was among the best 
known to the ancients, its figs, gum-mastic, and 
other natural products, also for its marble and 
pottery, and for the beauty of its women, and the 



CHIRISOPHUS. 



CHRYSIPPUS. 



169 



luxurious life of its inhabitants. — Of all the states 
which aspired to the honour of being the birthplace 
of Homer, Chios v/as generally considered by the 
ancients to have the best claim ; and it numbered 
among its natives the tragedian Ion, the historian 
Theopompus, the poet Theocritus, and other emi- 
nent men. Its chief city, Chios (KIdo), stood on 
the E. side of the island, at the foot of its highest 
mountain, Pelinaeus : the other principal places in 
it were Posidiura, Phanae, Notium, Elaeus, and 
Leuconium. 

CMrisopllils (Xeipicrocpos), a Lacedaemonian, 
vvas sent by the Spartans to aid Cyrus in his ex- 
pedition against his brother Artaxerxes, B.C. 401. 
Afcer the battle of Cunaxa and the subsequent 
arrest of the Greek generals, Chirisophus was ap- 
pointed one of the new generals, and in conjunction 
with Xenophon had the chief conduct of the re- 
treat. 

Chiron (Xe'ipcov), the wisest and justest of all 
the Centaurs, son of Cronos and Philyra, and hus- 
band of Nais or Chariclo, lived on mount Pelion. 
He was instructed by Apollo and Artemis, and 
was renowned for his skill in hunting, medicine, 
music, gymnastics, and the art of prophecy. All 
the most distinguished heroes of Grecian story, as 
Peleus, Achilles, Diomecles, &c., are described as 
the pupils of Chiron in these arts. His friendship 
with Peleus, who was his grandson, is particularly 
celebrated. Chiron saved him from the other Cen- 
taurs, who were on the point of killing him, and he 
also restored to him the sword which Acastus had 
concealed. Chiron further informed him in what 
manner he might gain possession of Thetis, who 
was destined to marry a mortal. Hercules, too, 
was his friend ; but one of the poisoned arrows of 
this hero was nevertheless the cause of his death. 
While fighting with the other Centaurs, one of the 
poisoned arrows of Hercules struck Chiron, who, 
although immortal, would not live any longer, and 
gave his immortality to Prometheus. According 
to others, Chiron, in looking at one of the arrows, 
dropped it on his foot, and wounded himself. Zeus 
placed Chiron among the stars. 

Cllitone (Xtrwi^ri), a surname of Artemis, de- 
rived either from the Attic deraus of Chitone, or 
because the goddess is represented with a short 
chiton. 

CMoe (XAo'tj), the Blooming, a surname of De- 
meter as the protectress of the green fields : hence 
Sophocles (Oed. Col. 1600) calls her AryftTjTTjp 

Cliloris (XKcopls). 1. Daughter of the Theban 
Amphion and Niobe : she and her brother Amyclas 
were the only children of Niobe not killed b}' 
Apollo and Artemis. She is often confounded with 
No. 2.-2. Daughter of Amphion of Orchomenos, 
wife of Neleus, king of Pylos, and mother of 
Nestor. -—3, Wife of Zcphyrus, and goddess of 
Howers, identical with the Roman Flora. 

GLLOarene (Xoap^jvr/), a fertile valley in the W. 
of Parthia, on the borders of Media, between 2 
ranges of the Caspii M. 

Ghoaspes {Xodawr]s). 1. (KeraJi, or Kara-Su\ 
a river of Susiana, falling into the Tigris. Its 
water was so pure that the Persian kings used to 
carry it with them in silver vessels, Avhen on fo- 
reign expeditions. It is wrongly identified by 
some geographers with the Eulaeus.--=2. {Attoch), 
a river in the Paropamisus, falling into the Cophes 
(Cabal), apparently identical with the Suastus of 



Ptolemy and the Guraeus of Arrian ; and if so the 
Choes of Arrian is probably the Kama : but the 
proper naming of these rivers is very difficult. 

Clioerades (XcipaSss), two small rocky islands 
off the coast of Italy, near Tarcntum. 

Choerilus (Xoip'iKos ov XoipiXXos). 1. Of Athens, 
a tragic poet, contemporary with Thespis, Phryni- 
chus, and Aeschylus, exhibited tragedies for 40 
years, b. c. 523 — 483, and gained the prize 13 
times. 2. Of Samos, the author of an epic poem 
on the Persian wars ; the chief action of the poem 
appears to have been the battle of Salarais. He 
was born about 470, and died at the court of 
Archelaus, king of ^Macedonia, consequently not 
later than 399, which was the last year of Ar- 
chelaus. — 3, Of lasos, a worthless epic poet in 
the train of Alexander the Great, is said to have 
received from Alexander a gold stater for every 
verse of his poem, (Hor. Ep. ii. I, 232, Art. 
Pott. 357.) 

Choes. [Choasfes, No. 2.] 

Chollidae (Xo/\\e?3at or XoAAt'Saj : XoXXdSrjs 
-t'STjs), a demus in Attica belonging either to the 
tribe Leontis or Acamantis. 

Cil5iLia (Xwvia), the name in early times of a 
district in the S. of Italy, inhabited by the Chones 
(Xauis), an Oenotrian people, who derived their 
name from the town of Ckone (Xco'vtj). Chonia 
appears to have included the S. E. of Lucania and 
the Avhole of the E. of Brattium as far as the pro- 
montory Zephyrium. 

Chorasmii (Xa>pao-/zioi), a people of Sogdiana, 
who inhabited the banks and islands of the lower 
course of the Oxus. They were a branch of the 
Sacae or IMassagetae. 

Gliosroes. 1. King of Parthia. [Arsaces 
XXV.] ~ 2. King of Persia. [Sassanidae.] 

Chrysa or -e {Xpvaa, -77), a city on the coast of 
the Troad, near Thebes, with a temple of Apollo 
Smintheus ; celebrated by E[omer, but destroyed 
at an early period, and succeeded by another city 
of the same name, on a lieight further from the sea,, 
near Hamaxitcs. This second city fell into deca}"- 
in consequence of the removal of its inhabitants to 
Alexandria Troas. 

Ckrysantas {Xpvaduras), described by Xeno- 
phon in the Cyropaedia as a brave and wise Persian, 
high in the favour of Cyrus, Avho rewarded him 
with the satrapy of Lydia and Ionia, 

Chrysaor {Xpuadcop). 1. Son of Poseidon and 
Medusa, husband of Callirrhoe, and father of Ge- 
rj'-ones and Echidna. ■=—2, The god with the golden 
sword, a surname of several divinities, as Apollo, 
Artemis, and Demeter. 

Chrysas (Xpuo-a?), a suiall river in Sicilj', an 
affluent of the Symaethus, was worshipped as a god 
in Assorus, in the neighbourhood of which there 
was a Fanum Chrysae. 

Ckryseis {Xpvcrri'is), daughter of Chryses, priest 
of Apollo at Chryse, was taken prisoner by Achilles 
at the capture of Lyrnessus or the Hypoplacian 
Thebe. In the distribution of the booty she was 
given to Agamemnon. Her father Chryses cam.e 
to the camp of the Greeks to solicit her ransom, 
but w^as repulsed by Agamemnon with harsh 
words. Thereupon Apollo sent a plague into the 
camp of the Greeks, and Agamemnon was obliged 
to restore her to her father to appease the anger of 
the god. Her proper name v/as Astynome. 

Chryses. [Chrvseis.] 

Chrysippus {Xovcti-ttos). 1. Son of Pelops and 



170 



CHRYSOCERAS. 



Axioche, was hated hy his step-mother Hippoda- 
mia, who induced her sons Atreiis and Thy- 
estes to kill him. — 2. A Stoic philosopher, son of 
Apollonins of Tarsus, born at Soli in Cilicia, B.C. 
2!)0. When young, lie lost his patinial property, 
and went to Athens, where he became the disciple 
of the Stoic Cloanthes. Disliking the Academic 
scepticism, he became one of the most strenuous 
supporters of the principle, that knowledge is at- 
tainablo and may be established on certain founda- 
tions. Hence, though not the founder of the Stoic 
school, lie was the first person who based its doc- 
trines on a plausible system of reasoning, so that it 
was said, " if Chrj-sippus had not existed, the 
Porch could not have been." He died 207, aged 
73. He possessed great acuteness and sagacity, 
and his industry Avas so great, that he is said to 
have seldom written less than 500 lines a-day, 
and to have left behind him 705 works. — 3. Of 
Cnidos, a physician, sometimes confounded with 
ihe Stoic philosopher, but he lived about a cen- 
tuiy earlier. He was son of ICrineus, and pupil 
of Endoxus of Cnidos : his works, which are not 
now extant, are quoted by Galen. 

Clirysoceras, the "Golden Horn," the promon- 
tory on v. hich part of Constantinople was built. 

Ckrysogonus, L. Cornelius, a favourite freed- 
nian of Sulla, and a man of profligate character, 
was the false accuser of Sex. Roscius, Avhom Cicero 
defended, B. c. JIO. 

Chrysopolis {Xpuc-oiroXis : Scutari}, a fortified 
place on the Bosporus, opposite to Byzantium, at 
the spot where the Bosporus was generally crossed. 
It was originally the port of Chalcedon. 

ChrysoiTlloas (Xpvaoppoas : Barrada)^ also 
called Sardines, a rivir of Coele-Syria, flowing 
from the E. side of Anti-Libanus, past Damascus, 
into a lake nov.- called D<(ltr-el-Merj. 

Clirysostonnis, Joannes {Xpvaocnojxos, gol- 
den-mouthed, so surnanicd from the power of his 
eloquence), usually called St. Clirysostom, was 
born at Antioch, of a noble family, a. d. 347. He 
received instruction in eloquence from Libanius ; 
and after being ordained deacon (381) and pres- 
byter (386) at Antioch, he became so celebrated 
as a preacher that he was chosen archbishop of 
Constantinople, on the death of Nectarius, 397. 
Chrysostom soon gave great offence at Constan- 
tinople by the simplicity of his mode of living, 
by the sternness with which he rebuked the im- 
morality of the higher classes, and by the severity 
which he showed to the worldly-minded monks 
and clergy. Among his enemies was the empress 
Eudoxia ; and they availed themselves of a dis- 
pute which had arisen between Chrysostom and 
Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, to accuse 
Chrysostom of Origenism, and to obtain his depo- 
sition by a synod held at Chalcedon in 403. But 
the same causes which had brought on Chrysostom 
the hatred of the higher orders had made him the 
idol of the people. A few days after he had left 
the city aii earthquake happened, which the en- 
raged people considered as a proof of the divine 
anger at his banishment. Eudoxia, fearing a po- 
pular insurrection, recalled him, but 2 months after 
his return he again excited the anger of the em- 
press, and Avas banished a second time to the 
desolate town of Cucusus, on the borders of Isauria 
and Cilicia. He met with much sympathy from 
other churches, and his cause was advocated by 
Innocent, bishop of Rome ; but all this excited 



CICERO. 

jealousy at Constantinople, and he was ordered to 
be removed to Pityus in Pontus, He died on the 
journey at Comana in Pontus, 407, in the 60th 
year of his age. His bones v/ere brought back to 
Constantinople in 438, and he received the honour 
of canonization. His works are most voluminous. 
They consist of: 1. Homilies, Sermons on different 
parts of Scripture and points of doctrine and prac- 
tice. 2. Commentaries on the Scriptures. 3. Epis- 
tles. 4. Treatises on various subjects, e. g. the 
Priesthood, Providence, «&c. 5. I-iturgies. The 
best edition of his works is by Montfaucon, Paris, 
1718-38, 13 vols. fo. 

Chthonius {XQ6vios) and Chthonia {XQ6vLa)^ 
epithets of the gods and goddesses of the lower 
world (from -x^uiv, " the earth,") as Hades, Hecate, 
Demoter, Persephone, &c. 

Chytri (Xurpoi). 1. {Chytri), a town in Cy- 
prus on the road from Cerj-nia to Salamis, — 2. 
Warm springs at Salamis. 

Ciaca, a border fortress of the Romans, in Lesser 
Armenia. 

Cibalae or Cibalis, a town in Pannonia on the 
lake Hiulcas between the Dravus and Savus, near 
which Constantino gained a decisive victor}' over 
Licinius, A. d. 314 : the birth-place of Valentinian 
and Gratian. 

Cibotus. [Alexandria, No. 1 ; Apamea, 
No. 3.] 

Cibyra {KiSvpa : KiSvpar-qs : Cilyrdta). 1. 
Ma^a {'0 /.icydx-n: Btmtz or Arondon ? Ru.), a 
great city of Phrygia Magna, in the fertile district 
of ]Milyas, on the borders of Caria, said to have 
been founded by the Lydians, but afterwards 
peopled by the Pisidians. In Strabo's time, 4 
native dialects were spoken in it, besides Greek, 
namely, those of the Lydians, the Pisidians, the 
i Mih'ae, and the Solymi. Under its native princes, 
I the city niled over a large district called Cibyratis 
j (KiSvparis), and could send into the field an army 
j of 30.000 men. In b. c. 83, it was added to the 
Roman empire, and was made the scat of a con- 
vcntus juridicus. After being nearly destroyed 
i by an earthquake, it Avas restored by Tiberius, 
i under the names of Caesarca and Civitas Cibyratica. 
! Tlie city Avas very celebrated for its manufactures. 
! especialh' in iron. — 2. Parva (K. fxiKpd : Jbuni). 
a city of Pamphylia, on the borders of Cilicia. 

C. Cicereius, secretary of the elder Scipio Afri- 
canus, Avas a candidate for the praetorship, b. c. 

1 74, along Avith Scipio's son, but resigned in faA-our 
of the latter. He Avas praetor in the following 
year, and conquered the Corsicans, but AA'as refused 
a triumph. In 172 and 1G7 he Avas one of the 
ambassadors sent to the lUyrian king, Gentius ; 
and in 168 he dedicated on the Albau mount a 
temple to Juno INIoneia. 

Cicero, Tullins. I.M., grandfather of the orator, 
lived at his native town Arpinum, Avhich received 
the full Roman franchise in B. c. 188. — 2. M., 
son of No. 1, also lived at Arpinum, and died 64. 

3. L., brother of No, 2, Avas a friend of M. 
Antonius the orator. — 4. L., son of No. 3, school- 
felloAV of the orator, died 68, much regretted by 
his cousin. — 5. M , the orator, eldest son of No. 

2 and Helvia, Avas born on the 3rd of Januar}-, 
B. c. 106, at the family residence in the vicinity of 
Arpinum. He AA^as educated along Avith his brother 
Quintus, and the two brothers displayed such ap- 
titude for learning that his father removed Av^ith 
them to Rome, Avherc thev received instruction 



CICERO. 



CICERO. 



171 



from the best teachers in the capital. One ot' their 
most celebrated teachers Avas the poet Archias of 
Antioch. After receiving the manly gown (91) 
the young ]\Iarcu3 -was placed under the care of 
Q. Mucins Scaevola, the augur, from Avhom he 
learnt the principles of jurisprudence. In 89 he 
served his 1st and only campaign under Cn. Pom- 
peius Strabo in the Social v,-a.v. During the civil 
wars between Marius and Sulla, Cicero identified 
himself with neither party, but devoted his time to 
the study of law, philosophy, and rhetoric. He 
received instruction in philosophy from Phaedrus 
the Epicurean, Philo, the chief of the New Aca- 
demy, and Diodotus the Stoic, and in rhetoric from 
aMolo the Rhodian. Having carefully cultivated 
his powers, Cicero came forward as a pleader in 
the forum, as soon as tranquillity was restored by 
the final overthrow of the Marian party. His first 
extant speech was delivered in 81, when he was 
26 years of age, on behalf of P. Quintius. Next 
year (80) he defended Sex. Roscius of Ameria, 
charged with parricide by Chrysogonus, a favourite 
freedman of Sulla. Shortly afterwards (79) Cicero 
went to Greece, ostensibly for the improvement of 
his health, which was very delicate, but perhaps 
because he dreaded the resentment of Sulla. He 
first Avent to Athens, where he remained 6 months, 
studying philosophy under Antiochus of Ascalon, 
and rhetoric under Demetivius Syrus ; and here he 
made the acquaintance of Pomponius Atticus, who 
remained his firm friend to the close of his life. 
From Athens he passed over to Asia Minor, re- 
ceiving instruction from the most celebrated rhe- 
toricians in the Greek cities of Asia ; and finally 
passed some time at Rhodes (78), where he once 
more placed himself rmder the cai'e of Molo. Al ter 
an absence of 2 years, Cicero returned to Rome 
(77), with his health firmly established and his 
oratorical powers greatly improved. He again came 
forward as an orator in the forum, and soon obtained 
the greatest distinction. His success in the forum 
paved for him the wary to the high offices of state. 
In 75 he was quaestor in Sicily under Sex. Pedu- 
caeus, praetor of Lilybaeum, and discharged the 
duties of his office with an integritj^ and impar- 
tiality Avhich secured for him the affections of the 
provincials. He returned to Rome in 74, and for 
the next 4 years vras engaged in pleading causes. 
In 70 he distinguished himself by the irapeachment 
of Verres, and in 69 he was curule aedile. In 
66 he was praetor, and while holding this office he 
defended Cluentius in the speech still extant, and 
delivered his celebrated oration in favour of the 
Manilian law, which appointed Pompey to the 
command of the Mithridatic Avar. Tavo years 
afterwards he gained the great object of his ambi- 
tion, and although a novus homo was elected consul 
Avith C. Antonius as a colleague. He entered upon 
the office on the 1st of January, 63. Hitherto 
Cicero had taken little part in the political strug- 
gles of his time. As far as he had interfered in 
public afi'airs, he had sided Avith the popular party, 
Avhich had raised him to power ; but he appears 
never to have had any real sympathy AA^ith that 
party ; and as soon as he had gained the highest 
office in the state he deserted his former friends, 
and connected himself closely with the aristocracy. 
The consulship of Cicero AA-as distinguished by the 
outbreak of the conspiracy of Catiline, Avhich AA-as 
suppressed and finally crushed by Cicero's pru- 
dence and energy. [Catilixa.] For this service 



Cicero received the highest honours ; he AA'as ad- 
dressed as " father of his coimtry," and thanks- 
giA^ings in his name AA'ere A'oted to the gods. But 
as soon as he had laid doAA^n the consulship, the 
friends of the conspirators, who had been con- 
demned to death by the senate, and whose sen- 
tence had been carried into execution by Cicero, 
accused him loudly of having put Roman citizens 
to death illegally. Cicero had clearh' been guiltj- 
of a A'iolation of the fundamental principles of the 
Roman constitution, which declared, that no citizen 
could be put to death imtil sentenced by the AA'hole 
body of the people assembled in the comitia. 
Cicero's enemies AA'ere not sIoav in availing them- 
seh-es of this vulnerable point. The people, whose 
cause he had deserted, soon began to show imeqiii- 
vocal signs of resentment against him. Shortly 
afterwards (62) he mortallj- oifended Clodius by 
bearing Avitness against him, Avhen the latter AA'as 
accused of a A-iolation of the niA'steries of the Bona 
Dea. Clodius A-owed deadly vengeance against 
Cicero. To accomplish his purpose more securely, 
Clodius Avas adopted into a plebeian familj', aa'Hs 
then elected tribune of the plebs, and as tribune 
(58) brought forward a bill, interdicting from fire 
and water (i. e. banishing) any one Avho should 
be found to have put a Roman citizen to death 
untried. The triumvirs, Caesar. Pompey, and 
Crassus, left Cicero to his fate ; and despairing of 
oifering any successful opposition to the measure 
of Clodius, Cicero voluntarily retired from Rome 
before it AA-as put to the A-ote, and crossed over to 
Greece. He took up his residence at Thessalonica 
in Macedonia. Here he gaA'e AA'ay to unmanly 
despair ; and his letters during this period are 
filled AA-ith groans, sobs, and tears, MeauAvhilc 
his friends at Rome had not deserted him ; and, 
notv.-ithstanding the A-ehement opposition of Clo- 
dius, they obtained his recall from banishment in 
the course of next year. In August, 57, Cicero 
landed at Brundisiuni, and in September he was 
again at Rome, Avhere he AA-as received with dis- 
tinguished honour. Taught by experience Cicero 
AA-ould no longer join the senate in opposition to 
the triumvirs, and retired to a great extent from 
public life. In 52 he Avas compelled much against 
his will to go to the East as governor of Cilicia. 
Here he distinguished himself by his integrity and 
impartial administration of justice, but at the same 
time made himself ridiculous by the absurd vanity 
Avhich led him to assume the title of imperator and 
to aspire to the honours of a triumph on account of 
his subduing some robber tribes in his province. 
He returned to Italy toAvards the end of 50, and 
arrived in the neighbourhood of Rome on the 4th 
of January 49, just as the civil Avar between Caesar 
and Pompey broke out. After long hesitating 
Avhich side to join, he finally determined to throw 
in his lot with Pompey, and crossed o\-er to Greece 
in June. After the battle of Pharsalia (48), Cicero 
abandoned the Pompeian party and returned to 
Brundisium, AA'here he lived in the greatest anxiety 
for many months, dreading the vengeance of Cae- 
sar. But his fears were groundless : he was not 
only pardoned by Caesar, but, when the latter 
landed at Brundisium in September, 47, he greeted 
Cicero Avith the greatest kindness and respect, and 
allowed him to return to Rome. Cicero now re- 
tired into privacy, and during the next 3 or 4 years 
composed the greater part of his philosophical and 
rhetorical works. The murder of Caesar on the 



172 



CICERO. 



CICERO. 



15th of Marcl), 44, again brought Cicero into pub- 
lic life. He put hinisclfat tlie head of tlie repub- 
lican party, and in his Philippic orations attacked 
M. Antony ■with unmeasured vehemence. But 
this proved his ruin. On the formation of the 
triumvirate between Octavian, Antony, and Lepi- 
dus (27th of November, 43), Cicero's name was in 
the list of the proscribed. Cicero was warned of 
his danger while at his Tusculan villa, and em- 
barked at Antium, intending to escape by soa, but 
was driven by stress of weather to Circeii, from 
whence he coasted along to Formiae, where he 
landed at liis villa. From Formiae his attendants 
carried him in a litter towards the shore, but were 
overtaken by the soldiers before they could reach 
the coast. They were ready to defend their mas- 
ter with their lives, but Cicero commanded them 
to desist, and stretching forward called upon his 
executioners to strike. They instantly cut off his 
liead and hands, which were conveyed to Ilon-.e, 
and, by the orders of Antony, nailed to the llos- 
tra. Cicero perished on the 7th of December, 43, 
and at the time of his death had nearly completed 
his 64th year. — By his first wife Terentia Cicero 
had 2 children, a daughter Tullia, whose death 
in 4,5 caused him the greatest sorrow, and a son 
Marcus. [No. 7.] His wife Terentia, to whom 
he had been united for 30 years, he divorced in 
4C, in consequence, it would appear, of some dis- 
putes connected with pecuniary transactions ; and 
soon afterwards he married a young and wealthy 
maiden, Publilia, his ward, but, as might have 
been anticipated, found little comfort in this new 
alliance, which Avas speedily dissolved. — As a 
statesman and a citizen Cicero cannot command 
our respect. He did good service to his country 
by the suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline ; 
but this was almost the only occasion on which he 
showed vigour and decision of character. His own 
letters condemn him. In them his inordinate vanity, 
pusillanirait3% and political tergiversation, appear 
in the clearest colours. — It is as an author that 
Cicero deserves the highest praise. In his works 
the Latin language appears in the greatest perfec- 
tion. They may be divided into the following 
subjects.-— I. Rhetorical Works. 1. Uhclorkorum 
s. De Inveiitione Rhelorica Lihri II. Tliis appears 
to have been the earliest of Cicero's prose works. 
It was intended to exhibit in a systematic form all 
that was most valuable in the works of the Greek 
rhetoricians, but it was never completed. — 2. De 
PaHitione Oratoria Dialogus. A catechism of 
Rhetoric, according to the method of the middle 
Academy, by way of question and answer, drawn 
up by Cicero for the instruction of his son Marcus, 
written in 46. — 3. De Oratore ad Qumtum Fra- 
irem Lihri III. A systematic Avork on the art of 
Oratory, written in 53 at the request of his brother 
Quiutus. This is the most perfect of Cicero's rhe- 
torical works. Best edition by Ellendt, Regiomont. 
1840. — 4. Brutus s. De Claris Oralorihus. It 
contains a critical history of Roman eloquence, from 
the earliest times down to Plortensius inclusive. 
Editions by Meyer, Halae, 1838, and by Ellendt, 
Regiomont. 1844. —5. Ad M. Bruinm Orator, in 
which Cicero gives his views of a faultless orator: 
Avritten 45. Edited by Meyer, Lips. 1827. — 6. 
De Optimo Genere Oratorum. An introduction to 
Cicero's translation of the orations of Aeschines 
and Demosthenes in the case of Ctcsiphon : the 
ti-anslation itself has been lost. — 7. Topica ad C. 



Trcbatium. An abstract of the Topics of Aristotle, 
illustrated by examples derived chiefly from Roman 
law instead of from Greek philosophy : it was 
written in July 44. — 8. Rheioricomia ad C. lle- 
reniiinm Libri IV. The author of this work is un- 
certain, but it was certainly not written by Cicero. 

— II. Philosophical Works. I. Political 
PiiiLosuPiiY, — 1. De Rcpublica Libri VI. A 
\f ork on the best form of government and the duty 
of tlie citizen, in the form of a dialogue, founded 
on the Republic of Plato ; written in 54. This 
work disappeared in the 10th or 11th century of 
our aera with the exception of the episode of the 
Somnium Scipionis, which had been preserved by 
Macrobius ; but in 1 822, Angelo Mai found among 
the Palimpsests in the Vatican a portion of the 
lost treasure. Thus the greater part of the 1st and 
2nd books and a few fragments of the others were 
discovered. Editions by Mai, Rome, 1822, and 
byCreuzer and Moser, Frankf. 1826. — 2. De 
Leijilnis Lil)ri III. A dialogue, founded on the 
Laws of Plato ; probably written 52. A portion 
of the 3 books is lost, and it originally consisted 
of a greater number. Edited bv Moser and Creu- 
zer, Frankf. 1824, and by Bake, Lugd. Bat. 1842. 

— II. Philosophy OF Morals. 1. DeOfficiis 
Libri III. AVritten in 44 for the use of his son 
Marcus, at that time residing at Athens. The 
first 2 books were chiefly taken from Panaetius, 
and the 3rd book Avas founded upon the Avork of 
the Stoic Hecato ; but the illustrations arc taken 
almost exclusively from Roman history and Roman 
literature. Edited by Beier, Lips. 1820—1821, 
2 vols. — 2. Cato Major s. De Se7icclule, tiddvesseA 
to Atticus, and written at the beginning of 44 : it 
points out how the burden of old age may be most 
easily supported. — 3. Laclius s. De Amicitia, 
written after the preceding, to Avhich it may be 
considered as forming a companion: also addressed 
to Atticus. — 4. De Gloria Libri II., Avritten 44, 
is noAV lost, though Petrarch possessed a MS. of 
the work. — 5. De Consokilione s. De Luctu mi 
miendo, Avritten 45, soon after the death of his 
daughter Tullia, is also lost. — III. Specolativk 
Philosoi'HV. 1. Acaicmicorum Libri II., a troix - 
tise upon the Academic philosophy, Avritten 45 
Edited by Goerenz, Lips. 1810, and Orelli, Turic. 
1827. — 2. De Finihus Bonorum ct Blalorum Li- 
bri V. Dedicated to Brutus, in Avhich are dis- 
cussed the opinions of the Epicureans, Stoics, and 
Peripatetics, on the Supreme Good, that is, the 
finis, or end, towards Avhich all our thoughts and 
actions are or ought to be directed. Written in 
45. Edited by Otto, Lips. 1831, and by Madvig, 
Copenhagen, 1839. — 3. Tusculanarum Disputu- 
tionum Libri V. This v/ork, addressed to 1^1. Bru- 
tus, is a series of discussions on various important 
points of practical philosophj^ supposed to have 
been held in the Tusculanum of Cicero. Written 
in 45. Edited by Kiihner, Jenae, 1835, and by 
Moser, Hannow 3 vols. 1836 — 1837. — 4. Para- 
doxa, 6 favourite Paradoxes of the Stoics explained 
in familiar language, Avritten early in 46. — 5. 
Ilortensius s. De Philosophia, a dialogue in praise 
of philosophy, of Avhich fragments only are extant, 
Avritten in 45. — 6. Timaezis s. De Universo, a 
translation of Plato's Timaeus, of Avhich avo possess 
a fragment. — IV. Theology. 1. Do Natura 
Dcorum Libri III. An account of the speculations 
of tlie Epicureans, the Stoics, and the Academi- 
cians, on the existence, attributes, and providence 



CICERO. 



CILICIA. 



173 



of a Divine Being ; dedicated to M. Brutus, and 
written early in 44. Edited by Moser and Creu- 
zer, Lips. 1818. — 2. De Dimnaiione Lihri 11.^ a 
continuation of the preceding work. It presents 
the opinions of the different schools of philosophy 
upon the reality of the science of divination. Writ- 
ten in 44, after the death of Caesar. Edited by 
Creuzer, Kayser, and Moser, Frankf. 1828. — 3. 
De Fato Liber Singularis^ only a fragment. — ■ III. 
Orations. The following is a list of Cicero's ex- 
tant speeches, with the date at which each was 
delivered. Some account of each oration is given 
separatel)-- with the biography of the person prin- 
cipally concerned. 1. Pro P. Quintio, b.c. 81. — 2. 
Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino, 80. — 3. Pro Q. Roscio 
Coraoedo, 76.-4. Pro M. Tullio, 71. — 5. In 
Q. Caecilium, 70. — 6. In Verrem Actio I., £th 
August, 70. — 7. In Verrem Actio II. Not deli- 
vered.— 8. Pro M. Fonteio, 69.-9. Pro A. 
Caecina, 69, probably. — 10. Pro Lege Manilla, 
66.-11. Pro A. Cluentio Avito, 66. — 12. Pro 
C. Cornelio, 55.— 13. Oratio in Toga Candida, 
64. — 14. De Lege Agraria, 3 orations, 63. — 15. 
Pro C. Rabirio, 63.-16. In Catilinara, 4 ora- 
tions, 63. —17. Pro Murena, 63. — 18. Pro P. 
Cornelio Sulla, 62. — 19. Pro A. Licinio Archia, 

61. -20. Pro L.Valerio Flacco, 59. — 21. Post 
Reditum in Senatu, 5th Sept. 57. — 22. Post Re- 
ditum ad Quirites, 6th or 7th Sept. 57. — 23. Pro 
Domo sua ad Pontifices, 29th Sept. 57. — 24. 
De Haruspicum Responsis, 56. — 25. Pro P. Sex- 
tio, 56.- 26. In Vatinium, 56.-27. Pro M. 
Caelio Rufo, 56.-28. Pro L. Cornelio Balbo, 56. 
— 29. De Provinces Consularibus, 56. — 30. In L. 
Pisonem, 55.-31. Pro Cn. Plancio, 55.- 32. 
Pro C. Rabirio Postumo, 54. — 33. Pro M. Aemi- 
lio Scauro, 54. — 34. Pro T. Annio Milone, 52.— 
35. Pro M. Marcello, 47.-36. Pro Q. Ligario, 
46. — 37. Pro Rege Deiotaro, 45.- 38. Ora- 
tiones Philippicae, 14 orations against M. Anto- 
nius, 44 and 43. — IV. Epistles. Cicero during 
the most important period of his life maintained a 
close correspondence with Atticus and with a wide 
circle of literary and political friends and con- 
nexions. We now have upwards of 800 letters, 
undoubtedly genuine, extending over a space of 26 
years, and commonly arranged in the following 
manner: — 1. Epistolarum ad Familiar es s. Epis- 
tolarum ad Diversos Libri XVI, a series of 426 
epistles, commencing with a letter to Pompey, 
written in 62, and terminating with a letter to 
Cassius, July 43. They are not placed in chro- 
nological order, but those addressed to the same 
individuals, with their replies, where these exist, 
are grouped together without reference to the date 
of the rest. — 2. Epistolarum ad T. Pomponium 
Atticum Libri XVI, a series of 396 epistles ad- 
dressed to Atticus, of which 11 were written in 
68, 67, 65, and 62, the remainder after the end of 

62, and the last in Nov. 44. They are for the 
most part in chronological order, although disloca- 
tions occur here and there. — 3. Epistolarum ad 
Q. Fratrem Libri III, a series of 29 epistles ad- 
dressed to his brother, the first written in 59, the 
last in 54. — 4. We find in most editions Episto- 
larum ad Brutum Liber, a series of 1 8 epistles all 
written after the death of Caesar. To these are 
added 8 more, first published by Cratander. The 
genuineness of these 2 books is doubtful. — The 
most useful edition of Cicero's letters is by Schiitz, 
6 vols. 8vo., 1809—1812, in which they are ar- 



ranged in chronological order. — Cicero also wrote 
a great number of other Avorks on historical and 
miscellaneous works, all of which are lost. He 
composed several poems, most of them in his earlier 
years, but 2 at a later period, containing a history 
of his consulship, and an account of his exile and 
recall, A line in one of these poems contained the 
unlucky jingle so well known to us from Juvenal 
(x. 122), O fortibiiatam natam me consule liomam. 
— The best edition of the collected works of Cicero 
is by Orelli, Tui-ic. 1826—1837, 9 vols. 8vo., in 
13 parts. —-6. Q., brother of the orator, was bora 
about 102, and was educated along with his bro- 
ther. In 67 he was aedile, in 62 praetor, and for 
the next 3 years governed Asia as propraetor. lie 
returned to Rome in 58, and warmly exerted him- 
self to procure the recall of his brother from banish- 
ment. In 55 he went to Gaul as legatus to Caesar, 
whose approbation he gained by his military abi- 
lities and gallantry : he distinguished himself par- 
ticularly by the resistance he offered to a vast host 
of Gauls, who had attacked his camp, when he 
was stationed for the winter with one legion in the 
country of the Nervii. In 51 he accompanied his 
brother as legate to Cilicia ; and on the breaicing 
out of the civil war in 49 he joined Pompey. After 
the battle of Pharsalia, he was pardoned by Caesar. 
He was proscribed by the triumvirs, and was put 
to death in 43. Quintus wrote several works, 
which are all lost, with the exception of an address 
to his brother, entitled De Petitione Consulatus. 
Quintus was married to Pomponia, sister of Atti- 
cus ; but, from incompatibility of temper, their 
union was an unhappy one. — 7. M., OTily son ol" 
the orator and his wife Terentia, was born 65. 
He accompanied his father to Cilicia, and served 
in Pompey 's army in Greece, although he was 
then only 16 years of age. In 45 he was sent to 
Athens to pursue his studies, but there fell into 
irregular and extravagant habits. On the deatli 
of Caesar (44) he joined the republican party, 
served as militarj- tribune under Brutus in Mace- 
donia, and after the battle of Philippi (42) fled to 
Sex, Pompey in Sicily. When peace was con- 
cluded betv/een the triumvirs and Pompey in 39, 
Cicero returned to Ptome, was favourably received 
by Octavian, who at length assumed him as his 
colleague in the consulship, (b. c. 30, from 13th 
Sept.) By a singular coincidence, the despatch 
announcing the capture of the fleet of Antony, 
which was immediately followed by his death, was 
addressed to the new consul in his official capacitA', 
and thus, says Plutarch, " the divine justice re- 
served the completion of Antony's punishment for 
the house of Cicero." — 8. Q., son of No. 6, and 
of Pomponia, sister of Atticus, was born 66 or 
67, and perished with his father in the proscrip- 
tion, 43. 

Ciclijrrns (Ktxupos), called Epliyra ('E^up'??) 
in Homer, a town of Thesprotia in Epirus, between 
the Acherusian lake and the sea. 

Cicones {Kikov^s), a Thracian people on the 
Hebrus, and near the coast. 

Cicyima {Kucvvva : KiKwvevs), a demus of AX- 
tica, belonging to the tribe Cecropis, and afterwards 
to the tribe Acamantis. 

Cilicia {KiXnda: KtAi|, fem. Ki\L<x(ra), a dis- 
trict in the S. E. of Asia Minor, bordering to the 
E. on Syria, to the N. on Cappadocia and Lycaonia, 
to the N. W. and W. on Pisidia and Pamphylia. 
On all sides, except the W., it is enclosed by 



174 



CILICIAE. 



CIMOLIS. 



natural boundaries, nainelr, the iSIediterranean on 
the S., M. Amanus on the E., and ^I. Taurus on the 
N. The W. part of Cilicia is intersected hx the 
offshoots of the Taurus, while in its E. part the 
mountain chains enclose much larger tracts of 
level country : and hence arose the division of the 
country into C. Aspera (K. 77 rpoxeta, or rpaxeico- 
Tts), and C. Cainpestris (K. 7} ireoids) ; the latter 
was also called Cilicia Propria (77 id'iws K.). Nu- 
merous rivers, among which are the Pyramus. 
Sarl s. Cvdnus, Calvcadnus, and smaller moun- 
tain streams, descend from the Taurus. The E. 
division, through which most of the larger rivers 
flow, was extremely fertile, and the narrower 
valleys of Cilicia Aspera contained some rich 
tracts of land ; the latter district was famed for its 
fine breed of horses. The first inhabitants of the 
countr}- are supposed to have been of the Syrian 
race. The mythical story derived, their name 
from Cilis, the son of Agei:or, who staited, with 
his brothers Cadmus and Phoenix, for Europe, but 
stopped short on the coast of Asia ]\Iinor, and 
peopled with his followers the plain of Cilicia. The 
countn,- remained independent till the time of the 
Persian Empire, under which it formed a satrapy, 
but appears to have been still governed by its 
native princes. Alexander subdued it on his march 
into Upper Asia ; and, after the division of his 
empire, it fomied a part of the kingdom of the Se- 
leucidae : its plains were settled by Greeks, and 
the old inhabitants were for the most part driven 
back into the mountains of C. Aspera, where they 
remained virtually independent, practising robbery 
by land and piracy by sea, till Pompey drove 
them from the sea in his war against the pirates, 
and, having rescued the level coimtry from the 
power of Tigranes, who had overrun it, he erected 
it into a Roman province, B. c. 67 — 66. The 
mountain country was not made a province till the 
reign of Vespasian. The people bore a low cha- 
racter among the Greeks and Romans. The 
Carians, Cappadocians, and Cilicians, were called 
the 3 bad K's. 

Ciliciae Pylae or Portae (at nv\ai rr,s Kt- 
Xiicias ; KolinbopMz), the chief pass between Cap- 
padocia and Cilicia, through the Taurus, on the 
road from Tyana to Tarsus. This was the v.-ay b}' 
Wjiich Alexander entered Cilicia. 

Cilicium Mare (77 KiAiKi'a ^dXaa-aa). the N. E. 
portion of the ^Mediterranean, beivreen Cilicia and 
Cypras, as far as the Gulf of Issus. 

Cnix (K:Ai|), son of Agenor and Telephassa, was, 
v.-ith his brothers, Cadmus and Phoenix, sent out 
by their father in search of Europa, who had been 
carried off by Zeus. Cilix settled in the country 
called after him Cilicia. 

Cilia (Kt'AAa), a small town in the Troad, on 
the river Cilleus, at the foot of M. Cillaeus, in the 
ranwe cf Gargarus. celebrated for its temple of 
Apollo surnamed Cillaeus. Its foundation was 
ascribed to Pelops. 

Ciinii, a powerful family in the Etruscan tov.-n 
cf Arretium, were driven out of their native tovrn 
in B. c. 301, but were restored by the Romans. 
Thf Ciinii were nobles or Lucumones in their 
state, and some of them in ancient times may have 
held even the kingly dignity-. (Comp. Ror. Carm. 
i. 1.) The nam.e has bsen rendered chiefly me- 
morable by C. Cilnius Maecenas. [Maecenas.] 

Cimber, C. Amuus, had obtained the praetor- 
ship from Caesar, and was one of Antony's sup- 



porters, B. c. 43, on which account lie is attacked 
by Cicero. He was charged with having killed 
his brotlier, whence Cicero calls him ironically 

PhiladeJplus. 

Cimber, L. Tillius (not Tullius), a friend of 
Caesar, who gave him the province of Bithynia, 
but subsequently one of Caesar's murderers, b. c. 
44. On the fatal day, Cimber was foremost in 
the ranks, under pretence of presenting a petition 
to Caesar praying for his brother's recall from 
exile. After the assassination, Cimber went to his 
province and raised a fleet, with which he rendered 
service to Cassius and Brutus. 

Cimbri, a Celtic people, probably of the same 
race as the Cymrv. [Celtae.] They appear to 
have inhabited the peninsula, which was called after 
them Chersonesus Cimbrica (Jutland), though 
the greatest uncertainty prevailed among the an- 
cients respecting their original abode. In conjunc- 
tion w^ith the Teutoni and Ambrones, the}' migrated 
S., with their wives and children, towards the close 
of the 2nd century B. c. ; and the whole host is 
said to have contained 300,000 fighting men. They 
defeated several Roman armies, and caused the 
greatest alarm at Rome. In B.C. 113 they de- 
feated the consul Papirius Carbo, near Noreia, and 
then crossed over into Gaul, which they ravaged 
in all directions. In 109 they defeated the consul 
Junius Silanus, in 107 the consul Cassius Longinus, 
who fell in the battle, and in 105 they gained 
their most brilliant victory near the Rhone over 
the united armies of the consul Cn. Mallius and 
the proconsul Servilius Caepio. Instead of crossing 
the Alps, the Cimbri, fortunately for Rome, marched 
into Spain, where they remained 2 or 3 years. 
The Romans meantime had been making prepa- 
rations to resist their formidable foes, and had 
placed their troops under the command of ^larius. 
Tiie barbarians returned to Gaul in 102. In that 
year the Teutoni were defeated and cut to pieces 
by Marius, near Aquae Sextiae {Aix) in Gaul ; 
and next year (101) the Cimbri and their allies 
were likewise destroyed by Marius and Catulus, 
in the decisive batxle of the Campi Raudii, near 
Verona, in the N. of Italy. In the time of Au- 
gustus, the Cimbri, who were then a people of no 
importance, sent an embassy to the emperor. 

Ciminus or Ciminius Mens {Monte Cimirio, 
also M. Fogliano)^ a range of mountains in Etruria, 
thickly covered with wood (Saltus Ciminius, Silva 
Ciminia), near a lake of the same name, N."\V. of 
Tarquinii between the Lacus Vulsiniensis and 
Soracte. 

Cimmerii {KifiuipioC), the name of a mythical 
and of a historical people. The mythical Cimmerii, 
mentioned by Homer, dwelt in the furthest W. on 
the ocean, enveloped in constant mists and dark- 
ness. Later writers sought to localise them, and 
accordingly placed them either in Italy near 
the lake Avemus. or in Spain, or in the Tauric 
Chersonesus. — The historical Cimmerii dwelt on 
the Palus Maeotis {Sea of Azov), in the Tauric 
Chersonesus, and in Asiatic Sarmatia. Driven 
from their abodes by the Scythians, they passed 
into Asia Minor on the N. E., and penetrated W. 
as far as Aeolisand Ionia. They took Sardis B.C. 
635 in the reign of Ardys,king of Lydia, but they 
were expelled from Asia by Alyattes, the grandsoTi 
of Ardys. 

Cimmerins Bospoms. [Bosporus.] 
GiiaoUs (KiuctfA^r: Cirrjo'i or Argenticre), ac 



CIMON. 



CINNA. 



175 



island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades, be- 
tween Siphnos and Melos, celebrated for its fine 
white earth, used by fullers for cleaning cloths. 

Cimon. {K'lficou). 1. Son of Stesagoras, and father 
of Miltiades, victor at Marathon, gained 3 Olympic 
victories with his four-horse chariot, and after his 
3rd victory was secretly murdered by order of the 
sons of Pisistratus. 2. Grandson of the preceding, 
and son of the great Miltiades. On the death of 
his father (b. c. 489), he Avas imprisoned because 
he was unable to pay his fine of 50 talents, which 
was eventually paid by Callias on his marriage 
with Elpinice, Cimon's sister. Cimon first distin- 
guished himself on the invasion of Greece by 
Xerxes (480), and after the battle of Plataea was 
brought forward by Aristides. He frequently com- 
manded the Athenian fleet in their aggressive war 
against the Persians. His most brilliant success 
was in 466, when he defeated a large Persian 
fleet, and on the same day landed and routed their 
land forces also on the river Eurymedon in Pam- 
phylia. The death of Aristides and the banish- 
ment of Themistocles left Cimon without a rival 
at Athens for some years. But his influence gra- 
dually declined as that of Pericles increased. In 
461 Cimon marched at the head of some Athenian 
trjops to the assistance of the Spartans, v/ho 
were hard pressed by their revolted subjects. The 
Athenians were deeply mortified by the insulting 
manner in which their offers of assistance Avere 
declined, and Avere enraged Avith Cimon Avho had 
exposed them to this insult. His enemies in con- 
sequence succeeded in obtaining his ostracism this 
year. He Avas subsequently recalled, in Avhat A'ear 
is uncertain, and through his intervention a 5 year's 
truce Avas made between Athens and Sparta, 450. 
In 449 the AA'ar was reneAved Avitli Persia, Cimon 
received the command, and Avith 200 ships sailed 
to Cyprus ; here, Avhile besieging Citium, illness or 
the effects of a Avound carried him oif. — Cimon 
Avas of a cheerful convivial temper ; frank and affa- 
lile in his manners. Having obtained a great for- 
tune by his share of the Persian spoils, he displayed 
unbounded liberality. His orchards and gardens 
Avere throAvn open ; his felloAv demesmen Avere free 
daily to his table, and his public bounty verged on 
ostentation. With the treasure he brought from 
Asia the S. Avail of the citadel Avas built, and at 
his OAvn pri\'ate charge the foundation of the long 
Avails to the Piraeus Avas laid down. =■ 3. Of Cleo- 
nae, a painter of great renown, flourished about 
B. c. 460, and appears to have been the first painter 
of perspective. 

Cinadon. (Kiudoov), the chief of a conspiracy 
against the Spartan peers {oixoioi) in the first year 
of Agesilaus II. (b. c. 398—397.) The plot Avas 
discovered, and Cinadon and the other conspirators 
Avere put to death. 

Cinaetlioii (KivixiQav)^ of Laccdaemon, one of 
the most fertile of the Cvclic poets, flourished B. c. 
765. 

Cinara or Cinarns (Zinara)^ a small island in 
the Aegaean sea, E. of Naxos, celebrated for its 
artichokes (Kivdpa.). 

Cincinnatus, L. Q,iiintius, a favourite hero of 
the old Roman republic, and a model of old 
Roman frugality and integrity. He liA'-ed on his 
farm, cultivating the land Avith his ow'n hand. 
In B. c. 460 he AA^as appointed consul sufi"cctri3 in 
the room of P. Valerias. In 458 he aatiS called 
■from the plough to the dictatorship, in order to 



deliver the Roman consul and anny from the pe- 
rilous position in which ihej had been placed by 
the Aequians. He saved the Roman army, de- 
feated the enemy, and, after holding the dictator- 
ship only 16 days, returned to his farm. In 439, 
at the age of 80, he Avas a 2nd time appointed 
dictator to oppose the alleged machinations of Sp. 
Maelius. — SeA^eral of the descendants of Cincinna- 
tus held the consulship and consular tribun;ite, but 
none of them is of sufficient importance to require 
a separate notice. 

Cincms Aliiasatus. [Alimentus.] 

Cineas (Kii^sas), a Thessalian, the friend and 
minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He Avas the 
most eloquent man of his day, and reminded his 
hearers of Demosthenes, Avhom he heard speak in 
his youth. Pyrrhus prized his persuasive powers 
so highly, that " the Avords of Cineas (he Avas Avont 
to say) had won him more cities than his oAvn 
arms." The most famous passage in his life is his 
embassy to Rome, Avith proposals for peace from 
Pyrrhus, after the battle of Heraclea (b. c. 280). 
Cineas spared no arts to gain favour. Thanks to 
his Avonderful memory, on the day after his arrival 
he Avas able (Ave are told) to address all the senators 
and knights b}' name. The senate, hoAA^ever, re- 
jected his proposals mainly through the dying 
eloquence of old App. Claudius Caecus. The am- 
bassador returned and told the king that there 
Avas no people like that people, — their city Avas a 
temple, their senate an assembly of kings, Tavo 
years after (278), Avhen Pyrrhus Avas about to 
cross over into Sicily, Cineas Avas again sent to 
negotiate peace. He appears to have died in Sicily 
shortly afterwards, 

Cinesias (Kn'Tjaias), a dithj-rambic poet of 
Athens, of no merit, ridiculed by Aristophanes and 
other comic poets. But he had his revenge ; for 
he succeeded in procuring the abolition of the Cho- 
ragia, as far as regarded comedj--, about b. c. 390. 

Cinga (Cinca), a river in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
falls with the Sicoris into the Iberus, 

Cingetorix, a Gaul, one of the first men in the 
city of the Treviri {Treves, Trier), attached him- 
self to the Romans, though son-in-laAv to Indutio- 
marus, the head of the independent party, Vv^hen 
this leader had been put to death by Caesar, he 
became chief of his native city. 

Cingulum (Cingulanus: Cingolo), a tOAvn in 
Picenum on a rock, built by Labienus, shortly be- 
fore the breaking out of the civil AA-ar, b. c. 49. 

Cinna, Cornelms. 1. L., the fiimous leader of 
the popular party during the absence of Sulla in 
the East. (b. c. 87—84.) In 87 "Sulla allowed 
Cinna to be elected consul Avith Cn, Octavius, on 
condition of his taking an oath not to alter the 
constitution as then existing. But as soon as Sulla 
had left Italy, he began his endeavour to ovcr- 
poAver the senate, and to recall Marius and his 
party. He AA'as, hoAveA'er, defeated by his colleague 
Octavius in the forum, AA^as obliged to fly the city, 
and was deposed by the senate from the consulate. 
But he soon returned ; Avith the assistance of Ma- 
rius, who came back to Italy, he collected a poAver- 
ful army, and laid siege to Rome. The capture 
of the city, and the massacre of Sulla's friends 
AA'hich folloAved, more properly belong to the life 
of Marius. For the next 3 years (86, 85, 84) 
Cinna was consul. In 84 Sulla prepared to return 
from Greece ; raid Cinna AA'as slain by his OAvn 
trccps, Avhen he ordered them to cross over from 



176 



CINNA. 



CIVILIS. 



Italy to Grpecc, where he intended to encounter 
Siilia. — 2. L., son of No. 1., joined M. Lepidus in 
his attempt to overthrow the constitution of Sulla 
78 ; and on the defeat and death of Lepidus in 
Sardinia, he went with Perpema to join Sertorius 
in Spain. Caesar procured his recall from exile. 
He was made praetor by Caesar in 44 ; but was 
notwithstanding one of the enemies of the dictator. 
Though he would not join the conspirators, he ap- 
proved of their act ; and so treat v\-as the rage of 
the mob against him, that they nearly murdered 
liim. See below Cinna, Helvius. 

Cinna, C. Helvius, a poet of considerable re- 
nown, the friend of Catullus. In B. c. 44 he was 
tribune of the plebs, when he was murdered by the 
raob, who mistook hira for his namesake Cornelius 
Cinna, though he was at the time walking in Cae- 
sar's funeral procession. His principal work was 
an epic poem entitled Sinyma. 

Cijinamus, Joannes Clwdvvris KiVvauos), one 
of the most distinguished Byzantine historians, lived 
imder the emperor Manuel Comnenus (who reigned 
A. D. 1143 — 1180), and wrote the history of this 
emperor and of his father Calo-Joannes, in 6" books, 
which have come down to us. Edited by Du 
Cange, Paris, 1670, fol., and by Meineke, Bonn, 
186, 8vo. 

Cinyps or Cinyphns (K'ivv\l/, KtVu^os : Wad- 
Khakan or Kitii/u), a small river on the N. coast 
of Africa, between the Syrtes, forming the E. 
boundary of the proper territory of the African 
Tripolis. The district about it was called by the 
same name, and was famous for its fine-haired 
goats. 

Cinyras (Kiuupas), son of Apollo, king of Cy- 
prus, and priest of the Paphian Aphrodite, which 
latter office remained hereditary in his family, the 
CLnyradae. He was married to Mcthame, the 
daughter of the Cyprian king Pygmalion, by whom 
he had several children, and among them was 
Adonis. Accoiding to some traditions, he unwit- 
tingly begot Adonis by his own daughter Smj-rna, 
and killed himself on discovering the crime he had 
committed. According to other traditions, he had 
promised to assist Agamemnon ; but as he did not 
keep his word, he was cursed by Agamemnon, and 
perished in a contest v.-i:h Apollo. 

Cipus or Cippus, Geniiciiis, a Roman praetor, 
on whose head it is said that horns suddenly grev.-, 
as he was going out of the gates of the city, and, as 
the haruspices declared that if he returned to the 
city he v/ould be king, he imposed voluntary exile 
upon himself. 

Circe (Kt'p/cTj), a mythical sorceress, daughter of 
Helios (the Sun) by the Oceanid Perse, and sister 
of Aeetes, lived in the island of Aeaea. Ulysses 
tarried a whole year with her, after she had changed 
several of his companions into pigs. By Ulysses 
she became the mother of Agrius and Telegonus. 
The Latin poets relate that she metamorphos?d 
Scylla, and Picus king of the Ausonians. 

Circeii (Circeiensis : Circello. and the Pvu. Ci'.ta 
Vecchia). an ancient town of Latium on the pro- 
montory Circeium, founded by Tarquinius Super- 
bus, never became a place of importance, in conse- 
quence of its proximity to the unhealthy Pontine 
marshes. The oysters caught oft Circeii were cele- 
brated. (Hor. Sat. ii. 4. 33 ; Juv. iv. 140.) Some 
writers suppose Circe to have resided on this pro- 
montory, and that hence it derived its name. 

Circesium {KipK-na-iov : Kerkesiah), a city of 



Mesopotamia, on the E. bank of the Euphrates, at 
the mouth of the Aborrhas : the extreme border 
fortress of the Roman Empire. 
Circus. [Roma.] 

Cirphis {Kipipis), a town in Phocis, on a moun 
tain of the same name, which is separated by a 
valley from Parnassus. 

Cirrha. [Crissa.] 

Cirta, aft. Constantana {Cundaniiueh, Ru.), a 
city of the Massylii in Numidia, 50 Roman miles 
from the sea ; the capital of Syphax, and of Masi- 
nissa and his successors. Its position on a height, 
surrounded by the river Ampsagas, made it almost 
impregnable, as the Romans found in the Jugiu-- 
thine, and the French in the Algerine, wars. It 
was restored by Constantino the Great, in honour 
of whom it received its later name. 

Cisseus (Kicrcreus), a king in Thrace, and father 
of Theano, or, according to others, of Hecuba, who 
is hence called Cisseis {Kiaariis). 

Cissia (Ki(7cr/a), a verA- fertile district of Su- 
siana, on the Choaspes. The inhabitants (Kiaaioi) 
were a wild free people, resembling the Persians in 
their manners. 

Cissus ( Kicraos). a town in Macedonia on a 
mountain of the same name, S. of Thessalonica, to 
which latter place its inhabitants were transplanted 
by Cassandcr. 

Cisthene {KiaQyivri). "L A town on the coast 
of 2>ilysia, on the promontory of Pyrrha, on the 
Gulf of Adramyttium.— 2. (Castel-Roffo), an island 
and to^-n on the coast of Lycia.— 3. In the my- 
thical geography of Aeschylus {Prom. 799) the 
" plains of Cisthene " are made the abode of the 
Gordons. 

Cithaeron {Kidaipu)v ; Cithasron^ and its highest 
summit Elatia)^ a lofty range of mountains, se- 
parated Boeotia from Megaris and Attica. It was 
covered with wood, abounded in game, and was 
the scene of several celebrated legends in mj-tholog}'. 
It was said to have derived its name from Cithaeron, 
a mythical king of Boeotia. Its highest summit 
was sacred to the Cithaeronian Zeus, and here was 
celebrated the festival called Daedala. {Did. of 
A nt. s. V. ) 

Citliarista, a sea-port town (Ceireste), and a 
promontory (C. d''Aigle) in Gallia Narbonensis, 
near ]\Iassilia. 

Citium {KiTiov: Kni^m). 1. (Nr. Lameca., 
Ru.), one of the 9 chief towns of Cyprus, with a 
harbour and salt-works, 200 stadia from Salamis, 
near the mouth of the Tetius : here Cimon, the 
celebrated Athenian, died, and Zeno, the founder 
of the Stoic school, was born. — 2. A town in Ma- 
cedonia, on a mountain Citius, N. W. of Beroea. 

ClUS (Kto5 : Ktos or Ketos, Cianus : Ghio^ also 
Ghemlio and Keinlik), an ancient city in Bithynia, 
on a bay of the Propontis called Cianus Sinus, was 
colonized by the Milesians, and became a place of 
much commercial importance. It joined the Aeto- 
lian league, and was destroyed by Philip III., 
king of ^lacedonia ; but was rebuilt by Prusias, 
king of Bivhynia. from whom it was called Prusias. 

Civilis, Claudius, sometimes called Julius, the 
leader of the Batavi in their revolt firom Rome, 
A. D. 69 — 70. He was of the Batavian royal race, 
and, like Hannibal and Sertorius, had lost an eye. 
Ilis brother Julius Paulus was put to death on a 
false charge of treason by Fonteius Capito (a. d. 
67 or 68), who sent Civilis in chains to Nero at 
Rome, where he was heard and acquitted by Gaiba. 



CORINTHUS. CONSTANTINOPOLTS. DELPHI. 




View of CoriiUh and the Aci ouorinthus. Page 190. 




View of Delphi and Mount Parnassus. Page 211. 




Plan of CoBstantinople. (a a, Chrysoceras, Golden Horn.") The Roman numerals fndicate the 
14 regions into which the city was divided. Page 187.- 

LTofacep. 176. 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. CARYSTUS — CHIOS. 




Carystus in Euhoea. I'age 151. 




Cassope in Thesprotia. Page 154. 




Catana in Sicily. Page 135. 




Celenderis in Cilicia-. Page IGO. 




Centuripae in Sicily. Page 1C2. 
To /ace /). 177.] 




CcpUaloedium in Sicily. Page 102. 




Clialccdon. Page 1G5. 




Clialcidice in Macedonia, Page 165. 




Cljalcis in Euboea, Page 165. 




Chios. Page 168. 



CIZARA. 



CLAUDIUS. 



177 



He was afterwards prefect of a coliort, but under 
Vitellius he became an object of suspicion to the 
array, and with difficulty escaped with his life. 
Pie vowed vengeance. Plis countrymen, who were 
shamefully treated by the officers of Vitellius, were 
easily induced to revolt, and they were joined by 
the Canninefates and Frisii. He took up arms 
under pretence of supporting the cause of Vespa- 
sian, and defeated in succession the generals of 
Vitellius in Gaul and Germany, but he continued 
in open revolt even after the death of Vitellius. 
In 70 Civilis gained fresh victories over the Ro- 
mans, but was at length defeated in the course of 
the year by Petilius Cerealis, who had been sent 
into Germany with an immense ai'my. Peace was 
concluded with the Batavi on terms favourable to the 
latter, but we do not knoAV what became of Civilis. 

Cizara (KiXapa), a mountain fortress in the dis- 
trict of Phazemonitis in Pontus ; once a royal resi- 
dence, but destroyed before Strabo's time. 

Cladaus (KAaSaos or KAdSeos), a river in Elis, 
flows into the Alpheus at Olympia. 

Clampetia, called by the Greeks Lampetia 
(Aa/XTTeTia, Aa/xTre'reia), a town of Bruttium, on 
the W. coast : in ruins in Pliny's time. 

Clanis. 1. {Chiano), a river of Etruria, rises S, 
of Arretium, forms 2 small lakes near Clusium, W. 
of lake Trasimenus, and flows into the Tiber E. of 
Vulsinii. — 2. The more ancient name of the Liris. 
— 3. (Glan in Steiermark), a river in the Noric 
Alps. 

Clanius. [LiTERNus.] 

ClSrus {t} KXdpos), a small town on the Ionian 
coast, near Colophon, with a celebrated temple and 
oracle of Apollo, surnamed Clarius. 

Clarus, Sex. Erucius, a friend of tlie younger 
Pliny, fought under Trajan in the E., and took 
Seleucia, A. d. 115. — His son Sextus was a patron 
of literature, and was consul under Antoninus Pius, 

A. D. 146. 

Classicus, Julius, a Trevir, was prefect of an 
ala of the Treviri in the Roman army under Vitel- 
lius, A. D. 69, but afterwards joined Civilis in his 
rebellion against the Romans. [Civilis.] 

Clastldium {Casteggio or Schiateggio), a fortified 
town of the Ananes in Gallia Cispadana, not far 
from the Po, on the road from Dertona to Placentia. 

Claterna, a fortified town in Gallia Cispadana, 
not far from Bononia ; its name is retained in the 
small river Quaderna. 

Claudia. 1. Quinta, a Roman matron, not 
a Vestal Virgin, as is frequently stated. When 
the vessel conveying the image of Cybele from 
Pessinus to Ptome, had stuck fast in a shallow at 
the mouth of the Tiber, the soothsayers announced 
that only a chaste woman could move it. Claudia, 
Avho had been accused of incontinency, took h,')ld 
of the rope, and the vessel forthwith followed her, 

B. C. 204. — 2. Or Clodia, eldest of the 3 sisters of 
P. Clodius Pulcher, the enemy of Cicero, married 
Q. Marcius Rex. — 3. Or Clodia, second sister of 
P. Clodius, married Q. Metellus Celer, but became 
infamous for her debaucheries, and was suspected 
of having poisoned her husband. Cicero in his 
letters frequently calls her BowTTis.—- 4. Or Clodia, 
youngest sister of P. Clodius, married L. Lucullus, 
to whom she proved unfaithful. All 3 sisters are 
said to have had incestuous intercourse with their 
brother Publius. 

Claudia Geas, patrician and plebeian. The 
patrician Claudii were of Sabine origin, and came 



[ to Rome in B. c. 504, when they were received 
among the patricians. [Claudius, No. 1.] They 
were noted for their pride and haughtiness, their 
disdain for the laws, and their hatred of the ple- 
beians. They bore various surnames, which are 
given under Claudius, with the exception of those 
with the cognomen Nero, who are better known 
under the latter name. — The plebeian Claudii 
were divided into several families, of which the 
most celebrated v/as that of Marchllus. 

Claud^anus, Claudius, the last of the Latin 
classic poets, flourished under Theodosius and his 
sons Arcadius and Honorius. He was a native of 
Alexandria and removed to Rome, whe'-e we find 
him in a. d. 395. He enjoyed the patronage of 
the all-powerful Stilicho, by Avhom he was rais(!d 
to offices of honour and emolument. A statue wa? 
erected to his honour in the Forum of Trajan by 
Arcadius and Honorius, the inscription on which 
was discovered at Rome in the 15th century. He. 
also enjoyed the patronage of the empress Serena, 
through whose interposition he gained a wealthy 
wife. The last historical allusion in his writings 
belongs to 404 ; Avhence it is supposed that he may 
have been involved in the misfortunes of Stilicho, 
who was put to death 408. He was a heathen. 
His extant works are : — 1. The 3 panegyrics on 
the 3rd, 4th, and 6th consulships of Honorius, 2. 
A poem on the nuptials of Honorius and Maria. 

3. Four short Fescennine lays on the sam.e subject. 

4. A panegyric on the consulship of Probinus and 
Olybrius. 5. The praises of Stilicho, in 2 books, 
and a panegjTic on his consulship, in 1 book 
6. The praises of Serena, the wife of Stilicho. 7. 
A panegyric on the consulship of Flavins Mallius 
Theodorus. 8. The Epithalamium of Palladius and 
Celerina. 9, An invective against Rufinus, in 2 
books. 10. An invective against Eutropius, in 2 
books. 11. De Bello Gildonico, the first book of an 
historical poem on the war in Africa against Gildo. 

12, De Bello Getico, an historical poem on the suc- 
cessful campaign of Stilicho against Alaric and the 
Goths, concluding with the battle of Pollentia. 

13. Raptus Proserpinae, 3 books of an unfinished 
epic on the rape of Proserpine. 14. Gigantomachia^ 
a fragment extending to 128 lines only. 15. 
5 short epistles. 16. Eidyliia, a collection of 7 
poems chiefly on subjects connected with natural 
histo^3^ 17. Epigi'ammata, a collection of short 
occasional pieces, — The Christian hymns found 
among his poems in most editions are certainly 
spurious. — The poems of Claudian are distinguished 
by purity of language, and real poetical genius, Thr 
best edition is by Burmann, Amst. 1760. 

Claudiopolis {KKavdidiroXis), the name of some 
cities called after the emperor Claudius, the chief 
of which were : 1. In Bithynia [Bithynium]. 
2. A colony in the district of Cataonia, in Ca^j- 
padocia. 

Claudius, patrician. See Claudia Gens. — 1. 
App. Claudius Sabinus Eegillensis, a Sabine of 
the town of Regillum or Regilli, who in his own 
country bore the name of Attus Clausus, being the 
advocate of peace with the Romans, when hostilities 
broke out between the two nations, withdrew with 
a large train of followers to Rome, B. c. 504. He 
was received into the ranks of the patricians, and 
lands beyond the Anio were assigned to his follow- 
ers, who were formed into a new tribe called the 
Claudian. He exhibited the characteristics which 
marked his descendants, and showed the most bitter 



178 



CLAUDIUS. 



CLAUDIUS. 



hatred towards the plebeians. He was consul 4!>o, 
and his conduct towards the plebeians led to their 
secession to the Mons Sacer 494.-2. App. CL Sab. 
Eegill., son of No. 1, consul 471, treated the sol- 
diers whom he commanded with such severity, 
that his troops deserted him. Next year hs was 
impeached by 2 of the tribunes, but. according to 
the common story, he died or killed himself before 
the trial. — 3. C. CI. Sab. Eegill., brother of No. 
2, consul 460, when App. Herdonius seized the 
Capitol. Though a staunch supporter of the patri- 
cians, he warned the decemvir Appius against an 
immoderate use of his power. His remonstrances 
being of no avail, he withdrew to Regillum, but 
returned to defend Appius when impeached. — 4. 
App. CI. Crassus Eegill. Sab., the decemvir, 
commonly considered son of No, 2, but more pro- 
bably the same person. He was consul 451, .ind 
on the appointment of the decemvirs in that year, 
he became one of them, and was reappointed the 
following year. His real character nov,' betrayed 
itself in the most tyrannous conduct towards the 
plebeians, till his attempt against Virginia led to 
the overthrow of the decern virate. App. was im- 
peached by Virginius, but did not live to abide his 
trial. He either killed himself, or was put to death 
in prison by order of the tribunes. — 5. App. 
Claudius Caecus, became blind before his old age. 
In his censorship (312), to which he was elected 
without having been consul previously, he built 
the Appian aqueduct, and commenced the Appian 
road, which was continued to Capua. He re- 
tained the censorship 4 years in opposition to the 
law which limited the length of the office to 1 o 
months. He was twice consul in 307 and 296' ; 
and in the latter year he fought against the Sara- 
nites and Etruscans. In his old age, Appius by 
his eloquent speech induced the senate to reject 
the terras of peace which Cineas had proposed on 
behalf of Pyrrhus. Appius was the earliest Roman 
writer in prose and verse whose name has come 
down to us. He was the author of a poem known 
to Cicero through the Greek, and he also v/rote a 
legal treatise, De Usurpationibus. He left 4 sons 
and 5 daughters. — 6. App. CI. Caudes, brother 
of No. 5, derived his surname from his attention to 
naval affiiirs. He was consul 264, and conducted 
the war against the Carthaginians in Sicily. — 7. 
P. CI. Pulcher, son of No. 5, consul 249, attacked 
the Carthaginian fleet in the harbour of Drepana, in 
defiance of the auguries, and was defeated, with 
the loss of almost all his forces. He was recalled 
and commanded to appoint a dictator, and there- 
upon named 'M. Claudius Glycias cr Glicia, the son 
of a freedman, but the nomination w^as immediateh- 
superseded. He was impeached and condemned. 
— 8. C. CL Centho or Cento, son of No. 5, consul 
240, and dictator 213. — 9. Tib. CL Nero, son of 
No. 5. An account of his descendants is given 
under Nero. — 10. App. CL Pulcher, son of No. 
7, aedile 217, fought at Cannae 216, and was 
praetor 215, when he was sent into Sicily. He was 
consul 212, and died 211 of a wound which he 
received in a battle with Hannibal before Capua. — 
11. App. CL Pulcher, son of No. 10, served in 
Greece for some years under Flamininus, Baebius, 
and Glabrio (197 — 191). He was praetor 187 and 
consul 185, when he gained some advantages over 
the Ingaunian Ligurians. He was sent as ambas- 
sador to Greece 184 and 176. — 12. P. CL Pul- 
cher, brother of No. 11, curule aedile 189, praetor 



188, and consul 184. — 13. C. CL Pulcher, bro- 
ther of Nos. 11 and 12, praetor 180 and consul 
177, when he defeated the Istrians and Ligurians. 
He was censor IGO with Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. 
He died 167.-14. App. CL Cento, aedile 178 and 
praetor 175, when he fought with success against 
the Celtiberi in Spain. He afterwards served in 
Thessaly (173), Macedonia (172), and lllyricum 
(170). — 15. App. CL Pulcher, son of No. 11, 
consul 143, defeated the Salas-i, an Alpine tribe. 
On his return a triumph was refused him ; and when 
one of the tribunes attempted to drag him from 
his car, his daughter Claudia, one of the Vestal 
Virgins, walked by his side up to the capitol. Ik- 
was censor 136. He gave one of his daughters in 
marriage to Tib. Gracchus, and in 133 with Tib. 
and C. Gracchus was appointed triumvir for the 
division of the lands. He died shortly after Tib. 
Gracchus, — 16. C. Claudius Pulcher, curule 
aedile 99, praetor in Sicily 95. consul in 92. 

— 17. App. CL Pulcher, consul 79. and after- 
wards governor of Mncedonia. — 18. App. CL Pul- 
cher, praetor 89, belonged to Sulla's party, and 
perished in the great battle before Rome 82. — 
19. App. CL Pulcher, eldest son of Nn. 18. In 
70 he served in Asia under his brother-in-law, 
LucuUus ; in 57 he was praetor, and though he did 
not openly oppose Cicero's recall from banishment, 
he tacitly abetted the proceedings of his brother 
Publius. In 56 he was propraetor in Sardinia ; 
and in 54 was consul with L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
when a reconciliation was brought about between 
him and Cicero, through the intervention of Pompey. 
In 53 he went as proconsul to Cilicia, which he 
governed with tyranny and rapacity. In 51 he 
was succeeded in the government by Cicero, whose 
appointment Appius received with displeasure. On 
his return to Rome he was impeached by Dolabella, 
but was acquitted. In 50 he was censor with L. 
Piso, and expelled several of Caesar's friends from 
the senate. On the breaking out of the civil war, 
49, he fled with Pompey from Italy, and died in 
Greece before the battle of Pharsalia. He was an 
augur, and wrote a work on the augural discipline, 
which he dedicated to Cicero. He was also disiin- 
guished for his legal and antiquarian knowledge. 

— 20. C. CL Pulcher, second son of No. 18, was 
a legatus of Caesar, 58, praetor 56, and propraetor 
in Asia 55. On his return he was accused of ex- 
tortion by M. Servilius, who was bribed to drop 
the prosecution. He died shortly afterwards.— 
21. P. CL Pulcher, usually called'Clodius and not 
Claudius, the youngest son of No. 18, the notorious 
enemy of Cicero, and one of the most profligate 
characters of a profligate age. In 70 he served 
under his brother-in-law, L, Lucullus in Asia ; but 
displeased at not being treated by Lucullus with 
the distinction he had expected, he encouraged the 
soldiers to mutiny. He then betook himself to his 
other brother-in-law, Q, M;ircius Rex, proconsul in 
Cilicia, and was entrusted by him with the com- 
mand of the fleet. He fell into the hands of the 
pirates, who however dismissed him without ran- 
som, through fear of Pompey. He next went to 
Antioch, and joined the Syrians in making war on 
the Arabians, On his return to Rome in 65 he 
impeached Catiline for extortion in his government 
of Africa, but was bribed by Catiline to let him 
escape. In 64 he accompanied the propaetor L. 
Murena to Gallia Transalpina, where he resorted 
to the most nefarious methods of procuring monejc 



CLAUDIUS. 



CLEANTHES. 



179 



In 62 he profaned the mysteries of the Bona Dea, 
which were celebrated by the Roman matrons in 
the house of Caesar, who was then praetor, by en- 
tering the house disguised as a female musician, in 
order to meet Pompeia, Caesar's wife, with whom 
he had an intrigue. He was discovered, and next 
year, 61, when quaestor, was brought to trial, but 
obtained an acquittal by bribing the judges. He 
had attempted to prove an alibi, but Cicero's evi- 
dence shewed that Clodius was with him in Rome 
only 3 hours before he pretended to have been 
at Interamna. Cicero attacked Clodius in the se- 
nate with great vehemence. In order to revenge 
himself upon Cicero, Clodius v/as adopted into a 
plebeian family that he might obtain the formida- 
ble power of a tribune of the plebs. He was tri- 
bune 58, and, supported by the triumvirs Caesar, 
Pompey, and Crassus, drove Cicero into exile ; but 
notwithstanding all his efforts he was unable to 
prevent the recall of Cicero in the following year. 
[Cicero.] In 56 Clodius was aedile and at- 
tempted to bring his enemy Milo to trial. Each 
had a large gang of gladiators in his pay, and fre- 
quent fights took place in the streets of Rome 
between the 2 parties. In 53, Avhen Clodius was 
a candidate for the praetorship, and Milo for the 
consulship, the contests betv/een them became more 
violent and desperate than ever. At length, on the 
20th of January, 52, Clodius and Milo met, appa- 
rently by accident, on the Appian road near Bovillae. 
An affray ensued between their followers, in which 
Clodius was murdered. The mob was infuriated 
at the death of their favourite ; and such tumults 
followed at the burial of Clodius, that Pompey was 
appointed sole consul in order to restore order to 
the state. For the proceedings which followed see 
Milo. The second wife of Clodius was the noto- 
rious FuLviA. — 22. App. CI. Pulclier, the elder 
son of No. 20, was one of the accusers of Milo on 
the death of P. Clodius, 52.-23. App. CI. Pul- 
cher, brother of No. 21, joined his brother in 
prosecuting Milo. As the two brothers both bore 
the praenomen Appius, it is probable that one of 
them was adopted by their uncle Appius. [No. 
19]. — 24. Sex. Clodius, probably a descendant 
of a freedman of the Claudia gens, was a man of 
low condition, and the chief instrument of P. Clo- 
dius in all his acts of violence. On the death of 
the latter in 52, he urged on the people to revenge 
the death of his leader. For his acts of violence 
on this occasion, he was brought to trial, was con- 
demed, and after remaining in exile 8 years, was 
restored in 44 by M. Antoninus. 

Claudius I., Roman emperor a. d. 41 — 54. His 
full name was Tib. Claudius Drusus Nero 
Germanicus. He was the younger son of Drusus, 
the brother of the emperor Tiberius, and of An- 
tonia, and was born on August 1st, B.C. 10, at 
Lyons in Gaul. In youth he was weak and sickly, 
and was neglected and despised by his relatives. 
When he grew up he devoted the greater part of 
liis time to literary pursuits, but was not allowed 
to take any part in public affairs. He had reached 
the age of 50, when he Avas suddenly raised by the 
soldiers to the imperial throne after the murder of 
Caligula. Claudius was not cruel, but the weak- 
ness of his character made him the slave of his 
wives and freedmen, and thus led him to consent 
to acts of tyranny which he would never have 
committed of his own accord. He was married 4 
times. At the time of his accession he was married 



to Ills 3rd wife, the notorious Valeria Messalina, 
who governed him for some years, together with 
the freedmen Narcissus, Pallas, and others. After 
the execution of Messalina, 48, a fate which she 
richly merited, Claudius was still more unfortunate 
in choosing for his wife his niece Agrippina. She 
prevailed upon him to set aside his own son, Bri- 
tannicus, and to adopt her son, Nero, that she 
might secure the succession for the latter. Claudius 
soon after regretted this step, and was in conse- 
quence poisoned by Agrippina, 54. — Several public 
works of great utility were executed by Claudius. 
He built, for example, the famous Claudian aquae- 
duct (Aqua Claudia)^ the port of Ostia, and the 
emissary by Avhich the water of lake Fucinus was 
carried into the river Liris. In his reign the 
southern part of Britain was made a Roman pro- 
vince, and Claudius himself v/ent to Britain in 43, 
Avhere he remained, however, only a short time, 
leaving the conduct of the war to his generals. — 
Claudius wrote several historical works, all of 
which have perished. Of these one of the most 
important was a history of Etruria, in the compo- 
sition of which he made use of genuine Etruscan 
sources. 

Claudius 11. (M. Aurelius Claudius, sur- 
named Gothicus), Roman emperor A. D. 268 — 
270, v/as descended from an obscure family in 
Dardania or lllyria, and by his military talents 
rose to distinction under Decius, Valerian, and 
Gallienus. He succeeded to the empire on the 
death of Gallienus (268), and soon after his acces- 
sion defeated the Alemanni in the N. of Italy. 
Next year he gained a great victory over an im- 
mense host of Goths near Naissus in Dardania, 
and received in consequence the surname Gothicus. 
I He died at Sirmium in 270, and was succeeded by 
Aurelian. 

Clazomenae (at K\a^op.eval KXaCojuei'ios : Ke- 
lisman)^ an important city of Asia Minor, and a 
member of the Ionian Dodecapolis, lay on the N. 
coast of the Ionian peninsula, upon the gulf of 
Smyrna. The city was said to have been founded 
by the Colophonians under Paralus, on the site of 
the later town of Chytrium, but to have been re- 
moved further E., as a defence against the Per- 
sians, to a small island, which Alexander after- 
wards united to the mainland by a causeway. It 
was one of the weaker members of the Ionian 
league, and w^as chiefly peopled, not by lonians, 
but by Cleonaeans and Phliasians. Under the 
Romans it was a free city. It had a considerable 
commerce, and was celebrated for its temple of 
Apollo, Artemis, and Cybele, and still more as the 
birthplace of Anaxagoras. 

Cleander {KXeav^pos). 1. Tyrant of Gela, 
reigned 7 years, and was murdered B. c. 498. He 
was succeeded by his brother Hippocrates, one of 
whose sons was also called Cleander. The latter was 
deposed by Gelon when he seized the government, 
491.— 2. A Lacedaemonian, harmost at Byzan- 
tium 400, when the Cyrean Greeks returned from 
Asia. — 3. One of Alexander's officers, was put to 
death by Alexander in Carmania, 325, in conse- 
quence of his oppressive government in Media.— 
4. A Phrygian slave, and subsequently the profli- 
gate favourite and minister of Commodus. In a 
popular tumult, occasioned by a scarcity of core, 
he was torn to death by the mob. 

Cleanthes ( ViKeavet]s). 1. A Stoic, bom at 
Ass OS in Troas about B. c. 300. He entered life 

N 2 



180 



CLEARCHUS. 



CLEOMENES. 



as a boxer, and had only 4 drachmas of his own 
when he beo^an to study philosophy. He first 
placed himself under Crates, and then under Zeno, 
whose disciple he continued for 19 years. In order 
to support himself, he worked all night at drawing 
water from trardens ; but as he spent the whole 
day in pliilosophical pursuits, and had no visible 
means of support, he was summoned before the 
Areopagus to account for his way of living. The 
judges were so delighted by the evidence of in- 
dustr}' which he produced, that they voted him 10 
minae, though Zeno would not permit liim to accept 
them. He was naturally slow, but his iron in- 
dustry overcame all difficulties ; and on the death 
of Zeno in 263, Cleanthes succeeded him in his 
school. He died about 220, at the age of 80, of 
vohintar}- starvation. A hmn of his to Zeus is 
still extant, and contains some striking sentiments. 
Edited by Sturz, 1785, and Mersdorf, Lips. 1835. 
— 2. An ancient painter of Corinth. 

Clearchus {KXeapxos). 1. A Spartan, distin- 
guished himself in several important commands 
during the latter part of the Peloponnesian war, 
and at the close of it persuaded the Spartans to 
send him as general to Thrace, to protect the Greeks 
in that quarter against the Thracians. But having 
been recalled by the Ephors, and refusing to obey 
their orders, he was condemned to death. He 
thereupon crossed over to Cyrus, collected for him 
a large force of Greek mercenaries, and marched 
with him into Upper Asia, 401, in order to dethrone 
his brother Artaxerxes, being the only Greek who 
was aware of the prince's real object. After the 
batile of Cunaxa and the death of Cyrus, Clearchus 
and the other Greek generals were made prisoners 
by the treachery of Tissaphernes, and were put to 
death. — 2. A citizen of Ileraclea on the Euxine, 
obtained the tyranny of his native town, B. c. 3G5, 
by putting himself at the head of the popular party. 
He governed with cruelt}', and was assassinated 
353. after a reign of 12 years. He is said to have 
been a pupil both of Plato and of Isocrates. — 3. Of 
Soli, one of Aristotle's pupils, author of a number 
of works, none of which are extant, on a great va- 
riety of subjects. — 4. An Athenian poet of the 
new comedy, whose time is unknown. 

Clemens. 1. T. Flavins, cousin of the emperor 
Domitian, by whom he Vvas put to death. He ap- 
pears to have been a Christian. — 2. Romanus, 
bishop of Rome at the end of the first century, 
probably the same as the Clement whom St. Paul 
mentions (Phil. iv. 3). He wrote 2 epistles in 
Greek to the Corinthian Church, of which the J st 
and part of the 2nd are extant. The 2nQ, how- 
ever, is probabh' not genuine. The Recognitioncs, 
which bear the name of Clement, were not written 
by him. The epistles are printed in the Patres 
Aposfo'lici, of which the most convenient editions 
are by Jacobson, Oxford, 1838 ; and by Hefele. 
Tubingen, 1839. — 3. Alexandrinus, so called 
from his long residence at Alexandria, was ardently 
devoted in earl}" life to the study of philosophy, 
which had a great influence upon his views of 
Christianity. He embraced Christianity through 
the teaching of Pantaenus at Alexandria, was or- 
dained pr.sbyter about A. D. 190, and died about 
220. Hence he flourished under the reigns of 
Severus and Caracalki, 193 — 217. His 3 principal 
works constitute parts of a whole. In the Horta- 
tory Address to the Greeks {Adyos TlpoTpeTrTiKos, 
&C.) his design was to convince the Heathens and 



to convert them to Christianity. The Paedagogue 
{naLioaryooyos) takes up the new convert at the 
point to which he is supposed to have been brought 
by the hortatory address, and furnishes him with 
rules for the regulation of his conduct. The Stro- 
mala (l.Tpwi.LaTels) are in 8 books: the title (Stro- 
mata, i. e. pci(ch-work) indicates its miscellaneous 
character. It is rambling and discursive, but con- 
tains much valuable information on many points of 
antiquity, particularly the history of philosophv. 
The principal information respecting Egyptian 
hieroglyphics is contained in the 5th book. The 
object of the work was to delineate the perfect 
Christian or Gnostic, after he had been instructed 
by the Teacher and thus prepared by sublime spe- 
culations in philosophy and theology. — Editions. 
By Potter, 0.xon. 1715, fol. 2 vols. ; by Klotz, Lips. 
1830—34, ovo. 4 vols. 
Cleobis. [BiTox.] 

Gleobnline {K\€j§v\lvn), or Cleobule (K\eo- 
§ov\7i), daughter of Cleobulus of Lindus, celebrated 
for her skill in riddles, of which she composed a 
number in hexameter verse ; to her is ascribed a 
well-know^n one on the subject of the year: — " A 
father has 12 children, and each of these 30 daugh- 
ters, on one side white, and on the other side black, 
and though immortal tliey all die." 

Cleobulus (K\6o§ou/\os), one of the Seven Sages, 
of Lindus in Rhodes, son of Evagoras, lived about 
B. c. 580. He v.Tote lyric poems, as well as riddles, 
in verse; he was said by some to have been the author 
of the riddle on the year, generally attributed to 
his daughter Cleobuline. He was greatly distiji- 
guisbed for strength and beauty of person. 

Cleocliares {KXeoxdpris), a Greek orator of 
!Myrlea in Bithynia, contemporary with the orator 
Demochares and the philosopher Arcesilas, towards 
the close of the 3rd century B. c. 

Cleombrotus (KXeou^poTos). 1. Son of Anax- 
andrides, king of Sparta, became regent after the 
battle of Thermopylae, B. c. 480, for Plistarchus, 
infant son of Leonidas, but died in the same year, 
and was succeeded in the regency by his son Pau- 
sanias. — 2. I. King of Sparta, son of Pausanias, 
succeeded his brother Agesipolis I., and reigned B. c. 
380 — 371. He commanded the Spartan troops 
several times against the Thebans, and fell at the 
battle of Leuctra (371), after fighting most bravely. 
— 3. II. King of Sparta, son-in-law of Leonidas 
II., in whose place he was made king by the party 
of Agis IV. about 243. On the return of Leonidas, 
Cleombrotus was deposed and banished to Tegca, 
about 240. —4. An Academic philosopher of Ara- 
bracia, said to have killed himself, after reading 
the Phaedon of Plato ; not that he had any suffer- 
ings to escape from, but that he might exchange 
this life for a better. 

Cleomedes (KAeo.u'/jSryr). 1. Of the island As- 
typalaea, an athlete of gigantic strength.— 2. A 
Greek mathematician, probably lived in the 2nd 
and 3rd centuries of the Christian aera ; the author 
of a Greek treatise in 2 books on the Circular 
Theory of the Heazenly Bodies (KukKiktis Qeoop'iai 
MereaSpa;?/ Bi§\ia 5uo), which is still extant. 
It is rather an exposition of the system of the uni- 
verse than of the geometrical principles of astronomy. 
Edited bv Balfour, Burdigal. 1G05 ; by Bake, 
Lugd. Bat. 1820 ; and by Schmidt, Lips. 1832. 

Cleomenes (KAeo,ueV7?y). 1. King of Sparta, 
son of Anaxandrides. reigned B. c. 520 — 491. He 
was a man of an enterprising but wild character. 



CLEOMENES. 



CLEOPATRA. 



181 



His greatest exploit was his defeat of the Argivcs, 
in which 6000 Argive citizens fell ; but tlie date 
of this event is doubtful. In 510 he commanded 
the forces by whose assistance Hippias was driven 
from Athens, and not long after he assisted. Isagoras 
and the aristocratical party, against Clisthenes. 
By bribing the priestess at Dcdphi, he eflFected the 
deposition of his colleague Dem ar atus, 49 1 . Soon 
afterwards he was seized with madness and killed 
himself. -—2. King of Sparta, son of Cleombrotiis 
J., reigned 370 — 309 ; but during this long period 
we have no information about him of any im- 
portance. — 3. King of Sparta, son of Leonidas II., 
reigned 236 — 2:22. "While still young, he married 
Agiatis, the Avidow of Agis IV. ; and following tlio 
example of the latter, he endeavoured to restore 
the ancient Spartan constitution, and to regenerate 
the Spartan character. He was endowed with a 
noble mind, strengthened and purified by philo- 
sophy, and possessed great energy of purpose. His 
first object was to gain for Sparta her old renown 
in war ; and for that purpose he attacked the 
Achaeans, and carried on v/ar Avith the League 
v/ith great success. Having thus gained military 
renown he felt himself sufficiently strong in the 
winter of 226 — 22.5 to put the Ephors to death 
and restore the ancient constitution. The Achaeans 
now called in the aid of Antigonus Doson, king of 
Macedonia, and for the next 3 years Cleomenes 
carried on war against their united forces. He 
was at length completely defeated at the battle of 
Sellasia (222), and fled to Egypt, v^-here lie was- 
kindly received by Ptolemy Euergetes, but on the 
death of that king he was imprisoned by his successor 
Philopator. He escaped from prison, and attempted 
to raise an insurrection, but finding no one join 
him, he put himself to death, 220. 

Cleomenes. 1. A Greek of Naucratis in Egypt, 
appointed by Alexander the Great nomarch of the 
Arabian district {vojxos) of Egypt, and receiver of 
the tribute from the districts of Egypt. B.C. 331. 
His rapacity knew no bounds, and he collected im- 
mense wealth by his extortions. After Alexander's 
death he was put to death by Ptolemy, who took 
possession of his treasures. — 2. A sculptor, son of 
ApoUodorus of Athens, executed the celebrated 
statue of the Venus de Medici, as appears from an 
inscription on the pedestal. He lived between 
B. c. 363 and 146. 

Cleon (KAeojj'), son of Cleaenetus, was ori- 
ginally a tanner, and first came forward in public 
as an opponent of Pericles. On the death of this 
great man, B. c= 429, Cleon became the favourite 
of the people, and for about 6 years of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war (428 — 422) was the head of the 
party opposed to peace. He is represented by 
Aristophanes as a demagogue of the lowest kind, 
mean, ignorant, cowardly, and venal ; and this 
view of his character is confirmed by Thucydides. 
But much weight cannot be attached to the satire 
of the poet ; and the usual impartiality of the his- 
torian may have been warped by the sentence of 
his banishment, if it be true, as has been conjec- 
tured with great probability, that it was through 
Cleon that Thucydides was sent into exile. Cleon 
may be considered as the representative of the 
middle classes of Athens, and by his ready, though 
somewhat coarse, eloquence, gained great influence 
over them. In 427 he strongly advocated in the 
assembly that the Mytilenaeans should be put to 
death. In 424 he obtained his greatest glory by 



taking prisoners the Spartans in the island of 
Sphacteria, and bringing them in safety to Athens. 
Pufl:cd up by this success, he obtained the com- 
mand of an Athenian army, to oppose Brasidas in 
Thrace ; but he Avas defeated by Brasidas, under 
the walls of Ampliipolis, and fell in the battle, 422. 
— The chief attack of Aristophanes upon Cleon 
was in the KmaJds (424), in Avhich Cleon figures 
as. an actual dramatis persona, and, in default of 
an artificer bold enough to make the mask, was re- 
presented by the poet himself with his face smeared 
with wine lees. 

Cleonae (KAea-^'ct : KAewvatos). 1. An ancient 
toAvn in Argolis, on the road from Corinth to Argos, 
on a river of the same name which flows into the 
Corinthian gulf, and at the foot of Mt. Apesas ; 
said to have been built by Clcones, son of Pelops. 
— - 2. A town in the peninsula Athos in Chalcidice. 
■—3. Hyampolis. 

Cleonymus (KAewfivios). 1 An Athenian, fre- 
quently attacked by Aristophanes as a pestilent 
demagogue. — 2. A Spartan, son of Sphodrias, 
much beloA-ed by Archidamus, the son of Agesi- 
laus : he fell at Leuctra, B.C. 371.— -3. Younger 
son of Cleomenes II., king of Sparta, was excluded 
from the throne on his father's death, 309, in con- 
sequence of his violent and tyrannical temper. In 
303 he crossed over to Italy to assist the Taren- 
tines against the Lucanians. He afterv.'ards with- 
drevv^ from Italy, and seized Corcyra ; and in 272 
he invited Pyrrhus to attempt the conquest of 
Sparta. [Acrotatus.] 

Cleopatra {KXeoirdrpa). 1. (Mvth.) Daughter 
of Idas and ]Marpessa, and wife of Meleager, is 
said to have hanged herself after her husband's 
death, or to have died of grief. Her real name 
was Alcyone. —• 2. (Hist.) Niece of Attains, mar- 
ried Philip, B. c. 337, on whose murder she Avas 
put to death by Olympias. — = 3. Daughter of Philip 
and Oh'mipias, and sister of Alexander the Great, 
married Alexander, king of Epirus, 335. It was 
at the celebration of her nuptials that Philip was 
murdered. Her husband died 326. After the 
death of her brother she AA-as sought in marriage by 
several of his generals, and at length promised to 
marry Ptolemy ; but having attempted to escape 
from Sardis, Avhere she had been kept for years in 
a sort of honourable captivity, she Avas assassinated 
by Antigonus. -=-4. Daughter of Antiochus TIL 
the Great, married Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, 193.— 
5. Daughter of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes and No. 4, 
married her brother Ptolemy VI. Philometor, and 
on his death, 146, her other brother Ptolemy VI. 
Physcon. She Avas soon afterwards divorced by 
Physcon, and fled into Syria. — 6. Daughter of 
Ptolemy VI. Philometor and of No. 5, married 
first Alexander Balas (150), the Syrian usurper, 
and on his death Demetrius Nicator. During the 
captivity of tlie latter in Parthia, jealous of the con- 
nexion Avliich he there formed Avith Rhodogune, 
the Parthian princess, she married Antiochus VIL 
Sidetes, his brother, and also murdered Demetrius 
on his return. She likeAvise murdered Seleucus, her 
son b}- Nicator, Avho on his father's death assumed 
the goA-ernment Avithout her consent. Her other 
son by Nicator, Antiochus VIII. Grypus, suc- 
ceeded to the throne (125) through lier influence ; 
and he compelled her to drink the poison which 
she had prepared for him also. [Antiochus VIII.] 
She had a son by Sidetes, Antiochus IX., sur- 
named CA'zicenus. — 7. Another daughter of Pto- 

N 3 



182 CLEOPATRA. 

lemy VI. Philometor and No. 5, married her uncle 
Physcon, when the latter divorced her mother. On 
the death of Physcon she reigned in conjunction with 
her elder son, PtoLmy VIII. Lathyrus. and then 
in conjunction with her younger son Alexander. 
She was put to death by the latter in 89.-8. 
Daughter ot Ptolemy Physcon and No. 7, married 
first her brother Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, and next 
Antiochus IX. Cyzicenus. She was put to death 
by Trj-phaena. her own sister, wife of Antiochus 
Grypus.— 9, Usually called Selene, another daugh- 
ter of Ptolemy Physcon, married 1st her brother 
Lathyrus (on her sister No. 8 being divorced), 2dly 
Antiochus XI. Epiphanes, and 3rdly Antiochus X. 
Eusebes. — 10. Daughter of Ptolemy VIII. Lathy- 
rus, usually called Berenice. [Berenice, No. 4.] 
— 11. Eld'est daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, cele- 
brated for her beauty and fascination, was 17 at 
the death of her father (51), Avho appointed her 
heir of his kingdom in conjunction with her younger 
brother, Ptolemy, Avhom she was to marry. She 
was expelled from the throne by Pothinus and 
Achillas, his guardians. She retreated into Syria, 
and there collected an army with which she was 
preparing to enter Egypt, when Caesar arrived in 
Egypt in pursuit of Porapey, 47. Her charms 
gained for her the support of Caesar, who replaced 
her on the throne in conjunction with her brother. 
This led to the Alexandrme war, in the course of 
which young Ptolem}- perished. Cleopatra thus 
obtained the undivided rule. She was, hov.-ever, 
associated by Caesar with another brother of the 
same name, and still quite a child, to whom slie 
was also nominally married. She had a son by 
Caesar, called Caesarion, and she afterwards 
followed him to Rome, where she appears to have 
been at the time of his death, 44, She then re- 
tamed to Egj'pt, and in 41 she met Antony in 
Cilicia, She was now in her 28th year, and in 
the perfection of matured beauty, which, in con- 
junction with her talents and eloquence, completely 
won the heart of Antony, who henceforth appears 
as her devoted lover and slave. He returned with 
her to Egypt, but was obliged to leave her for a short 
time, in order to marry Octavia, the sister of Au- 
gustus. But Octavia was never able to gain his 
aflFections ; he soon deserted his wife and returned 
to Cleopatra, upon whom he conferred the most ex- 
travagant titles and honours. In the war between 
Octavian and Antony, Cleopatra accompanied her 
lover, and was present at the battle of Actium (31), 
in the midst of which she retreated with her fleet, 
and thus hastened the loss of the day. She fled 
to Alexandria, where she was joined by Antony, 
Seeing Antony's fortunes desperate, she entered 
into negotiations with Augustus, and promised to 
make away with Antony. She fled to a mauso- 
leum she had built, and then caused a report of her 
death to be spread, Antony, resolving not to sur- 
vive her, stabbed himself, and was drawn up into 
the mausoleum, where he died in her arms. She 
then tried to srain the love of Augustus, but her 
charms failed in softening his colder heart. Seeing 
that he determined to carry her captive to Rome, 
she put an end to her own life, either by the poison 
of an asp, or by a poisoned comb, the former suppo- 
sition being adopted by most \\Titers. She died in 
the 39th year of her age (b. c. 30), and with her 
ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies in Egypt, which 
was now made a Ptom.an province. — 12. Daughter 
of Antony and No. 1 1 , bom with her twin brother 



CLITARCHUS, 

j Alexander in 40, along with whom she was carried 
to Rome after the death of her parents, Augustus 
married her to Juba, king of Numidia. — 13, A 
daughter of Mithridates, married Tigranes, king 
of Armenia, 

Cleopatris. [Arsinoe, No. 6.] 
Cleophon {KKiorpocp), an Athenian demagogue, 
of obscure, and, according to Aristophanes, of 
Thracian origin, vehemently opposed peace with 
Sparta in the latter end of the Peloponnesian war. 
During the siege of Athens by Lysander, B.C. 404, 
he was brought to trial by the aristocratical party, 
and was condemned and put to death, 

Cleostratus (KAeoo-Tparos), an astronomer ot 
Tenedos, said to have introduced the division of 
the Zodiac into signs, probably lived between b. c. 
548 and 432. 

Clevtun, alsoGlevum and Glebon (Gloucester), 
a Roman colonv in Britain. 

CKdes (atKKe'^des-.aS.Jndre), "the Keys,'' 
a promontory on the N. E. of Cyprus, with 2 islands 
of the same name lying off it. 

Climax (KAt/xa| : Elcder\ the name applied to 
the W. termination of the Taurus range, which 
extends along the "W. coast of the Pamphylian Gulf, 
N. of Phaselis in Lycia. Alexander made a road 
between it and the sea. There were other moun- 
tains of the same name in Asia and Africa. 
Climbemim. [Acsci.] 
Clinias {KKeivlas). 1, Father of the famous 
Alcibiades, fought at Artemisium B. c. 480, in a 
ship built and manned at his own expense : he fell 
447, at the battle of Coronea. — 2. A younger bro- 
ther of the famous Alcibiades. — 3. Father of Ara- 
tus of Sicyon, was murdered by Abantidas, who 
seized the tyranny, 264. —4. A Pythagorean phi- 
losopher, of Tarentum, a contemporan^ and friend 
of Plato. 

CHo. [MuSAE.] 

Clisthenes {KX^icrQevfis). 1. Tyrant of Sicyon. 
In B. c. 595, he aided the Amphictyons in the 
sacred war ap^ainst Cirrha, which ended, after 10 
years, in the destruction of the guilty city. He 
-also engaged in war with Argos. His death oannot 
be placed earlier than 582, in which year he won 
the victory in the chariot-race at the Pythian games. 
His daughter Agarista was given in marriage to 
Megacles the Alcraaeonid. — 2. An Athenian, son 
of Megacles and Agarista, and grandson of No, 1, 
appears as the head of the Alcmaeonid clan on the 
banishment of the Pisistratidae. Finding, however, 
that he could not cope with his political rival Isa- 
goras except through the aid of the commons, he 
set himself to increase the power of the latter. 
The principal change which he introduced was the 
abolition of the 4 ancient tribes and the establish- 
ment of 10 new ones in their stead, B. c. 510. He 
is also said to have instituted ostracism. Isagoras 
and his party called in the aid of the Spartans, 
but Clisthenes and his friends eventually tri- 
umphed. — 3. An Athenian, whose foppery and 
effeminate profligacy brought him under the lash 
of Aristophanes. 

Clitarchus {KXeirapxos). 1. Tyrant of Eretria in 
Euboea, was supported by Philip against the Athe- 
nians, but was expelled from Eretria by Phocion, 
B. c. 341. — 2. Son of the historian Dinon, accom- 
panied Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedi- 
tion, and v.-rote a history of it. This work wa» 
deficient in veracity and inflated in style, but ap- 
pears nevertheless to have been much read. 



CLTTERNUM. 

Clitemam or Cliternia (Clitenunus), a town 
of the Frentani, in the territory of Larinura. 

Clitomachus (KXeir 6 /xaxos), a Carthaginian by 
birth, and called Hasdrubal in his own language, 
came to Athens in the 40th year of his age, and 
there studied under Carneades, on whose death he 
"became the head of the New Academy, b. c. 129. 
Of his works, which amounted to 400 books, only 
a few titles are preserved. His main object in 
writing them was to make known the philosophy 
of his master Carneades, When Carthage was 
taken in 146, lie wrote a work to console his un- 
fortunate countrymen. 

Clitor or Clitdrium (KXeircop : KXeiropios: nr. 
Mazi^ Ru.), a town in the N. of Arcadia on a 
river of the same name, a tributary of the Aroanius : 
there was a fountain in the neighbourhood, the 
waters of which are said to have given to persons 
who drank of them a dislike for wine. (Ov. Met. 
XV. 822.) 

Clitmrmus (CHimnno), a small river in Umbria, 
springs from a beautiful rock in a grove of cypress- 
trees, where was a sanctuary of the god Clituranus, 
and falls into the Tinia, a tributary of the Tiber. 

Clitus (KAerros or KkeiTos). 1. Son of Bar- 
dylis, king of lllyria, defeated by Alexander the 
Great, b. c. 335. — 2. A Macedonian, one of Alex- 
ander's generals and friends, surnamed the Black 
(MeAas). He saved Alexander's life at the battle 
of Granicus, 334, In 328 he was slain by Alex- 
ander at a banquet, when both parties were heated 
with wine, and Clitus had provoked the king's 
resentment by insolent language. Alexander was 
inconsolable at his friend's death. — 3. Another of 
Alexander's officers, surnamed the White (Aeu/cos) 
to distinguish him from the above. -—4. An officer 
who commanded the Macedonian fleet for Antipater 
in the Lamian war, 323, and defeated the Athenian 
fleet. In 321, he obtained from Antipater the sa- 
trapy of Lydia, from which he was expelled hy 
Antigonus, 319. He afterwards commanded the 
fleet of Polysperchon, and was at first successful, 
but his ships were subsequently destroyed by An- 
tigonus, and he was killed on shore, 318. 

Cloacma or Cluacina, the Purifier " (from 
doare or duere, " to wash " or purify "), a surname 
of Venus at Rome. 

Clodius, another form of the name Claudius, just 
as we find both caudex and codex, daustrum and 
dostrum, cauda and coda. [Claudius.] 

Clodius Albinus. [Albinus.j 

Clodius Macer. [Macer.] 

Cloelia, a Roman virgin, one of the hostages 
given to Porsena, is said to have escaped from the 
Etruscan camp, and to have swum across the Tiber 
to Rome. She was sent back by the Romans to 
Porsena, who was so struck with her gallant deed, 
that he not onlj-- set her at liberty, but allovvedher 
to take with her a part of the hostages. Porsena 
also rewarded her with a horse adorned with 
splendid trappings, and the Romans with the statue 
of a female on horseback, which was erected in the 
Sacred Way. 

Cloelia or Cluilia Grens, of Alban origin, said 
to have been received among the patricians on the 
destruction of Alba. A few of its members with 
the surname Siculus obtained the consulship in the 
early years of the republic. 

Clonas {KXovas), a poet, and one of the earliest 
musicians of Greece, either an Arcadian, or a 
Boeotian, probably lived about e. c. 620. 



CNEMIS. 18;^, 

Clonius (KAoVios), leader of the Boeotians in 
the war against Troy, slain by Agenor. 

Clota Aestuarium {Frith of Clyde), on the W. 
coast of Scotland. 

Cloths. [MOIRAE.] 

Clilentius Habitus, A., of Larinum, accused in 
B. c. 74 his own step-father. Statins Albius Oppia- 
nicus, of having attempted to procure his death by 
poison. Oppianicus was condemned, and it was 
generally believed that the judges had been bribed 
by Cluentius. In 66, Cluentius was himself ac- 
cused by young Oppianicus, son of Statius Albius 
Avho had died in the interval, of 3 distinct acts of 
poisoning. He was defended by Cicero in the 
oration still extant. 

Clunia (Ru. on a hill between Coruna del Conde 
and Pennalha de Castro), a town of the Arevacae 
in Plispania Tarraconensis, and a Roman colony. 

Clupea or Clypea. [Aspis.] 

Clusium (Clusmus : Chiusi), one of the most 
powerful of the 12 Etruscan cities, situated on an 
eminence above the river Clanis, and S. W. of the 
Lacus Clusinus {L. di Chiusi). It was more an- 
ciently called Gamers or Camars, whence we may 
conclude that it was founded by the Umbrian race 
of the Camertes. It was the royal residence of 
Porsena, and in its neighbourhood was the cele- 
brated sepulchre of this king in the form of a laby- 
rinth, of which such marvellous accounts have come 
down to us. {Diet, of Ant. art. Lahyriiithus.) Sub- 
sequently Clusium was in alliance with the Romans, 
by whom it was regarded as a bulwark against the 
Gauls. Its siege by the Gauls, B. c. 391, led, as 
is well known, to the capture of Rome itself by the 
Gauls. Clusium probablj" became a Roman colony, 
since Pliny speaks of Clusini Veteres et Novi. In 
its neighbourhood were cold baths. (Hor. Ep. i. 
15. 9.) 

Cluslus (CJiiese), a river in Cisalpine Gaul, a 
tributary of the Ollius, forming the boundary be- 
tween the Cenomani and Insubres. 

Clnvius, a family of Campanian origin, of which 
the most important person was M. Cluvius Eufus, 
consul suffectus a.d. 45,and governor of Spain under 
Galba, a. d. 69, on whose death he espoused the 
cause of Vitellius. He was an historian, and wrote 
an account of the times of Nero, Galba, Otho, and 
Vitellius. 

Clymeae {K\vfx4v7]). 1. Daughter of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and wife of lapetus, to whom she bore 
Atlas, Prometheus, and others.— -2. Daughter of 
Iphis or Minyas, wife of Phylacus or Cephalus, to 
whom she bore Iphiclus and Alcimede. According 
to Hesiod and others she was the mother of Phae- 
ton by Helios.— 3. A relative of Mcnelaus and a 
companion of Helena, with Avhom she was carried 
off by Paris. 

Clytaemnestra {K\vr ai/jLvrjar pa), daughter of 
Tjmdareus and Leda, sister of Castor, and half- 
sister of Pollux and Helena. She was married to 
Agamemnon. During her husband's absence at 
Troy she lived in adultery with Aegisthus, and 
on his return to Mycenae she murdered him with 
the help of Aegisthus. [Agamemnon.] She was 
subsequently put to death by her son Orestes, who 
thus avenged the murder of his father. For de- 
tails see Orestes. 

Cnemis {Kvrifxis), a range of mountains on the 
frontiers of Phocis and Locris, from which the N. 
Locrians were called Epicnemidii. A branch of 
these mountains runs ou.t into the sea, forming the 

N 4 



1J?4 CNKPll. 

prcmontory Cnemidss (Ki TjuISes), with a town of 
the same name upoa it, opposite the promontory 
Cenaeum in Eiihoca. 

Cneph {Kvv(p), or Cnuphus (Kj'oCs'kv'), an 
Kpryplian divinity, worsliipped in the form of a ser- 
pent, and rcirarded as the creator of the world. 

Cnidus or Gnidus (Kvioos: KriSms : Ru. at 
Cape A'r/o), a cele brated city of Asia Minor, on the 
fironiontory of Triopium on the coast of Caria, was 
a Lacedaemonian colony, and the chief city of the 
Dorian Plexapolis. It was l.uilt partly on the 
mainland and partly on an island joined to the 
coast by a causeway, and had two harbours. It 
had a considerable commerce ; and it was resorted 
to by travellers from all parts of the civilized 
world, that they might see the statu? of Aphrodite 
by Praxiteles, which stood in her temple here. 
The city possessed also temples of A])ollo and Po- 
seidon. The great naval defeat of Pisander by 
Conon (b. c. 394) took place off Cnidus. Among 
t!ie celebrated natives of the city were Ctesias, 
Eudoxus, Sostratus, and Agntharcides. It is said 
to have been also called, at an early period, Triopia, 
from its founder Triopas,and, in later times, Stadia. 

Cnosus or Gnosus, subsequently Cnossns or j 
GnOSSUS (Kvo}a6s, Fra'cros, Kvwcrcros, r^"joacr6s : \ 
Ki'JsaiM. KrcJcrr:.!? : JSlukro Trilcho), an ancient j 
towni of Crete, and the capital of king !Minos, was . 
situated in a fertile country on the river Caeratus j 
(^which was originally the name of the town), at a I 
short distance from the N. coast. It was at an j 
early time colonized by Dorians, and from it Dorian j 
institutions spread over the island. Its p-werwas ! 
weakened by the growing importance of Ge.rtyn ! 
and Cydonia ; and these tov.-ns, when united, were i 
more than a match for Cnossus. — Cnossus is fre- ; 
quently mentioned by the poets in consequence of | 
its connection with Minos, Ariadne, the Minotaur, 
and the Labyrinth ; and the adjective Cnossius is ' 
frequently used a^ equivalent to Cretan. ; 

Cobus or CohibttS (Kccfo?), a river of Asia, ; 
flowing from the Caucasus into the E. side of the 
Euxine. 

Cocalus {KwKz\os\ a mythical king of Sicily, 
who kindly received Daedalus on his flight from j 
Crete, and Avith the assistnnce of his daughters | 
put Miu' s t.> death, when the latter came in j 
pursuit of Daedalus. i 
Coccsitis Hei'YSL: [Nerv.i.1 j 
Coche (Kc— '/;), a city on the Tigris, near Ctc- j 
siphon. I 
Cociatliuin or Cocmtiim {Punta di Sluo), a j 



promontory on the 



E. of Bruttium in Itaiv. with \ 



x\ town of the same name upon ir. , 
Codes, Horatius. that is, Horatius the " one- j 
eyed,'' a hero of the old Roman l:;ys, is said to : 
have defended xhe Sublician bridge along A^ ith Sp. } 
Lartius and T. Herminius against the whole Etnis- 
can army under Porsena, while the Romans broke 
down the bri "ge behind them. "When the work 
v.-as nearly finished, Hoi-atins sent back his 2 com- 
panions. As soon as the bridge was quite destroyed, 
he plunged into the stream ar.d swam across to the 
cit\- in safety amid the arrov. s of the enemy. The 
state raised a statue to his honour, which was 
placed in the comitium, and allowed him as much 
land as he could plough round in one day. Poly- 
bius relates that Horatius defended the bridge 
alone, and perished in the river. 

Cocossates, a people in Aquitania in Gaul, 
mentioned along with the Tarbelli. 



COELETAE. 
Cocylimn {Kokv\iov\^ an Aeolian city in Mysia, 
whose inhabitants {KoKvXlrai) are mentioned bv 
Xenophon ; but which was abandoned before Pliny's 
time. 

Cocytus (KwffUTo's), a river in Eptrus, a tri- 
butary of the Acheron. Like the Acheron, the 
Cocytus was supposed to be connected with the 
lower world, and hence came to be described as a 
river in the lower world. Homer {Od. x. 513) 
makes the Cocytus a tributary of the Styx ; Vut 
Virgil {Acn. vi. 295) represents the Acheron as 
flowing into the Cocytus. 

Codanus Sinus, "the S. W. part of the Baltic, 
whence the Danish islands are c;dled Codaaonia. 

Codomannus. [Darics.] 

Codrus (Ko5pos). 1. Son of Melanthus, and 
l"st king of Athens. "When the Dorians invaded 
Attica from Peloponnesus f about B.C. 1068 ac- 
cording to mythical chronology), an oracle declared, 
that they should be victorious if the life of the 
Attic king was spared. Codrus thereupon re- 
solved to sacritice himself for his country. He 
entered the camp of the enemy in disguise, com- 
menced qnarrellin? with the soldiers, and was slain 
in the dispute. When the Dorians discovered the 
death of the Attic king, they returned home. 
Tradition adds, that as no one v^as thought worthy 
to succeed such a patriotic king, the kingly dignity 
wiis abolished, and ^Medon, son of Codrus, was 
appointed archon for \\h instead.— 2. A Roman 
poet, ridiculed by Virgil. Juvenal also speaks of 
a wretched poet of th.- same name. The name is 
probably fictitious, and appears to have been ap- 
plied by the Roman poets to those poetasters who 
annoyed other people by reading their productions 
to them. 

Coela (tk lioiKa TTis EvSoias'^, *' the Hollows of 
Euboea,"' the W. coast of Euboea. between the 
promontories Capliareus and Chersonesus, \ery dan- 
gerous to ships : here a f«irt of the Persian fleet 
was wrecked, B.C. 480. 

Coele {Ko'iXt}^. an Attic deraus belonging to the 
tribe Hippothoontis, a little way beyond the Me- 
litian gate at Athens : here Cimon and Thucydides 
were buried. 

Coelesyria (ij KoIXtj Supi'a, i. e. llolloic Syria), 
was the name given, after the Macedonian con- 
quest, to the great valley {El-Bukaa\ between the 
two ranges of M. Lebanon (Libanus and Anti- 
Libanus), in the S. of Syria, bordering upon Phoe- 
nicia on the "W. and Palestine on the S. In the 
wars between the Ptolemies and the Seleucidae, 
the name was applied to the whole of the S. por- 
tion of Syria, which became subject for some time 
to the kings of Egypt ; but, under the Romans, 
when Phoenicia and Judaea were made distinct 
provinces, the name of Coelesvria was confined to 
Coelesyria proper together with the district E. of 
Anti-Libanus, about Damascus, and a portion of 
Palestine E. of the Jordan ; and this is the most 
usual meaning of the term. Under the later em- 
perors, it was considered as a part of Phoenicia, 
and was called Phoenice Libanesia. The countrx- 
v.-as for the most part fertile, especially the E. dis- 
trict about the river Chrysarrhoas : the valley of 
Coelesyria proper was watered by the Leontes. 
The inhabitants were a mixt people of Syrians, 
Phoenicians, and Grcfiks, called Syrophoenicians 
{'SvpocpciyiKes). 

Coeletae or Ccelaletae, a people of Thrace, di- 
vided into Majores and Minores, in the district 



COELIUS. 



COLOTES. 



135 



Coeletica, between the Hebrus and the gulf of 
Melas. 

Coelius. [Caelius.] 

Coelossa (KotAwcrcra), a mountain in the Sicy- 
onian territory, near Phlius, an offshoot of the Ar- 
cadian mountain Cyllene. 

Coelus (KoiAos Kij.L-r]v) or Coela (Ky<Aa), a sea- 
port town in the Thracian Chersonese, near which 
was the Kuvhs arjjxa^ or the grave of Hecuba. 
[Cynossema.] 

Coenus {Kolvos)^ son-in-law of Parmenion, one 
of the ablest generals of Alexander the Great, died 
on the Hj^phasis, B. c. 327. 

Coenyra {Koivvpa), a place in the island Thasos, 
opposite Samothrace. 

C5es (Kai77s), of Mytilene, dissuaded Darius 
Kystaspi3,in his Scythian expedition, from breaking 
up his bridge of boats over the Dainibe. For this 
good counsel he was rewarded by Darius with the 
tyranny of Mytilene. On the breaking out of the 
Ionian revolt, B. c. .501, he was stoned to death by 
the Mytilenaeans. 

Colapis {K6Xoy.\> in Dion Cass. : Kulpa), a river 
in Pannonia, flows into the Savus : on it dwelt the 
Colapiani. 

ColcMs (Ko?vXis: Kc'Axos), a country of Asia, 
Ijounded on the W. by the Euxine, on the N. by 
the Caucasus, on the E. by Iberia; on the S. and 
S.W. the boundaries were somewhat indefinite, r.nd 
were often considered to extend as far as Trapczus 
(Trehizond). The land of Colchis (or Aea), and 
its river Phasis are famous in the Greek mytho- 
logy. [Akgonautae.] The name of Colchis is 
first mentioned by Aeschylus and Pindar. The 
historical acquaintance of the Greeks with the 
country may be ascribed to the commerce of the 
Milesians. It ^^•a3 a very fertile country, and 
yielded timber, pitch, hemp, ilax, and wax, as 
articles of connnerce ; but it v/as most famous for 
its manufactures of linen, on account of which, and 
of certain physical resemblances, Herodotus sup- 
posed the Colcliians to have been a colony from 
Egypt. The land was governed by its native 
princes, until Mithridates Eupator made it subject 
to the kingdom of Pontus. After the Mithridatic 
war, it was overrun by the Romans, but they did 
not subdue it till the time of Trajan. Under the 
later emperors the country was called Lazica, from 
the name of one of its principal tribes, the Lazi. 

Colias (KwAias), a promontory on the W. coast 
of Attica, 20 stadia S. of Phalerum, with a temple 
of Aphrodite, where some of the Persian ships 
were cast after the battle of Salamis. Colias is 
usually identified Avith the cape called the Three 
Towers (Tpets UvpyoL). but it ought to be placed 
S.E. near"A7ios Kocri.i.us. 

CoUatia (CoUatinus). 1. (Castellaccio), a Sa- 
bine town in Latium, near the right bank of the 
Anio, taken by Tarquinius Prisons. -—2. A town 
in Apulia, only mentioned under the empire. 

Collatinus, L. Tarquinius, son of Egerius, and 
nephew of Tarquinius Priscus, derived the surname 
Collatinus from the town CoUatia, of Avhich his 
father had been appointed governor. He was mar- 
ried to Lucretia, and it was the rape of the latter 
by Sex. Tarquinius that led to the dethronement 
of Tarquinius Superbus. Collatinus and L. Junius 
Brutus were the first consuls ; but as the people 
could not endure the rule of any of the hated race 
of the Tarquins, Collatinus resigned his oflice and 
retired from Home to Lavinium. 



Collina Porta. [Roma.] 

Colly tUS (KoWvtSs, also KoXvttSs : KoAAu- 
revs), a demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe 
Aegeis, was included within the walls of Athens, 
and formed one of the districts into which the city 
was divided : it was the demus of Plato and the 
residence of Timon the misanthrope. 

Coldnae (KoAwmt), a small town in the Troad, 
mentioned in Greek histor}--, but destroyed before 
the time of Pliny. 

Coloma Agrfppma or Agrippinensis (Cologne 
on the Rhine), originally the chief town of the 
Ubii, and called Oppiduin or Civiias Uhiorum^ was 
a place of small importance till A. d. 51, when a 
Roman colony was planted in the town by the em- 
peror Claudius, at the instigation of his wife Agrip- 
pina, who was born here, and from whom it derived 
its new name. Its inhabitants received the jus 
Italicum. It soon became a large and flourishing 
city, and was the capital of Lower Germany. At 
Cologne there are still several Roman remains, an 
ancient gate, with the inscription C. C. A. A. i. e. 
Colonia Claudia Aucjusfa Af;rippuic?2sis, the founda- 
tions of the Roman walls, &c. 

Colorua Eqaestris. [Noviodunum ] 

ColonuS (KoXcjuos : KoAcoi/eu? -vlttis, -vidrrji), 
a denuis of Attica, belonging to the tribe Aegeis, 
afterwards to the tribe Antiochis, 10 stadia, or a 
little more than a mile N.W. of Athens ; near the 
Academy, lying on and round a hill ; celebrated 
for a temple of Poseidon (hence called KoAat'hs 
"iTTTreios), a grove of the Eumenides, and the tomb 
of Oedipus. Sophocles, who was a native of this 
demus, has described the scenery and religious as- 
sociations of the spot, in his Oedipus Coloneus. — 
There was a hill at Athens called Colonus Agoraeus 
(KoAojj/bs 6 ayopalos). 

Colophdn (Koko(pwv : Zille, Ru.), one of the 12 
Ionian cities of Asia Minor, was said to have been 
founded by Mopsus, a grandson of Tiresias. It stood 
about 2 miles from the coast, on the river Halesus, 
which was famous for the coldness of its water, 
between Lebedus and Ephesus, 120 stadia (12 
geog. miles) from the former and 70 stadia (7 g. m.) 
from the latter : its harbour was called Notiuni. 
It was one of the most powerful members of the 
Ionian confederacy, possessing a considerable fleet 
and excellent cavalry ; but it suffered greatly in 
war, being taken at different times by the Lydians, 
the Persians, Lysimachus, and the Cilician pirates. 
It was made a free city by the Romans after their 
war Avith Antiochus the Great. Besides claiming 
to be the birth-place of Homer, Colophon was the 
native city of Mimnermus, Hermesianax, and Ni- 
cander. It Avas also celebrated for the oracle of 
Apollo Clarius in its neighbourhood. [Clarus.] 

Colossae (KoXocraai, aft. KoAaaaaL : KaXoaar]- 
ro'y, Strab., KoXoaaaevs, N. T. ; Khonas, Ru.), a 
city of Great Phrygia on the river Lycus, once of 
great importance, but so reduced by the rise of the 
neighbouring cities of Laodicea and Hierapoiis, 
that the later geographers do not even mention it, 
and it might have been forgotten but for its place 
in the early history of the Christian Church. In 
the middle ages it Avas called Xcoj'cci, and hence 
the modern name of the village on its site. 

Colotes (KoAwTTjs), 1. Of Lampsacus, a hearer 
of Epicurus, against Avhom Plutarch Avrote 2 of his 
Avorks.— 3. A sculptor of Paros, flourished B. c, 
444, and assisted Phidias in executing the colossu.s 
of Zeus at Olyrapia. 



186 



COLUMELLA. 



CONISALUS. 



Columella, L. Junius Moderatus, a native of 
Gades in Spain, and a contemporary of Seneca. We 
]iave no particulars of his life ; it appears, from his 
own account, that at some period of his life, he 
visited Syria and Cilicia ; but Rome appears to have 
been his ordinary residence. He wrote a work 
upon agriculture {De Re Rustica)^ in 12 books, 
which is still extant. It treats not only of agri- 
culture proper, but of the cultivation of the vine 
and the olive, of gardening, of rearing cattle, of 
bees, &c. The 1 0th book, which treats of garden- 
ing, is composed in dactylic hexameters, and forms 
a sort of supplement to the Georgics. There is 
also extant a work De Arboribus, in one book. The 
style of Columella is easy and ornate. The best 
edition of his works is by Schneider, in the Scrip- 
lores Rei Rusiicae, 4 vols. Svo., Lips. 1 7.'^4. 
Colunmae Herculis. [Ahyla ; C.alpe.] 
Coluthus (K6\ovOos), a Greek rpic poet of Ly- 
copolis in Egypt, lived at the begiiuiing of the 6th 
ccntur}"^ of our era. He is the author of an extinct 
poem on " The Rape of Helen" ('EAeVTjs apTrayfj), 
consisting of 392 hexameter lines. Edited by 
Bekker, Berl. 1816, and Schacfer, Lips. 1825. 

ColyttUS. [COLLYTUS.] 

Comana (Ko^ava). 1. C. Pontica (Gumini/:, 
Tin.), a flourishing city of Pontus, upon the river 
Iris, celebrated for its temple of Artemis Taurica, 
the foundation of which tradition ascribed to 
Orestes. The high-priests of this temple took 
rank next after the king, and their domain was 
increased by Pompey after the Mithridatic Avar,— 
2. Cappadociae, or C. Chryse {Bosicm), lay in a 
narrow valley of the Anti-Taurus, in Cataonia, 
and was also celebrated for a temple of Artemis 
Taurica, the foundation of which was likewise 
ascribed by tradition to Orestes. 

Combrea (Kw^gpeto), a town in the Macedonian 
district of Crossaea. 

Cominium, a town in Samnium, destroyed by 
the Romans in the Samnite wars. 

Commagene {KoixjuLaywv)', the N. E.-most dis- 
trict of Syria, was bounded on the E. and S. E. by 
the Euphrates, on the N. and N,W. by the Tau- 
rus, and on the S. by Cyrrhestice. It formed a 
part of the Greek kingdom of Syria, after the fall 
of which it maintained its independence under a 
race of kings who appear to have been a branch of 
the family of the Seleucidae, and Avas not united 
to the Roman empire till the reign of Vespasian. 
Under Constantine, if not earlier, it was made a 
part of Cyrrhestice. The district was remarkable 
for its fertility, 

Commius, king of the Atrebates, was advanced 
to that dignity by Caesar, who had great confidence 
in him. He was sent by Caesar to Britain to ac- 
company the ambassadors of the British states on 
their return to their native country, but he was 
cast into chains by the Britons, and was not re- 
leased till the Britons had been defeated by Caesar, 
and found it expedient to sue for peace. In B. c. 
52 he joined the other Gauls in their great revolt 
against the Romans, and continued in arms even 
after the capture of Alesia. 

Commodus, L. Ceiomus, was adopted by Ha- 
drian, A. D. 136, when he took the name of L. 
Aelius Verus Caesar. His health was weak ; 
he died on the 1st of January, 138, and was in- 
terred in the mausoleum of Hadrian. His son L. 
Aurelius Verus was the colleague of Antoninus 
Pius in the empire. [Verus.] 



Commodus, L. Aurelius, Roman emperor, a. d. 

180 — 192, son of M. Aurelius and the younger 
Faustina, was born at Lanuvium, 161, and was 
thus scarcely 20, when he succeeded to the em- 
pire. He was an unworthy son of a noble father. 
Notwithstanding the great care which his father 
had bestowed upon his education, he turned out 
one of the most sanguinary and licentious tyrants 
that ever disgraced a throne. It was after tht- 
suppression of the plot against his life, Avhich had 
been organised b\' his sister Lucilla, 183, that 
he first gave uncontrolled swa)' to his ferocious 
temper. He resigned the government to various 
favourites Avho followed each other in rapid succes- 
sion (Perennis, Clcander, Laetus, and Eclectiis), 
and abandoned himself without interruption to the 
most shameless debauchery. But he Avas at the 
same time the slave of the most childish vanity, 
and sought to gain popular applause by fighting as 
a gladiator, and slew many thousands of Avild 
beasts in the amphitheatre Avith boAV and spear. 
In consequence of these exploits he assumed the 
name of Hercules, and demanded that he should 
be Avorshipped as that god, 191. In the folloAving 
year his concubine Marcia found on his tablets, 
Avhile he Avas asleep, that she Avas doomed to perish 
along Avith Laetus and Eclectns and other leading; 
men in the state. She forthAvith administered 
poison to him, but as its operation Avas sIoav, Nar- 
cissus, a celebrated athlete, Avas introduced, and 
by him Commodus Avas strangled, Dec. 31st, 192. 

Comnena. [Anna Comnena,] 

Complutum, a toAvn of the Carpetani in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, betAA^en Segovia and Bilbilis. 

Compsa (Compsiinus : Conza), a town of the 
Hirpini in Samnium, near the sources of the Aufidus. 

Comum (Comensis : Como), a tOAvn in Gallia 
Cisalpina, at the S. extremity of the W. branch of 
the Lacus Larius (L. di Como). It was originally 
a tOAvn of the Insubrian Gauls, and Avas colonized 
by Pompeius Strabo, by Cornelius Scipio, and by 
Julius Caesar, Caesar settled there 6000 colonists, 
among Avhom AA^cre 500 distinguished Greek fa- 
milies; and this new population so greatly exceeded 
the number of the old inhabitants, that the tOAvn 
Avas called Novum Comum^ a name, however, 
Avhich it did not retain. Comum Avas celebrated 
for its iron-manufactories: it Avas the birthplace of 
the youjiger Pliny. 

Comus, the god of festive mirth and joy, is re- 
presented as a Avinged youth. 

Concordia, a Roman goddess, the personification 
of concord, had several temples at Romp. The 
earliest AA'as built by Camillus in commemoration 
of the reconciliation betAveen the patricians and 
plebeians, after the enactment of the Licinian roga- 
tions, B.C. 367. In this temple the senate fre- 
quently met. Concordia is represented on coins as 
a matron, holding in her left hand a cornucopia, 
and in her right either an olive branch or a patera. 

Condate, the name of many Celtic toAvns, saio 
to be equivalent in meaning to Confluentes, i. e. the 
union of two riA-ers, 

Condrusi, a German people in Gallia Bclgica, 
the dependents of the Treviri, dwelt between the 
Eburones and the Treviri in the district of Condros 
on the Maas and Ourthe. 

Confluentes {Coblenz), a town in Germany at 
the confluence of the Moselle and the Rhine. 

Conisalus (KofiVaAos), a deity worshipped at 
Athens along Avith Priapus. 



CONON. 

Conon (Kouwi/). 1. A distinguished Athenian 
general, held several important commands in the 
latter part of the Peloponnesian war. After the 
defeat of the Athenians by Lysander at Aegos 
Potami (ij. c. 405), Conon, who was one of the 
generals, escaped with 8 ships, and took refuge 
with Evagoras in Cyprus, where be remained for 
some years. He was subsequently appointed to 
the command of the Persian fleet along with Phar- 
nabazus, and in this capacity was able to render ' 
the most effectual service to his native countr}-. In 
394 he gained a decisive victory over Pisander, 
the Spartan admiral, oiT Cnidus. After clearing 
the Aegean of the Spartans, he returned to Athens 
in 393, and commenced restoring the long walls 
and the fortifications of Piraeus. When the Spar- 
tans opened their negotiations with Tiribazus, the 
Persian satrap, Conon, was sent by the Athenians 
to counteract the intrigues of Antalcidas, but was 
thrown into prison by Tiribazus. According to 
some accounts, he was sent into the interior of 
Asia, and there put to death. But according to 
the most probable account, he escaped to Cyprus, 
where he died. — 2. Son of Timotheus, grandson 
of the preceding, lived about 31 8. — - 3. Of Saraos, 
a distinguished mathematician and astronomer, 
lived in the time of the Ptolemies Philadelphus 
and Euergetes (b.c. 283 — 222), and was tlie friend 
of Archimedes, who praises him in the highest 
terms. None of his works are preserved ■»»» 4. A 
grammarian of the age of Augustus, author of a 
work entitled Air]yi)aeLs, a collection of 50 narra- 
tives relating to the mythical and heroic period. 
An epitome of the work is preserved by Photius. 

Conopa {Kwi'doiva ; Kooi^ooirevs — irLTTjs — TraTcs), 
a village in Aetolia on the Achelous, enlarged by 
Arsinoe, wife of Ptolemy II., and called after her 
name. 

Consentes Dii, the 12 Etruscan gods who formed 
the council of Jupiter. They consisted of 6 male 
and 6 female divinities : Ave do not know the names 
of all of them, but it is certain that Juno, Minerva, 
Summanus, Vulcan, Satui-n, and Mars were among 
them. 

Consentia (Consentmus : Cosen~a), chief town 
of the Bruttii on the river Crathis: here Alaric died. 

P. Consentius, a Roman grammarian, probably 
flourished in the 5th century of the Christian era, 
and is the author of 2 extant grammatical works, 
one published in the Collection of grammarians by 
Putschius, Hanov. 1605 {De Duahus PaHibus Ora- 
tionis^ Nomine et Verbo), and the other by Buttman, 
Berol. 1817. 

C- Considius Longus, propraetor in Africa, left 
his province shortly before the breaking out of the 
civil war b. c. 49, entrusting the government to Q. 
Ligarius. He returned to Africa soon afterwards, 
and held Adrumetum for the Pompeian party. 
After the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus, he 
attempted to fly into Mauretania, but was mur- 
dered by the Gaetulians. 

Constans, youngest of the 3 sons of Constantine 
the Great and Fausta, received after his father's 
death (a. d. 3S7) Illyricum., Italy, and Africa as 
his share of the empire. After successfully resist- 
ing his brother Constantine, who was slain in in- 
vading his territory (340), Constans became master 
of the whole West. His weak and profligate cha- 
racter rendered him an object of contempt, and he 
was slain in 350 by the soldiers of the usurper 
Magwentius. 



CONSTANTINUS. 



187 



Constantia. 1. Daughter of Constantius Chlo- 
rus and half-sister of Constantine the Great, mar- 
ried to Licinius, the colleague of Constantine in the 
empire. — 2. Daughter of Constantius II. and 
grand-daughter of Constantine the Great, married 
the emperor Gratian, 

Constantia, the name of several cities, all of 
v/hich are either of little consequence, or better 
known by other names. 1. In C3''prus, named 
after Constantius [SxVLAmis]. 2. In Phoenicia, 
after the same [Antaradus], 3. In Palestine, 
the port of Gaza, named after the sister of Con- 
stantine the Great, and also called Magiuna. 4. 
In Mesopotamia. [Antoninopolis.] 

C'onstantlna, daughter of Constantine the Great 
and Fausta, married to Hannibalianus, and after 
tlie death of the latter to Gallus Caesar. 

Constantina, the city. [Cirta.] 

Constantinopolis (kwva-Tai^TLPov itoAls: Con- 
staniinople), built on the site of the ancient Byzan- 
tium by Constantine the Great, who called it after 
his own name and made it the capital of the 
Roman empire. It was solemnly consecrated 
A. D. 330. It was built in imitation of Rome. 
Thus it covered 7 hills, was divided into 1 4 regiones, 
and was adorned with various buildings in imita- 
tion of the capital of the Western world. Its 
extreme length was about 3 Roman miles ; and its 
Avails included eventually a circumference of 1 3 or 
14 Roman miles. It continued the capital of the 
Roman empire in the E. till its capture by the 
Turks in 1453. An account of its topography and 
history does not fall Avithin the scope of the present 
Avork. 

Constantinus. 1. 1. Surnamed " the Great," Ro- 
man emperor, a.b. 306 — 337, eldest son of the em- 
peror Constantius Chlorus and Helena, Avas born a. d. 
272, at Naissus (Nissa), a town in upper Moesia. 
He was early trained to arms, and served Avith 
great distinction under Galerius in the Persian 
Avar. Galerius became jealous of him and detained 
him for some time in the E.; but Constantine at 
last contrived to join his father in Gaul just in 
time to accompany him to Britain on his expedition 
against the Picts, 306. His father died at York 
in the same year, and Constantine laid claim to a 
share of the empire. Galerius, Avho dreaded a 
struggle Avith the braA'e legions of the West, ac- 
knoAvledged Constantine as master of the countries 
beyond the Alps, but with the title of Caesar only 
The commencement of Constantine's reign, however, 
is placed in this year, though he did not receive 
the title of Augustus till 308. Constantine took 
up his residence at Treviri (Treves), Avhere the 
remains of his palace are still extant. He governed 
with justice and firmness, beloA-ed by his subjects, 
and feared by the neighbouring barbarians. It 
Avas not long however before he became involved 
in war Avith his rivals in the empire. In the same 
year that he had been acknoAvledged Caesar (306), 
Maxentius, the son of Maximian, had seized the 
imperial power at Rome. Constantine entered into 
a close alliance Avith Maxentius by marrying his 
sister Fausta. But in 310 Maximian formed a 
plot against Constantine, and Avas put to death by 
his son-in-laAv at Massilia. Maxentius resented 
the death of his father, and began to make prepa- 
rations to attack Constantine in Gaul. Constantine 
anticipated his movements, and invaded Italy at 
the head of a large army. The struggle Avas brought 
to a close by the defeat of Maxentius at the village 



188 



CONST AXTIUS 



CONSTANTIUS. 



of Saxa RuLra near Rome, October 27ili, ^iTJ. 
Maxentiiis tried to escape over the Milvian bridg'^ 
into Rome, but perished in the river. It was in 
this campaign that Constantine is said to liavc 
been converted to Christianity. On his march from 
theN.to Rome, either at Autun in Gaul, or near 
Andernach on the Rhine, or at Verona, he is said to 
have seen in the sky a luminous cross with the 
inscription eV tovtm n'/ca, Ry this, Conquer; 
and on the night before the last and decisive battle 
with Maxentius, a vision is said to have appeared 
to Constantino in his sleep, bidding him inscribe 
the shields of his soldiers with the sacred monogram 
of the name of Christ. The tale of the cross seems 
to have grown out of that of the vision, and even 
the latter is not entitled to credit. It was Con- 
?tantine"'s interest to gain the affections of his 
numerous Christian subjects in his struggle with 
his rivals ; and it was probably only self-interest 
which led him at first to adopt Christianity. Rut 
whether sincere or not in his conversion, his con- 
duct did little credit to the religion which he 
professed. The miracle of his conversion was com- 
memorated by the imperial standard of the Lahaniin^ 
at the summit of which was the monogram of the 
name of Christ. Constantino, by his victory over 
Maxentius, became the sole master of the W. 
Meantime important events took place in the E, 
On the death of Galerius in 311, Licinius and 
Maximinus had divided the East betvvcen tiiem; 
but in 313 a war broke out between them, Maxi- 
min was defeated, and died at Tarsus. Thus there 
were only two emperors left, Licinius in the E. and 
Constantine in tlie W.; and between them also war 
broke out in 314, although Licinius had married 
in the preceding year Constantia, the sister of 
Constantine. Licinius was defeated at Cibalis in 
Pannonia and afterwards at Adrianople. Peace 
was then concluded on condition that Licinius 
should resign to Constantine Tllyricum, Macedonia, 
and Achaia, 314. This peace continued undis- 
turbed for 9 years, during which time Constantine 
xvas fiefiuently engaged in v/ar with the barbarians 
on tlio Danube and the Rhine. In these wars his 
son Crispus greatly distinguished himself In 323 
the war between Constantine and Licinius -was 
rcncw'cd. Licinius was again defeated in 2 great 
battles^ first near Adrianople, and again at Clial- 
cedon. He surrendered himself to Constantine 
on condition of having his life spared, but he 
was shortly afterwards put to death at Thcs- 
salonica by order of Constantine. Constantine 
was now sole master of the empire. He resolved 
to remove the seat of empire to Byzantium, 
which he called after his own name Constan- 
tinople, or the city of Constantine. The new 
city was solemnly dedicated in 330. Constantine 
reigned in peace for the remainder of his life. In 
325 he supported the orthodox bishops at the great 
Christian council of Nicaea (Nice), which con- 
demned the Arian doctrine by adopting the word 
bfioovffiov. In 324 he put to death his eldest son 
Crispus on a charge of treason, the truth of which 
ho\vever seems very doubtfid. He died in Maj% 
337, and was baptized shortly before his death by 
Eusebius. His three sons Cons<^antine, Constantius 
and Constans succeeded him in the empire.— 2. II. 
Roman emperor, 337 — 340, eldest of the 3 sons of 
Constantine the Great, by Fausta, received Gaul, 
Britain, Spain, and part of Africa at his father's 
death. Dissatisfied with his share of the empire. 



he made war upon his younger brother Constans, 
who governed Italy, but was defeated and slain 
near Aquileia. — 3. An usurper, who assumed the 
purple in Britain in the reign of Arcadius and 
HonoriuR, 407. He also obtained possession of 
Gaul and Spain, and took up his residence in the 
former coujitry. He reigned 4 years, but was 
defeated in 41 1 by Constantins, the general of IIo- 
norius, was taken prisoner and carried to Ravenna, 
where he was put to death. — 4. Constantine is 
likewise the name of many of the later emperors 
of Constantinople. Of these Constantine VII. 
Porphyrogenitus, who reigned 91 1 — 9o9, was cele- 
brated for his literary works, many of which have 
come down to us. 

Constautius. 1. I. Surnamed Clilorus, " the 
pale," Roman emperor, a. d. 305-306, was the son 
of Eutropius, a noble Dardanian, and of Claudia, 
daughter of Crispus, brother of Claudius II. He 
was one of the two Caesars appointed hy Maxi- 
mian and Diocletian in 292, and received the go- 
vernment of Britain, Gaul, and Spain with Treviri 
(Treves) as his residence. At the same time he 
married Theodora, the daughter of the wife of 
Maximian, divorcing for that purpose his wife 
Helena. As Caesar he rendered the empire im- 
portant services. His first eflx)rt was to reunite 
Britain to the empire, which after the murder of 
Carausius was governed by Allectus. After a 
struggle of 3 years (293— 29G) with Allectus, 
Constantius established his authority in Britain. 
He was equally sciccessful against the Alemanni, 
whom he defeated with great loss. Upon the ab- 
dication of Diocletian and I\raximian, in 305, Con- 
staiifiiis and Galerius became the Augusti. Con- 
ef;i:itiii.s died 15 months afterwards (July, 306) at 
l"]l)oracn;ii (York) in Britain, on an expedition 
auainst the Picts, in which he was accompanied by 
his snn Constantino, afterwards the Great, who suc- 
ceeded him in his share of the government. — 2. 
II. Roman emperor, 337 — 361, third son of Con- 
stantino the Great by his second wife Fausta. On 
the death of his father in 337. he received the 
E. as his share of the empire. Upon his accession 
he became involved in a serious war with the Per- 
sians, which was carried on with a few interrup- 
tions during the greater part of his reign. This 
wi\T prevented him from taking any part in the 
struggle between his brothers Constantine and 
Constans, which ended in the defeat and death of 
tlie jbrmer, and the accession of the latter to the 
sole empire of the "W., 340. After the death of 
Constans in 350, Constantius marched into the W. 
in order to oppose Magncntius and Vetranio, both 
of whom had assumed the purple. Vetranio sub- 
mitted to Constantius, and Magnentius was finally 
crushed in 353. Thus the whole empire again became 
sul)ject to one ruler. In 354 Constantius put to death 
his cousin Gallus, whom he had left in command 
of the E., while he marched against the usurpers 
in the W. In 355 Constantius made Julian, the 
brother of Gallus, Caesar, and sent him into Gaul 
to oppose the barbarians. In 360 Julian was pro- 
claimed Augustus by the soldiers at Paris. Con- 
stantius prepared for war and set out for Europe, 
but died on his march in Cilicia, 361. He was suc- 
ceeded by Julian.— 3. III. Emperor of the West 
(a. D. 421), a distinguished general of Honorius. 
He defeated the usurper Constantine in 411, and 
also fought successfully against the barbarians. He 
was rewarded for these services with the hand of 



CONSUS. 



CORCYRA. 



189 



Placidia, the sister of Honorius, In 421 he was 
declared Augustus by Honorius, but died in the 
7th month of his reign. 

Census, an ancient Roman divinity, who was 
identified by some in later times with Neptune. 
Hence Livy (i. 9) calls him Neptunus Equcstris. 
Pie was regarded by some as the god of secret de- 
liberations, but he was most probably a god of the 
lower world. Respecting his festival of the Con- 
sualia, see Did. of Ant s. v. 

Contrebia, one of the chief towns of the Celti- 
beri in Hispania Tarraconensis, S. E. of Saragossa. 

Convenae, a people in Aquitania near the Py- 
renees and on both sides of the Garumna, a mixed 
race which had served under Sertorius, and were 
settled in Aquitania by Porapey. They possessed 
the Jus Latii. Tlieir chief town Avas Lug-dimum 
(St. Bertrand de Comminges), situated on a solitary 
rock : in its neighbourhood were celebrated warm 
baths, Aquae Convenarum (Bagneres). 

Copae (Kcoirai : KooTTuievs : nr. Topoglia), an an- 
cient town in Boeotia on the N. side of the lake 
Copais, which derived its name from this place. It 
was originally situated on an island in the lake, 
which island was subsequently connected with the 
mainland by a mole. 

Copais {Kwirais Xip-vr}), a lake in Boeotia, and 
the largest lake in Greece, formed chiefly by the 
river Cephisus, the waters of which are emptied 
into the Euboean sea by several subterraneous 
canals, called Katahothra by the modern Greeks. 
The lake was originally called CepMsis, under 
which name it occurs in Homer, and subsequently 
different parts of it Avere called after the towns 
situated on it, Haliartus, Orchomenus, Onchestus, 
Copjie, &c. ; but the name Copals eventually became 
the most common, because near Copae the waters 
of the lake are the deepest and are never dried up. 
In the summer the greater part of the lake is dry, 
and becomes a green meadow, in which cattle are 
pastured. The eels of this lake were much prized 
in antiquity, and they retain their celebrity in 
modern times. 

Cophenor, Cophes (Kw^ijf, Arrian., Kd!>(pr]s 
Strab. Cahd), the only grand tributary river which 
flows into the Indus from the W. It was the 
boundary between India and Ariana. 

C. Coponius, praetor b. c. 49, fought on the side 
of Pompey; he was proscribed by the triumvirs in 
43, but his wife obtained his pardon from Antony 
by the sacrifice of her honour. 

Coprates (Koirpdr-ns : Ahzal), a river of Su- 
siana, flowing from the N. into the Pasitigris on 
its W. side. 

Copreus (Kovpevs), son of Pelops, who after 
murdering Iphitus, fled from Elis to Mycenae, 
where he was purified by Eurystheus. 

Coptos (KoTTTc^s : Kofi!, Ru.), a city of the The- 
bais or Upper Egypt, lay a little to the E. of the 
Nile, some distance below Thebes. Under the 
Ptolemies, it was the central point of the commerce 
with Arabia and India, by way of Berenice and 
Myos-Hormos. It was destroyed by Diocletian, 
but again became a considerable place. The neigh- 
bourhood was celebrated for its emeralds and other 
precious stones, and produced also a light wine. 

Cora (Coranus: Cori), an ancient town in Latium 
in the Volscian mountains, S.E. of Velitrae, said 
to have been founded by the Argive Corax. At 
Cori there are remains of Cyclopian walls and of 
an ancient temple. 



Coracesium (KopaKrja-iov : Alai/a), a very strong 
city of Cilicia Aspera, on the borders of Pamphylia, 
standing upon a steep rock, and possessing a good 
harbour. It was the only place in Cilicia which 
opposed a successful resistance to Alexander, and, 
after its strength had been tried more than once in 
the wars of the Seleucidae, it became at last th • 
head-quarters of the Cilician pirates, and was taken 
by Pompey. 

Corassiae {KopacraiaL), a group of small islands 
in the Icarian sea, S.W. of Icaria. They must not 
be confounded, as they often are, with the islands 
Corseae or Corsiae (kopo-^aL or KopaiaL), off" the 
Ionian coast and opposite the promontory Ampelos 
in Samos. 

Corax (K£;pa|), a Sicilian rhetorician, who ac- 
quired so much influence over the citizens by his 
oratorical powers, that he became the leading mau 
in Syracuse, after the expulsion of Thrasybulus, 
B. c. 467. He wrote the earliest work on the art 
of rhetoric, and his treatise (entitled Te'xi'T?) was 
celebrated in antiquit}'. 

Corbulo, Cn. Doniitius, a distinguished general 
under Claudius and Nero. In a. d. 47 he carried 
on war in Germany with success, but his fame 
rests chiefly upon his glorious campaigns against 
the Parthians in the reign of Nero. Though be- 
loved by the army he continued faithful to Nero, 
but his only reward was death. Nero, who had 
become jealous of his fame and influence, invited 
him to Corinth. As soon as he landed at Cen- 
chreae, he was informed that orders had been issued 
for his death, whereupon he plunged his sword into 
his breast, exclaiming, " Well deserved ! " 

Corcyra (Kepicvpa, later KopKvpa : KepitvpaTos : 
Corfu from the Byzantine Kopvcpdo), an island in 
the Ionian sea, off the coast of Epirus, about US 
miles in length, but of very unequal breadth. It 
is generally mountainous, but possesses many 
fertile vallies. Its two chief towns were Corcyra, 
the modern town of Corfu, in the middle of the E. 
coast, and Cassiope, N. of the former. The ancients 
universally regarded this island as the Homeric 
Scheria (Sx^pi''?), where the enterprising and sea- 
loving Phaeacians dwelt, governed by their king 
Alcinous. The island is said to have also borne- 
the name of Drepane (Apendu-n) or the " Sickle'* 
in ancient times. About b. c. 700 it was colonised 
by the Corinthians under Chersicrates, one of the 
Bacchiadae, who drove out the Liburnians, who 
were then inhabiting the island. It soon became 
rich and powerful by its extensive commerce; it 
founded many colonies on the opposite coast, Epi- 
daranus, Apollonia, Leucas, Anactorium; and it 
exercised such influence in the Ionian and Adriatic 
seas as to become a formidable rival to Corinth. 
Thus the two states early became involved in war, 
and about B.C. 664 a battle was fought between 
their fleets, which is memorable as the most ancient 
sea-fight on record. At a later period Corcyra by 
invoking the aid of Athens against the Corinthians 
became one of the proximate causes of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, 431. Shortly afterwards her power 
declined in consequence of civil dissensions, in 
which both the aristocratical and popular parties 
were guilty of the most horrible atrocities against 
each other. At last it became subject to the 
Romans with the rest of Greece. — Corfu is at 
present one of the 7 Ionian islands under the pro- 
tection of Great Britain and the seat of government. 

Corcyra Mgra {Curzola, in Slavonic Karkar) 



190 



CORDUBA. 



CORINTHUS. 



an island off the coast of Illyricum, Euroamed the 
" Black," on account of its numerous forests, to 
distinguish it from the raore celebrated Corcyra. 
It contained a Greek town of the same name 
found d by Cnidos. 

Corduba {Cordova), one cf the largest cities in 
Spain, and the capital of Baetica, on the right bank 
of the Baetis ; made a Koman colony B. c. 152, 
and received the surname Patricia, because some 
Roman patricians settled there; taken by Caesar in 
45 because it sided with the Pompeians; birthplace 
of the two Senecas and of Lucnn. In the middle 
ages it was the capital of the kingdom of the 
Moors, but is now a decaying place with 55,000 
inhabitants. 

Corduene. [Gordye.ve.] 

Cordus, Cremutiiis, a Roman historian under 
Augustas and Tiberius, was accused in A.n.2b 
of having praised Brutus and denominated Cassius 

the iast of the Romans." As the emperor had 
determined upon his death, he put an end to his 
own life by starvation. His works were condemned 
to be burnt, but some copies were preserved by his 
daughter Marcia and by his friends. 

Core (Ko'pTj), the Maiden, a name by v/tich 
Persephone is often calltd. [Persephone.] 

Coressus (Kopej-jos). 1. A lofty mountain in 
Ionia, 40 stadia (4 geog. miles) from Ephesus, 
with a place of the same name at its foot. — 2. A 
tow-n in the island of Ceos. 

Coresstis. [Ceos.] 

Corfinium (Corfniensis), chief town of the Pe- 
ligjii in Samnium, not far from the Atemus, strongly 
fortified, and memorable as the place which the 
Italians in the SocLil war destined to be the new 
capital of Italy in place of Ptome, on whicli account 
it was called lialica. 

Cyrinna (Kopiwa), a Greek poetess, of Tanagra i 
in Boeotia, sometimes called the Theban on account 
of her long residence in Thebes. She flourished 
about B. c. 490, and was a contemporary cf Pindar, 
whom she is said to have instructed, and over vrhom 
she gained a \-ictory at the public games at Thebes. 
Her poems were viTitten in the Aeolic dialect 
They were collected in 5 books, and were chiefly 
h-r'cal. Only a few fragments have been pre- 
served. 

Corinthiacxis Isthmus ClaO/jhs Kopivdov), often 
called simply the Isthmus, lay between the Co- 
rinthian and Saronic gulfs, and connected the Pelo- 
ponnesus with the mainland or Hellas proper. In 
its narrowest part it was 40 stadia or 5 Roman, 
miles across : here was the temple of Poseidon and 
the Isthmian games were celebrated : and here also 
was the Diolcos (a(o\kos), or road by which ships 
were dragged across from the bay of Schoenus 
to the harbour of Lechaeum. Fotir unsuccessful 
att?n:pts were made to dig a canal across the Isth- 
mus, namely, by Demetrius Poliorcetes, Julius 
Caesnr, Caligula, and Nero, 

Corinthiacus Sians (KopivdiaKos or KoplvBios 
k6\tto%: G. of Lepanto\ the gulf between the N. 
of Greece and Peloponnesus, begins, according to 
some, at the mouth of the Achelous in Aetolia and 
the promontory Araxus in Achaia, according to 
others, at the straits between Rhium and Antir- 
rhium. In early times it was called the Crissaean 
Gulf {Kpiacaios koKttos). and its eastern part the 
Alcyonian Sea (17 'A\kvouis i&aXatrcro). 

Cormthus ( KopivBos : Kop'ipdios), called in Ho- 
mer Ephyra {'Etpvpr}), a city on the above-men- 



tioned Isthmus. Its territory, called Corinthia 
{Kopiveia), embraced the greater part of the Isth- 
mus with the adjacent part of the Peloponnesus: 
it was bounded N. by Megaris and the Corinthian 
gulf, S. by Argolis, W. by Sicyonia and Phliasia, 
and E. by the Saronic gulf. In tRe N. and S. the 
country is mountainous, but in the centre it is a 
plain with a solitary and steep mountain rising 
from it, the Acrocorinthus AKpoKopivBos), 1900 
feet in height, which served as the citadel of Co- 
rinth. The city itself was built on the N. side of 
this mountain ; and the walls, which included the 
Acrocorinthus, were 86 stadia in circumference. 
It had 2 harbours, Cenchreae on the E. or Sa- 
ronic gulf, and Lechaeum on the W. or Crissaean 
gulf. Its favourable position between two seas, the 
difficulty of carrying goods round Peloponnesus, 
and the facility with which they could be trans- 
ported across the Isthmus, raised Corinth in very 
early times to great commercial prosperity, and 
made it the emporium of the trade between Europe 
and Asia. Its navy was numerous and powerful 
At Corinth the first triremes were built, and the 
first sea-fight on record was between the Corinthi- 
ans and their colonists the Corcyraeans. Its great- 
ness at an early period is attested by numerous 
colonies, Ambracia, Corcyra, Apollonia, Potidaea, 
&;c. It was adorned with magnificent buildings, 
and in no other city of Greece, except Athens, were 
the fine arts prosecuted with so much vigour and 
success. Its commerce brought great wealth to its 
inhabitants; but with their wealth, they became 
luxurious and licentious. Thus the worship of 
Aphrodite (Venus) prevailed in this city, and in 
her temples a vast number of courtezans was main- 
tained. — Corinth was originally inhabited by the 
Aeolic race. Here ruled the Aeolic Sisyphus and 
his descendants. On the conquest of Peloponnesus 
by the Dorians, the royal power passed into the 
hands of the Heraclid Aletes. The conquering 
Dorians became the ruling class, and the Aeolian 
inhabitants subject to them. After Aletes and his 
descendants had reigned for 5 generations, royalty 
was abolished ; and in its stead was established an 
oligarchical form of government, confined to the 
powerful femily of the Bacchiadae. This family 
was expelled B. c. 655 by Cypselus, who became 
tyrant and reigned .30 years. He was succeeded. 
625, by his son Periaxder, who reigned 40 years. 
On the death of the latter, 585, his nephew Psam- 
metichus reigned for 3 years, and on his fall in 
581, the government again became an aristocracy. 
In the Peiopoucesian -.var Corinth was one of the 
bitterest enemies of Athens. In 346 Timophanes 
attempted to make himself master of the city, but 
he was slain by his brother Timoleon. It main- 
tained its independence till the time of the Mace- 
donian supremacy, when its citadel was garrisoned 
by Macedonian troops. This garrison was ex- 
pelled by Aratus in 243, whereupon Corinth joined 
the Achaean league, to which it continued to be- 
long, till it was taken and destroyed in 146 by L. 
MummiuE, the Pvoman consul, who treated it in 
the most barbarous manner. Its inhabitants were 
sold as slaves ; its works of art, which were not 
destroyed b}- the Roman soldiery, were conveyed 
to Rome ; its buildings were razed to the ground ; 
and thus was destroyed the lumen iotius Graeciae, 
as Cicero calls the city. For a century it lay in 
ruins ; only the buildings on the Acropolis and a 
fevr temples remained standing. In -iG it was 



CORIOLANUS. 



CORONEA. 



191 



rebuilt by Caesar, who peopled it with a colonj^ of 
veterans and descendants of freedmen. It was 
now called Colonia Julia Corintlms ; it became 
the capital of the Roman province of Achaia, and 
soon recovered much of its ancient prosperity, but 
at the same time it became noted for its former 
licentiousness, as we see from St. Paul's epistles to 
the inhabitants. — The site of Corinth is indicated 
by 7 Doric columns, which are the only remains of 
the ancient city. 

Conolanus, the hero of one of the most beautiful 
of the early Roman legends. His original name 
was C. or Cn. Marcius, and he received the sur- 
name Coriolanus from the heroism he displayed at 
the capture of the Volscian town of Corioli. His 
haughty bearing towards the commons excited their 
fear and dislike, and when he was a candidate for 
the consulship, thej'- refused to elect him. After 
this, when there was a famine in the city, and a 
Greek prince sent com from Siciij'', Coriolanus ad- 
vised that it should not be distributed to the com- 
mons, unless they gave up their tribunes. For this 
he Avas impeached and condemned to exile, b. c. 
491. He now took refuge among the Volscians, 
and promised to assist them in war against the 
Romans. Attius TuUius, the king of the Vols- 
cians, appointed Coriolanus general of the Volscian 
army. Coriolanus took many toAvns, and advanced 
unresisted till he came to the fossa Cluilia, or 
Cluilian dyke close to Rome, 489. Here he en- 
camped, and the Romans in alarm sent to him 
embassy after embassy, consisting of the most dis- 
tinguished men of the state. But he vv'ould listen 
to none of them. At length the noblest matrons 
of Rome, headed by Veturia, the mother of Corio- 
lanus, and Volumnia his wife, with his 2 little 
children, came to his tent. His mother's reproaches, 
and the tears of his v/ife and the other matrons, 
bent his purpose. He led back his army, and 
lived in exile among the Volscians till his death ; 
though other traditions relate that he was killed 
by the Volscians on his return to their country. 

Corioli (Coriolanus), a town in Latium, capital 
of the Volsci, from the capture of which in b. c, 
493, C. Marcius obtained the surname of Corio- 
lanus. 

Cormasa (KSpiJ-aaa), an inland town of Pam- 
phylia, or of Pisidia, taken by the consul Manlius. 

Cornelia. 1. One of the noble women at Rome, 
guilty of poisoning the leading men of the state, 
B. c. 331. — 2. Elder daughter of P. Scipio Afri- 
canus the elder, married to P. Scipio Nasica. — - 
3. Younger sister of No. 2, married to Ti. Sem- 
pronius Gracchus, censor 169, was by him the 
mother of the two tribunes Tiberius and Caius. 
She was virtuous and accomplished, and united in 
lier person the severe virtues of the old Roman 
matron, with the superior knowledge and refine- 
ment which then began to prevail in the higher 
;lasses at Rome. She superintended with the 
greatest care the education of her sons, whom she 
survived. She was almost idolized by the people, 
who erected a statue to her, with the inscrijtion 
Cornelia, mother op the Gracchi. — 4. 
Daughter of L. Cinna, married to C. Caesar, after- 
wards dictator. She bore him his daughter Julia, 
and died in his quaestorship, 68.-5. Daughter of 
Metellus Scipio, married first to P. Crassus, the 
son of the triumvir, who perished in the expedi- 
tion against the Parthians, 53. Next year she 
married Pompey the Great, by whom she was 



tenderly loved. She accompanied Pompey to 
Egypt after the battle of Pharsalia. and saw him 
murdered. She afterwards returned to Home, and 
received from Caesar the ashes of her husband, 
which she preserved on his Alban estate. 
Cornelia Orestilla. [Orestilla.] 
Cornelia Gens, the most distinguished of all 
the Roman gentes. All its great families belonged 
to the patrician order. The names of the patrician 
families are : — Arvina, Cethegus, Cinna, Cos- 

SUS, DoLABELLA, LenTULUS, M AL UGINENSIS, 

Mamuxula, Merula, Rufinus, Scipio, Sisen- 
NA, and Sulla. The names of the plebeian fami- 
lies are Bale us and Gall us, and we also find 
various cognomens, as Chrvsogonus, &c. given 
to freedmen of this gens. 

Cornelius Hepos. [Nepos.] 

Corniculum (Corniculanus), a town in Latium 
in the mountains N. of Tibur, taken and destroyed 
by Tarquinius Priscus, and celebrated as the resi- 
dence of the parents of Servius Tullius. 

Cornificius. 1. Q., a friend of Cicero, was tri- 
bune of the plebs, B. c. 69, and one of Cicero's 
competitors for the consulship in 6-L When the 
Catilinarian conspirators were arrested, Cethegus 
was committed to his care. — 2. Q,., son of No. 1. 
In the civil war (48) he was quaestor of Caesar, 
who sent him into Illyricum with the title of 
propraetor : he reduced this province to obedience. 
In 45 he was appointed by Caesar governor 
of Syria, and in 44 governor of the province of 
Old Africa, where he was at the time of Caesar's 
death. Pie maintained this province for the 
senate, but on the establishment of the triumvirate 
was defeated and slain in battle b}"- T. Sextius. 
Cornificius was well versed in literature. Many 
have attributed to him the authorship of the 
" Rhetorica ad Herennium," usually printed with 
Cicero's works ; but this is only a conjecture. The 
Cornificius who is mentioned b}' Quintilian as the 
author of a work on rhetoric, was probably a dif- 
ferent person from the one we are speaking of. 
— 3. L., one of the generals of Octavianus in the 
war against Sex. Pompey, and consul 35. 

Cornus, a town on the W. of Sardinia, 

Comutus, L. Annaeus, a distinguished Stoic 
philosopher, was born at Leptis in Libya, He 
came to Rome, probably as a slave, and was eman- 
cipated by the Annaei. He was the teacher and 
friend of the poet Persius, who has dedicated his 
5th satire to him, and who left him his library and 
money. He was banished by Nero, A. d. 68, for 
having too freely criticised the literary attempts of 
the emperor. He wrote a large number of works, 
all of which are lost : the most important of them 
was on Aristotle's Categories. 

Coroebus (K6poi§os). 1. A Phrj-gian, son of Mj-g- 
don, loved Cassandra, and for that reason fought cu 
the side of the Trojans : he was slain by Neopto- 
lemus or Diomedes.— 2. An Elean, who gained the 
victory in the stadium at the 0!3'mpic games, B. c. 
776: from this time the Olympiads begin to be 
reckoned. 

Corone {Kopcvvrj : Kopcovevs -ucievs), a town in 
Messenia on the W. side of the jNIessenian gulf, 
founded B. c. 371 by the Messenians after their 
return to their native country, with the assistance 
of the Thebans: it possessed several public build- 
ings, and in its neighbourhood was a celebrated 
temple of Apollo. 

Ccronea {Kopdu'eia: Koptoyaios, Kop(6veios^'VWs)% 



192 



CORONIS. 



COS. 



1. A town in Boeotia, S.W. of the lake Copais, 
situate on a heiglit between the rivers Phalarus 
and Curalius ; a member of the Boeotian League ; 
in its neighbourhood Avas tlie temple of Athena 
Itoricn, where the festival of the Pamboeotia was 
celobrntod. Near Coronea the Boeotians gained a 
memorable victory over the Athenians under Tol- 
mides, n. c. 447; and here Agesilaus defeated the 
allied Greeks, 394. — 2. A town in Plithiotis in 
Thessaly. 

Coronis (KopwAs). 1. The mother of Aescu- 
lapius.— 2. Daughter of Phoroneus, king of 
Phocis, metamorphosed by Athena into a crow, 
when pursued by Poseidon. 

Corseae. [Corassiae.] 

Corsia {Kopaela, also KopcTiai'), a town in 
Boeotia on the borders of Phocis. 

Corsica, called Cymus by the Grcv ivs (Kvpvos : 
Kvpvios, Kvpua7os, Corsus : Cursica)^ v:a island N. 
of Sardinin, spoken of by the ancients as one of 
the 7 large islands in the ^Mediterranean. The 
ancients, however, exaggerate for the most part the 
size of the island ; its greatest length is 1 1 6 miles, 
and its greatest breadth about 51, It is moun- 
tainous and was not mucli cultivated in antiquity. 
A range of mountains running from S. to N. sepa- 
rates it into 2 parts, of which the E. half was 
more cultivated, while the W. half was covered 
almost entirely with wood. Honey and wax were 
the principal productions of the island ; but the 
honey had a bitter taste from the yew-trees with 
which the island abounded. [Cyrneas icijos, Virg. 
Eel. ix. 30.) The inhabitants were a rude moun- 
tain race, addicted to robber}-, and paying little 
attention to agriculture. Even in the time of the 
Roman empire their character liad not much im- 
proved, as we see from the description of Seneca, 
who was banished to this inland. The most an- 
cient inhabitants appear to have been Iberians; 
but in early times Ligurians, Tyrrhenians, Car- 
thaginians, and even Greeks [Aleria], settled 
in the island. It was subject to the Carthaginians 
at the commencement of the 1st Punic war, but 
soon afterwards passed into the hands of the Pio- 
mans, and subsequently formed a part of the Roman 
province of Sardinia. The Romans founded several 
colonies in the island, of which the most important 
were Mariana and Aleria, 

Corsote {Kopaurr] : Ersey, Ru.), a city of Me- 
sopotamia, on the Euphrates, near the mouth of 
the Mascas or Saocoras (Watbj-el-S'elja), which 
Xenophon found already deserted. 

Cortona. (Cortonensis : Co7iona), one of the 
12 cities of Etruria, lay N.W. of the Trasimene 
lake, and was one of the most ancient cities in Italy. 
It is said to have been orginally called Coryihus 
from its reputed founder Corythus, who is repre- 
sented as the father of Dardanus. It is also called 
C)-oton, CotJiorniu, Cyrtmiuin, &c. The Creston 
mentioned by Herodotus (i, 57) was probably 
Creston in Thrace and not Cortona, as many mo- 
dern writers have supposed. Crotona is said to 
have been originally founded by the Umbrians, 
then to have been conquered by the Pelasgians, 
and subsequently to have passed into the hands of 
the Etruscans. It was afterwards colonized by 
the Romans, but under their dominioji sunk into 
insignificance. The remains of the Peasgic walls of 
this city are some of the most remarkable in all 
Italy: there is one fragment 120 feet in length, 
composed of blocks of enormous magnitude. 



Coruncamus, Ti., consul b. c. 280, A\'ith P. Va- 
lerius Laevinus, fought with success against the 
Etruscans and Pyrrhus. He was the first plebeian 
who was created pontifex maximus. He was one 
of the most remarkable men of his age. possessed a 
profound knowledge of pontifical and civil law. and 
was the first person at Rome who gave regular in- 
struction in law. 

Corviiiiis Messala. [IMessala.] 

Corvus, H. Valerius, one of the most illustrious 
men in the early history of Rome. He obtained 
the surname of Curvus, or " Raven," because, when 
serving as military tribune under Camillus, B. c. 
349, he accepted the challenge of a gigantic Gaul 
to single combat, and was assisted in the conilict 
by a raven which settled upon his helmet, and flew 
in the face of the barbarian. He was 6 times 
consul, B. c. 34o, 346, 343, 335, 300, 299, and 
twice dictator, 342, 301, and by his military 
abilities rendered the most memorable services to 
his country. His most brilliant victories were 
gained in liis third consulship, 343, when he de- 
feated the Samnites at Mt. Gaurus and at Suessula ; 
and in his other consulships he repeatedly defeated 
the Etruscans and other enemies of Rome, Ho 
reached the age of 100 years, and is frequently re- 
ferred to by tho later Roman Avriters as a memor- 
able example of the favoiirs of fortune, 

Corybantes, priests of Cybele or Rhea in 
Phrygia, who celebrated her worship with enthu- 
siastic dances, to the sound of the drum and the 
cymbal. They are often identified with the Cu- 
retes and the Idaean Dactyli, and thus are said to 
have been the nurses of Zeus in Crete. They were 
called Galli at Rome. 

Corycia {KwpDxia or Kupvicls), a nymph, who 
became by Apollo the mother of Lycorus or Lyco- 
reus, and from whom the Corycian cave in mount 
Parnassus was believed to have derived its name. 
The Muses are sometimes called by the poets Cory- 
cides Nympliae. 

Corycus (KupvKos : KwpvKios, Corycius). 1 . 
(Koraka), a high rocky hill on the coast of Ionia, 
forming the S.W. promontory of the Erythraean 
peninsula. — 2. A city of Pamphylia, near Phaselis 
and Mt. Olympus ; colonized afresh by Attalus II. 
Philadelphus ; taken, and probably destroyed, by 
P. Servilius Isauricus. — 3. (Ru. opp. the island of 
Khorgos), a city in Cilicia Aspera, with a good 
harboiu-, betwe.en the mouths of the Lamus and 
the Calycadnus. 20 stadia (2 geog. miles) from the 
city, was a grotto or glen in the mountains, called 
the Corycian Cave {K^icpvicLou aurpov) celebrated 
by the poets, and also famous for its saffron. Ar 
the distance of 100 stadia (10 geog. miles) froii 
Corycus, was a promontory of the same name. 

Coryclallus (Kopv^aKXos: Kopy5aAA.eus), a de- 
mus in Attica belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis. 
situate on the mountain of the same name, whicJ" 
divides the plain of Athens from that of Eleusis, 

Coryphasium {Kopv(paaiov), a promontory in 
Messenia, enclosing the harbour of Pylos on the N., 
with a town of the same name upon it, 

Corytlms (Kdpu0os), an Italian hero, son ot 
Jupiter, husband of Electra, and father of lasius 
and Dardanus, is said to have founded Corythus 
{Co~dona). 

Cos, Coos, CoiiS (Kws, Ko'cos ; Ka;oy, Culis ; Kos, 
Sianco), one of the islands called Sporades, lay off the 
coast of Caria, at the mouth of the Ceramic Gulf, op- 
posite to Halicarnassus. In early times it was called 



CENTAUR. CEEBEEUS. CHARON. CORYBANTES. DANAIDS. 




Centaur, (Metope from the Parthenon.) Page 161. Cerberus. (From a Brimze Statue.) Page 1G3. 




Danaids. (Visconti, Mus. Pio Clem., vol. 4, tav. £6 ) Page 207. 




Cybele an i T'oi-ybantes with Infant Zens (.Jupiter.) Charon, Hermes or Mercury, and Soul. 

(Museo Capitolino.l Page 192. (From a Roman Lamp.) Page 167. 

iToiacep. 192. 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. CIBYKA — CRAGUS. 




Corycns in Ciiicia. Page 102. 




Tjfacsp. 103.] 



COSA. 



COTYS. 



193 



Meropis and Nymphaea. It was colonized by 
Aeolians, but became a member of the "Dorian 
confederac)'-. Its chief city, Cos, stood on the N.E. 
side of the island, in a beautiful situation, and had 
a good harbour. Near it stood the Asclepieum, 
or temple of Asclepius, to whom the island was 
sacred, and from whom its chief family, the Ascle- 
piadae, claimed their descent. The island Avas very 
fertile ; its chief productions were wine, ointments, 
and the light transparent dresses called " Coae 
vestes." It was the birthplace of the physician 
Hippocrates, who was an Asclepiad, of the poet 
Philetas, and of the painter Apelles, whose pictures 
of Antigonus and of Venus Anadyomene adorned 
the Asclepieum. Under the Romans, Cos was 
favoured by Claudius, who made it a free state, 
and by Antoninus Pius, who rebuilt the city of 
Cos after its destruction by an earthquake. 

Cosa or Cossa (Cossanus). 1. (Ansedonia, about 
5 miles S. E. of Orhetello), a city of Etruria near 
the sea, with a good harbour, called Herculis Partus^ 
was a very ancient place ; and after the fall of Falerii 
one of the 12 Etruscan cities. It was colonized 
by the Romans B. c. 273, and received in 197 an 
addition of ICOO colonists. There are still exten- 
sive ruins of its walls and towers, built of poly- 
gonal masonry. — 2. A town in Lucania near 
Thurii. 

Cosconius. 1. C, praetor in the Social war, 
B. c. 89, defeated the Samnites. —2. C, praetor in 
the consulship of Cicero 63 ; governed in the fol- 
lowing year the province of Further Spain ; was 
one of the 20 commissioners, in 59, to carry into 
execution the agrarian law of Julius Caesar, but 
died in this year. — 3. C, tribune of the plebs 59, 
aedile 57, and one of the judices at the trial of P. 
Sextius, 56. 

Cosmas (KoCjuSs), commonly called Indico- ' 
PLEUSTKS (Indian navigator), an Egyptian monk, 
flourished in the reign of Justinian, about a. d. 535. 
In early life he followed the emplojonent of a mer- 
chant, and visited many foreign countries, of which 
he gave an account in his ToiToypacpia XptaTLauiKT], 
Topographia Christiana^ in 1 2 books, of which the 
greater part is extant. 

Cosroes. 1. King of Parthia. [Arsaces XXV.] 
— 2. King of Persia. [Sassanidae.] 

Cossaea {Koaa-aia)^ a district in and about M. 
Zagros, on the N.E. side of Susiana, and on the 
confines of Media and Persis, inhabited by a rude, 
Tvarlike, predatory people, the Cossaei {KoffaoLOi)^ 
whom the Persian kings never subdued, but on 
the contrary, purchased their quiet by paying them 
tribute. Alexander conquered them (b. c. 325-24), 
and with difficulty kept them in subjection ; after 
his death, they soon regained their independence. 
Their name is supposed to have been the origin of 
the modem name of Susiana, Khuzistan, and is 
possibly connected with the Cush of the 0. T. 

Cossus, Cornelius, the name of several illustrious 
Romans in the early history of the republic. Of 
these the most celebrated was Ser. Cornelius Cossus, 
consul B. c. 428, who killed Lar Tolumnius, the 
king of the Veii, in single combat, and dedicated 
his spoils in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius — the 
2nd of the 3 instances in which the spolia opima 
were won. 

Cossutius, a Roman architect, who rebuilt at 
the expense of Antiochus Epiphanes the temple of 
the Olympian Zeus at Athens, about B.C. 168, in 
the most magnificent Corinthian style. 



Cosyra {Pantelaria), also written CossjTa, Co- 
syrus, Cosura, Cossura, a small island in the Medi- 
terranean near Malta. 

Cothon. [Carthago.] 

Cotiso, a king of the Dacians, conquered in the 
reign of Augustus by Lentulus. 

Cotta, Aurelius. 1. C, consul b. c. 252 and 
248, in both of which years he fought in Sicily 
against the Carthaginians with success. — 2. C, 
consul 200, fought against the Boii and the other 
Gauls in the N. of Italy. —-3. L., tribune of the 
plebs 154, and consul 144. —4. L., consul 119, 
opposed C. Marius, who was then tribune of the 
plebs.— 5. C, was accused under the lex Varia, 91, 
of supporting the claims of the Italian allies, and 
went into voluntary exile. He returned to Rome 
when Sulla was dictator, 82; and in 75 he was 
consul with L. Octavius. He obtained the govern- 
ment of Gaul, and died immediately after his 
return to Rome. He was one of the most distin- 
guished orators of his time, and is introduced by 
Cicero as one of the speakers in the De Oratore, 
and the De Natura Deorum^ in the latter of which 
works he maintains the cause of the Academics.— 
6. M., brother of No. 5, consul 74, with L. Licinius 
Lucullus, obtained Bithynia for his province, and 
was defeated by Mithridates near Chalcedon.— 7. 
L., brother of Nos. 5 and 6, praetor 70, when he 
carried the celebrated law [lex Aurelia judiciaria) 
which entrusted the judicia to the senators, equites, 
and tribuni aerarii. He was consul 65 with L. 
Manlius Torquatus, after the consuls elect, P. 
Sulla and P. Autronius Paetus, had been condemned 
of ambitus. He supported Cicero during his con- 
sulship, and proposed his recall from exile. In the 
civil war he jomed Caesar, whom he survived. 

Cotta, L. Aurunciileius,one of Caesar's legates in 
Gaul, perished along with Sabinus in the attack made 
upon them by Ambiorix, B. c. 54. [Ambiorix.] 

Cottius, son of Donnus, king of several Ligurian 
tribes in the Cottian Alps, which derived their 
name from him. [Alpes.] He submitted to Au- 
gustus, who granted him the sovereignty over 12 
of these tribes, with the title of Praefectus. Cottius 
thereupon made roads over the Alps, and erected 
(b. c. 8) at Segusio (Suza), a triumphal arch in 
honour of Augustus, extant at the present day. 
His authority was transmitted to his son, upon 
whom Claudius conferred the title of king. On his 
death, his kingdom was made a Roman province 
by Nero. 

Cottus, a giant with 1 00 hands, son of Uranus 
and Gaea. 

Cotyla, L. Vanus, one of Antony's most in- 
timate friends, fought on his side at Mutina, 
B. C.43. 

Cotylus (KStvXos), the highest peak of M. Ida 
in the Troad, containing the sources of the rivers 
Scamander, Granicus, and Aesepus. 

Cotyora {Korvoopa), a colony of Sinope, in the 
territory of the Tibareni, on the coast of Pontus 
Polemoniacus, at the W. end of a bay of the same 
name, celebrated as the place where the 10,000 
Greeks embarked for Sinope. The foundation of 
Pharnacia reduced it to insignificance. 

Cotys or Cotytto (Korvs or Kotuttw), a Thracian 
divinity, whose festival, the Cotyttia {Diet, of Ant. 
s. v.), resembled that of the Phrygian Cybele, and 
was celebrated with licentious revelry. In later 
times her worship was introduced at Athens and 
Corinth. Those who celebrated her festival were 



194 



COTYS. 



CRASSUS. 



called Bapfae, from the purifications which were 
originally connected with the solemnity, 

Cotys (K6tvs). 1. King of Thrace, b. c. 382 — 
358, was for a short time a friend of the Athenians, 
but carried on war with them towards the close of 
his reicrn. He was cruel and sanguinary, and was 
much addicted to gross luxury and drunkenness. 
He was murdered by two brothers whose father 
he had injured.— 2. King of the Odrysae in Thrace, 
assisted Perseus against Rome, B. c. 168. His son 
was taken prisoner and carried to Rome, whereupon 
he sued for peace and was pardoned by the Romans. 
—3. A king of Thrace, who took part against Caesar 
with Pompey, 48.-4. King of Thrace, son of 
Rhoemetalces, in the reigns of Augustus and 
Tiberius. He carried on war v.-ith. his uncle Rhe- 
scuporis, by whom he was murdered, a. d. 19. 
Ovid, during his exile at Tomi, addressed an epistle 
to him (Ex Font ii. 9). 

Cragus (Kpdyos), a mountain consisting of 8 
sununits, being a continuation of Taurus to the 
W., and forming, at its extremity, the S.W. pro- 
montory of Lycia ( Yedy-BoorooJi, i. e. Seven Capes). 
Some of its summits show traces of volcanic action, 
and the ancients had a tradition to the same eflfect. 
At its foot was a town of the same name, on the 
sea-shore, between Pydna and Patara. Parallel to 
it, N. of the river Glaucus, was the chain of Anti- 
cragus. The greatest height of Cragus exceeds 
3000 feet. 

Cranae (KpavaTj), the island to which Paris first 
carried Helen from Peloponnesus (Horn. 77. iiL 
445), is said by some to be an island off Gythium 
in Laconia, by others to be the island Helena off 
Attica, and by others again to be Cythera. 

CranaiLS {Kpavaos)^ king of Attica, the son-in- 
law and successor of Cecrops. He was deprived of 
his kingdom by his son-in-law Amphictyon. 

Cranii-ium. (Kpavioi, Kpdviov : Kpdvios : Kra- 
nia nr. Argostoli), a town of CephaUenia on the 
S. coast. 

Cranoii or Crannoii (Kpavau^ Kpavvdv : Kpav- 
voivios), in ancient times Ephyra, a tovi-n in Pe- 
lasgiotis in Thessaly, not far from Larissa. 

Grantor (Kpdvrwp), of Soli in CUicia, an Acade- 
mic philosopher, studied at Athens under Xeno- 
crates and Polemo, and flourished b. c. 300. He 
was the author of several works, all of which are 
lost, and was the first who "WTote commentaries on 
Plato's works. Most of his vmtings related to 
moral subjects (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 4). One of his most 
celebrated works was On Grief, of which Cicero 
made great use in the 3rd book of his Tusculan 
Disputations, and in the Consolado, which he com- 
posed on the death of his daughter, Tullia. 

Crassipes.Ftirius.Cicero's son-in-law, the second 
husband of Tullia, whom he married B. c. 56, but 
from whom he was shortly afterwards divorced. 

Crassus, Licinius. 1. P., praetor b.c. 1 76, and 
consul 171, when he carried on the v/ar against 
Perseus. — 2. C, brother of No. 1, praetor 172, 
and consul 168. — 3. C, probably son of No. 2, 
tribune of the plebs 145, was distinguished as a 
popular leader. — 4. P., snmamed Dives or RicJi, 
elected pontifex maximus 212, curule aedile 
211, praetor 208, and consul 205 with Scipio 
Africanus, when he carried on war against Hannibal 
in the S. of Italy. He died 183.— 5. P., snmamed 
Dires ^Iticianus, son of P. Alucius Scaevola, was 
adopted by the son of No. 4. In 131 he was 
consul and pontifex maximus, and was the first 



priest of that rank who went beyond Italy. He 
carried on war against Aristonicus in Asia, but 
was defeated and slain. He was a good orator and 
jurist. — 6. Iff., smnamei A ffclastus, because he 
is said never to have laughed, was grandfather of 
Crassus the triumvir. — 7. P., sumamed Dives, son 
of No. 6, and father of the triumvir. He was the 
proposer of the lex Licinia, to prevent excessive 
expense in banquets, but in what year is uncertain. 
He was consul 97, and carried on war in Spain for 
some years. He was censor 89 with L. Julius 
Caesar. In the civil war he took part with Sulla, 
and put an end to his own life, when Marius and 
Cinna returned to Rome at the end of 87. — 8. M., 
sumamed Dives, the triumnr, younger son of 
No. 7. His life was spared by Cinna, after the 
death of his father; but fearing Ciima, he after- 
wards escaped to Spain, where he concealed himself 
for 8 months. On the death of Cinna in 84, he 
collected some forces and crossed over into Afi-ica, 
whence he passed into Italy in 83 and joined Sulla, 
on whose side he fought against the Marian party. 
On the defeat of the latter, he was rewarded by 
donations of confiscated property, and thus greatly 
increased his patrimony. His ruling passion was 
money, and he devoted all his energies to its accu- 
mulation. He was a keen and sagacious speculator. 
He bought multitudes of slaves, and, in order to 
increase their value, had them instmcted in lucrative 
arts. He worked silver mines, cultivated farms, 
and built houses, which he let at high rents. In 
71 he was appointed praetor in order to carry on 
the war against Spartacus and the gladiators; he 
defeated Spartacus, who was slain in the battle, and 
he was honoured with an ovation. In 70 Crassus 
vras consul with Pompey; he entertained the popu- 
lace at a banquet of 10,000 tables, and distributed 
com enough to supply the family of every citizen 
for 3 months. He did not, however, co-operate cor- 
dially T\-ith Pompey, of whose superior influence 
he vvas jealous. He was afterwards reconciled to 
Pompey by Caesar's mediation, and thus was formed 
between them, in 60, the so-called triumvirate. [See 
p. 133, b.] In 55 Crassus was again consul with 
Pompey, and received the province of Syria, where 
he hoped both to increase his wealth and to acquire 
military glory by attacking the Parthians. He set 
out for his province before the expiration of his 
consulship, and continued his march notwithstand- 
ing the unfavourable omens which occurred to him 
at almost every step. After crossing the Euphrates 
in 54,he did not follow up the attack upon Parthia, 
but returned to Syria, where he passed the wiater. 
In 53 he again crossed the Euphrates; he was 
misled by a crafty Arabian chieftain to march into 
the plains of Mesopotamia, where he was attacked 
by Surenas, the general of the Parthian king, 
Orodes. In the battle which followed Crassus was 
defeated with immense slaughter, and retreated 
with the remainder of his troops to Carrhae (the 
Haran of Scripture). The mutinous threats of his 
troops compelled him to accept a perfidious invita- 
tion from Surenas, who offered a pacific interview, 
at which he was slain either by the enemy, or by 
some friend who desired to save him from the dis- 
grace of becoming a prisoner. His head was cut 
off and sent to Orodes, who caused melted gold to 
be poured into the mouth of his fallen enemy, say- 
ing, " Sate thyself now -n-ith that metal of which 
in life thou wert so greedy." — 9. M., sumamed 
Dives, son of No. 8, served under Caesar in GauL 



CRASTINUS. 



CREMONA. 



195 



and at the breaking out of the civil war in 49, was 
praefect in Cisalpine Gaul. — 10, P., younger son 
of No. 8., was Caesar's legate in Gaul from 58 to 
55. In 54 he followed his father to Syria, and fell 
in the battle against the Parthians. — 11. L., the 
celebrated orator. At the age of 21 (b. c. 1 19), he 
attracted great notice by his prosecution of C. Carbo. 
He was consul in 95 with Q. Scaevola, when he 
proposed a law to compel all who were not citizens 
to depart from Rome : the rigour of this law was 
one of the causes of the Social war. He was after- 
wards proconsul of Gaul. In 92 he was censor, 
when he caused the schools of the Latin rheto- 
ricians to be closed. He died in 91, a few days 
after opposing in the senate the consul L. Philippus, 
an enemy of the aristocracy. Crassus was fond of 
elegance and luxury. His house upon the Palatium 
was one of the most beautiful at Rome, and was 
adorned Avith costly works of art. As an orator he 
surpassed all his contemporaries. In the treatise 
De Oratore Cicero introduces him as one of the 
speakers, and he is imderstood to express Cicero's 
o\vn sentiments. 

Crastihus, one of Caesar's veterans, commenced 
the battle of Pharsalia, b. c. 48, and died fighting 
bravely in the foremost line. 

Craterus {Kparepos). 1, A distinguished general 
of Alexander the Great, on whose death (b. c. 323) 
he received in common with Antipater the govern 
ment of Macedonia and Greece. He arrived in 
Greece in time to render effectual assistance to 
Antipater in the Lamian war. At the close of this 
war he married Phila, the daughter of Antipater. 
Soon after he accompanied Antipater in the war 
against the Aetolians, and in that against Perdiccas 
in Asia. He fell in a battle against Eumenes, in 
321.-— 2. Brother of Antigonus Gonatas, compiled 
historical documents relative to the history of 
Attica. — 3. A Greek physician, who attended the 
family of Atticus, mentioned also b^' Horace {Sat. 
ii. 3/161). 

Crates (YLpaT-qs). 1. An Athenian poet of the 
old comedy, began to flourish b. c. 449, and was 
one of the most celebrated of the comic poets. He 
excelled chiefly in mirth and fim, and was the first 
Attic poet who brought drunken persons on the 
stage. — 2. Of Tralles, an orator or rhetorician of 
the school of Isocrates. — 3. Of Thebes, a pupil of 
the CjTiic Diogenes, and one of the most distin- 
guished of the Cynic philosophers, flourished about 
320. Though heir to a large fortune, he re- 
nounced it all, and lived and died as a true Cynic, 
disregarding all external pleasures, and restricting 
himself to the most absolute necessaries. He re- 
ceived the surname of the " Door-opener," because 
it was his practice to visit every house at Athens, 
and rebuke its inmates. He anarried Hipparchia, 
the daughter of a family of distinction, who threat - 
ened to commit suicide when her parents opposed 
her union with the philosopher. He wrote several 
works which are lost, for the epistles extant under 
his name are not genuine. — 4. Of Athens, the 
pupil and friend of Polemo, and his successor in 
the chair of the Academy, about 270. He was 
the teacher of Arcesilalis, Theodoras, and Bion 
Borysthenites. — 6. Of Mallus in Cilicia, a cele- 
brated grammarian. He was brought up at Tarsus, 
whence he removed to Pergamos, where he founded 
the Pergamene school of grammar, in opposition to 
the Alexandrian. He Avrote a commentary on the 
Homeric poems, in opposition to Aristarchus, and 



supported the system of anomaly {avxafxaXia) against 
that of analog}/ {avakoyia). He also wrote com- 
mentaries on the other Greek poets, and works on 
other subjects, of which only fragments have come 
down to us. In 157 he was sent by Attains as an 
ambassador to Rome, where he introduced for the 
first time the stud}' of grammar. 

CratMs (KpaQil). 1. (a-nta), a river in Achaia, 
rises in a mountain of tlie same name in Arcadia, 
receives the Styx flowing down from Nonacris, 
and falls into the sea near Aegae. — - 2. {Crati), a 
river in lower Italy, forming the boundary on the 
E. between Lucania and Bruttii, and falling into 
the sea near Sybaris. At its mouth was a cele- 
brated temple of Minerva : its waters were fabled 
to dye the hair blond. 

Cratinus (Kpariuos). 1. One of the most cele- 
brated of the Athenian poets of the old comedy, 
was born B.C. 519, but did not begin to exhibit 
till 454, when he -^vas 65 years of age. He ex- 
hibited 21 plays and gained 9 victories. He was 
the poet of the old comedy. He gave it its pe- 
culiar character, and he did not, like Aristophanes, 
live to see its decline. Before his time the comic 
poets had aimed at little beyond exciting the laugh- 
ter of their audience : he was the first who made 
comedy a terrible weapon of personal attack, and 
the comic poet a severe censor of public and private 
vice. He is frequently attacked by Aristophanes, 
who charges him with habitual intemperance, an 
accusation which was admitted by Cratinus him- 
self, who treated the subject in a very amusing 
Avay in his UvTivrj. This play was acted in 423, 
when the poet was 96 years of age ; it gauied the 
prize over the Connus of Amipsias and the Clouds 
of Aristophanes. Cratinus died in the following 
year, at the age of 97.-2. The younger, an 
Athenian poet of the middle comedy, a contem- 
porary of Plato the philosopher, flourished as late 
as 324. 

CratipptlS {Kpo^mnvos). 1. A Greek historian 
and contemporary of Thucydides, whose work he 
completed. — 2. A Peripatetic philosopher of My- 
tilene, a contemporary of Pompey and Cicero, the 
latter of whom praises him highly. He accom- 
panied Pompey in his flight after the battle of Phar- 
salia, B. c. 48. He afterwards settled at Athens, 
where young M. Cicero was his pupil in 44. Through 
the influence of Cicero, Cratippus obtained from 
Caesar the Roman citizenship. 

Cratos (Kparos), the personification of strength, 
a son of Uranus and Ge. 

Cratyliis (KparuAos), a Greek philosopher, a 
pupil of Heraclitus, and one of Plato's teachers. 
Plato introduces him as one of the speakers in the 
dialogue which bears his name. 

Cremera, a small river in Etruria, which falls 
into the Tiber a little above Rome : memorable for 
the death of the 300 Fabii. 

Crenina {Kprjfxva: Glierme^ Pi,u.), a strongly 
fortified city of Pisidia, built on a precipitous rock 
in the Taurus range, and noted for repeated obsti- 
nate defences : a colony under Augustus, 

Crenini {Kpr}iJ.voL), an emporium of the free 
Scythians on the W. side of the Palus Maeotis. 

Cremona (Cremonensis : Cre7nona), a Roman 
colony in the N. of Italy, N. of the Po, and at no 
great distance from the confluence of the Addua 
and the Po, was founded together with Piacentia 
B.C. 219 as a protection against the Gauls and 
Hannibal's invading army. It soon became a 

o 2 



196 



CUEMONIS. 



CRISPUS. 



place of great importance and one of the most 
flourishing cities in the N. of Italy ; but having 
espoused the cause of Vitellius, it was totally de- 
stroyed by the troops of Vespasian, A. D. 69. It 
was rebuilt by Vespasian, but never recovered its 
former greatness. 

Crem5iiis JugTim. [Alpes.] 

Cremutms Cordus. [Cord us.] 

Creon {Kp4uu). 1. King of Corinth, son of 
Lycaethus, whose daughter, Glauce or Creusa, mar- 
ried Jason. Medea, thus forsaken, sent Glauce a 
gaiTiient which burnt her to death when she put it 
on ; the palace took fire, and Creon perished in the 
flames. — 2. Son of Menoecus, and brother of Jo- 
caste, the wife of Laius. After the death of Laius, 
Creon governed Thebes for a short time, and then sur- 
rendered the kingdom to Oedipus, who had delivered 
the country from the Sphinx. [Oedipus.] When 
Eteocles and Polynices, the sons of Oedipus, fell in 
battle by each other's hands, Creon became king 
of Thebes. His cruelty in forbidding burial to 
the corpse of Polynices, and his sentencing An- 
tigone to death for disobeying his orders, occa- 
sioned the death of his own son Haemon. For 
details see Antigone. 

Credpliyliis ( KpecicpvKos), of Chios, one of the 
earliest epic poets, said to have been the friend or 
son-in-law of Homer. The epic poem Oi'xaAi'a or 
Oj'xaAfas aKccais, ascribed to him, related the con- 
test which Hercules, for the sake of lole, undertook 
with Eurytus, and the capture of Oechalia. 

Cresphontes (KprjacpSvTTjs), an Heraclid, son of 
Axistomachus, and one of the conquerors of Pelo- 
ponnesus, obtained Messenia for his share. During 
an insiu-rection of the Messenians, he and two of 
his sons were slain. A third son, Aepytus, avenged 
his death. [Aepytus.] 

Crestonia (KprjaTuiuia : tj Kprja-rwvLKr)), a dis- 
trict in Macedonia between the Axius and Strymon, 
near Mt. Cercine, inhabited by the Crestonaei 
(KpTjcTTwvatoi), a Thracian people: their chief town 
was Creston or Crestone {KpriaToov, Kpr]cTT<I>vr]), 
founded by the Pelasgians. This town is erro- 
neously supposed by some writers to be the same 
as CoJiTONxi in Italy. 

Creta (KpTjrrj: KprjToios: Candia)^ one of the 
largest islands in the Mediterranean sea, nearly 
equidistant from Europe, Asia, and Africa, but 
always reckoned as part of Europe. Its length 
from E. to W. is about 160 miles : its breadth is 
very unequal, being in the widest part about 35 
miles, and in the narrowest only 6. A range of 
mountains runs through the whule length of the 
island from E. to W., sending forth spurs N. and 
S. : in the centre of the island rises Mt. Ida far above 
all the others. [Ida.] The rivers of Crete are nu- 
merous, but are little more than mountain-torrents, 
and are for the most part dry in summer. The 
country was celebrated in antiquity for its fertilitj^ 
and salubrity. — Crete was inhabited at an early 
period by a numerous and civilized population. 
Homer speaks of its hundred cities {KprjTT] eKaro/j.- 
TToAis, //. ii. 649) ; and before the Trojan war mj'- 
thology told of a king Minos, who resided at 
Cnossus, and ruled over the greater part of the 
island. He is said to have given laws to Crete, 
and to have been the first prince who had a navy, 
with which he suppressed piracy in the Aegaean. 
After his descendants had governed the island 
for some generations, royalty was abolished, and 
the r;ities became independent republics, of which 



Cnossus and Gortyna were the most important, 
and exercised a kind of supremacy over the rest. 
The rulhig class were the Dorians who settled 
in Crete about 60 years after the Dorian conquest 
of Peloponnesus, and reduced the former inhabit- 
ants, the Pelasgians and Achaeans, to subjection. 
The social and political institutions of the island 
thus became Dorian, and many of the ancients sup- 
posed that the Spartan constitution was borrowed 
from Crete. The chief magistrates in the cities 
v/ere the Cosmi^ 1 in number, chosen from certain 
families : there was also a Gerusia, or senate ; and 
an Ecdesia or popular assembly, which, however, 
had very little power. (For details, see Diet, of 
Ant. art. Cosmi.) At a later time the power of 
the aristocracy was overthrown and a democratical 
form of government established. The ancient 
Doric customs likewise disappeared, and the people 
became degenerate in their morals and character. 
The historian Polybiiis accuses them of numerous 
vices, and the Apostle Paul, quoting the Cretan 
poet Epimenides, describes them as " alway liars, 
evil beasts, slow bellies" {Titus., i. 12). — The 
Cretans were celebrated as archers, and frequently 
served as mercenaries in the armies of other nations. 
The island was conquered by Q. Metellus, Avho 
received in consequence the surname Creticus (b.c. 
68 — 66), and it became a Roman province. Crete 
and Cyrenaica subsequently formed one province. 

Creteus or Catreus (KpTjreus), son of Minos by 
Pasiphae or Crete, and father of Althemenes. 

Cretheus (KpTj^eus), son of Aeolus and En- 
arete, wife of Tyro, and father of Aeson, Pheres, 
Amythaon, and Hippolyte : he was the founder of 
lolcus. 

Cretopolis (KptjtottoAjs), a town in the district 
of Milyas in Asia Minor, assigned sometimes to 
Pisidia, sometimes to Pamphylia. 

Creusa (Kpiovaa). 1. A Naiad, daughter of 
Oceanus, became by Peneus the mother of Hyp- 
seus and Stilbe. — 2. Daughter of Erechtheus and 
Praxithea, wife of Xuthus, and mother of Achaeus 
and Ion. She is said to have been beloved by 
Apollo, whence Ion is sometimes called her son by 
this god. — 3. Daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
wife of Aeneas, and mother of Ascanius. She 
perished on the night of the capture of Troy, hav- 
ing been separated from her husband in the con- 
fusion. — 4. Daughter of Creon, who fell a victim 
to the vengeance of Medea. [Creon, No. 1.] 

Creusis or Creusa (KpeCcis, Kp^ovaa : Kpew- 
o-teus), a town on the E. coast of Boeotia, the 
harbour of Thespiae. 

Crimisa or' Crimissa (Kpi'/xio-c, Kpi^iiaaa : C. 
deW Alice), a promontory on the E. coast of Brut- 
tium, with a town of the same name upon it, said 
to have been founded by riuloctetes, a little S. of 
the river Crimisus. 

Crimisus or Crimissus (Kpiixiaos, KpL/iiaffSs), 
a river in the W. of Sicily, falls into the Hypsa : 
on its banks Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 
B. c. 339. 

Crinagoras (Kpii/a7(5pas),of Mytilene, the author 
of 50 epigrams in the Greek Anthology, lived in the 
reign of Augustus. 

Crispinus, a person ridiculed by Horace (Sat. i. 
1. 120), is said to have written bad verses on the 
Stoic philosophy, and to have been surnamed 
Aretalogus. 

Crispus, Flavius Julius, eldest son of Constan- 
tine the Great, was appointed Caesar a.d. 317, 



CRISPUS. 



CROTON. 



197 



and gained great distinction in a campaign against 
the Franks and in the war with Licinius. But 
having excited the jealousy of his step-mother 
Fausta, he was put to death by his father, 326. 

Crispus Passienus, husband of Agrippina, and 
step-father of the emperor Nero, was distinguished 
as an orator. 

Crispus, Tibius, of Vercelli, a contemporary of 
Quintilian, and a distinguished orator. 

Crissa or Crisa (Kpi'oo-a, Kplaa : Kpto-o-oTos), 
and Cirrlia (Kipba : Kij^palos), towns in Phocis, re- 
garded by some ancient, as well as by some modern 
writers as the same ; but it seems most probable 
that Crissa was a town inland S. W. of Delphi, 
and that Cirrha was its port in the Crissaean gulf. 
The inhabitants of these towns levied contributions 
upon the pilgrims frequenting the Delphic oracle, 
in consequence of which the Amphictyons declared 
war against them, b. c. 595, and eventually de- 
stroyed them. Their territory, the rich Crissaean 
plain, was declared sacred to the Delphic god, and 
was forbidden to be cultivated. The cultivation 
of this plain by the inhabitants of Amphissa led to 
the Sacred War, in which Philip was chosen ge- 
neral of the Amphictyons, 338, Crissa remained 
in ruins, but Cirrha was afterwards rebuilt, and 
became the harbour of Delphi. 

Critias (Kpirlas). 1. Son of Dropides, a con- 
temporary and relation of Solon's. — 2. Son of 
Callaeschrus, and grandson of the above, was one 
of the pupils of Socrates, by whose instructions he 
profited but little in a moral point of view. lie 
was banished from Athens, and on his return he 
became leader of the oligarchical party. He was 
one of the 30 tyrants established by the Spartans 
B.C. 404, and was conspicuous above all his col- 
leagues for rapacity and cruelty. He was slain at 
the battle of Munychia in the same year, fighting 
against Thrasybulus and the exiles. He was a 
distinguished orator, and some of his speeches were 
extant in tlie time of Cicero. He also wrote poems, 
dramas, and other works. Some fragments of his 
elegies are still extant. 

Critolaus (KpLrdKaos). 1. Of Phaselis in Lycia, 
studied philosophy at Athens under Ariston of 
Ceos, whom he succeeded as the head of the Peri- 
patetic school. In B. c. 155 he was sent by the 
Athenians as ambassador to Rome with Carneades 
and Diogenes. [Carneades.] He lived up- 
wards of 82 years, but we have no further parti- 
culars of his life. — 2. General of the Achaean 
League, 147, distinguished by his bitter enmity to 
the Romans. He was defeated by Metellus, and 
was never heard of after the battle. 

Criton (KpiToj/). 1. Of Athens, a friend and 
disciple of Socrates, whom he supported with his 
fortune. He had made every arrangement for the 
escape of Socrates from prison, and tried, in vain, 
to persuade him to Qy, as we see from Plato's 
dialogue named after him. Criton wrote 17 dia- 
logues on philosophical subjects, which are lost. — 
2. A physician at Rome in the 1 st or 2nd century 
after Christ, perhaps the person mentioned by 
Martial {Epigr. xi. 60.6) : he wrote several medical 
works. 

Criu-metopon (KptoG /xeTWTrov), i. e. " Ram's 
Front."— L A promontory at the S. of the Tauric 
Chersonesus.— 2. A promontory at the S. W. of 
Crete. 

Crius (KpTos), one of the Titans, son of Uranus 
aud Ge. 



Crocodilopblis (KpoKohdkwv ttSKis). 1. {Em- 
heshunda a city of Upper Egypt, in the Nomos 
Aphroditopolites. — 2. [Arsinoe, No. 7.] 

Crocus, the beloved friend of Smilax, was 
changed by the gods into a saffron plant. 

Crocylea (ra Kpo/cuAeia), according to Homer 
{II. ii. 633), a place in Ithaca, but according to 
Strabo, in Leucas in Acarnania. 

Croesus {Kpoiaos), last king of Lydia, son of 
Alyattes, reigned B. c. 560 — 546, but was pro- 
bably associated in the kingdom during his father's 
life. The early part of his reign was most 
glorious. He subdued all the nations between 
the Aegaean and the river Halys, and made the 
Greeks in Asia Minor tributary to him. The 
fame of his power and wealth drew to his court at 
Sardis all the wise men of Greece, and among 
them Solon, whose interview with the king was 
celebrated in antiquity. In reply to the question 
who was the happiest man he had ever seen, the 
sage taught the king that no man should be 
deemed happy till he had finished his life in a 
happy way. Alarmed at the growing power of 
the Persians, Croesus sent to consult the oracle of 
Apollo at Delphi, whether he should march against 
the Persians. Upon ,the reply of the oracle, that, 
if he marched against the Persians, he would 
overthrow a great empire, he collected a vast army 
and marched against Cyrus. Near Sinope an 
indecisive battle was fought between the two 
armies ; whereupon he returned to Sardis, and 
disbanded his forces, commanding them to re- 
assemble in the following spring. But Cyrus 
appeared unexpectedly before Sardis ; Croesus 
led out the forces still remaining with him, but 
was defeated, and the city was taken after a 
siege of 1 4 days. Croesus, who was taken alive, 
was condenmed to be burnt to death. As he 
stood before the pyre, the warning of Solon came- 
to his mind, and he thrice uttered the name of' 
Solon. Cyrus inquired who it was that he called 
on ; and, upon hearing the story, repented of his- 
purpose, and not only spared the life of Croesus, 
but made him his friend. Croesus survived Cyrus,, 
and accompanied Cambyses in his expedition 
against Egypt. 

Crommyon or Cromyon {KpoixixvcLv, Kpoixvdov)^. 
a town in Megaris on the Saronic gulf, afterwards- 
belonged to Corinth ; celebrated in mythology on. 
account of its wild sow, which was slain by Theseus. 

Cronius Mons (KpSviov opos), a mountain in 
Elis near Olympia, with a temple of Cronus. 

Cronus (KpSvos)^ the youngest of the Titans,, 
son of Uranus and Ge, father by Rhea of Hestia, 
Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. At 
the instigation of his mother, Cronus unmanned, 
his father for having thrown the Cyclopes, who* 
were likewise his children by Ge, into Tartarus,- 
Out of the blood thus shed sprang up the Erinnyes, 
When the Cyclopes were delivered from Tartarus, 
the government of the world was taken from 
Uranus and given to Cronus, who in his tura lost 
it through Zeus, as was predicted to him by Ge 
and Uranus. [Zeus.] The Romans identified 
their Saturnus with Cronus. [Satqrnus.] 

Cropia (KpaiTveia), an Attic demus belonging to 
the tribe Leontis. 

Croton or Crotona (Crotoniensis, Crotonensis, 
Crotoniata : Crotona)^ a Greek city on the E. coast 
of Bruttium, on the river Aesarus, and in a very 
healthy locality, was founded by the Achaeans 

o B 



198 



CRUSTUMERIA. 



nnder Mysceilas of Aegae, assisted by the Spartans, 
B. c. 710. Its extensive commerce, the virtue of 
its inhabitants, and the excellence of its institutions, 
made it the most powerful and flourishing town in 
the S. of Italv. It owed much of its greatness to 
Pythagoras, who established his school here. Gym- 
nastics %vere cultivated here in greater perfection 
than in any other Greek city ; and one of its 
citizens, Milo, was the most celebrated athlete in 
Greece. It attained its greatest power by the de- 
struction of Sybaris in 5 1 ; but it subseq^uently 
declined in consequence of the severe defeat it sus- 
tained from the Locrians on the river Sagras. It 
suffered greatly in the wars with Dionysius, Aga- 
thocles, and Pyrrhus ; and in the 2nd Punic war 
a considerable part of it had ceased to be inhabited. 
It received a colony from the Romans in 1 .95. 

Crastnmeria, -rium, also Cmstumium (Cnis- 
tumlnus), a town of the Sabines, situated in the 
mountains near the sources of the Allia, was con- 
quered both by Romulus and Tarquinius Priscus, 
and is not mentioned in later times. 

Cteatns. [Molio.ves.] 

Ctesias (KTTjatas), of Cnidus in Caria, a con- 
temporary of Xenophon, was private physician of 
Artaxerexes Mnemon, whom he accompanied in 
his war against his brother Cyrus, b. c. 401. He 
lived 17 years at the Persian court, and -nTote in 
the Tonic dialect a great work on the history of 
Persia (Ilepo-tKa), in 23 books. The first 6 con- 
tained the history of the Assyrian monarchy down 
to the foundation of the kingdom of Persia. The 
next 7 contained the history of Persia down to 
the end of the reign of Xerxes, and the remain- 
ing 10 carried the history down to the time when 
Ciesias lefi Persia, i. e. to the year 398. All 
that is now extant is a meagre abridgment in 
Photius and a number of fragments preserved in 
Diodorus and other writers. The work of Ctesias 
was compiled firom Oriental sources, and its state- 
ments are frequently at variance with those of 
Herodotus. Ctesias also wrote a work on India 
ylvoiKo) in one book, of which we possess an 
abridgiaect in Photius. This work contains nu- 
merous fables, but it probably gives a faithful pic- 
ture of India, as it was conceived by the Persians. 
The abridgment which Photius made of the Per- 
sica and Indica of Ctesias has been printed sepa- 
rately by Lion, Gottingen, 1823, and by Bahr, 
Fraiifort, 1824. 

CtesfDius (KxTjc/gtos), celebrated for his me- 
chanical inventions, lived at Alexandria in the 
reigns of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Euergetes, 
about B. c. 250. His father was a barber, but 
his own taste led him to devote himself to me- 
chanics. He is said to have invented a clepsydra 
or water-clock, a hydraulic organ iy^oavXis). and 
other machines, and to have been the first to dis- 
cover the elastic force of air and apply it as a 
moving power. He was the teacher, and has been 
sup: osed to have been the father of Hero Alexan- 
dnnus. 

Ctesiphon (KrT]<n^cav), son of Leosthenes of 
Anaphlystus, was accused by Aeschines for having 
proposed the decree, that Demosthenes should be 
honoured v.-ith. the crown. [Azschines.] 

Ctesiphon (Kr-na-Kp&u : Krri<n<pd:in-ios \ TaMi 
Kesra, Ru.), a city of Assyria, on the E. bank of 
the Tigris, 3 Roman miles from Seleucia on the W. 
bank, first became an important place under the 
Parthians, whose kings used it for some time as a 



CUNAXA. 

winter residence, and afterwards enlarged and for- 
tified it, and made it the capital of their empire. 
It is said to have contain o^d at least 100.000 inha- 
bitants. In the wars of the Romans with the 
Parthians and Persians, it was taken, first by Trajan 
(a. d. 115). and by several of the later emperors, 
but Julian did not venture to attack it, even after 
his victory over the Persians before the city. 

Ctesippns (KT'^o-triros). 1. Two sons of Her- 
cules, one by Deianira, and the other by Asty- 
damia. — 2. Son of Polytherses of Same, one of 
the suitors of Penelope, killed by Philoetius, the 
cow-herd. 

Cnlaro, afterwards called Gratianopolis {Gre- 
TuJAe) in honour of the emperor Gratian, a town in 
Gallia Narbonensis on the Isara {here). 

Colleo or Culeo, Q. Terentius. L A senator of 
distinction, was taken prisoner in the second Punic 
war, and obtained his liberty at the conclusion of 
the war, B.c, 201. To show his gratitude to P. 
Scipio, he followed his triumphal car, wearing the 
pileus or cap of liberty, like an emancipated slave. 
In 187 he was praetor peregrinus, and in this year 
condemned L. Scipio Asiaticus, on the charge of 
having misappropriated the money gained in the 
war with Antiochus. — 2. Tribune of the plebs, 
58, exerted himself to obtain Cicero's recall from 
banishment. In the war which followed the death 
of Caesar (43), Culleo was one of the legates of 
Lepidus. 

Comae (Ku/ii? : Ku/muoj, Cumanus), a town in 
Campania, and the most ancient of the Greek co- 
lonies in Italy and Sicily, vrzs founded by Cumae 
in Aeolis, in conjunction ■with Chalcis and Eretria 
in Euboea. Its foundation is placed in B. c. 1050, 
but this date is evidently too early. It was situ- 
ated on a steep hill of Mt. Gaurus, a little X. of 
the promontory iMisenum. It became in early 
times a great and flourishing city ; its commerce 
was extensive ; its territory included a great part 
of the rich Campanian plain ; its population was 
at least 60,000 ; and its power is attested by its 
colonies in Italy and Sicily, — PuteoU, Palaeopolis, 
afterwards Xeapolis, Zancle, afterwards Messana. 
But it had powerful enemies to encounter in the 
Etruscans and the Italian nations. It was also 
v>-eakened by internal dissensions, and one of its 
citizens Aristodemus made himself tyrant of the 
place. Its power became so much reduced that it 
was only saved from the attacks of the Etruscans 
by the assistance of Hiero, who annihilated the 
Etruscan fleet, 474. It maintained its independ- 
ence tiU 417, when it was taken by the Campa- 
nians and most of its inhabitants sold as slaves. 
From this time Capua became the chief city of 
Campania ; and although Cumae was subsequently 
a Roman municipium and a colony, it continued 
to decline in importance. At last the Acropolis 
was the only part of the town that remained, and 
this was eventually destroyed by Narses in his 
wars with the Goths. — Cumae was celebrated as 
the residence of the earliest Sibyl, and as the place 
v.-here Tarquinius Superbus died. — Its ruins are still 
to be seen between the Lago di Patria and Fusaro. 

Conaxa (Kowa^a), a small town in Babylonia, 
on the Euphrates, famous for the battle fought here 
between the younger Cyrus and his brother Ar- 
taxerxes Mnemon, in which the former was killed 
(b. c. 401). Its position is uncertain. Plutarch 
{Artaa:. 8) places it 500 stadia (50 geog. miles) 
above Babylon ; Xenophon, who does not mention 



CUPIENNIUS. 



CYAXARES. 



199 



it by name, makes the battle field 360 stadia (36 
geog. miles) from Babylon. 

Cupienmus, attacked by Horace (Sat. i, 2. 36), 
is said by the Scholiast to have been a friend of 
Augustus, but is probably a fictitious name. 

Cupra (Cuprensis). 1. Maritima {Marano at 
the mouth of the Monecchia), a town in Picenum, 
•with an ancient temple of Juno, founded by the 
Pelasgians and restored by Hadrian. — = 2. Mon- 
tana* a town near No. 1 in the mountains. 

Ctires (Gen. Curium), an ancient town of the 
Sabines, celebrated as the birth-place of T. Tatius 
and Numa Pompilius : from, this town the Romans 
are said to have derived the name of Quirites. 

Curetes (Koup'^res), a mythical people, said to 
be the most ancient inhabitants of Acarnania and 
Aetolia ; the latter country was called Curetis from 
them. They also occur in Crete as the priests of 
Zeus, and are spoken of in connexion with the 
Corybantes and Idaean Dactyli. The infant Zeus 
Avas entrusted to their care by Rhea ; and by 
clashing their weapons in a warlike dance, they 
drowned the cries of the child, and prevented his 
father Cronus from ascertaining the place Avhere 
he was concealed. 

Curias. [Curium.] 

Curiatii, a celebrated Alban family. 3 brothers 
' of this family fought with 3 Roman brothers, the 
Horatii, and were conquered by the latter. In 
consequence of their defeat, Alba became subject 
to Rome. 

Curiatius Maternus. [Maternus.] 

Cnrio, C. Scribomus. 1. Praetor b. c. 121, was 
one of the most distinguished orators of his time. — 
2. Son of No. 1, tribune of the plebs, B. c. 90 ; after- 
wards served under Sulla in Greece ; was praetor 
82 ; consul 76 ; and after his consulship obtained 
the province of Macedonia, where he carried on 
war against the barbarians as far N. as the Da- 
nube. He was a personal enemy of Caesar, and 
supported P. Clodius, when the latter was accused 
of violating the sacra of the Bona Dea. In 57 he 
was appointed pontifex maximus, and died 53. 
He had some reputation as an orator, and was a 
friend of Cicero.-— 3. Son of No. 2, also a friend of 
Cicero, was a most profligate character. He was 
married to Fulvia., afterwards the wife of Antony. 
He at first belonged to the Pompeian party, by 
whose influence he was made tribune of the plebs, 
50 ; but he was bought over by Caesar, and em- 
ployed his power as tribune against his former 
friends. On the breaking out of the civil war 
(49), he was sent by Caesar to Sicily with the 
title of propraetor. He succeeded in driving Cato 
out of the island, and then crossed over to Africa, 
where he was defeated and slain by Juba and P. 
Attius Varus. 

Cnriosolitae, a Gallic people on the Ocean in 
Armorica near the Veneti, in the com:itry of the 
modem Corseult near St. Malo. 

Curium (Kovpiou : Kovpievs : nr. Piscopia Ru.), 
a town on the S. coast of Cyprus, near the pro- 
montory Curias, W. of the mouth of the Lycus. 

Cftrius Dentatus. [Dentatus.] 

Curius, M.', an intimate friend of Cicero and 
Atticus, lived for several years as a negotiator at 
Patrae in Peloponnesus. In his will he left his 
property to Atticus and Cicero. Several of Ci- 
cero's letters are addressed to him. 

Cursor, L. Papirius. 1. A distinguished Ro- 
man general in the 2nd Samnite war, was 5 times 



consul (B.C. 333, 320, 319, 315, 313), and twice 
dictator (325, 309). He frequently defeated the 
Samnites, but his greatest victory over them was 
gained in his 2nd dictatorship. Although a great 
general, he v/as not popular with the soldiers on ac- 
count of his severity. —-2. Son of No. 1, was, like 
his father, a distinguished general. In both his 
consulships (293, 272) he gained great victories 
over the Samnites, and in the 2nd he brought the 
3rd Samnite Avar to a close. 

Curtius, Mettus or Mettius, a distinguished 
Sabine, fought with the rest of his nation against 
Romulus. According to one tradition, the Lacus 
Curtius^ Avhich Avas part of the Roman forum, Avas 
called after him ; because in the battle Avith the 
Romans he escaped Avith difficulty from a SAvamp, 
into Avhich his horse had plunged. But the more 
usual tradition respecting the name of the Lacus 
Curtius related that in B. c. 362 the earth in the 
forum gave way, and a great chasm appeared, 
Avhich the soothsayers declared could only be filled 
up by thro wins? into it Rome's greatest treasure-; that 
thereupon M. Curtius, a noble youth, mounted his 
steed in full armour ; and declaring that Rome pos- 
sessed no greater treasure than a brave and gallant 
citizen, leaped into the abyss, upon which the 
earth closed over him. 

Curtius Montanus. [Montanus.] 

Curtius Rtifus, Q., the Roman historian of 
Alexander the Great. Respecting his life, and the 
time at Avhich he lived, nothing is known Avith 
certainty. Some critics place him as early as the 
time of Vespasian, and others as late as Constan- 
tine ; but the earlier date is more probable than 
the later. The Avork itself, entitled De Rebus 
Gestis Aleocandri Magni, consisted of 10 books, 
but the first 2 are lost, and the remaining 8 are 
not Avithout considerable gaps. It is Avritten in a 
pleasing though somewhat declamatory style. It 
is taken from good sources, but the author fre- 
quently shows his ignorance of geography, chrono- 
logy, and tactics. The best editions are by Zumpt, 
Berlin, 1826, and Mutzell, Berlin, 1843. 

Cutiliae Aquae. [Aquae, No. 3.] 

Cyane {Kvdvn), a Sicilian nymph and playmate 
of Proserpine, changed into a fountain through grief 
at the loss of the goddess. 

Cyaneae Insulae {Kvaviai vrjcoi or irerpai, 
Urek-JaJci), 2 small rocky islands at the entrance 
of the Thracian Bosporus into the Euxine, the 
Planctae (UAdyKraL) and Symplegades (Xv/x- 
TrATjyaSes) of mythology, so called because they are 
said to have been once moveable and to have 
rushed together, and thus destroyed every ship 
that attempted to pass through them. After the 
ship Argo had passed through them in safety, they 
became stationary. [See p. 76, a.] 

Cyaxares (Kua^dprjs), king of Media b. c. 634 
— 594, son of Phraortes, and grandson of Deioces. 
He Avas the most Avarlike of the Median kings, and 
introduced great military reforms. He defeated 
the Assyrians, Avho had slain his father in battle, 
and he laid siege to Ninus (Nineveh). But Avhile 
he Avas before the city, he was defeated by the 
Scythians, who held the dominion of Upper Asia 
for 28 years (634 — 607), but Avere at length driven 
out of Asia by Cyaxares. After the expulsion of 
the Scythians, Cyaxares again turned his arms 
against Assyria, and with the aid of the king of 
Babylon (probably the father of Nebuchadnezzar), 
he took and destroyed Ninus, in 606. He subse- 

o 4 



200 



CYBELE. 



CYME. 



quently carried on war for 5 years against Alyattes, 
king of Lydia. [Alyattes.] Cyaxares died in 
594, and was succeeded by his son Astyages. — 
Xenophon speaks of a Cyaxares II., king of Media, 
Bon of Astyages, respecting whom see Cyrus. 
Cybele. [Rhea.] 

Cybistra (ra Kv€iaTpa), an ancient city of Asia 
Minor, several times mentioned by Cicero (Ep. ad 
Fam. XV. 2, 4, adAtt. v. 18, 20), who describes it as 
lying at the foot of Mt. Taurus, in the part of Cap- 
padocia bordering on Cilicia. Strabo places it 300 
stadia ( 30 geog. miles) from Tyana. Mention is 
made of a place of the same name (now Kara 
Hissar), between Tyana and Caesarea ad Argaeum ; 
but this latter can hardly be believed to be identical 
with the former. 

Cyclades (KuKAaSes), a group of islands in the 
Aegaean sea, so called because they lay in a 
circle (eV KVKXcp) around Delos, the most important 
of them. According to Strabo they were 12 in 
number ; but their number is increased by other 
writers. The most important of them were Delos, 
Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, Rhenia, Siphnos, 
CiMOLOs, Naxos, Paros, Syros, Myconos, 
Tenos, Andros. 

Cycldpes (KvKXccrres), that is, creatures with 
round or circular eyes, are described differently by 
different writers. Homer speaks of them as a gi- 
gantic and lawless race of shepherds in Sicil}', who 
devoured human beings and cared nought for Zeus: 
each of them had only one eye in the centre of his 
forehead: the chief among them was Polyphemus. 
According to Hesiod the Cyclops were Titans, sons 
of Uranus and Ge, were 3 in number, Arges, 
Steropes, and Brontes, and each of them had only 
one eye on his forehead. They were thrown into 
Tartarus by Cronus, but were released b}' Zens, and 
in consequence they provided Zeus with thunder- 
bolts and lightning, Pluto with a helmet, and Po- 
seidon with a trident. They were afterwards 
killed by Apollo for having furnished Zeus with 
the thunderbolts to kill Aesculapius. A still later 
tradition regarded the Cyclopes as the assistants of 
Hephaestus. Volcanoes were the workshops of 
that god, and Mt. Aetna in Sicily and the neigh- 
bouring isles were accordingly considered as their 
abodes. As the assistants of Hephaestus they 
make the metal armour and ornaments for gods 
and heroes. Their number is no longer confined 
to 3 ; and besides the names mentioned by Hesiod, 
we also find those of Pyracmon and Acamas. 
The name of Cyclopian walls was given to the walls 
built of great masses of unhewn stone, of which 
specimens are still to be seen at Mycenae and 
other parts of Greece, and also in Italy. They 
were probably constructed by the Pelasgians ; and 
later generations, being struck by their grandeur, 
ascribed their building to a fabulous race of Cyclops. 

Cycnus (Kvkvos). 1. Son of Apollo by Hyrie, 
lived in the district between Pleuron and Calydon, 
and was beloved by Phyllius ; but as Phyllius 
refused him a bull, Cycnus leaped into a lake and 
was metamorphosed mto a swan. — 2. Son of Po- 
seidon, was king of Colonae in Troas, and father 
of Tenes and Hemithea. His second wife Philo- 
nome fell in love with Tenes, her step-son, and as 
he refused her offers, she accused him to his father, 
who threw Tenes with Hemithea in a chest into 
the sea. Tenes escaped and became king of Te- 
nedos. [Tenes.] In the Trojan War both 
Cycnus and Tenes assisted the Trojans, but both 



were slain by Achilles. As Cycnus could not be 
Avounded by iron, Achilles strangled him with 
the thong of his helmet, or killed him with a 
stone. When Achilles was going to strip Cycnus 
of his armour, the bod}' disappeared, and was 
changed into a swan. —3. Son of Ares and Pe- 
lopia, slain by Hercules at Itone. — 4. Son of 
Ares and Pyrene, likewise killed by Hercules. 

— 5. Son of Sthenelus, king of the Ligurians, and 
a friend and relation of Phaethon. While he was 
lamenting the fate of Phaethon on the banks of the 
Eridanus, he was metamorphosed by Apollo into a 
swan, and placed among the stars. 

Cydias, a celebrated painter from the island of 
Cythnus, b. c. 364, whose picture of the Argonauts 
was exhibited in a porticus by Agrippa at Rome. 

Cydippe. [Acontius.] 

Cydnus (KvSvos : Tersoos-CIiai), a river of Ci- 
licia Campestris, rising in the Taunis, and flowing 
through the midst of the city of Tarsus, where it 
is 120 feet wide (Kinneir : Xenophon says 2 ple- 
thra=202 feet). It was celebrated for the clear- 
ness and coldness of its water, which was esteemed 
useful in gout and nervous diseases, but by bathing 
in which Alexander nearly lost his life. At its 
mouth the river spread into a lagune, which formed 
the harbour of Tarsus, but which is now choked 
with sand. In the middle ages the river was called 
Hierax. 

Cydonia, more rarely Cydonis (Kvdwvia, Kvdco- 
VLS : KuSco/zidTTjs : Khania), one of the chief cities 
of Crete, the rival and opponent of Cnossus and 
GoRTYNA, was situated on the N. W. coast, and 
derived its name from the Cydones (KuSajj-es), a 
Cretan race, placed by Homer in the W. part of 
the island. At a later time a colony of Zacyn- 
thians settled in Cydonia ; they were driven out 
by the Samians about B. c. 524 ; and the Samians 
were in their turn expelled by the Aeginetans. 
Cydonia was the place from which quinces {Cydonia 
mala) were first brought to Italy, and its inhabit- 
ants were some of the best Cretan archers {Cydo- 
nio arcu^ Hor. Carm. iv. 19. 17). 

Cyllarus {KvXXapos), a beautiful centaur, killed 
at the wedding feast of Pirithous. The horse of 
Castor was likewise called Cyllarus. 

Cyllene (KvWijur]). 1. (Zyria), the highest 
mountain in Peloponnesus on the frontiers of Ar- 
cadia and Achaia, sacred to Hermes (Mercury), 
who had a temple on the summit, was said to have 
been born there, and was hence called Cyllenius. 

— 2. A sea-port town of Elis. 

Cylon (KvXcou), an Athenian of noble family, 
married the daughter of Theagenes, tyrant of Me- 
gara, and gained an Olympic victory B. c. 640. 
Encouraged by the Delphic oracle, he seized the 
Acropolis, intending to make himself tyrant of 
Athens, Pressed by famine, Cylon and his ad- 
herents were driven to take refuge at the altar 
of Athena, whence they were induced to withdraw 
by the archon Megacles, the Alcmaeonid, on a 
promise that their lives should be spared. But 
their enemies put them to death as soon as they 
had them in their poAver. 

Cyme (Ku^tj : Kv/xaTos : Sandakli), the largest of 
the Aeolian cities of Asia Minor, stood upon the 
coast of Aeolis, on a bay named after it, Cumaeus 
(also Elaiticus) Sinus (o KvjjLa7os kSKttos : Gulf of 
Sa7idakli), and had a good harbour. It was founded 
by a colony of Locrians from Mt. Phricius, and 
hence it had the epithet ^pinooi/is. It was the 



CYNA. 



CYPRUS. 



201 



native place of Hesiod and Ephorus, and the mo- 
ther city of Side in Pamphylia and Cumae in 
Campania. 
Cjma. [Cynane.] 

Cynaegirus (Kwaiyeipos), brother of the poet 
Aeschylus, distinguished himself by his valour at 
the oattle of Marathon, B.C. 490. According to 
Herodotus, when the Persians were endeavouring 
to escape by sea, Cynaegirus seized one of their 
ships to keep it back, but fell with his right hand 
cut off. In the later versions of the story Cynae- 
girus is made to perform still more heroic deeds. 

Cynaetha {Kwaida: KvuaiOevs, -Oaievs), a town 
in the N. of Arcadia, whose inhabitants, unlike the 
other Arcadians, had a dislike to music, to which 
circumstance Polybius attributes their rough and 
demoralized character. 

Cynane, Cyna, or Cynna (Kvvdvr), Kwa, Kvwa)^ 
half-sister to Alexander the Great, daughter of 
Philip by Audata, an Illyrian woman. She was 
married to her cousin Amyntas ; and after the 
death of Alexander she crossed over to Asia, in- 
tending to marry her daughter Eurydice to Arrhi- 
daeus, who had been chosen king. Her project 
alarmed Perdiccas, by whose order she was put to 
death. 

Cynesii or Csraetes (Kw-fiffioi, Kvvr]Tes), a peo- 
ple, according to Herodotus, dwelling in the ex- 
treme W. of Europe, beyond the Celts, apparently 
in Spain. 

Cynisca (Kui/jV/ca), daughter of Archidamus II. 
king of Sparta, was the first woman who kept 
horses for the games, and the first who gained an 
Olympic victory. 

Cynopolis {Kwhs ttSXls : Samallout), a city of 
the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, on an island 
in the Nile ; the chief seat of the worship of Anu- 
bis. There was a city of the same name in the 
Delta. 

Cynos {Kvvos : Kurios, Kwalos), the chief sea- 
port in the territory of the Locri Opuntii. 

Cjmosarges (tS Kvv6aapy^s), a gymnasium, 
sacred to Hercules, outside Athens, E. of the city 
and before the gate Diomea, for the use of those 
who were not of pure Athenian blood : here taught 
Antisthenes, the founder of the Cynic school. 

Cynosceplialae(KLifbs/c€(^aAat), "Dog's Heads." 
L Two hills near Scotussa in Thessaly, where Fla- 
minius gained his celebrated victory over Philip of 
Macedonia, B. c. 197. — 3. A hill between Thebes 
and Thespiae in Boeotia. 

Cynossema {Kwhs (rrnxa), " Dog's Tomb," a 
promontory in the Thracian Chersonesus near 
Madytus, so called because it was supposed to be 
the tomb of Hecuba, who had been previously 
changed into a dog. 

Cynosura (Kvuoa-ovpd), an Idaean nymph, and 
one of the nurses of Zeus, who placed her among 
the stars. [Arctos.] 

Cynosura (Kvudaovpa), " Dog's Tail," a pro- 
montory in Attica, S. of Marathon. 

Cjmthia and Cynthius {Kvydia and Rvvdios), 
surnames respectively of Artemis and Apollo, which 
they derived from Mt. Cynthus in the island of 
Delos, their birthplace. 

Cynuria (Kwuvpia : Kwovpios), a district on 
the frontiers of Argolis and Laconia, for the pos- 
session of which the Argives and Spartans carried 
on frequent wars, and which the Spartans at length 
obtained about b. c. 550. [See p. 77, a.] The 
inhabitants were lonians. 



Cyparissia (Kinrapicraia). 1. A town in Mes- 
senia on the W. coast,- S. of the river Cyparissus, 
and on a promontory and bay of the same name. 
Homer (11. ii. 593) speaks of a town Cyparisseeis 
{KviTapi(T(T7]€is) subject to Nestor, which is pro- 
bably the same as the preceding, though Strabo places 
it in Triphylia. — 2. A town in Laconia on a pe- 
ninsula near the Asopus. 

Cyparissus (Kvirdpiaaos), son of Telephus, be- 
loved by Apollo or Silvanus. Having inadver- 
tently killed his favourite stag, he was seized Avith 
immoderate grief, and metamorphosed into a cypress. 

Cjrparissus (Kv-n-dpiao-us), a small town in Pho- 
cis on Parnassus near Delphi. 

Cyphanta (rd Kvcpavra), a town on the E. coast 
of Laconia near Brasiae. 

Cypria, Cypris, surnames of Aphrodite, from 
the island of Cyprus. 

Cyprianus, a celebrated father of the Church, 
was a native of Africa. He was a Gentile by 
birth, and before his conversion to Christianity he 
taught rhetoric with distinguished success. He 
was converted about a. D. 246, was ordained a 
presbyter 247, and was raised to the bishopric of 
Carthage 248. When the persecution of Decius 
burst forth (250), Cyprian fled from the storm, and 
remained 2 years in retirement. A few years 
afterwards the emperor Valerian renewed the per- 
secution against the Christians. Cyprian was ba- 
nished by Paternus the proconsul to the maritime 
city of Ciu-ubis, where he resided 11 months. He 
was then recalled by the new governor, Galerius 
Maximus, and was beheaded in a spacious plain 
without the walls A. d. 258. He wrote several 
works which have come down to us. They are 
characterised by lucid arrangement, and eloquent, 
though declamatory style. The best editions are 
by Fell, Oxford, 1682, fol,, to Avhich are subjoined 
the Annales Cyprianici of Pearson ; and that com- 
menced by Baluze, and completed by a monk of 
the fraternity of St. Maur, Paris, 1726, fol. 

Cyprus (KuTrpos : Kvirpios: Cyprus^ called by 
the Turks Kebris), a large island in the Mediter- 
ranean, S. of Cilicia and W. of Syria. It is called 
by various names in the poets, Cerastia or Cerastis, 
Macaria, Spheda^ Acamantis, Amathusia, and also 
Faphos. The island is of a triangular form : its 
length from E. to W. is about 140 miles ; its 
greatest breadth, which is in the W. part, is about 
50 miles from N. to S., but it gradually narrows 
towards the E. A range of mountains, called 
Olympus by the ancients, runs through the whole 
length of the island from E. to W., and rises in 
one part more than 7000 feet in height. The plains 
are chiefly in the S. of the island, and were cele- 
brated in ancient as well as in modern times for 
their fertility. The largest plain, called the Sala- 
minian plain, is in the E. part of the island near 
Salamis. The rivers are little more than mountain 
torrents, mostly dry in summer, — Cyprus was 
colonized by the Phoenicians at a very early pe- 
riod ; and Greek colonies were subsequently planted 
in the island, according to tradition soon after the 
Trojan war. We read at first of 9 independent 
states, each governed by its own king, Salamis, 
CiTiuM, Amathus, Curium, Paphos, Marium, 
Soli, Lapethus, Cerynia. The island was sub- 
dued by Amasis, king of Egypt, about b. c. 540. 
Upon the downfal of the Egyptian monarchy, it 
became subject to the Persians ; but Evagoras 
of Salamis, after a severe struggle with the Per- 



202 



CYPSELA. 



CYRENE. 



sians, established its independence about 385, and 
handed dowTi the sovereignty to his son Nicocles. 
It eventually fell to the share of the Ptolemies in 
Egypt, and was governed by them, sometimes 
united to Egypt, and sometimes by separate princes 
of the royal family. In 58 the Romans made Cy- 
prus one of their provinces, and sent M. Cato to 
take possession of it. — Cyprus was one of the 
chief seats of the worship of Aphrodite (Venus), 
who is hence called Cypris or Cypria, and whose 
worship was introduced into the island by the 
Phoenicians. 

Cjrpsela (ra Ku;//e\a : Kinl/eAti'os, -Xt)v6s). L 
A town in Arcadia on the frontiers of Laconia. — 
2. A town in Thrace on the Hebrus and the Eg- 
natia Via. 

Cypselus (Ki;;^/eAos). 1. Father of Merope and 
grandfather of Aepytiis. [Aepytl 5.] — 2. Of 
Corinth, son of Aeetion. The mother of Cypselus 
belonged to the house of the Bacchiaiae, that is, 
to the Doric nobility of Corinth. According to 
tradition, she married Aeetion, because, being ugly, 
she met with no one among the Bacchiadae who 
would have her as his wife. As the oracle of 
Delphi had declared that her son would prove for- 
midable to the ruling party at Corinth, the Bacchi- 
adae attempted to murder the child. But his 
mother concealed him in a chest (/cu-|eA77). from 
which he derived his name, Cypselus. "When he 
had grown up to manhood, he expelled the Bac- 
chiadae, with the help of the people, and then 
established himself as tyrant. He reigned 30 years, 
B. c. 655 — 625, and was succeeded by his son Pe- 
riander. The celebrated chest of Cypselus, con- 
sisting of cedar wood, ivory, and gold, and richly 
adorned with figures in relief, is described at length 
by Pausanias (v. 17, &c.). 

Cyraunis (Kvpawis), an island off the N. coast 
of Airica mentioned by Herodotus (iv. 95) ; pro- 
bably the same as Cercixe. 

Cyrenaica KupTjvai'c, 77 Kvp-qvair] x^PV-, He- 
rod : Dernah or Jebcl-Akhdar. i. e. the Green Moun- 
tain, the N. E. part of Tripoli), a district of N. 
Africa, between ^Marmarica on the E. and the 
Regio Syrtica on the W., was considered to ex- 
tend in its -widest limits from the Philaenorum 
Arae at the bottom of the Great Syrtis to the 
Chersonesus Magna or X. headland of the Gulf of 
Platea ((?. of Bomba), or even to the Catabathmus 
Magnus {Marsa Solium) ; but the part actually 
possessed and cultivated by the Greek colonists 
can only be considered as beginning at the N. 
limit of the sandy shores of the Great Syrtis. at 
Boreum Pr. {Ras Teyonas, S. of Ben-Ghazi), be- 
tween which and the Chersonesus Magna the 
country projects into the Mediterranean in the 
form of a segment of a circle, whose chord is above 
150 miles long and its arc above 200. From its 
position, formation, climate, and soil, this region is 
perhaps one of the most delightful on the surface 
of the globe. Its centre is occupied by a mode- 
rately elevated table-land, whose edge runs pa- 
rallel to the coast, to which it sinks down in a 
succession of terraces, clothed ■«'ith verdure, in- 
tersected by mountain streams running through 
ravines filled with the richest vegetation, exposed 
to the cool sea-breezes from the X., and sheltered 
by the mass of the mountain from the sands and 
hot winds of the Sahara. These slopes produced 
the choicest fruits, vegetables, and flowers, and 
some very rare plants, such as the silphium and the 



oirhs Kvpr]vaios. Tlie various harvests, at the dif- 
ferent elevations, lasted for 8 months of the year. 
With these physical advantages, the people naturally 
became prone to luxury. The country was, how- 
ever, exposed to annud ravages by locusts. The 
belt of mountainous land extends inwards firom 
the coast about 70 or 80 miles. — The first occupa- 
tion of this coimtrv" by the Greeks, of which we 
have any clear account, was effected by Battus, 
who led a colony from the island of Thera, and first 
established himself on the island of Platea at the 
E. extremity of the district, and afterwards built 
CvRENE (b. c. 631), where he founded a dynasty, 
which ruled over the country during 8 reigns, 
though with comparatively little power over some 
of the other Greek cities. Of these the earliest 
founded were Teuchira and Hesperis, then 
Barca, a colony from Cyrene ; and these, with 
Cyrene itself and its port Apollonia, formed the 
original Libyan Pentapolis, though this name 
seems not to have come iato general use till under 
the Ptolemies. The comparative independence of 
Barca, and the temporary conquest of the country 
by the Persians under Cambyses, diminished the 
power of the later kings of Cyrene. and at last the 
dynasty was overthrown and a republic established 
in the latter part of the 5th century B. c. When 
Alexander in\-aded Egypt, the Cyrenaeans formed 
an alliance with him ; but their country was made 
subject to Egypt by Ptolemy the son of Lagus. It 
appears to have flourished under the Ptolemies, 
who pursued their usual policy of raising new cities 
at the expense of the ancient ones, or restoring 
the latter under new names. Thus Hesperis became 
Berenice, Teuchira was called Arsinoe, Barca was 
entirely eclipsed by its port, which was raised into 
a city under the name of Ptolemais, and Cyrene 
suffered Jfrom the favours bestowed upon its port 

I Apollonia. The country was now usually called 
Pentapolis, from the 5 cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, 
Ptolemais, Axsinoe, and Berenice. In B. c. 95, the 
last Egyptian governor, Apion, an illegitimate son 
of Ptolemy Physcon, made the country over to 
the Romans, who at first gave the cities their firee- 
dom, and afterwards formed the district, imder the 
name of Cyrenaica, Avith the island of Crete, into 
a province. Under Constantine Cyrenaica Avas 
separated from Crete, and made a distinct province, 
under the name of Libya Superior. The first 
great blow to the prosperity of the country was 
given by the murderous conflict which ensued on 
an insurrection of the Jews (who had long settled 
here in great numbers) in the reign of Trajan. As 
the Roman empire declined, the attacks of the 
native Libyan tribes became more frequent and 
formidable, and the sufferings caused by their in- 

' roads and by locusts, plague, and earthquakes, are 
most pathetically described by Sjrnesius, bishop 
of Ptolemais, in the 5th century. In the 7th. 
century the coxmtry was overrun by the Persiaas, 
and soon afterwards it fell a final prey to the great 
Arabian invasion. 

Cyrene (Kvprivr]), daughter of Hypseus, mother 
of Aristaeus by Apollo, was carried by the god 
from Mt. Pelion to Libya, where the city of Cy- 
rene derived its name from her. 

Cyrene (Kvprjvr) : KvpT]va7os : Gkrennah, very 
large Ru.), the chief city of Cyrenaica in N. 
Africa, was founded by Battus (b. c. 631) over a 
fountain consecrated to Apollo, and called Cyre 
(Kuotj : 'AttoAAwvos KpT]V7})j which supplied the 



CYRESCHATA. 



CYRUS. 



20B 



city with water, and then ran down to the sea 
through a beautiful ravine. The city stood 80 
stadia (8 geog. miles) from the coast, on the edge 
of the upper of two terraces of table land, at the 
height of 1800 feet above the sea, in one of the 
finest situations in the world. The road which 
connected it with its harbour, Apollonia, still exists, 
and the ruins of Cyrene, though terribly defaced, 
are very extensive, comprising streets, aqueducts, 
temples, theatres, tombs, paintings, sculpture, and 
inscriptions. In the face of the terrace on which 
the city stands is a vast subterraneous necropolis. 
For the history of the city and surrounding country, 
see Cyrenaica. Among its celebrated natives 
were the philosopher Aristippus, the poet Calli- 
machus, and the Christian bishop and orator Sy- 
nesius. 

Cyreschata or Cyropolis (Kvpeaxara, Kvpa, 
Kvpov irSXis), a city of Sogdiana, on the Jaxartes, 
the furthest of the colonies founded by Cyrus, and 
the extreme city of the Persian empire : destroyed, 
after many revolts, by Alexander. Its position is 
doubtful, but it was probably not far from Alex- 
andreschata (Kokand). 

Cyrilius (Ku^iAAos). — 1. Bishop of Jerusalem, 
A. D. 351 — 386, was a firm opponent of the Arians, 
by whose influence he was banished 3 times from 
Jerusalem. His works are not numerous. The 
most important are lectures to catechumens, &c., 
and a letter to the emperor Constantius, giving an 
account of the luminous cross which appeared at 
Jerusalem, 351. The best editions are by Milles, 
Oxford, 1703, fol, and by Touttee, Paris, 1720, fol. 
—2. Bishop of Alexandria, A. D. 412 — 444, of which 
city he was a native. He was fond of power, and of 
a restless and turbulent spirit. He persecuted the 
Jews, whom he expelled from Alexandria ; and 
after a long protracted struggle he procured the 
deposition of Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople. 
He was the author of a large number ot works, 
many of which are extant ; but in a literary view 
they are almost worthless. The best edition is by 
Aubert, Paris, 1638, 6 vols. fol. 

C3^Tliestice {Kv^peaTiK-fi), the name given 
under the Seleucidae to a province of Syria, lying 
between Comraagene on the N. and the plain of 
Antioch on the S,, between Mt. Amanus on the W. 
and the Euphrates on the E. After the time of 
Constantine, it was united Avitb Commagene into 
one province, under the name of Euphratesia. 

Cjrrrhus or Cyrus (Kvppos, Kvpos: Korus9), 
a city of Syria, founded under the Seleucidae, nncj 
called after the city of the same name in Mace- 
donia; chiefly remarkable as the residence and 
Bee of Theodoret, Avho describes its poverty, which 
he did much to relieve. Justinian rebuilt the 
walls, and erected an aqueduct. 

Cyrrlius, a town in Macedonia, r.ear Pella. 
Cyrns {Kvpos). 1. The Elder, the founder 
of the Persian empire. The history of liis life 
was overlaid in ancient times with fables and ro- 
mances, and is related differently by Herodotus, 
Ctesias, and Xenophon. The account of Herodotus 
best preserves the genuine Persian legend, and is 
to be preferred to those of Ctesias and Xenophon. 
It is as follows : — Cyrus was the son of Cambyses, 
a noble Persian, and of Mandane, daughter of the 
Median king Astyages. In consequence of a 
dream, which seemed to portend that his grandson 
should be master of Asia, Astyages sent for his 
daughter, when she was pregnant ; and upon 



her giving birth to a son, he committed it ta 
Harpagus, his confidential attendant, with orders 
to kill it. Harpagus gave it to a herdsman of As- 
tyages, who was to expose it. But the wife of 
the herdsman having brought forth a still-born 
child, they substituted the latter for the child of 
Mandane, who was reared as the son of the herds- 
man. When he Avas 10 years old, his true pa- 
rentage was discovered by the following incident. 
In the sports of his village, the boys chose him for 
their king. One of the boys, the son of a noble 
Median named Artembares, disobeyed his com- 
mands, and Cyrus caused him to be severely 
scourged. Artembares complained to Astyages, 
who sent for Cyrus, in whose person and courage 
he discovered his daughter's son. The herdsman 
and Harpagus, being summoned before the king, 
told him the truth. Astyages forgave the herds- 
man, but revenged himself on Harpagus by serving 
up to him at a banquet the flesh of his own son. 
As to his grandson, by the advice of the Magians, 
who assured him that his dreams were fulfilled by 
the boy's having been a king in sport, he sent him 
back to his parents in Persia. When Cyrus grew 
up, he conspired with Harpagus to dethrone his 
grandfather. He induced the Persians to revolt 
from the Median supremacy, and at their head 
marched against Astyages. The latter had given 
the command of his forces to Harpagus, who de- 
serted to Cj^rus. Astyages thereupon placed him- 
self at the head of his troops, but was defeated by 
Cyrus and taken prisoner, B. c. 559. The Medes 
accepted Cyrus for their king, and thus the supre- 
macy which they had held passed to the Persians. 
It was probably at this time that Cyrus received 
that name, which is a Persian word (Kohr), sig- 
nifying the Sun. — Cyrus now proceeded to con- 
quer the other parts of Asia. In 546 he overthrew 
the Lydian monarchy, and took Croesus prisoner. 
[Croesus.] The Greek cities in Asia Minor were 
subdued by his general Harpagus. He next turned 
his arms against the Assyrian empire, of which 
Babylon Avas then the capital. After defeating 
the Babylonians in battle, he laid siege to the 
city, and after a long time he took it by diverting 
the course of the Euphrates, which flowed through 
the anidst of it, so that his soldiers entered Babylon 
by the bed of the river. This was in 538. Sub- 
sequently he crossed the Araxes, with the intention 
of subduing the Massagetae, a Scythian people, 
but he was defeated and slain in battle. Tomyris, 
the queen of the Massagetae, cut oif his head, and 
threw it into a bag filled with human blood, that 
he might satiate himself (she said) with bloodr 
He was killed in 529. He was succeeded by his 
son Cambyses. — Xenophon represents Cyrus as 
brought up at his grandfather's court, as serving in 
the Median army under his uncle Cj^axares II., 
the son and successor of Astyages, of whom Hero- 
dotus and Ctesias knoAV nothing ; as making war 
upon Babylon simply as the general of Cyaxares ; 
as marrying the daughter of Cyaxares ; and at 
length dying quietly in his bed, after a sage and 
Socratic discourse to his children and friends. 
Xenophon's account is preserved in the Cyropaedia, 
in which he draws a picture of what a wise and 
just prince ought to be. The work must not be 
regarded as a genuine history. — In the East 
Cyrus was long regarded as the greatest hero of 
antiquity, and hence the fables by which his his- 
tory is obscured. His sepulchre at Pasargadae was 



204 



CYRUS. 



DACIA. 



visited by Alexander the Great, The tomb has 
perished, but his name is found on monuments at 
Murghab, N. of Persepolis. — 2. The Younger, 

the 2nd of the 4 sons of Darius Nothus, king of 
Persia, and of Parvsatis, was appointed by his 
father commander of the maritime parts of Asia 
Minor, and satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappa- 
docia, B. c. 407. He assisted Lysander and the 
Lacedaemonians with large sums of money in their 
war against the Athenians. Cyrus was of a daring 
and ambitious temper. On the death of his father 
and the accession of his elder brother Artaxerxes 
Mnemon. 404, Cyrus formed a plot against the 
life of Artaxerxes. His design was betrayed by 
Tissaphemes to the king, who condemned him to 
death ; but, on the intercession of Parysatis, he 
spared his life and sent him back to his satrapy. 
Cyrus now gave himself up to the design of de- 
tbroning his brother. He collected a powerful 
native army, but he placed his chief reliance on a 
force of Greek mercenaries. He set out from Sardis 
in the spring of 401, and, having crossed the Eu- 
phrates at Thapsacus, marched down the river to 
the plain of Cunaxa, 500 stadia from Babylon. 
Here he found Artaxerxes prepared to meet him. 
Artaxerxes had from 400,000 to a million of men ; 
Cyrus had about 100,000 Asiatics and 13,000 
Greeks. The battle was at first altogether in 
favour of C}Tus. His Greek troops on the right 
routed the Asiatics who were opposed to them ; 
and he himself pressed forward in the centre against 
his brother, and had even womided him, when he 
was killed by one of the king's body-guard. Ar- 
taxerxes caused his head and right hand to be 
struck oflf, and sought to have it believed that 
Cyrus had fallen by his hand. The character of 
Cyrus is drawn by Xenophon in the brightest 
colours. It is enough to say that his ambition was 
gilded by all those brilliant qualities which win 
men's hearts. — 3. An architect at Rome, who 
died on the same day as Clodius, 52. 

Cyrus (Kvpos : Kour), one of the two great 
rivers of Armenia, rises in the Caucasus, flows 
through Iberia, and after forming the boundary 
between Albania and Armenia, unites with the 
Araxes, and falls into the W. side of the Caspian, 
— There were small rivers of the same name in 
Media and Persis. 

Cyta or Cytaea (KuVa, KvTaia : Kuroios-, Ku- 
Taievs), a town in Colchis on the river Phasis, 
where Medea was said to have been born, 

Cythera (Kvdripa : KuQT]pLos : Cerigo), a moun- 
tainous island off the S. E. point of Laconia, with 
a town of the same name in the interior, the har- 
bour of which was called Scandea (2Ka;/5ei'a). It 
was colonized at an early time by the Phoenicians, 
who introduced the worship of Aphrodite into the 
island, for which it was celebrated. This goddess 
was hence called Cytheraea, Cythereis ; and, ac- 
cording to some traditions, it was in the neigh- 
bourhood of this island that she first rose from the 
foam of the sea. The Argives subsequently took pos- 
session of Cythera, but were driven out of it by the 
Lacedaemonians, who added it to their dominions. 

Cytheris, a celebrated courtezan, the mistress of 
Antony, and subsequently of the poet Gallus, who 
mentioned her in his poems under the name of 
Lycoris. 

Cytherus (Ku077pos: KuflTjpios), one of the 12 
ancient towns of Attica and subsequently a deraus, 
belonging to the tribe Pandionis. 



Cythnus (KvOvos : KvOvios : TItennta), an is- 
land in the Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades, with 
a town of the same name, celebrated for its cheese, 
and also for its warm springs, whence its modem 
name, 

Cytinium {Kvt'iviov : Kvtiviolttjs), one of the 4 
cities in Doris, on Parnassus. 

Cytorus or -um {KvTwpos or -ov : Kidros), a 
town on the coast of Paphlagonia, between Amas- 
tris and the promontory Carambis, was a commer- 
cial settlement of the people of Sinope, It stood 
upon or near the mountain of the same name, 
which is mentioned by the Romans as aboimding 
in box-trees. 

Cyzicus (Kv^iKos), son of Aeneus and Aenete, 
the daughter of Eusorus, or son of Eusorus, or 
son of Apollo by Stilbe. He was king of the Do- 
liones at Cyzicus on the Propontis. For his con- 
nection with the Argonauts see p. 75, b, 

Cyzicus {KvClkos: Kv^lktjvSs: Bal KizorCfiizico, 
Ru.), one of the most ancient and powerful of the 
Greek cities in Asia Minor, stood upon an island of 
the same name in the Propontis (Sea of Marmara). 
This island, the earlier name of which was Arcton- 
nesus (^hpKTosv vrjcros), lay close to the shore of 
Mysia, to which it was united by two bridges, and 
afterwards (imder Alexander the Great) by a mole, 
which has accimiulated to a considerable isthmus. 
The city of Cyzicus stood on the S. side of the 
island, at the N. end of the isthmus, on each side 
of which it had a port. Tradition ascribed the 
foundation of the city to the Doliones, a tribe of 
Thessalian Pelasgians, who had been driven from 
their homes by the Aeolians, It was said to have 
been afterwards colonized by the ]Milesians. It was 
one of the finest cities of the ancient world, for the 
beauty of its situation and the magnificence of its 
buildings: it possessed an extensive commerce, and 
was celebrated for the excellence of its laws and 
government. Its staters were among the most 
esteemed gold coins current in Greece. It took no 
conspicuous place in history till about 22 years after 
the peace of Antalcidas, when it made itself inde- 
pendent of Persia. It preserved its fi-eedom imder 
Alexander and his successors, and was in alliance 
wi:b the kings of Pergamus, and afterwards with 
the Romans. Its celebrated resistance against 
Mithridates, when he besieged it by sea and land 
(b. c. 75), was of great service to the Romans, and 
obtained for it the rank of a '* libera civitas," which 
it lost again imder Tiberius, Under Constantine 
it became the chief city of the new province of 
Hellespontus. It was greatly injured by an earth- 
quake in A, D, 443, and finally ruined by its con- 
quest by the Arabians in 675. 

D. 

Daae. | Dahae.] 

Dachinabades {AaxivaSd^vs), a general name 
for the S. part of the Indian peninsula, derived 
from the Sanscrit dahJiina^ the S. wind, and con- 
nected with tlie modem name Deccan. 

Dacia (Dacus), as a Roman province, was 
bounded on the S. by the Danube, which sepa- 
rated it from Moesia, on the N. by the Carpathian 
mountains, on the "W. by the river Tysia (Theiss), 
and on the E. by the river Hierasus {Pruth), thus 
comprehending the modern Transylvania^ Walla- 
cJiia, Moldavia, and part of Hungary. The Daci 



DACTYLI. 



DALMATIA. 



205 



were of the same race and spoke the same language 
as the Getae, and are therefore usually said to be 
of Thracian origin. They were a brave and war- 
like people. In the reign of Augustus they crossed 
the Danube and plundered the allies of Rome, but 
were defeated and driven back into their own 
country by the generals of Augustus. In the 
reign of Domitian they became so formidable under 
their king Decebalus, that the Romans were 
obliged to purchase a peace of them by the pay- 
ment of tribute. Trajan delivered the empire from 
this disgrace ; he crossed the Danube, and after a 
war of 5 years (a. d. 101 — 106), conquered the 
country, made it a Roman province, and colonized 
it with inhabitants from all parts of the empire. 
At a later period Dacia was invaded by the Goths ; 
and as Aurelian considered it more prudent to make 
the Danube the boundary of the empire, he re- 
signed Dacia to the barbarians, removed the Roman 
inhabitants to Moesia, and gave the name of Dacia 
(Aureliani) to that part of the province along the 
Danube where they were settled. 

Dactyli (AolktvAol), fabulous beings to whom 
the discovery of iron and the art of working it by 
means of fire was ascribed. Their name Dactyls, 
that is. Fingers, is accounted for in various ways ; 
by their number being 5 or 10, or by the fact of 
their serving Rhea just as the fingers serve the 
hand, or by the story of their having lived at the 
foot (eV SaKTvXois) of mount Ida. Most autho- 
rities describe moimt Ida in Phrygia as the origi- 
nal seat of the Dactjds, whence they are usually 
called Idaean Dactyls. In Phrygia they were 
connected with the worship of Rhea. They are 
sometimes confounded or identified with the Cu- 
retes, Corybantes, Cabiri, and Telchines. This 
confusion with the Cabiri also accounts for Samo- 
thrace being in some accounts described as their 
residence. Other accoimts transfer them to mount 
Ida in Crete, of which island they are said to have 
been the original inhabitants. Their number ap- 
pears to have been originally 3 : Celmis (the smelter), 
Damnameneus (the hammer), and Acmon (the 
anvil). Their number was afterwards increased to 
5, 10 (5 male and 5 female), 52 and 100. 

Dadastana {r} Aa^aardva: Torbaleli or Kesta- 
heg ?), a fortress on the borders of Bithynia and 
Galatia, where the emperor .lovian died suddenly, 
A. D. 364. 

Daedala (ra AatSaAa), a city in Asia Minor, 
upon the Gulf of Glaucus, on the borders of Caria 
and Lycia. The same name was given to a moim- 
tain overhanging the town. 

Daedalus (Aai'5a\os). 1. A mythical personage, 
under whose name the Greek writers personified 
the earliest development of the arts of sculpture and 
architecture, especially among the Athenians and 
Cretans. The ancient writers generally represent 
Daedalus as an Athenian, of the royal race of the 
Erechthidae. Others called him a Cretan, on 
account of the long time he lived in Crete. He is 
said to have been the son of Metion, the son of 
Eupalamus, the son of Erechtheus. Others make 
him the son of Eupalamus, or of Palamaon. His 
mother is called Alcippe, or Iphinoe, or Phrasimede. 
He devoted himself to sculpture, and made great 
improvements in the art. He instructed his sister's 
son, Calos, Talus, or Perdix, who soon came to 
surpass him in skill and ingenuity, and Daedalus 
killed him through envy. [Perdix.] Being 
condemned to death by the Areopagus for this 



murder, he went to Crete, where the fame of his 
skill obtained for him the friendship of Minos 
He made the well-known wooden cow for Pasi- 
phae; and when Pasiphae gave birth to the 
Minotaur, Daedalus constnicted the labyrinth, at 
Cnossus, in which the monster was kept. For his 
part in this affair, Daedalus was imprisoned by 
Minos ; but Pasiphae released him, and, as Minos 
had seized all the ships on the coast of Crete, Dae- 
dalus procured wings for himself and his son Icarus, 
and fastened them on with wax. Daedalus himself 
flew safe over the Aegean, but, as Icarus flew too 
near the sun, the wax by which his wings were 
fastened on was melted, and he dropped down and 
was drowned in that part of the Aegean which was 
called after him the Icarian sea. Daedalus fled to 
•Sicily, where he was protected by Cocalus, the king 
of the Sicani. When Minos heard where Daedalus 
had taken refuge, he sailed with a great fleet to 
Sicily, where he was treacherously murdered by 
Cocalus or his daughters. According to some ac- 
counts Daedalus first alighted in his flight from 
Crete at Cumae in Italy, where he erected a temple 
to Apollo, in which he dedicated the wings with 
which he had fled from Crete. Several other works 
of art were attributed to Daedalus, in Greece, Italy, 
Libya, and the islands of the Mediterranean. They 
belong to the period when art began to be deve- 
loped. The name of Daedala was given by the 
Greeks to the ancient wooden statues, ornamented 
with gilding and bright colours and real draperj', 
which were the earliest known forms of the images 
of the gods, after the mere blocks of wood or stone, 
which were at first used for symbols of them. — 2. 
Of Sicyon, a statuary in bronze, son and disciple 
of Patrocles, flourished B. c, 400. 

Dahae (Aaat), a great Scythian people, who led 
a nomad life over a great extent of country on the 
E. of the Caspian, in Hyrcania (which still bears the 
name of Daghestan), on the banks of the Margus, 
the Oxus, and even the Jaxartes. Some of them 
served as cavalry and horse-archers in the armies 
of Darius Codomannus, Alexander, and Antiochus 
the Great, and they also made good foot- soldiers. 

Baimachus (Aaj/xaxos), of Plataeae, was sent 
by Seleucus as ambassador to Sandrocottus, king 
of India, about b. c. 312, and wrote a work on 
India, which is lost. 

Dalmatia or Delmatia {AaXjxaria; AaKfxdrrjs, 
more anciently AaXixarevs, Dalmata), a part of the 
country along the E. coast of the Adriatic sea in- 
cluded under the general name of lUyricum, was 
separated from Liburnia on the N. by the Titius 
(KerJca), and from Greek Illyria on the S. by the 
Drilo {Drino)^ and extended inland to the Bebian 
mountains and the Drinus, thus nearly correspond- 
ing to the modern Dalmatia. The capital was 
Dalminium or Delminium, from which the coun- 
try derived its name. The next most important 
town was Salona, the residence of Diocletian. 
The Dalmatians were a brave and warlike people, 
and gave much trouble to the Romans. In B. c. 
1 1 9 their country was overrun by L. Metellus, 
who assumed in consequence the surname Dalma- 
ticus, but they continued independent of the Ro- 
mans. In 39 they were defeated by Asinius Pollio, 
of whose Dalmaticus triumphus Horace speaks 
(Carm. ii. 1. 16) ; but it was not till the year 23 
that they were finally subdued by Statilius Tau- 
rus. They took part in the great Pannonian re- 
volt under their leader Bato, but after a 3 years'* 



206 



DALMATIUS. 



DANAE. 



■war were again reduced to subjection by Tiberius, 
A. D. 9. 

Dalmatius. [Delmatius.] 

Dalminium. [Dalmatia.] 

Damagetus (AajuayTjros), king of lalysus m 
Rhodes, married, in obedience to the Delphic 
oracle, the daughter of Aristomenes of Alessene, 
and from this marriage sprang the family of the 
Diagoridae, who were celebrated for their victories 
at Olympia. [Aristomenes.] 

Damalis or Bous (Aa^aAts, tj BoGs), a small 
place in Bithynia, on the shore of the Thracian Bos- 
porus, N. of Chalcedon ; celebrated by tradition as 
the landing-place of lo, the memory of whose pas- 
sage was preserved by a bronze cow set up here 
b}' the Chalcedonians, 

Bamaratus. [Demaratus.] 

Damascius (Aa,uao-/ftos), the Syrian, of Da- 
mascus, whence he derived his name, the last of 
the renowned teachers of the Neo-Platonic philo- 
sophy at Athens, was born about a, D, 480. He 
first studied at Alexandria and afterwards at 
Athens, under !Marinus and Zenodotus, whom he 
succeeded. When Justinian closed the heathen 
schools of philosophy at Athens in 529, Damascius 
emigrated to King Chosroes of Persia. He after- 
wards returned to the W., since Chosroes had sti- 
pulated in a treaty that the heathen adherents of j 
the Platonic Philosophy should be tolerated by the 
Byzantine emperor. The onlj' work of Damascius 
Avhich has been printed, is entitled '• Doubts and 
Solutions of the first Principles," edited by Kopp, 
Francof. 1828, 8vo. 

Bamascus (t) Aa,aa(rK6s : AafxaaKrjvos : Da- 
nte^.'iJc, Dama^cics, EsIi-SIiam), one of the most 
ancient cities of the world, mentioned as existing 
in the time of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15), stood in 
the district afterwards called Coele-Syria, upon 
both banks of the river Chrysorrhoas or Bardines 
{Burada), the waters of which, di'awn oif by 
canals and aqueducts, fertilised the plain around 
the city. This plain is open on the S. and E., and 
sheltered on the W. and N. by an oifshoot of the 
Antilibanus ; its fruits were celebrated in ancient, 
as in modem times ; and altogether the situation 
of the city is one of the finest on the globe. In 
the earliest times, except diu-ing the short period 
for Avhich David subjected it to the Hebrew mon- 
archy, Damascus Avas the seat of an independent 
kingdom, called the kingdom of Syria, which was 
subdued by the AssATians, and passed successively 
under the dominion of the Babylonians, the Per- 
sians, the Greek kings of Syria, and the Romans, 
the last of whom obtained possession of it after 
the conquest of Tigranes, and assigned it to the 
province of SvTia. It flourished greatly under the 
emperors, and is called by Julian {Epist. 24) the 
Eye of all the East." Diocletian established in it 
a great factory for arms ; and hence the origin of 
the fame of Damascus blades. Its position on one 
of the high roads from Lower to Upper Asia gave 
it a considerable trade. The surrounding district 
was called AauacrKrjvri. 

Bamasippus, L. Junius Brutus. [Brutus, 
No. 10.] 

Damasippus, Licimus. 1. A Roman senator, 
fought on the side of the Pompeians in Africa, and 
perished b. c. 47. — 2. A contemporary of Cicero, 
\vho mentions him as a lover of statues, and speaks 
of purchasing a garden from Damasippus. He is 
probably the same person as the Damasippus ridi- 



culed by Horace. (Sat. ii. 3. 16, 64.) It appears 
from Horace that Damasippus had become bank- 
rupt, in consequence of which he intended to put an 
end to himself ; but he was prevented by the 
Stoic Stcrtinius, and then turned Stoic himself, or 
at least affected to be one by his long beard. — 
The Damasippus mentioned by Juvenal {Sat. viii. 
147, 151, 167) is a fictitious name, imder which 
the satirist ridiculed some noble lover of horses. 

Damastes (AaudcrTTjs), of Sigeum, a Greek his- 
torian, and a contemporary of Herodotus and Hel- 
lanlcus of Lesbos : his works are lost. 

Damia. ^[Auxesia.] 

Damnonii. 1. Or Dunmonii or Dumnunii. a 

powerful people in the S.W. of Britain, inhabitmg 
Conncall, Devonshire, and the W. part of Somer- 
setshire, from whom was called the promontory 
Damnonium, also Ocrinum (C. Lizard) in Corn- 
wall.— 2. Or Damnii, a people in N. Britain, 
inhabiting parts of Perth, Argyle, Stirling, and 
Duhmaiion-shires. 

Damo (Aaaw), a daughter of Pythagoras and 
Tiieano, to whom Pythagoras entrusted his wTitings, 
and forbad her to give them to any one. This 
command she strictly observed, although she was 
in extreme poverty, and received many requests 
to sell them. 

Damocles {AaiioKKris), a Syracusan, one of the 
companions and flatterers of the elder Dionysius. 
Damocles having extolled the great felicity of 
Dionysius on account of his wealth and power, the 
tyrant invited him to try what his happiness really 
was, and placed him at a magnificent banquet, in the 
midst of which Damocles saw a naked sword sus- 
pended over his head by a single horse-hair — a 
sight which quickly dispelled all his visions of 
happiness. The story is alluded to by Horace. 
{Carm. iii. 1. 17.) 

Damon (Aduav). 1. Of Athens, a celebrated 
musician and sophist. He was a pupil of Lamprus 
and Agathocles, and the teacher of Pericles, with 
whom he lived on the most intimate terms. He is 
also said to have taught Socrates, but this state- 
ment is more doubtful. In his old age he was ba- 
nished from Athens, probably on account of the 
part he had taken in politics.— 2. A Pythagorean, 
and friend of Phintias (not Pythias), When the 
latter was condemned to die for a plot against 
Dionysius I. of Syracuse, he asked leave of the 
tyrant to depart for the purpose of arranging his 
domestic affairs, promising to find a friend who 
would be pledge for his appearance at the time ap- 
pointed for his punishment. To the surprise of 
Dionysius, Damon unhesitatingly offered himself 
to be put to death instead of his friend, should he 
fail to return. Phintias arrived just in time to 
redeem Damon, and Dionysius was so struck with 
this instance of firm friendship on both sides, that 
he pardoned the criminal, and entreated to be ad- 
mitted as a third into their bond of brotherhood. 

Damoxenus (Aa/xo^evos), an Athenian comic 
poet of the new comedy, and perhaps partly of the 
middle. 

Dana (Adva), a great city of Cappadocia (Xen. 
J nab. i. 2. § 20), probably the same as the later 
Tyaxa^. 

Lanae (Aavdr]), daughter of Acrisius and mother 
of Perseus. [AcRisius.] An Italian legend re- 
lated that Danae came to Italy, built the town of 
Ardea, and married Pilumnus, by whom she became 
the mother of Daunus, the ancestor of Turnus. 



DANAI. 



DARDANUS. 



207 



Danai. [Danaus.] 

Danaides (Aauaides), the 50 daughters of Da- 
naus. [Danaus.] 

Danala (to. AdvaXa), a city in the territory of 
the Trocini, in the N. E. of Galatia, notable in the 
history of the Mithridatic War as the place where 
Lucullus resigned the command to Pompey. 

Danapris. [Borysthenes.] 

Danastris. [Tyras.] 

Danaus (Aamds), son of Belusand twin-brother 
of Aegyptus. Belus had assigned Libya to Da- 
naiis, but the latter, fearing his brother and his 
brother's sons, fled with his 50 daughters to Argos. 
Here he was elected king by the Argives in place 
of Gelanor, the reigning monarch. The story of 
the murder of the 50 sons of Aegyptus by the 50 
daughters of Danaus (the Danaides) is given under 
Aegyptus. There was one exception to the mur- 
derous deed. The life of Lynceus was spared by 
his wife Hypermnestra ; and according to the 
common tradition he afterwards avenged the death 
of his brothers by killing his father-in-law, Danaus. 
According to the poets the Danaides were punished 
in Hades by being compelled everlastingly to 
pour water into a sieve {inane lymphae dolium fundo 
pereuntis imo, Hor. Carm. iii. 11. 26). — From 
Danaus the Argives were called Danai, which 
name, like that of the Argives, was often applied 
by the poets to the collective Greeks. 

DanuMus {Danube, in Germ. Donau), also 
Danuvius on coins and inscriptions, called Ister 
C\(rrpos) by the Greeks, one of the chief rivers of 
Europe, rises in the Black Forest, and after flowing 
1770 miles falls into the Black sea. It is men- 
tioned by Hesiod, but the Greeks knew very little 
about it. According to Herodotus it rises at the 
city Pyrene among the Celts and flows through 
the whole of Europe. The Romans first obtained 
some accurate information concerning the river at 
the commencement of the empire. Tiberius in his 
campaign against the Vindelicians, visited the 
sources of the Danube, which, according to Ta- 
citus, rises in M. Abnoba. 'i'he Danube formed 
the N. boundary of the empire, \\ ith the exception 
of the time that Dacia was a Roman province. 
In the Roman period the upper part of the river 
from its source as far as Vienna was called Danu- 
bius, while the lower part to its entrance in the 
Black Sea was named Ister. 

Daorsi or Daorizi, a tribe in Dalmatia. 

Daphnae Pelusiae {A6.(pvaL at UeXova-iai : Saf- 
nas), a border fortress of Lower Egypt against 
Arabia and Syria, stood on the right hand of the 
Nile, 16 Roman miles S.W. of Pelusium. Many 
Jews settled here after the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem by the Babylonians. 

Daphne {Adcpv-n). 1. Daughter of the river- 
god Ladon in Arcadia, Ly Ge (the earth), or of 
the river-god Peneus in Thessaly. She was ex- 
tremely beautiful, and was loved by Apollo and 
Leucippus, son of Oenomaus, but she rejected both 
their suits. In order to win her, Leucippus dis- 
guised himself as a maiden, but Apollo's jealousy 
caused his discovery and he was killed by the com- 
panions of Daphne. Apollo now pursued Daphne, 
and as she was on the point of being overtaken by 
him, she prayed for aid, and was metamorphorsed 
into a laurel-tiee {Sd(pv7]), which became in con- 
sequence the favourite tree of Apollo.-— 2. Daughter 
of Tiresias, better known imder the name of 
Manto. 



Daphne (Ad^vri). 1. (Beit-el-Moie, orBabyla ?), 
a beautiful spot, 5 miles S. of Antioch in Syria, to 
which it formed a sort of park or pleasure garden. 
Here was a grove of laurels and cj^presses, 80 sta- 
dia in circuit, watered by fresh springs and con- 
secrated by Seleucus Nicator to Apollo, to whom 
also a magnificent temple was built b_y Antiochus 
Epiphanes, and adorned with a splendid statue of 
the god by Brj^axis. To this temple were attached 
periodical games and the privilege of asylum. 
Daphne was a royal residence of the Seleucidae 
and of the later Roman emperors, and a favourite 
resort of the people of Antioch, who, however, car- 
ried the pleasures they enjoyed here so far beyond 
the bounds of moderation, that the phrase DapJi- 
nici mores passed into a proverb. It was from 
this place that Antioch received its distinguishing 
name, 'A. eVl Ad(pvr]s. — 2. A place in Upper 
Galilee on the lake Semechonitis. 

Daphnis (Aacpvis), a Sicilian hero, to whom 
the invention of bucolic poetry is ascribed. He was 
the son of Hermes by a nymph. His mother 
placed him when an infant in a charming valley in 
a laurel grove, from which he received his name 
of Daphnis. He was brought up by nymphs ; was 
taught by Pan to play on the flute ; he loecame a 
shepherd, and tended his flocks on Mt. Aetna 
winter and summer. A Naiad fell in love with 
him, and made him swear that he would never 
love any other maiden, threatening him with 
blindness if he broke his oath. For a time the 
handsome shepherd resisted the numerous tempta- 
tions to which he was exposed, but at last he forgot 
himself, having been made intoxicated by a princess. 
The Naiad accordingly punished him with blind- 
ness, or, as others relate, changed him into a stone. 
Previous to this time he had composed bucolic 
poetry, and with it delighted Artemis during the 
chase. After having become blind, he invoked his 
father to help him. The god accordingly raised 
him up to heaven, and caused a well to gush forth 
on the spot where this happened. The well bore 
the name of Daphnis, and at it the Sicilians offered 
an annual sacrifice. 

Daphnus (Aacpuovs -ovvtos : Aacpvovaios), a 
town of the Locri Opuntii on the coast, in earlier 
times belonging to Phocis. 

Daradax (Aapa5a|: Ahu-Ghalgal?), a, river of 
Upper Syria, flowing into the Euphrates, 30 para- 
sangs from the R. Chalos, and 15 from Thapsacus. 

Dardani {Adpdauoi), a people in Upper Moesia, 
who also occupied part of lUyricum, and extended 
as far as the frontiers of Macedonia. 

Dardama (Aapoavia), a district of the Troad, 
lying along the Hellespont, S. W. of Abydos, and 
adjacent on the land side to the territories of Ilium 
and Scepsis. Its people (AdpdavoL) appear in the 
Trojan War, under Aeneas, in close alliance with 
the Trojans, with whose name theirs is often inter- 
changed, especially by the Roman poets. [Dar- 

DANUS.] 

Dardanus (AdpZavos), son of Zeus and Electra. 
His native place in the various traditions is Ar- 
cadia, Crete, Troas, or Italy. Dardanus is the 
mythical ancestor of the Trojans, and through 
them of the Romans. The Greek traditions 
usually made him a king in Arcadia. He first 
emigrated to Samothrace, and afterwards passed 
over to Asia, where he received a tract of land 
from king Teucer, on which he built the town of 
Dardania. He married Batea, daughter of Teucer, 



208 



DARDANUS. 



DAT IS. 



or Aiisbe of Crete, by whom he became the father 
of Erichthonius. His grandson was Tros, who re- 
moved to Troy the Palladium, which had belonged 
to his grandfather. According to the Italian tra- 
ditions, Dardanus was the son of Corythus, an 
Etruscan prince of Corythus (Cortona), or of Zeus 
by the wife of Corythus ; and, as in the Greek 
tradition, he afterwards emigrated to Phrygia. 

Dardanus (77 AdpSavo^: AapSauevs), also, -um 
and -him, a Greek city in the Troad on the Hel- 
lespont, near the Prom. Dardanis or Dardanium 
and the mouth of the river Rhodius, 12 Roman 
miles from Ilium, and .9 (or 70 stadia) from Abydus. 
It was built by Aeolian colonists, at some distance 
from the site of the ancient city Dardania (AapSo- 
which is mentioned by Homer (//. ii. 216) 
as founded by Dardanus before the building of 
Ilium. The Romans, after the war with Antiochus 
the Great, made Dardanus and Ilium free cities, as 
an act of filial piety. The peace between Sulla and 
Mithridates was made here, B. c. 84. From Dar- 
danus arose the name of the Castles of tlie Darda- 
nelles^ after which the Hellespont is now called. 

Bares (AapTjs), a priest of Hephaestus at Troy, 
mentioned in the Iliad (v. 9), to whom was ascribed 
in antiquity an Iliad, which was believed to be 
more ancient than the Homeric poems. This work, 
which was undoubtedly the composition of a sophist, 
is lost ; but there is extant a Latin work in prose 
in 44 chapters, on the destruction of Troy, bearing 
the title Daretis Phrygii de Excidio Trojae His- 
ioria, and purporting to be a translation of the work 
of Dares by Cornelius Nepos. But the Latin 
work is evidently of much later origin ; it is the 
production of a person of little education and of 
bad taste ; and it is supposed by some to have 
been written even as late as the ] 2th centur}-. It 
is usually printed with Dictys Cretensis : the best 
edition is by Dederich, Bonn, 1837, 8vo. 

Darius (AapeTos). I. King of Persia, b. c. 521 
— 485, was the son of Hystaspes, satrap of the 
province of Persis, and of the royal family of the 
Achaemenidae. He was one of the 7 Persian 
chiefs who destroyed the usurper Smerdis, The 
7 chiefs agreed that the one of them whose horse 
neighed first at an appointed time and place, 
should become king ; and as the horse of Darius 
neighed first, he was declared king. He married 
Atossa and Artystone, the 2 daughters of Cyrus, 
and Parmys, the daughter of Cyrus's son Smerdis, 
and Phaedime, the daughter of Otanes, one of the 
7 chiefs. He then began to set in order the affairs 
of his vast empire, which he divided into 20 sa- 
trapies, assigning to each its amount of tribute, 
Persis proper was exempted from all taxes, except 
those which it had formerly been used to pay. It 
was in the reign of Darius that the consolidation of 
the empire was effected, for Cyrus and Cambyses 
had been engaged in continual wars. — A few years 
after his accession the Babylonians revolted, but 
after a siege of 20 months, Babylon was taken by 
a stratagem of Zopyrus, about 516. The re- 
duction of Babylon was followed by the invasion 
of Scythia (about 508). Darius crossed the Da- 
nube, and marched far into the interior of modern 
Russia ; but after losing a large number of men by 
famine, and being unable to meet with the enemy, he 
was obliged to retreat. On his return to Asia, he 
sent part of his forces, under Megabazus, to subdue 
Thrace and Macedonia, which thus became subject 
to the Persian empire. The most important event 



in the reign of Darius was the commencement of 
the great war between the Persians and the Greeks. 
The history of this war belongs to the biographies 
of other men. In 501 the Ionian Greeks revolted ; 
they were assisted by the Athenians, who burnt 
Sardis, and thus provoked the hostility of Darius. 
[Aristagoras ; HiSTiAEUS.] In 492 Mardo- 
nius was sent with a large army to invade Greece, 
but he lost a great part of his fleet off Mt. Athos, 
and the Thracians destroyed a vast number of his 
land forces. [Mardonius.] He was, in conse- 
quence, recalled, and Datis and Artaphemes ap- 
pointed to the command of the invading army. 
They took Eretria in Euboea, and landed in Attica, 
but were defeated at Marathon by the Athenians 
under the command of ISIiltiades. [Miltiades.] 
Darius now resolved to call out the whole force of 
his empire for the purpose of subduing Greece ; 
but, after 3 years of preparation, his attention was 
called off by the rebellion of Eg}'pt. He died in 
485, leaving the execution of his plans to his son 
Xerxes.— II. King of Persia, 424 — 405, named 
Ochus COxos) before his accession, and then sur- 
named Nothus (Nd0os), or the Bastard, from his 
being one of the bastard sons of Artaxerxes I. 
Darius obtained the crown by putting to death his 
brother Sogdian'us, who had murdered Xerxes II. 
j He married Parysatis, daughter of Xerxes I., by 
I whom he had 2 sons, Artaxerxes IL, who suc- 
ceeded him, and Cyrus the younger. Darius was 
I governed by eunuchs, and the weakness of his go- 
' vernment was shown by repeated insurrections of 
his satraps. In 414 the Persians were expelled 
from Egypt by Amyrtaeus, who reigned there 6 
years, and at whose death r408) Darius was obliged 
to recognise his son Pausiris as his successor.— III. 
Last king of Persia, 336 — 331, named Codoman- 
nus before his accession, was the son of Arsames 
and Sisygambis, and a descendant of Darius II. 
He was raised to the throne by Bagoas, after the 
murder of Arses. The history of his conquest 
by Alexander the Great, and of his death, is given 
in the life of Alexander. 

Dascon (AdaKoop : Aacr/fcJvioj), a fortress near 
S}Tacuse, situated on a bay of the same name. 

Dascylium (Aao-KuAioJ' or -ehu: AaaKvX'iTrjs : 
Diaskili), a town of Bithynia, on the Propontis, 
near a lake called Dascylitis. 

Dasea (Aacre'a, also Aacre'at : Aaaedrrfs), a small 
town in Arcadia near oSIegalopolis. 

Dassaretii or Dassaritae, Dassaretae (Aacraa- 
prjTioi, Aacrcrap7TaL), a people in Greek Ilh'ria on 
I the borders of Macedonia : their chief town was 
Lychnidus (Aiixi'iSos) on a hill, on the N. side 
of the lake Lychnitis, which was so called after 
the town. 

Datames (Aardfxris), a distinguished Persian 
general, a Carian by birth, son of Camissares by a 
Scythian mother. He succeeded his father as 
satrap of Cilicia, under Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon), 
but, in consequence of the machinations of his 
enemies at the Persian court, he threw off his 
allegiance to the king, and made common cause 
with the other satraps who had revolted from 
Persia. He defeated the generals who were sent 
against him, but was assassinated by Mithridates, 
son of Ariobarzanes, about b. c. 362. Cornelius 
Nepos, who has written his life, calls him the 
bravest and most able of all barbarian generab. 
except Hamilcar and Hannibal. 
I Datis (Aaris), a Mede, commanded, along with 



COINS OF PERSONS. CLAUDIUS — DECENTIUS. 




ludius II., Roman Emperor, a. d. 203—270. Page 179. 




Cleopatra and her son Antioclius VIII. Grypus. 
Page 181, Ko. 6. 




ypntra, Queen of Egypt, ob. e.c.30. Tlie head of Antony 
on the obverse, and that of Cleopatra on tlie reverse, 
ige 132, No. 11. 




ommodus, Roman Emperor, a. d. 180 — 192. Page 186. 




?onstans, Roman Emperor, a. d. 337 — 350. Page 187. 




stantinus I. the Great, Roman Emperor, a. d. 306 — 337. 
Page 187. 

o face p. 209.] 




Constantinus II., Roman Emperor, a. d. 337 — 340. 




Coustantius I., Roman Emperor, A.n. 305—306. Page 188- 




Constantius II., Roman Emperor, a. d. 337 — 361. Page 188. 




Decentius, Roman Caesar, a. d. 351 -353. Page 209. 



DATUM. 



DEIOTARUS. 



209 



Artapli ernes, tlie Persian army of Darius, which 
v/as defeated at Marathon, b. c, 490. 

Datum or Datus {AArov, Adros : Aarnivos), a 
Thracian town on the Strymonic gulf, subject to 
Macedonia, with gold mines in Mt. Pangaeus in the 
neighbourhood, whence came the proverb a " Datum 
of good things." 

Daulis or Daulia ( AavXis -iSos, Aav\ia : Aav- 
\ievs, Aav\ios), an ancient to^vn in Phocis on the 
Toad from Chaeronea and Orchomenus to Delphi, 
situated on a lofty hill: celebrated in mythology 
as the residence of the Thracian king Tereus, and 
as the scene of the tragic story of Philomela and 
Procne. Hence Daulias (AauAids) is the sur- 
name both of Procne and Philomela. 

Daunia. [Apulia.] 

Daunus (Aavvos). 1, Son of Lycaon, and bro- 
ther of lapyx and Peucetius. The 3 brothers 
crossed over from Illyria, and settled in Apulia, 
which was divided into 3 parts, and named after 
them. The poets sometimes gave the name of 
Daunia to the whole of Apulia: Horace {Carm. 

1. 22. 14) uses the adjective Dau7iias (sc. terra). 

2. Son of Pilumnus and Danae, wife of Venilia, 
and ancestor of Turnus. 

Decebalus (AeKe'gaXos), a celebrated king of 
the Dacians during the reigns of Domitian and 
Trajan. For 4 years (a. d. 86 — 90) he carried on 
war against the Romans with such success, that 
Domitian was at length glad to conclude peace with 
him by the payment of an annual tribute. Trajan 
refused to continue this disgraceful payment, and 
renewed the war. He defeated the Dacians, and 
compelled Decebalus to sue for peace, which was 
granted (101 — 103). But in 104 the war broke 
out again ; Decebalus was again defeated, and put 
an end to his own life ; and Dacia became a Ro- 
man province, 106. 

Decelea or -ia (AeKeAeja: AeJceAeus: Biala- 
Castro), a demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe 
Hippothoontis, lay N.W. of Athens, on the borders 
of Boeotia, near the soiu-ces of the Cephissus. In 
the 19th year of the Peloponnesian War (b. c. 
413), the Peloponnesians under Agis seized and for- 
tified Decelea, and thereby annoyed the Athenians 
in many ways during the remainder of the war. 

Decentius Magnus, brother or cousin of Mag- 
nentius, by whom he was created Caesar, A. D. 351. 
After the death of Magnentius, he put an end 
to his own life, 353. 

Decetia {Desize), a city of the Aedui, in Gallia 
Lugdunensis, on an island in the Liger {Loire). 

Deciates, a Ligurian people on the coast and 
about the sources of the Dnientia {Durance). 
Their chief city, Deciatum (AeKiTjTov), lay between 
Micaea and Antipolis. 

Decidius Saxa. [Saxa.] 

P. Decius Mus, plebeians. 1. Consul B.C. 340 
with T. Manlius Torquatus in the great Latin war. 
Each of the consuls had a vision in the night be- 
fore fighting with the Latins, announcing that the 
general of one side and the army of the other were 
devoted to death. The consuls thereupon agreed 
that the one whose wing first began to waver 
should devote himself and the army of the enemy 
to destruction. Decius commanded the left wing, 
which began to give way, whereupon he devoted 
himself and the army of the enemy to destruction, 
according to the formula prescribed by the pontifex 
maximus, then rushed into the thickest of the 
enemy, and was slain, leaving the victory to the 



Romans.— -2. Son of the preceding, 4 times consul, 
312, 308, 297, and 295. In his 4th consulship 
he commanded the left wing at the battle of Sen- 
tinum, where he was opposed to the Gauls, and 
when his troops began to give way, he imitated 
the example of his father, devoted himself and the 
enem}' to destruction, and fell as a sacrifice for his 
nation. — 3. Son of No. 2, consul 279, in the war 
against Pyrrhus. According to some he sacrificed 
himself in battle like his father and grandfather, 
but this is not true, for he survived the war with 
Pyrrhus. 

Decius, Roman emperor, a. d. 249 — 251, whose 
full name was C. Messius Quintus Trajanus 
Decius, was born at Bubalia in Pannonia. He 
was sent by the emperor Philippus in 249 to re- 
store siibordination in the army of Moesia, but the 
troops compelled him to accept the purple under 
threats of death. Decius still assured Philippus of 
his fidelity; but the latter not trusting these pro- 
fessions, hastened to meet his rival in the field, 
was defeated near Verona, and slain. The short 
reign of Decius was chiefly occupied in warring 
against the Goths. He fell in battle against the 
Goths togetlier with his son in 251. In his reign 
the Christians were persecuted with great severity. 
Deciiniates Agri. [Agri Decumates.] 
Deianira (ATjia^ejpa), daughter of Althaea by 
either Oeneus, or Dionj'sus, or Dexamenus, and 
sister of Meleager. Achelous and Hercules both 
loved Deianira, and fought for the possession of 
her. Hercules was victorious, and she became his 
wife. She was the unwilling cause of her hus- 
band's death by presenting him with the poisoned 
robe, which the centaur Nessus gave her. In despair 
she put an end to her own life. For details see 
Hercules. 

Deidamia (ATji'Sa^eta). 1. Daughter of Lyco- 
medes in the island of Scyrus. When Achilles 
was concealed there in maiden's attire, she became 
by him the mother of Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus. — 
2. Wife of Pirithous, commonly called Hippoda- 
MiA. — 3. Sister of Pyrrhus, married Demetrius 
Poliorcetes. 

Deioces (Atjioktjs), first king of Media, after the 
Medes had thrown ofi" the supremacy of the Assy- 
rians, was the son of Phraortes, and reigned b. c. 
709 — 656. He built the city of Ecbatana, which 
he made the royal residence. His administration 
of justice was severe, and he kept a body of spies 
and informers throughout the whole country. He 
was succeeded by his son, Phraortes. 

Deion {Ari'icov), son of Aeobis and Enarete, king 
in Phocis, husband of Diomede, and father of 
Asteropia, Aenetus, Actor, Phylacus, and Ce- 
phalus. 

Delone (Arj'iwvr])^ mother of Miletus, who is 
hence called Deionides. (Ov. Met. ix. 442.) 

Deiotarus {A-n'ioTapos). 1. Tetrarch of Galatia, 
adhered firmly to the Romans in their wars in 
Asia against JMithridates, and was rewarded b}^ the 
senate with the title of king, and the addition of 
Armenia Minor to his dominions. In the civil 
war he sided with Pompey, and was present at 
the battle of Pharsalia, b. c. 48. In 47 he applied 
to Domitius Calvinus, Caesar's legate in Asia, for 
aid against Phamaces, Avho had taken possession of 
Armenia Minor. When Caesar, in the same year, 
came into Asia from Egypt, Deiotarus received 
him with submission, and endeavoured to excuse 
the aid he had given to Pompey. Caesar deprived 



210 



DEIPHOBE. 



DELOS. 



him of part of his dominions, but allowed him to 
retain his regal title. Two years afterwards (45) 
his grandson Castor accused him of having fonned a 
design against Caesar's life, when he received Caesar 
in Galatia. He was defended by Cicero before 
Caesar, in the house of the latter at Rome, in the 
speech {pro Rege Deiotaro) still extant. The 
result of the trial is not known. After Caesar's 
death he obtained from Antony the restitution of 
his dominions by paying Fulvia a large sum of 
money. In 42, he joined the party of Brutus and 
Cassius, and died shortly afterwards at a great 
age. — 2. Son and successor of the above. In the 
war between Antony and Octavian he took part 
with the former, but went over from him to the 
enemy in the battle of Actium, 31. 

DeiphobS {A7)'i(p6§r]), the Sibyl at Cumae, 
daughter of Glaucus. [Sibylla.] 

Deiphobus (Arjf(f)ogo$), a son of Priam and He- 
cuba, and next to Hector, the bravest among the 
Trojans. He always supported Paris in his refusal 
to deliver up Helen to the Trojans ; and he married 
her after the death of Paris. Accordingly, on the 
fall of Tro}', the vengeance of the Greeks was 
chiefly directed against him. His house was one 
of the first committed to the flames, and he was 
slain and fearfully mangled by Menelaus. In this 
dreadful condition he was found in the lower world 
by Aeneas, who erected a monument to him on 
cape Rhoeteum. 

Deiphontes (Atjic^oz/ttjs), son of Antiraachus, 
and husband of Hyrnetho, the daughter of Teme- 
nus the Heraclid, became king of Argos, after 
Temenus had been murdered by his own sons. 
Pausanias (ii. 19) gives a different account. 

Delium (A7]\iou : Dhilessi), a to^ra on the coast 
of Boeotia, in the territory of Tanagra, near the 
Attic frontier, named after a temple of Apollo si- 
milar to that at Delos. The Athenians used it as 
a fortress in the early part of the Peloponnesian 
War, and in B. c. 424 they were defeated here by 
the Boeotians. 

Delius and Delia (At/Aios, ATjAta), surnames 
of Apollo and Artemis respective!}', from the island 
of Delos. 

Dellius, Q., a Roman eques, who frequently 
changed sides in the civil wars. In B, c. 44 he 
joined Dolabella in Asia, afterwards went over to 
Cassius, and then united himself to M. Antony. 
He deserted to Octavian shortly before the battle 
of Actium, 31. He appears to have become a 
personal friend of Octavian and Maecenas, and is 
therefore addressed by Horace in one of his Odes (ii. 
3). He Avrote a history of Antony's war against 
the Parthians, in which he had himself fought. 

Delmatms or Dalmatius. 1. Son of Constan- 
tius Chlorus and his second wife Theodora. From 
his half-brother, Constantine the Great, he received 
the title of censor : he died before a. d. 335. -— 2. 
Son of the preceding, was created Caesar by Constan- 
tine the Great, 335 ; and, upon the division of the 
empire, received Thrace, Macedonia, and Achaia, as 
his portion. He was put to death in 337 on the 
death of Constantine. 

Delos or Delus (t? At}\os : AtjAjos : Delo, Deli, 
Dili, or Sdilli, Ru.), the smallest of the islands 
called Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea, lay in the 
strait between Rhenea and Myconus. It was also 
called, in earlier times, Asteria, Ortygia, and Chla- 
mydia. According to a legend, founded perhaps 
■on some tradition of its late volcanic origin, it was 



•ziiUcd out of the deep by the trident of Poseidon, 
but was a floating island until Zeus fastened it by 
adamantine chains to the bottom of the sea, that 
it might be a secure resting-place to Leto, for the 
birth of Apollo and Artemis. Apollo afterwards 
obtained possession of Delos, by giving Calauria to 
Poseidon in exchange for it ; and it became the 
most holy seat of the worship of Apollo. Such is 
the mythical story : we learn from history that 
Delos was peopled b}'^ the lonians, for whom it was 
the chief centre of political and religious union in 
the time of Homer : it was also the seat of an 
Amphictyonj', comprising the surrounding islands. 
In the time of Pisistratus, Delos became subject to 
the Athenians ; it was made the common treasury 
of the Greek confederacy for carrying on the war 
v/ith Persia ; but the transference of the treasury 
to Athens, and the altered character of the league, 
reduced the island to a condition of absolute po- 
litical dependence upon Athens. It still possessed, 
however, a very extensive commerce, which was in- 
creased by the downfal of Corinth, when Delos 
became the chief emporium for the trade in slaves ; 
and it was one of the principal seats of art in Greece, 
especially for works in bronze, of which metal one 
of the most esteemed mixtures was called the 
Delian. An especial sanctity was attached to 
Delos from its connection with the worship of 
Apollo ; and the peculiar character assigned to the 
island by the traditions of its origin was confirmed 
by the remarkable fact that, though of volcanic 
origin, and in the midst of islands very subject to 
earthquakes, Delos enjoyed an almost entire ex- 
emption from such visitations, so that its being 
shaken by an earthquake was esteemed a marked 
prodigy. The city of Delos stood on the W. side 
of the island, at the foot of Mt. C}Tithus (whence 
the god's surname of Cynthius), near a little river 
called Inopus. It contained a temple of Leto, and 
the great temple of Apollo. The latter was built 
near the harbour, and possessed an oracle. Though 
enriched with offerings from all Greece, and de- 
fended by no fortifications, it was so protected from 
plunder by the sanctity of the place, that even the 
Persians, when sailing against Greece, not only 
passed it by uninjured, but sent rich presents to 
the god. With this temple were connected games, 
called Delia, which were celebrated every 4 
years, and were said to have been founded by 
Theseus. A like origin is ascribed to the sacred 
embassj'- (^eccpia) which the Athenians sent to Delos 
everj' year. (Did. of Ant. art. Thcori.) The temple 
and oracle were visited b}' pilgrims from every 
quarter, even from the regions of Scythia. The 
greatest importance was attached to the pre- 
servation of the sanctity of the island. It was 
twice purified by the Athenians ; once imder Pisis- 
tratus, when all tombs within sight of the temple 
were taken away ; and again in B. c. 426, when 
all human and animal remains were removed en- 
tirely from the island, which was henceforth for- 
bidden to be polluted by births or deaths, or by the 
presence of dogs : all persons about to die or bring 
forth children vv^ere to be removed to the adjacent 
island of Rhenea. Delos continued in a flourish- 
ing condition, and under the rule of the Athenians, 
who were confirmed in the possession of it by the 
Romans, until the Mithridatic War, when Menc- 
phanes, one of the generals of Mithridates, inflicted 
upon it a devastation, from which it never again 
recovered. 



DELPHI. 



DEMARATUS. 



211 



Delphi (ol AeA(/)oi : AeX(p6s : Kastri), a small 
town in Phocis, but one of the most celebrated in 
Greece, on account of its oracle of Apollo. It was 
16 stadia in circumference, was situated on a steep 
declivity on the S. slope of Mt. Parnassus, and its 
site resembled the cavea of a great theatre. It 
was shut in on tlie N. by a barrier of rocky moun- 
tains, which were cleft in the centre into 2 great 
cliffs v/ith peaked summits, between which issued 
the waters of the Castalian spring. It was origi- 
nally called Pytho (Uvdu), by which name it is 
alone mentioned in Homer. The origin of the 
name of Delphi is uncertain. The ancients derived 
it from an eponymous hero, Delphus, a descendant 
of Deucalion ; but it has been conjectured, with 
great probability, that Delphi is connected with 
adelpJios, " brother," and that it was indebted for 
its name to the twin peaks mentioned above. 
Delphi was colonised at an early period by Doric 
settlers from the neighbouring town of Lycorea, on 
the heights of Parnassus. The government was 
an oligarchy, and was in the hands of a few dis- 
tinguished families of Doric origin. From them 
were taken the chief magistrates, the priests, and 
a senate consisting of a very few members. Delphi 
was regarded as the central point of the whole 
earth, and Avas hence called the " navel of the 
earth." It was said that 2 eagles sent forth by 
Jupiter, one from the E. and the other from the W., 
met at Delphi at the same time. — Delphi was the 
principal seat of the worship of Apollo. Besides 
the great temple of Apollo, it contained numerous 
sanctuaries, statues, and other works of art. The 
Pythian games were also celebrated here, and it 
was one of the 2 places of meeting of the Amphic- 
tyonic council. — The temple of Apollo was si- 
tuated at the N.W. extremity of the town. The 
first stone temple was built by Trophonius and 
Agamedes ; and when this was burnt dovm b. c. 
548, it was rebuilt by the Amphictyons with still 
greater splendour. The expense was defrayed by 
voluntary subscriptions, to Avhich even Araasis, 
king of Egypt, contributed. The architect was 
Spintharus of Corinth ; the Alcmaeonidae con- 
tracted to build it, and liberally substituted Parian 
marble for the front of the building, instead of the 
common stone which they had agreed to employ. 
The temple contained immense treasures ; for not 
only were rich offerings presented to it by kings 
and private persons, who had received favourable 
replies from the oracle, but many of the Greek 
states had in the temple separate thesauri, in which 
they deposited, for the sake of security, many of 
their valuable treasures. The wealth of the temple 
attracted Xerxes, who sent part of his army into 
Phocis to obtain possession of its treasures, but the 
Persians were driven back by the god himself, ac- 
cording to the account of the Delphians. The 
Phocians plundered the temple to support them in 
the war agahist Thebes and the other Greek states 
(357 — 346) ; and it was robbed at a later time by 
Brennus and by Sulla. — In the centre of the 
temple there was a small opening (xao-jua) in the 
ground, from which, from time to time, an intoxi- 
cating vapour arose, Avhich was believed to come 
from the well of Cassotis. No traces of this chasm 
or of the mephitic exhalations are now any where 
observable. Over this chasm there stood a tripod, 
on which the priestess, called Pythia, took her 
seat whenever the oracle was to be consulted. 
The words v/hich she uttered after exhaling the 



vapour, were believed to contain the revelations of 
Apollo. They were carefully written down the 
priests, and afterwards communicated in hexameter 
verse to the persons Avho had come to consult the 
oracle. If the Pythia spoke in prose, her words 
were immediately turned into verse by a poet em- 
ployed for the purpose. The oracle is said to have 
been discovered by its having thrown into con- 
vulsions some goats which had strayed to the mouth 
of the cave. — For details respecting the oracle 
and its influence in Greece, see Diet, of Ant. art. 
Oraculum. 

Delphlnes. [Delphinius.] 

Belphinium {AeXcpiviov). 1. A temple of Apollo 
Delphinius at Athens, said to have been built by 
Aegeus, in which the Ephetae sat for trying cases 
of intentional, but justifiable homicide. 2. The 
harbour of Oropus in Attica, on the borders of 
Boeotia, called 6 lephs Xifxriv. — 3. A town on the 
E. coast of the island Chios. 

DelpMnius (AeXcpivios), a surname of Apollo, 
derived either from his slaying the dragon Del- 
phines (usually called Python), or because in the 
form of a dolphin (SeXcpis) or riding on a dolphin, 
he showed the Cretan colonists the v/ay to Delphi. 

Delphus (A€X(p6s). 1. Son of Poseidon and 
Melantho, to -whom the foundation of Delphi was 
ascribed. ==■ 2. Son of Apollo and Celaeno, who is 
also said to have founded Delphi. 

Delta. [Aegyptus.] 

Demades (Ar/^uaSTjs, a contraction of ATj^tteaSTjs), 
an Athenian orator, was of very low origin, but 
rose by his talents to a prominent position at 
Athens. He belonged to the Macedonian party, 
and was a bitter enemy of Demosthenes. He v/as 
taken prisoner at the battle of Chaeronea, b. c. 338, 
but was dismissed by Philip v/ith distinguished 
marks of honour. After Philip's death he was the 
subservient supporter of Alexander, but notwith- 
standing frequently received bribes from the oppo- 
site party. He was put to death by Antipater in 
318, because the latter had discovered a letter of 
Demades, urging the enemies of Antipater to attack 
him. Demades was a man without principle, and 
lived in a most profligate and dissolute manner. 
But he was a brilliant orator. He always spoke 
extempore, and with such irresistible force that he 
Avas a perfect match for Demosthenes himself. 
There is extant a large fragment of an oration 
bearing the name of Demades (irepl SajSe/caertas), 
in which he defends his conduct during the period 
of Alexander's reign. It is printed in the col- 
lections of the Attic orators, but its genuineness 
is doubtful. Cicero and Quintilian both state that 
Demades left no orations behind him. 

DemaratUS (ArnxdpaTOS, Dor. Aa/j-dparos). 1. 
King of Sparta, reigned from about B.C. 510 to 
491. He was at variance with his unscrupulous 
colleague Cleomenes, who at length accused him 
before the Ephors of being an illegitimate son of 
Ariston, and obtained his deposition by bribing 
the Delphic oracle, b. c. 491. Demaratus thereupon 
repaired to the Persian coast, where he was kindly 
received by Darius. He accompanied Xerxes in 
his invasion of Greece, and recommended the king 
not to rely too confidently upon his countless hosts. 
His family continued long in Asia. -—2. A merchant- 
noble of Corinth, and one of the Bacchiadae. When 
the power of his clan had been overthrown by 
Cypselus, about b. c. 657, he fled from Corinth, and 
settled at Tarquinii in Etruria, where he married 



212 



DEMETAE. 



DEMETRIUS. 



an Etruscan wife, b)' whom he had 2 sons, Aruns 
and Lucurao, afterwards L. Tarquinius Priscus. 

Demetae, a people of Britain, in the S.W. of 
Wales : their chief to\^'ns were Maridunum {Car- 
marthen) and Luentinura. 

Demeter (Atjui^ttjp), one of the great divinities 
of the Greeks, was the goddess of the earth, and 
her name probably signified Mother-Earth (yrj 
fii]rrip). She was the protectress of agriculture and 
of all the fruits of the earth. She was the daughter 
of Cronus and Rhea, and sister of Zeus, by whom 
she became the mother of Persephone (Proserpina). 
Zeus, without the knowledge of Demeter, had 
promised Persephone to Aidoneus (Pluto) ; and 
while the unsuspecting maiden was gathering 
flowers in the Nysian plain in Asia, the earth sud- 
denly opened and she was carried off by A idoneus. 
Her mother, who heard only the echo of her voice, 
immediately set out in search of her daughter. 
For 9 days she wandered about without obtaining 
any tidings of her, but on the tenth she met He- 
cate, w^ho told her that she had heard the cries of 
Persephone, but did not know who had carried 
her off. Both then hastened to Helios (the Sun), 
who revealed to them that it was Aidoneus who 
had carried off Persephone with the consent of 
Zeus. Thereupon Demeter in her anger avoided 
Olympus, and dwelt upon earth among men, con- 
ferring blessings wherever she was kindly received, 
and severely punishing those who repulsed her. 
In this manner she came to Celeus at Eleusis. 
[Celeus.] As the goddess still continued angry, 
and did not allow the earth to produce any finiits, 
Zeus first sent Iris and then all the gods to persuade 
Demeter to return to Olympus. But she was deaf 
to all their entreaties, and refused to return to 
Olympus, and to restore fertility to the earth, till 
she had seen her daughter again. Zeus accord- 
ingly sent Hermes into Erebus to fetch back Per- 
sephone. Aidoneus consented, but gave Persephone 
part of a pomegranate to eat. Hermes then took 
her to Eleusis to her mother, who received her 
with unbounded joy. At Eleusis both were joined 
by Hecate, who henceforth became the attendant 
of Persephone. Demeter now returned to Olympus 
with her daughter, but as the latter had eaten in 
the lower world, she was obliged to spend one 
third of the year with Aidoneus, but was allowed 
to continue with her mother the remainder of the 
year. The earth now brought forth fruit again. 
Before Demeter left Eleusis, she instructed Trip- 
tolemus. Diodes, Eumolpus, and Celeus in the 
mode of her worship and in the mysteries. This 
is the ancient legend as preserved in the Homeric 
hymn, but it is variously modified in later traditions. 
In the Latin poets the scene of the rape is near 
Enna in Sicily ; and Ascalaphus, who had alone 
seen Persephone eat any thing in the lower world, 
revealed the fact and was in consequence turned 
into an owl by Demeter. [Ascalaphus.] In 
the Iliad and Odyssey there is no mention of this 
legend, and there appears no connexion between 
Demeter and Persephone. The meaning of the 
legend is obvious. Persephone, who is carried off 
to the lower world, is the seed-corn, which remains 
concealed in the ground part of the year; Persephone, 
who returns to her mother, is the corn which rises 
from the ground and nourishes men and animals. 
Later philosophical writers, and perhaps the mys- 
teries also, referred the disappearance and return 
of Pergephone to the burial of the body of man 



and the immortality of his soul. — The other legends 
about Demeter are of less importance. To escape 
the pursuit of Poseidon she changed herself into a 
mare, but the god effected his purpose, and she 
became the mother of the celebrated horse Arion 
[Arion, No. 2.] According to some traditions 
she also bore to Poseidon a daughter Despoena (z. e. 
Persephone). — She fell in love with lasion and 
lay Avith him in a thrice-ploughed field in Crete : 
their offspring was Plutus {Wealth). [Iasion.] 
— She punished with fearful hunger Erysichthon, 
who had cut down her sacred grove. [Ery- 
sichthon.] — The chief seats of the worship of 
Demeter and Persephone were Attica, Arcadia and 
Sicily. In Attica she was worshipped with great 
splendour. The Athenians pretended that agri- 
culture was first practised in their countr}', and 
that Triptolemus of Eleusis, the favourite of De- 
meter, was the first who invented the plough and 
sowed com. [Triptolemus.] Everj- year at 
Athens the festival of the Eleusinia was celebrated 
in honour of these goddesses. The festival of the 
Thesmophoria was also celebrated in her honour as 
well at Athens as in other parts of Greece : it was 
intended to commemorate the introduction of the 
laws and the regulations of civilised life, which 
were ascribed to Demeter, since agriculture is the 
basis of civilisation. {Did. of Ant. arts. Eleusinia, 
Thesmophoria.) — In works of art Demeter was re- 
presented sometimes in a sitting attitude, sometimes 
walking, and sometimes riding in a chariot drawn 
by horses or dragons, but always in full attire. 
Around her head she wore a garland of corn-ears 
or a simple riband, and in her hand she held a 
sceptre, corn-ears or a poppy, sometimes also a torch 
and the mystic basket. — The Romans received 
from Sicily the worship of Demeter, to whom they 
gave the name of Ceres. The first temple of Ceres 
at Rome was vowed by the dictator A. Postumius 
Albinus, in B. c, 496, for the purpose of averting 
a famine with which Rome was threatened during 
a war with the Latins. The Romans instituted a 
festival with games in honour of her {Diet, of Ant. 
s. V. Cerealia). She w-as looked upon by the Romans 
much in the same light as Tellus. Pigs were sa- 
crificed to both divinities, in the seasons of sowing 
and in harvest time, and also at the burial of the 
dead. Her worship acquired considerable political 
importance at Rome. The property of traitors 
against the republic was often made over to her 
temple. The decrees of the senate were deposited 
in her temple for the inspection of the tribunes of 
the people. If we further consider that the aediles 
had the special superintendence of this temple, it is 
very probable that Ceres, whose worship was, like 
the plebeians themselves, introduced at Rome from 
without, had some peculiar relation to the plebeian 
order. 

Demetrias {Arnn-nrpids : ArjixtfTpievs). 1. A 
town in Magnesia in Thessaly, on the innermost 
recess of the Pagasaean bay, founded by Demetrius 
Poliorcetes, and peopled by the inhabitants of 
lolcus and the surrounding towns : it soon became 
one of the most important towns in the N. of 
Greece, and is frequently mentioned in the wars 
between the Macedonians and Romans. — 2. A 
town in Assyria, not far from Arbela. — 3. An 
Athenian tribe, added to the 10 old tribes, B.C. 
307, and named in honour of Demetrius Poliorcetes, 

Demetrius (ATj^^f^rptos). 1. A Greek of the 
island of Pharos in the Adriatic. He was a ge- 



DEMETRIUS 



DEMETRIUS. 



213 



neral of Teuta, the Illyrian queen, and treacherously 
surrendered Corcyra to the Romans, who rewarded 
him with a great part of the dominions of Teuta, 
228. Subsequently he ventured on many acts of 
piratical hostility against the Romans, thinking that 
they were too much occupied with the Gallic war 
and the impending danger of Hannibal's invasion to 
take notice of him. The Romans, however, imme- 
diately sent the consul L. Aemilius Paulus over 
to Illyria (219), who took Pharos itself, and ob- 
liged Demetrius to fly for refuge to Philip, king 
of Macedonia. At the court of this prince he spent 
the remainder of his life. -—2. Younger son of 
Philip v., king of Macedonia, was sent as a hostage 
to Rome after the battle of Cynoscephalae (198). 
Five years afterwards he was restored to his father, 
who subsequently sent him as his ambassador to 
Rome. But having incurred the jealousy of his 
father and his brother, Perseus, by the favourable 
reception he had met with from the Romans, he 
was secretly put to death by his father's order. 

I. Kings of Macedonia. 1. Sumamed Poliorcetes 
(no\iopKr]Tr]s), or the Besieger, son of Antigonus, 
king of Asia, and Stratonice. At an early age he 
gave proofs of distinguished braver3\ He accom- 
panied his father in his campaigns against Eumenes 
(b. c. 317, 316), and a few years afterwards was left 
by his father in the command of Syria, which he had 
to defend against Ptolemy. In 312 he was de- 
feated by Ptolemy near Gaza, but soon after retrieved 
his disaster in part by defeating one of the generals 
of Ptolemy. In 311 a general peace was concluded 
among the successors of Alexander, but it was only 
of short duration. In 307 Demetrius was despatched 
by his father with a powerful fleet and army to wrest 
Greece from Cassander and Ptolemy. He met with 
great success. At Athens he was received with 
enthusiasm by the people as their liberator. De- 
metrius the Phalerean, who had governed the city 
for Cassander, was expelled, and the fort at Muny- 
chia taken. Demetrius took up his abode for the 
winter at Athens, where divine honours were paid 
him under the title of " the Preserver" (6 Swtt]/)). 
He was recalled from Athens by his father to take 
the command of the war in Cyprus against Pto- 
lemy. Here also he was successful, and in a great 
naval battle he annihilated the fleet of Ptolemy 
(306). Next year (305) he laid siege to Rhodes, 
because the Rhodians had refused to support him 
against Ptolemy. It was in consequence of the 
gigantic machines which Demetrius constructed to 
assail the walls of Rhodes, that he received the 
surname of Poliorcetes. But all his exertions were 
unavailing, and after the siege had lasted above a 
year, he at length concluded a treaty with the 
Rhodians (304). — Demetrius then crossed over to 
Greece, which had meanwhile been almost con- 
quered by Cassander. He soon compelled Cas- 
sander to evacuate all Greece S. of Thermopylae, 
and for the next 2 years continued to prosecute 
the war with success. But in 302 he was obliged 
to return to Asia in order to support his father 
Antigonus. In 301 their combined forces were 
totally defeated by those of Lysimachus and Se- 
leucus in the battle of Ipsus, and Antigonus him- 
self slain. Demetrius, to whose impetuosity the 
loss of the battle would seem to be in great mea- 
sure owing, fled to Ephesus, and from thence 
set sail for Athens ; but the Athenians declined 
to receive him into their city. The jealousies of 
his enemies soon changed the face of his affairs ; 



and Ptolemy having entered into a closer union 
with Lysimachus, Seleucus married Stratonice, 
daugliter of Demetrius. By this alliance Deme- 
trius obtained possession of Cilicia, and he had 
never lost Cyprus, T}Te, and Sidon. In 297 he 
determined to make an eff'ort to recover his do- 
minions in Greece. He appeared with a fleet on 
the coast of Attica, but was at first unsuccessful. 
The death of Cassander, however, in the course of 
the same year gave a new turn to affairs. Deme- 
trius made himself master of Aegina, Salamis, and 
finally of Athens, after a long blockade (295). In 
291 he marched into Peloponnesus against the 
Spartans, and was on the point of taking their city 
when he was suddenly called away by the state of 
affairs in Macedonia. Here the dissensions be- 
tween Antipater and Alexander, the 2 sons of Cas- 
sander, had led Alexander to call in foreign aid to 
his support ; and he sent embassies at once to 
Demetrius and to Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus was the 
nearest at hand, and had already defeated Anti- 
pater and established Alexander on the throne, 
when Demetrius arrived with his army. He was 
received with apparent friendliness, but mutual 
jealousies quickly arose. Demetrius caused the 
young king to be assassinated at a banquet, and 
Avas thereupon acknowledged as king by the Ma- 
cedonian army. Demetrius kept possession of 
Macedonia for 7 years (294 — 287). His reign 
was a series of wars. In 292 he marched against 
the Thebans, who had risen against him, and took 
their city. In 291 he took advantage of the cap- 
tivity of Lysimachus among the Getae to invade 
Thrace ; but he was recalled by the news of a 
fresh insurrection in Boeotia. He repulsed Pyr- 
rhus, who had attempted by invading Thessaly to 
effect a diversion in favour of the Boeotians, and 
again took Thebes after a long siege (290). In 
289 he carried on war against Pyrrhus and the 
Aetolians, but he concluded peace with Pyrrhus 
that he might march into Asia with the view of 
recovering his father's dominions. His adversaries 
however forestalled him. In 287 Ptolemy sent a 
powerful fleet against Greece, while Pyrrhus (not- 
withstanding his recent treaty) on the one side 
and Lysimachus on the other simultaneously in- 
vaded Macedonia. Demetrius was deserted by 
his own troops, who proclaimed Pyrrhus king of 
Macedonia. He then crossed over to Asia, and 
after meeting with alternate success and misfortune, 
was at length obliged to surrender himself prisoner 
to Seleucus (286). That king kept him in con- 
finement, but did not treat him with harshness. 
Demetrius died in the 3rd year of his imprison- 
ment and the 56th of his age (283). He was 
one of the most remarkable characters of his 
age : in restless activity of mind, fertility of re- 
source, and daring promptitude in the execution of 
his schemes, he has perhaps never been surpassed. 
His besetting sin was his unbounded licentious- 
ness. Besides Lamia and his other mistresses, he 
was regularly married to 4 wives, Phila, Eurydice, 
Deidamia, and Ptoleraais, by whom he left 4 sons. 
The eldest of these, Antigonus Gonatas, eventually 
succeeded him on the throne of Macedonia. — 
2. Son of Antigonus Gonatas, succeeded his father, 
and reigned b. c. 239 — 229. He carried on war 
against the Aetolians, and was opposed to the 
Achaean League. He was succeeded by Antigo- 
nus Doson. 

IL Kings of Syria X. Soter (reigned b. c. 162 

p 3 



214 



DEMETRIUS. 



DEMOCEDES. 



—150), was the son of Seleucus IV. Philopator and 
grandson of Antiochus the Great While yet a 
child, he had been sent to Rome b)' his father as a 
hostage, and remained there during the whole of the 
reign of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes. After the death 
of Antiochus, being now 23 years old, he demanded 
of the senate to be set at liberty ; but as his re- 
quest was refused by the senate, he fled secretly 
from Rome, by the advice of the historian Poly- 
bius, and went to Syria. The Sjrrians declared in 
his favour ; and the young king Antiochus V. 
Eupator, with his tutor Lysias, was seized by 
his own guards and put to death. By valuable 
presents Demetrius obtained from the Romans his 
recognition as king. But having alienated his own 
subjects by his luxurj' and intemperance, they 
sided with an impostor of the name of Balas, who 
took the title of Alexander. By him Demetrius 
was defeated in battle and slain. He left 2 sons, 
Demetrius Nicator and Antiochus Sidetes, both of 
whom subsequently ascended the throne. — 2. Ni- 
cator (b. c. 146—142, and again 128—125), 
son of Demetrius Soter. He had been sent by 
his fiither for safety to Cnidus, when Alexander 
Balas invaded Syria ; and after the death of his 
father he continued in exile for some years. "With 
the assistance of Ptolemy PhiJometor he, defeated 
Balas, and recovered his kingdom ; but, ha^'ing like 
his father rendered himself odious to his subjects by 
his vices and cruelties, he was driven out of Syria 
by Tryphon, who set up Antiochus, the infant son 
of Alexander Balas, as a pretender against him. 
Demetrius retired to Babylon, and from thence 
marched against the Parthians, by whom he was 
defeated and taken prisoner, 138. He remained 
as a captive in Parthia 10 years, but was kindly 
treated by the Parthian king Mithri dates (Arsaces 
VI.), who gave him his daughter Rhodogune in 
marriage. Meanwhile, his brother, Antiochus VII. 
Sidetes, having overthroT\Ti the usurper Tryphon, 
engaged in war v/ith Parthia, in consequence of 
which Phraates, the successor of Mithridates, 
brought forv/ard Demetrius, and sent him into 
Syria to operate a diversion against his brother. 
In the same year Antiochus f-;ll in battle, and 
Demetrius again obtained possession of the Syrian 
throne, 128. Having engaged in an expedition 
against Egypt, Ptolemy Physcon set up against 
him the pretender Alexander Zebina, hy whom 
he v.'as defeated and compelled to fly. His wife 
Cleopatra, who could not forgive him his marriage 
viith. Rhodogune in Parthia, refused to afford him 
refuge at Ptolema'is, and he fled to Tyre, where he 
was assassinated, 125.-3. Encaerus, son of An- 
tiochus VIII. GrA-pus, and grandson of Deme- 
trius II, During the civil wars that followed the 
death of Antiochus Grypus (96), Demetrius and his 
brother Philip for a time held the whole of Syria. 
But war broke out between them ; Demetrius was 
taken prisoner and sent to Parthia, where he re- 
mained in captivity till his death. 

m. Literary. ' 1. Of Adramjrttium, sumamed 
Ixion, a Greek grammarian of the time of Augustus, 
lived partly at Pergamus and partly at Alexandria, 
and ■5\Tote commentaries on Homer and Hesiod and 
other works.— 2. Magnes, that is, of Magnesia, a 
Greek grammarian, and a contemporary of Cicero 
and Atticus, He A\Tote a work On concord (vrepl 
ifiovoias)^ and another on poets and other authors 
■who bore the same name {TlepL buMvvjxoiv Troir]Ta:v 
Kol (ru77pa^ea;»').— 3. Phalereus, so called from 



his birthplace, the Attic demos of Phalerus, v/here 
he was bom about b. c. 345. His parents were 
poor, but by his talents and perseverance he rose 
to the highe:5t honours at Athens, and became dis- 
tinguished both as an orator, a statesman, a philo- 
sopher, and a poet. He was educated, together 
with the poet Menander, in the school of Theo- 
phrastus. He began his public career about 325, 
and acquired great reputation by his eloquence. In 
317 the government of Athens was entrusted to 
him by Cassander, and he discharged the duties of 
his office for 10 years with such general satis- 
faction, that the Athenians conferred upon him the 
most extraordinar}- distinctions, and erected no less 
than 360 statues to his honour. But during the 
latter period of his administration he seems to havft 
become intoxicated vnih his good fortune, and he 
abandoned himself to dissipation. When Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes approached Athens, in 307, De- 
metrius Phalereus was obliged to take to flight, 
and his enemies induced the Athenians to pass 
sentence of death upon him. He went to Ptolemy 
Lagi at Alexandria, with whom he lived for many 
years on the best terms ; and it was probably o^^-ing 
to the influence of Demetrius that the great Alexan- 
drine library was formed. His successor, Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, was hostile towards Demetrius, be- 
cause he had advised his father to appoint another of 
his sons as his successor. He banished Demetrius to 
Upper Egj'pt, where he is said to have died from 
the bite of a snake. — Demetrius Phalereus was the 
last among the Attic orators worthy of the name ; 
but even his orations bore evident marks of the 
decline of oratory, and were characterised rather 
by grace and elegance than by force and sublimity. 
His numerous -n-ritings, the greater part of which 
were probably composed in Egypt, embraced sub- 
jects of the most varied kinds ; but none of them 
has come dov.-n to vs, for the work on elocution 
(■rrepl epfjLTjyeias), extant under his name, is pro- 
bably the work of an Alexandrine sophist of the 
name of Demetrius. — 4. Of Scepsis, a Greek 
grammarian of the time of Aristarchus, vrrote a 
learned commentar}' on the Catalogue in the 2nd 
book of the Iliad.— 5. Of Sxininm, a Cynic philo- 
sopher, lived from the reign of Caligula to that of 
Domitian, and was banished from Rome in conse- 
quence of the freedom vdth which he rebuked the 
powerful. 

Democedes (AtjuoktjStjs), a celebrated physician 
of Crotona, He practised medicine successively 
at Aegina, Athens, and Samos. He was taken 
prisoner along ■with Polycrates, in e. c. 522, and 
was sent to Susa to the court of Darius. Here he 
acquired great reputation by curing the king's foot, 
and the breast of the queen Atossa. Notwithstand- 
ing his honours at the Persian court, he was always 
desirous of returning to his native countr}-. In 
order to effect this, he pretended to enter into ^he 
views and interests of the Persians, and procured 
by means of Atossa that he should be sent with 
some nobles to explore the coast of Greece, and 
ascertain in what parts it might be most successfully 
attacked. When they arrived at Tarentum, the 
king, Aristophilides, out of kindness to Democedes, 
seized the Persians as spies, which afforded the 
physician an opportunity of escaping to Crotona. 
Here he settled^ and married the daughter of the 
famous A\Testler, Milo ; the Persians having fol- 
lowed him to Crotona, and in vain demanded that 
he should be restored. 



DEMOCHARES. 

Democliares (ATj^oxap^ys), an Athenian, son 
of the sister of Demosthenes. He was probably 
trained by his uncle in oratory, and inherited his 
patriotic sentiments. After the restoration of the 
Athenian democracy in B.c. 307 by Demetrius Polior- 
cetes, Demochares was at the head of the patriotic 
party and took an active part in public affairs for 
the next 20 or 30 years. He left behind him 
several orations, and an extensive history of his 
own times. 

Democles (Atj/uo^cAtjs), an Attic orator, and an 
opponent of Demochares. 

Democrates (ATj/xo/cparTjs), a Pythagorean phi- 
losopher, of whose life nothing is known, the author 
of an extant collection of moral maxims, called the 
golden sentences {yvoojxaL xpi/trat). They are 
printed with Demopkilus. 

Democritus (ATj/xt^Kpiros), a celebrated Greek 
philosopher, was bom at Abdera in Thrace, about 
B.C. 460. His father, Hegesistratus, — or, as 
others called him, Daraasippus or Athenocritus, — 
v/as possessed of so large a property, that he was 
able to entertain Xerxes on his march through 
Abdera. Democritus spent the inheritance, which 
his father left him, on travels into distant countries, 
which he undertook to satisfy his extraordinary 
thirst for knowledge. He travelled over a great 
part of Asia, and spent some time in Egypt. The 
many anecdotes preserved about Democritus show 
that he was a man of a most sterling and ho- 
nourable character. His diligence Avas incredible : 
he lived exclusively for his studies, and his disin- 
terestedness, modesty, and simplicity, are attested 
by many features which are related of him. Not- 
withstanding the great property he had inherited 
from his father, he died in poverty, but highly 
esteemed by his fellow-citizens. He died in 361 



DEMOSTHENES. 



215 



called chance i'''^X^)'> ""^ opposition to the vovs of 
Anaxagoras ; but he did not use the Avord chance 
in its vulgar acceptation, but to signify the neces- 
sary succession of cause and effect. In his ethical 
philosophy Democritus considered the acquisition 
of peace of mind (evOv/jLia) as the end and ultimate 
object of our actions. 

Demodocus (Ar]fj.6SoKos), the celebrated bard 
at the court of Alcinous who sang of the loves of. 
Ares and Aphrodite, while Ulysses sat at the ban- 
quet of Alcinous. He is also mentioned as the 
bard who advised Agamemnon to guard Cly- 
taemnestra, and to expose Aegisthus in a desert 
island. Later writers, who looked upon this my- 
thical minstrel as an historical person, related that 
he composed a poem on the destruction of Troy, 
and on the marriage of Hephaestus and Aphrodite. 

Demonax (A-n/xwpa^), of Cyprus, a Cynic phi- 
losopher in the time of Hadrian. We owe our 
knowledge of his character to Lucian, who has 
painted it in the most gloAving colours, representing 
him as almost perfectly wise and good. Demonax 
appears to have been free from the austerity and 
moroseness of the sect, though he valued their in- 
difference to external things. He was nearly 100 
years old at the time of his death. 

Demonesi Insulae (A-mjiovrjaoi), a group of 
islands in the Propontis (Sea of Marmora)^ be- 
longing to Bithynia : of these the most important 
were Pityodes and Chalcitis, also called Demonesus. 

Bemophilus (Ar}fj.6(piXos). 1. Son of Ephorus, 
continued his father's history by adding to it the 
history of the Sacred War. "=-2. An Athenian 
comic poet of the new comedy, from whose 'Ovayos 
Plautus took his Asinaria.—Z. A Pythagorean 
philosopher, of whose life nothing is known, wrote 

J a work entitled ^lov ^epdireia, part of which is 

at a very advanced age. There is a tradition that extant, in the form of a selection, entitled yi'ocfj.nca 



he deprived himself of his sight, that he might be 
less disturbed in his pursuits ; but this tradition 
is one of the inventions of a later age, which was 
fond of piquant anecdotes. It is more probable 
that he may have lost his sight by too severe ap- 
plication to study. This loss, however, did not 
disturb the cheerful disposition of his mind, Avhich 
prompted him to look, in all circumstances, at the 
cheerful side of things, which later writers took to 
mean, that he always laughed at the follies of men. 
His knowledge was most extensive. It embraced not 
only the natural sciences, mathematics, mechanics, 
grammar, music, and philosophy, but various other 
useful arts. His works were composed in the 
Ionic dialect, though not without some admixture 
of the local peculiarities of Abdera. They are 
nevertheless much praised by Cicero on account of 
the liveliness of their style, and are in this respect 
compared even with the works of Plato. The frag- 
ments of them are collected by Mullach, Democriti 
Abderitae Operum Fragmenta, Berlin, 1843. Leu- 
cippus appears to have had most influence upon 
the philosophical opinions of Democritus, and these 
2 philosophers were the founders of the theory of 
atoms. In order to explain the creation of all 
existing things, Democritus maintained that there 
were in infinite space an infinite number of atoms 
or elementary particles, homogeneous in quality, but 
heterogeneous in form. He further taught that 
these atoms combine with one another, and that 
all things arise from the infinite variety of the 
form, order, and position of the atoms in forming 
combinations. The cause of these combinations he 



6[xoiu>iJ.aTa. Best edition by Orelli, in his Opusc. 
Grace. Vet. Sentent. Lips. 1819. 

Demoplioii or Demophoon {A-mxo^wv or A77- 
[xo(p6aiu). 1. Son of Celeus and Metanira, whom 
Demeter wished to make immortal. For details 
see Celeus. — 2. Son of Theseus and Phaedra, 
accompanied the Greeks against Troy, and there 
procui-ed the liberation of his grandmother Aethra, 
who lived v/ith Helen as a slave. On his return 
from Troy, he gained the love of Phyllis, daughter 
of the Thracian king Sithon, and promised to 
marry her. Before the nuptials were celebrated, 
he went to Attica to settle his affairs, and as he 
tarried longer than Phyllis had expected, she 
thought that she Avas forgotten, and put an end to 
her life ; but she was metamorphosed into a tree. 
Demophon became king of Athens. He marched 
out against Diomedes, who on his return from Troy 
had landed on the coast of Attica, and Avas ravag- 
ing it. He took the Palladium from Diomedes, but 
had the misfortune to kill an Athenian in the 
struggle. For this murder he was summoned before 
the court eTrl ITaA-AaSi'^ — the first time that a 
man was tried by that court. 

Demosthenes {Ay]iio(rdivr}s). 1. Son of Alci- 
sthenes, a celebrated Athenian general in the Pelo- 
ponnesian War. In b. c. 426 he Avas sent with a fleet 
to ravage the coast of Peloponnesus : he afterwards 
landed at Naupactus, and made a descent into 
Aetolia ; he was at first unsuccessful, and was 
obliged to retreat ; but he subsequently gained a 
brilliant victory over the Ambraciots. In 425, 
though not in office, he sailed with the Athenian 

p4 



216 



DEMOSTHENES. 



DEMOSTHENES. 



fleet, and was allowed by the Athenian commanders 
to remain with 5 ships at Pj'los, which he fortified 
in order to assail the Lacedaemonians in their 
own territories. He defended Pylos against all 
the attempts of the Lacedaemonians, till he was 
relieved by an Athenian fleet of 40 ships. The 
Spartans, who in their siege of the place had oc- 
cupied the neighbouring island of Sphacteria, were 
now cut off and blockaded. Later in the same 
year he rendered important assistance to Cleon, in 
making prisoners of the Spartans in the island of 
Sphacteria, though the whole glory of the success 
was given to Cleon. In 413 he was sent with a 
large fleet to Sicily, to assist Nicias. Fortune was 
unfavourable to the Athenians. Demosthenes now 
counselled an immediate departure, but Nicias de- 
layed returning till it was too late. The Athenian 
fleet was destroyed, and when Demosthenes and 
Nicias attempted to retreat by land, they were 
obliged to surrender to the enemy with all their 
forces. Both commanders were put to death by 
the S}Tacusans. — 2. The greatest of Athenian 
orators, was the son of Demosthenes, and was bom 
in the Attic demos of Paeania, about b. c, 385. At 
7 years of age he lost his father, who left him and 
his younger sister to the care of 3 guardians, Apho- 
bus and Demophon, 2 relations, and Therippides, 
an old friend. These guardians squandered the 
greater part of the property of Demosthenes, and 
neglected his education to a great extent. He 
nevertheless received instruction from the orator 
Isaeus ; but it is exceedingly doubtful whether he 
■was taught by Plato and Isocrates, as some of the 
ancients stated. At the age of 18 Demosthenes 
called upon his guardians to render him an account 
of their administration of his property ; but by in- 
trigues they contrived to defer the business for 2 
years. At length, in 364, Demosthenes accused 
Aphobus before the arch on, and obtained a verdict in 
his favour. Aphobus was condemned to pay a fine of 
10 talents. Emboldened by this success, Demo- 
sthenes ventured to come forward as a speaker in the 
public assembly. His first effort was unsuccessful, 
and he is said to have been received with ridicule ; 
but he was encouraged to persevere by the actor Sa- 
tyrus, who gave him instruction in action and de- 
•clamation. In becoming an orator, Demosthenes 
had to struggle against the greatest physical dis- 
advantages. His voice was weak and his utterance 
defective ; he could not pronounce the p, and con- 
stantly stammered, whence he derived the nick- 
name of ^draXos. It was only owing to the most 
unwearied exertions that he succeeded in over- 
coming the obstacles which nature had placed in 
his way. Thus it is said that he spoke with 
pebbles in his mouth, to cure himself of stammer- 
ing ; that he repeated verses of the poets as he 
ran up hill, to strengthen his voice ; that he de- 
claimed on the sea-shore to accustom himself to the 
noise and confusion of the popular assembly ; that 
he lived for months in a cave under ground, en- 
gaged in constantly writing out the history of Thu- 
cydides, to form a standard for his own st^-le. These 
tales are not worthy of much credit ; but they 
nevertheless attest the common tradition of anti- 
quity respecting the great efforts made by Demo- 
sthenes to attain to excellence as an orator. — It 
was about 355 that Demosthenes began to obtain 
reputation as a speaker in the public assembly. It 
was in this year that he delivered the oration 
against Leptines, and from this time we have a 



series of his speeches on public affairs. His elo- 
quence soon gained him the favour of the people. 
The influence which he acquired he employed for the 
good of his country, and not for his own aggrandise- 
ment. He clearly saw that Philip had resolved to 
subjugate Greece, and he therefore devoted all his 
powers to resist the aggressions of the Macedonian 
monarch. For 14 years he continued the struggle 
against Philip, and neither threats nor bribes could 
turn him from his purpose. It is true he failed ; 
but the failure must not be considered his fault. 
The history of his struggle is best given in the life 
of Philip. [Philippus.] It is sufficient to relate 
here that it was brought to a close by the battle of 
Chaeronea (338), by w^hich the independence of 
Greece was crushed. Demosthenes was present at 
the battle, and fled like thousands of others. His 
enemies reproached him with his flight, and up- 
braided him as the cause of the misfortunes of his 
country ; but the Athenians judged better of his 
conduct, requested him to deliver the funeral 
oration upon those who had fallen at Chaeronea, 
and celebrated the funeral feast in his house. At 
this time many accusations were brought against 
him. Of these one of the most formidable was the 
accusation of Ctesiphon by Aeschines, but which 
was in realit}' directed against Demosthenes him- 
self. Aeschines accused Ctesiphon for proposing 
that Demosthenes should be rewarded for his 
services with a golden crown in the theatre. 
Aeschines maintained that the proposal was not 
only made in an illegal form, but that the conduct 
of Demosthenes did not give him any claim to such 
a distinction. The trial was delayed for reasons 
unknown to us till 330, when Demosthenes de- 
livered his oration on the crown (Trepi (mtpavov). 
Aeschines was defeated and withdrew jfrom Athens. 
[Aeschines.] — Meantime important events had 
taken place in Greece. The death of Philip in 336 
roused the hopes of the patriots, and Demosthenes, 
although he had lost his daughter only 7 days 
before, was the first to proclaim the joyful tidings 
of the king's death, and to call upon the Greeks 
to unite their strength against Macedonia. But 
Alexander's energy, and the firightful vengeance 
which he took upon Thebes, compelled Athens to 
submit and sue for peace. Alexander demanded 
the surrender of Demosthenes and the other leaders 
of the popular party, and with difficulty allowed 
them to remain at Athens. During the life of 
Alexander, Athens made no open attempt to throw 
off the Macedonian supremacy. In 325 Harpalus 
fled from Babylon w-ith the treasure entrusted to 
his care by Alexander, and came to Athens, the 
protection of which he purchased by distributing 
his gold among the most influential demagogues. 
The reception of such an open rebel was viewed as 
an act of hostility towards Macedonia itself ; and 
accordingly Antipater called upon the Athenians 
to deliver up the rebel and to try those who had 
accepted his bribes. Demosthenes was one of those 
who were suspected of having received money from 
Harpalus. His guilt is doubtful ; but he was 
condemned, and thrown into prison, from which 
however he escaped, apparently with the conni- 
vance of the Athenian magistrates. He now re- 
sided partly at Troezene and partly in Aegina, 
looking daily across the sea towards his beloved 
native land. But his exile did not last long. On 
the death of Alexander (323) the Greek states 
rose in arms against Macedonia. Demosthenes was 



DENSELETAE. 



DEUCALION. 



217 



recalled from exile ; a trireme was sent to Aegina 
to fetcli him, and his progress to the city was a 
glorious trumph. But in the following year (322) 
the confederate Greeks were defeated by Antipater 
at the battle of Cranon, and were obliged to sue for 
peace. Antipater demanded the surrender of De- 
mosthenes, who thereupon fled to the island of 
Calauria, and took refuge in the temple of Poseidon. 
Here he was pursued by the emissaries of Antipater ; 
he thereupon took poison, which he had for some 
time carried about his person, and died in the temple, 
322. — There existed 65 orations of Demosthenes 
in antiquity; but of these only 61 have come down 
to us, including the letter of Philip, which is 
strangely enough counted as an oration. Several 
of the orations, however, are spurious, or at least of 
very doubtful authenticity. Besides these orations, 
there are 56 Emrdia to public orations, and 6 
letters which bear the name of Demosthenes, but 
are probably spurious. — The orations may be 
divided into the following classes : (I.) 17 Poli- 
tical orations {Xoyoi (Tv/x€ov\evTiKol), of which 
the 12 Philippic orations are the most important. 
They bear the following titles : — 1. The 1st Phi- 
lippic, delivered 352. 2—4. The 3 Olynthiac 
orations, delivered 349. 5. On the Peace, 346. 
6. The 2nd Philippic, 344. 7- On Halonesus, 
343, not genuine, probably written by Hegesippus. 
8. On the affairs of the Chersonesus, 342. 9. The 
3rd Philippic, 342. 10. The 4th Philippic, not ge- 
nuine, 341. 11. On the letter of Philip, 340, also 
spurious. 12. The letter of Philip. — (II.) 42 
Judicial Orations (\6yoi SiKavLKoi), of which the 
most important are : Against Midias, written 355, 
but never delivered ; Against Leptines, 355 ; On 
the dishonest conduct of Aeschines during his em- 
bassy to Philip (Ilepl rris UapaTrpeaSeias), 342 ; 
On the Crown, 330. — (III.) 2 Show Speeches 
(\6yoi iirideLKTiKo'i), namely the 'ETrtra^ios and 
'EpccTiKos, both of which are spurious. The ora- 
tions of Demosthenes are contained in the collections 
of the Attic orators by Reiske, Lips. 1770 — 1775 ; 
Bekker, Oxon. 1823 ; Dobson, Lond. 1828 ; 
Baiter and Sauppe, Turic. 1845. 

Denseletae or Dentheletae, a Thracian people 
on the Haemus, between the Strymon and Nessus. 

Dentatus, M'. Curius, a favourite hero of the 
Roman republic, was celebrated in later times as 
a noble specimen of old Roman frugality and virtue. 
He was of Sabine origin, and the first of his family 
who held any of the high offices of state (conse- 
quently a homo novus). He was consul b. c. 290 
with P. Cornelius Rufinus. The 2 consuls de- 
feated the Samnites, and brought the Samnite wars 
to a close. In the same year Dentatus also de- 
feated the Sabines, who appear to have supported 
the Samnites. In 283 he fought as praetor against 
the Senones. In 275 he was consul a second time, 
and defeated Pyrrhus near Beneventum and in the 
Arusinian plain so completely, that the king was 
obliged to quit Italy. The booty which he gained 
was immense, but he would keep nothing for him- 
self. In 274 he was consul a third time, and 
conquered the Lucanians, Samnites, and Bruttians, 
who still continued in arms after the defeat of 
Pyrrhus. Dentatus now retired to his small farm 
in the country of the Sabines, and cultivated the 
land with his own hands. Once the Samnites 
sent an embassy to him with costly presents ; they 
found him sitting at the hearth and roasting tur- 
fiips. He rejected their presents, telling them that 



he preferred ruling over those who possessed gold, 
to possessing it himself. He was censor in 272, 
and in that year executed public works of great 
importance. He commenced the aquaeduct which 
carried the water from the river Anio into the 
city (Aniensis Vetus) ; and by a canal he carried 
off the water of the lake Velinus into the river 
Nar, in consequence of which the inhabitants of 
Reate gained a large quantity of excellent land. 

Deo (Atjw), another name for Demeter : hence 
her daughter Persephone is called by the patro- 
nymic Deois and Deoine. 

Derbe (A4p§ri : AepSr^rrjs, Aep^atos), a town 
in Lycaonia, on the frontiers of Isauria. It is 
first mentioned as the residence of the tyrant An- 
tipater of Derbe, a friend of Cicero, whom Amyntas 
put to death. 

Derbiccae or Derbices, a Scythian people in 
Margiana, dwelling on the Oxus, near its entrance 
into the Caspian sea. They worshipped the earth 
as a goddess, neither sacrificed nor ate any female 
animals, and killed and ate all their old men above 
70 years of age. 

Dercetis, Derceto (Aep/certy, AepKerci), also 
called Atargatis, a Syrian goddess. She offended 
Aphrodite (Venus), who in consequence inspired 
her with love for a youth, to whom she bore a 
daughter Semiramis ; but ashamed of her frailty, 
she killed the youth, exposed her child in a desert, 
and threw herself into a lake near Ascalon. Her 
child was fed by doves, and she herself was 
changed into a fish. The Syrians thereupon wor- 
shipped her as a goddess. The upper part of her 
statue represented a beautiful woman, while the 
lower part terminated in the tail of a fish. She 
appears to be the same as Dagon mentioned in the 
Old Testament as a deity of the Philistines. 

Dercyllidas {AepKvXXiZas), a Spartan, suc- 
ceeded Thimbron, B, c. 399, in the command of 
the army which was employed in the protection of 
the Asiatic Greeks against Persia. He carried on 
the war with success. Tissaphemes and Phama- 
bazus were at length glad to sue for peace. In 
396 he was superseded by Agesilaus. 

Dertona (Toiiona), an important town in Li- 
guria, and a Roman colony with the surname Julia, 
on the road from Genua to Placentia. 

Dertosa ( Tortosa), a town of the Ilercaones on 
the Iberus in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a Ro- 
man colony. 

Despoena (AeVTroim), the mistress, a surname 
of several divinities, as Aphrodite, Demeter, and 
more especially Persephone, who was worshipped 
under this name in Arcadia. 

Deucalion (AeufcaAt'cov). 1. Son of Prometheus 
and Clymene, king of Phthia, in Thessaly. When 
Zeus, after the treatment he had received from 
Lycaon, had resolved to destroy the degenerate 
race of men, Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha were, 
on account of their piety, the only mortals saved. 
On the advice of his father, Deucalion built a ship, 
in which he and his wife floated in safety during 
the 9 days' flood, which destroyed all the other 
inhabitants of Hellas. At last the ship rested on 
mount Parnassus in Phocis, or, according to other 
traditions, on mount Othrys in Thessaly, on mount 
Athos, or even on Aetna in Sicily. When the 
waters had subsided, Deucalion offered up a sacri- 
fice to Zeus Phyxius (<^i^|iOs), and he and his wife 
then consulted the sanctuary of Themis how the race 
of man might be restored. The goddess bade them 



218 



DEVA. 



DICAEARCHUS. 



cover their heads and throw the bones of their mother 
behind them. After some doubts and scruples re- 
specting the meaning of this command, they agreed 
in interpreting the bones of their mother to mean 
the stones of the earth. They accordingly threw 
stones behind them, and from those thrown by 
Deucalion there sprang up men, from those thrown 
by Pyrrha women. Deucalion then descended from 
Parnassus, and built his first abode at Opus or at 
Cjnus. Deucalion became by P\Trha the father 
of Hellen, Amphictyon, Protogenia, and others. — 
2. Son of Minos and Pasiphae, and father of Idome- 
neus, was an Argonaut and one of the Calydonian 
hnntera. 

Deva. 1. {Chester), the principal town of the 
Comavii in Britain, on the Seteia {Dee), and the 
head-quarters of the Legio XX. Victrix. — 2. 
{Dee), an estuary in Scotland, on which stood 
the town Devana, near the modern Aberdeen. 

Dexamenus (Ae|a,uei/oj), a Centaur who lived 
in Bura in Achaia. According to others, he was 
king of Olenus, and father of Deianira, who is 
usually represented as daughter of Oeneus. 

Dexippus (Ae'liTTTTos). i. Called also Z)^^??));)?^, 
a physician of Cos, one of the pupils of Hippo- 
crates, lived about B. c. 380, and attended the 
children of Hecatomnus, prince of Caria. — 2. P. 
Herennius, a Greek rhetorician and historian, was 
a native of Attica, and held the highest offices at 
Athens. He distinguished himself in fighting 
against the Goths, when they invaded Greece in 
A. B. 262. He was the author of 3 historical 
"works: — 1. A history of Macedonia from the 
time of Alexander. 2. A chronological history 
from the mythical ages down to the accession of 
Claudius Gothicus, a. d. 268. 3. An account of 
the war of the Goths or Scythians, in which Dexip- 
pus himself had fought. The fragments of Dexip- 
pus, which are considerable, are published by 
Bekker and Niebuhr in the first volume of the 
Scriptores Historiae Byzantinae, Bonn, 1829, 8vo. 
— 3. A disciple of the philosopher lamblichus, 
lived about a. d. 350, and A\TOte a commentary on 
the Categories of Aristotle, of which a Latin trans- 
lation appeared at Paris, 1549, 8vo., and at Venice, 
1546, fo. after the work of Porphyry In Prae- 
dicam. 

Dia C^'")» daughter of Deioneus and wife of 
Ixion. By Ixion, or according to others, by Zeus, 
she became the mother of Pirithous. 

Dia (Ai'a). 1. The ancient name of Naxos. — 
2. An island near Amorgos. — 3. A small island 
off Crete, opposite the harbour of Cnossus. — - 4. 
An island in the Arabian gulf, on the W. coast of 
Arabia. 

Diablintes. [Aulercl] 

Diacria {rj AiaKpia), a moimtainous district in 
the N. E. of Attica, including the plain of Mara- 
thon. [Attica.] The inhabitants of this district 
(Ata/cpieis, AiaKpLoi), formed one of the 3 parties 
into which the inhabitants of Attica were divided 
in the time of Solon : they were the most demo- 
cratical of the 3 parties. 

Diadumeniaims or Diadumenus, son of the 
emperor INIacrinus, received the title of Caesar, 
when his father was elevated to the purple, A. D. 
217, and was put to death in the following year 
about the same time with Macrinus. 

Diaeus (Atatos), of Megalopolis, general of the 
Achaean league B.C. 149 and 147, took an active 
part in the war against the Romans. On the death 



of Critolaiis in 146, he succeeded to the command 
of the Achaeans, but was defeated by Mummius 
near Corinth, whereupon he put an end to his own 
life, after slaying his wife to prevent her falling 
into the enemy's power. 

Diagoras {Aiayopas). 1. Son of Daraagetus, 
of lalysus in Rhodes, was ver}- celebrated for his 
own victories and those of his sons and grandsons, 
in the Grecian games, His fame was celebrated 
by Pindar in the 7th Olympic ode. He was victor 
in boxing twice in the Olympian games, fom- times 
in the Isthmian, twice in the Nemean, and once 
at least in the Pythian. He had therefore the 
high honour of being a TzcpioSoviKris, that is, one 
who had gained crowns at all the 4 great festi- 
vals. When an old man, he accompanied his sons, 
Acusilaiis and Daraagetus, to Olympia. The young 
men, having both been victorious, carried their 
father through the assembly, while the spectators 
shov/ered garlands upon him, and congratulated 
him as having reached the summit of human hap- 
piness. He gained his Olympic victor}', b. c. 464. 
— 2. Surnamed tlie Atheist {"Adeos), a Greek 
philosopher and poet, vras the son of Teleclides, 
and was bom in the island of Melos, one of the 
Cyclades. He was a disciple of Democritus of 
Abdera, and in his youth he acquired considerable 
reputation as a lyric poet. He was at Athens as 
early as B. c. 424, for Aristophanes in the Clouds 
(830), which were performed in that year, alludes 
to him as a well-known character. In consequence 
of his attacks upon the popular religion, and espe- 
cially upon the Eleusinian mysteries, he was for- 
mally accused of impiety b. c. 411, and fearing the 
results of a trial, fled from Athens. He was con- 
demned to death in his absence, and a reward set 
upon his head. He first went to Pallene. and af- 
terwards to Corinth, where he died. One of the 
works of Diagoras was entitled 'tpvyioi Xoyoi, in 
which he probably attacked the Phrygian divinities. 

Diana, an ancient Italian divinity, whom the 
Romans identified with the Greek Artemis. Her 
worship is said to have been introduced at Rome 
by Servius Tullius, who dedicated a temple to her 
on the Aventine ; and she appears to have been 
originally worshipped only by the plebeians. At 
Rome Diana was the goddess of light, and her 
name contains the same root as the word dies. As 
Dianus (Janus), or the god of light, represented 
the sun, so Diana, the goddess of light, represented 
the moon. The attributes of the Greek Artemis 
were afterwards ascribed to the Roman Diana. See 
Artemis. 

Dianium. 1. {Gianuti), a small island in the 
Tyrrhenian sea, opposite the gulf of Cosa. — 2. 
{benia), called Hemeroscopion {'H/JLepoaKow^iov) 
by Strabo, a town in Hispania Tarraconensis on a 
promontory of the same name (C. Martin) founded 
by the Massilians. Here stood a celebrated temple 
of Diana, from which the town derived its name ; 
and here Sertorius kept most of his military stores. 

Dicaea (At/caza), a town in Thrace, on the lake 
Bistonis. 

Dicaearchia. [Puteoli.] 

Dicaearchus {ALKaiapxos'), a celebrated Peripa- 
tetic philosopher, geographer, and historian, was 
bom at Messana in Sicily, but passed the greater 
part of his life in Greece Proper, and especially in 
Peloponnesus. He was a disciple of Aristotle and 
a friend of Theophrastus. He wrote a vast number 
of works, of which only fragments are extant. His 



DICE. 



DIDYMUS. 



219 



most important work v/as entitled Bios ttjs 'EAAcc- 
dos : it contained an account of the geography, his- 
tory, and moral and religious condition of Greece. 
See Fuhr, DicaeareJd Messenii quae supersunt com- 
posita et illustrata^ Darmstadt, 1841. 

Dice (Ai/CTj), the personification of justice, a 
daughter of Zeus and Themis, and the sister of 
Eunomia and Eirene. She was considered as one 
of the Horae, and is frequently called the attendant 
or councillor (irdpeSpos or ^uvsdpos) of Zeus. In 
the tragedians, she appears as a divinity who se- 
verely punishes all wrong, watches over the main- 
tenance of justice, and pierces the hearts of the 
unjust with the sword made for her by Aesa. In 
this capacity she is closely connected with the Erin- 
nyes, though her business is not only to punish 
injustice, but also to reward virtue. 

Bictaeus. [Dicte.] 

Dictamnum (AiKTajuivov), a town on the N. 
coast of Crete with a sanctuary of Dictynna, from 
whom the town itself was also called Dictynna. 

Dicte (AifcTr/), a mountain in the E. of Crete, 
where Zeus is said to have been brought up. 
Hence he bore the surname Dictaeus. The Roman 
poets frequently employ the adjective Dictaeus as 
synonymous with Cretan. 

Dictynna (^H^iKTwva), a surname both of Brito- 
martis and Diana, which two divinities were sub- 
sequently identified. The name is connected with 
oiKTvou, a hunting-net, and was borne by Brito- 
martis and Diana as goddesses of the chase. One 
tradition related that Britomartis was so called, 
because when she had thrown herself into the sea 
to escape the pursuit of Minos, she was saved in 
the nets of fishermen. 

Dictys Cretensis, the reputed author of an ex- 
tant work in Latin on the Trojan war, divided into 
6 books, and entitled Ephemeris Belli Trojani, pro- 
fessing to be a journal of the leading events of the 
war. In the preface to the work we are told that 
it was composed by Dictys of Cnossus, who ac- 
companied Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and was 
inscribed in Phoenician characters on tablets of 
lime wood or paper made from the bark. The work 
was buried in the same grave with the author, and 
remained undisturbed till the sepulchre was burst 
open by an earthquake in the reign of Nero, and 
the work was discovered in a tin case. It was 
carried to Rome by Eupraxis, Avhose slaves had 
discovered it, and it was translated into Greek by 
order of Nero. It is from this Greek version that 
the extant Latin work professes to have been trans- 
lated by a Q. Septimius Romanus. Although its 
alleged origin and discovery are quite unworthy of 
credit, it appears nevertheless to be a translation 
from a Greek work, which we know to have been 
extant under the name of Dictys, since it is fre- 
quently quoted by the Byzantine writers. The 
work Avas probably written in Greek by Eupraxis 
in the reign of Nero, but at what time the Latin 
translation was executed is quite uncertain. The 
work contains a history of the Trojan war, from 
the birth of Paris down to the death of Ulysses. 
The compiler not unfrequently differs widely from 
Homer, adding many particulars, and recording 
many events of which we find no trace elsewhere. 
All miracialous events and supernatural agency are 
entirely excluded. The compilations ascribed to 
Dictys and Dares [Dares], are of considerable 
importance in the history of modem literature, 
since they are the chief fountains from which the 



legends of Greece first flowed into the romances of 
the middle ages, and then mingled with the po- 
pular tales and ballads of England, France, and 
Germany. — The best edition of Dictys is by Dede- 
rich, Bonn, 1835. 

Didius. 1. T., praetor in Macedonia, b. c. 100, 
where he defeated the Scordiscans, consul 98, and 
subsequently proconsul in Spain, where he de- 
feated the Celtiberians. He fell in the Marsic 
war, 89. -—2. C, a legate of Caesar, fell in battle 
in Spain fighting against the sons of Pompey, 
46.-3. M. Didius Salvius Julianus, bought 
the Roman empire of the praetorian guards, when 
they put up the empire for sale after the death 
of Pertinax, A. D. 193. Flavins Sulpicianus, 
praefect of the city, and Didius bid against each 
other, but it was finally knocked down to Didius, 
upon his promising a donative to each soldier 
of 25,000 sesterces. Didius, however, held the 
empire for only 2 months, from March 28th to 
June 1 st, and was murdered by the soldiers when 
Severus was marching against the city. 

Dido (AiSw), also called Elissa, the reputed 
founder of Carthage. She was daughter of the 
Tyrian king Belus or Agenor or Mutgo, and sister 
of Pygmalion, who succeeded to the crown after 
the death of his father. Dido was married to her 
uncle, Acerbas or Sichaeus, a priest of Hercules, 
and a man of immense wealth. He was murdered 
by Pygmalion, who coveted his treasures ; but Dido 
secretly sailed from Tyre with the treasures, ac- 
companied by some noble Tyrians, who were dis- 
satisfied with Pygmalion's rule. She first went to 
Cyprus, where she carried off 80 maidens to pro- 
vide the emigrants with wives, and then crossed 
over to Africa. Here she purchased as much land 
as might be covered with the hide of a bull ; but 
she ordered the hide to be cut up into the thinnest 
possible stripes, and with them she surrounded a 
spot, on Avhich she built a citadel called Byrsa 
(from fiupaa, i. e. the hide of a bull). Around 
this fort the city of Carthage arose, and soon be- 
came a powerful and flourishing place. The neigh- 
bouring king Hiarbas, jealous of the prosperity 
of the new city, demanded the hand of Dido in 
marriage, threatening Carthage with war in case of 
refusal. Dido had vowed eternal fidelity to her late 
husband ; but seeing that the Carthaginians ex- 
pected her to comply with the demands of Hiarbas, 
she pretended to yield to their Avishes, and under 
pretence of soothing the manes of Acerbas by expia- 
tory sacrifices, she erected a funeral pile, on which 
she stabbed herself in presence of her people. 
After her death she was worshipped by the Car- 
thaginians as a divinity. — Virgil has inserted in 
his Aeneid the legend of Dido with various modi- 
fications. According to the common chronology, 
there was an interval of more than 300 years be- 
tween the capture of Troy (b. c. 1184) and the 
foundation of Carthage (b. c. 853) ; but Virgil 
nevertheless makes Dido a contemporary of Aeneas, 
with whom she falls in love on his arrival in Africa. 
When Aeneas hastened to seek the new home 
which the gods had promised him, Dido in despair 
destroyed herself on a funeral pile. 

Didyma. [Branchidae.] 

Didyme. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 

Didymus (AtSy^os), a celebrated Alexandrine 
grammarian, a contemporary of Julius Caesar and 
Augustus, was a follower of the school of Aristar- 
chus, and received the surname xaKKim^pos, on 



220 



DIESPITER. 



DIOCLETIANUS, 



account of his indefatigable and unwearied applica- 
tion to study. He is said to have written 4000 
works, the most important of which were com- 
mentaries on Homer. The greater part of the 
extant Scholia minora on Homer was at one time 
considered the work of Didymus, but is really taken 
from the commentaries of Didymus and of other 
grammarians. 

Diespiter. [Jupiter.] 

Digentia (Licenza)^ a small stream in Latium, 
beautifully cool and clear, which flows into the 
Anio near the modern Vicovaro, It flowed through 
the Sabine farm of Horace. Near its source, which 
was also called Digentia {fons etiam rivo dare 
nomen idoneus, Hor. Ep. i. 16. 12), stood the house 
of Horace {vicinus tectojugis aquae fons^ Hor. Sat. 
ii. 6. 2). 

Dimallum, a town in Greek Illyria. 

Dmarchus (AeiVapxos), the last and least im- 
portant of the 10 Attic orators, was bom at Co- 
rinth about B. c. 361. He was brought up at 
Athens, and studied under Theophrastus. As he 
was a foreigner, he could not come forward himself 
as an orator, and was therefore obliged to content 
himself with writing orations for others. He be- 
longed to the friends of Phocion and the Macedo- 
nian party. When Demetrius Poliorcetes ad- 
vanced against Athens in 307, Dinarchus fled to 
Chalcis in Euboea, and was not allowed to return 
to Athens till 292, where he died at an advanced 
age. Only 3 of his speeches have come down to 
us : they all refer to th^ question about Harpa- 
Lus. They are printed in the collections of the 
Attic orators. 

Dindymene. [Dindymus,] 

Dindymus or Dindyma, -orum (Aivdv/xos : ra 
AhSvfxa). 1. A mountain in Phrygia on the 
frontiers of Galatia, near the town Pessinus, sacred 
to Cybele, the mother of the gods, who is hence 
■called Dindymene. — 2. A mountain in Mysia 
near Cyzicus, also sacred to Cybele. 

Dinocrates (Aeivo/cpdTTjs), a distinguished Ma- 
cedonian architect in the time of Alexander the 
Great. He was the architect of the new temple 
of Artemis at Ephesus, which was built after the 
destruction of the former temple by Herostratus. 
He was employed by Alexander, whom he accom- 
panied into Egypt, in the building of Alexandria. 
He formed a design for cutting mount Athos into 
a statue of Alexander ; but the king forbad the 
execution of the project. The right hand of the 
figure was to have held a city, and in tlie left there 
would have been a basin, in Avhich the water of 
all the mountain streams was to pour, and thence 
into the sea. He commenced the erection of a 
temple to Arsinoe, the wife of Ptolemy II., of 
which the roof was to be arched with loadstones, 
-80 that her statue made of iron might appear to 
float in the air, but he died before completing the 
work. 

Dinomachus {Aeii/6/xaxos), a philosopher, who 
agreed with Calliphon in considering the chief 
good to consist in the union of virtue with bodily 
pleasure. 

Dinomenes (A€ivofi4v7]s), a statuary, whose 
statues of lo and Callisto stood in the Acropolis at 
Athens in the time of Pausanias : he flourished 
B. c. 400. 

Dinon (Advuv, Aiuuv)^ father of the historian 
Clitarchus, wrote himself a history of Persia. 
Dio. [Dion.] 



Diocaesarea (Aioa-KaKrdpeia: Sefurieh), more 
anciently Sepphoris ( 2,€ir<pu)pLs), in Galilee, was 
a small place until H erodes Antipas made it the 
capital of Galilee, under the name of Diocaesarea. 
It was destroyed in the 4th century by Gallus, on 
account of an insurrection which had broken out 
there. 

Dioclea or Doclea (A({/<Aea), a place in Dal- 
matia, near Salona, the birth-place of Diocletian. 

Diodes (AlokXtis). 1. A brave Athenian, who 
lived in exile at Megara. Once in a battle he pro- 
tected with his shield a youth whom he loved, but 
he lost his own life in consequence. The Mega- 
rians rewarded him with the honours of a hero, 
and instituted the festival of the Dioclea, which 
they celebrated in the spring of every year. — 
2. A Syracusan, the leader of the popular party in 
opposition to Hermocrates. In B.C. 412 he was 
appointed with several others to draw up a new 
code of laws. This code, which was almost ex- 
clusively the work of Diodes, became very cele- 
brated, and was adopted by many other Sicilian 
cities. — 3. Of Carystus in Euboea, a celebrated 
Greek physician, lived in the 4th century B. c. 
He wrote several medical works, of which only 
some fragments remain. 

Diocletianopolis. [Celetrum.] 

Diocletianus, Valerius, Roman emperor, a. d. 
284 — 30.5, was bom near Salona in Dalmatia, in 
245, of most obscure parentage. From his mother, 
Doclea, or Dioclea, who received her name from 
the village where she dwelt, he inherited the ap- 
pellation of Docks or Diodes, which, after his 
assumption of the purple, was expanded into Dio- 
cletianus, and attached as a cognomen to the high 
patrician name of Valerius. Having entered the 
army, he served with high reputation under Pro- 
bus and Aurelian, followed Carus to the Persian 
war, and, after the fate of Numerianus became 
known at Chalcedon, was proclaimed emperor by 
the troops, 284. He slew with his own hands 
Arrius Aper, who was arraigned of the murder of 
Numerianus, in order, according to some autho- 
rities, that he might fulfil a prophecy delivered to 
him in early youth by a Gaulish Druidess, that he 
should mount a throne as soon as he had slain the 
wild-boar (Aper). Next year (285) Diocletian 
carried on war against Carinus, on whose death he 
became undisputed master of the empire. But as 
the attacks of the barbarians became daily more 
formidable, he resolved to associate with himself a 
colleague in the empire, and accordingly selected 
for that purpose Maximianus, who was invested 
with the title of Augustus in 286. Maximian had 
the care of the Westem empire, and Diocletian 
that of the Eastern. But as the dangers which 
threatened the Roman dominions from the attacks 
of the Persians in the E., and the Germans and 
other barbarians in the W., became still more im- 
minent, Diocletian made a still further division of 
the empire. In 292, Constantius Chlorus and 
Galerius were proclaimed Caesars, and the govem- 
ment of the Roman world was divided between 
the 2 Augusti and the 2 Caesars. Diocletian had 
the government of the E. with Nicomedia as his 
residence ; Maximian, Italy, and Africa, with 
Milan, as his residence ; Constantius, Britain, Gaul, 
and Spain, with Treves, as his residence ; Gale- 
rius, Illyricum, and the whole line of the Danube, 
with Sirmium, as his residence. The wars in the 
reign of Diocletian are related in the lives of his 



DIODORUS. 



DIOGENES. 



221 



colleagues, since Diocletian rarely commanded the 
armies in person. It is sufficient to state here 
that Britain, which had maintained its independ- 
ence for some years under Carausius and Al- 
LECTUS, was restored to the empire (296) ; that 
the Persians were defeated and obliged to sue for 
peace (298) ; and that the Marcomanni and other 
barbarians in the N. were also driven back from 
the Roman dominions. But after an anxious reign 
of 21 years Diocletian longed for repose. Accord- 
ingly on 1st of May, 305, he abdicated at Nico- 
media, and compelled his reluctant colleague Maxi- 
mian to do the same at Milan. Diocletian retired 
to his native Dalmatia, and passed the remaining 8 
years of his life near Salona in philosophic retire- 
ment, devoted to rural pleasures and the cultivation 
of his garden. He died 313. One of the most 
memorable events in the reign of Diocletian was his 
fierce persecution of the Christians (303), to which 
he was instigated by his colleague Galerius. 

Diodorus (AiSSoopoi). 1, Surnamed Cronus, of 
lasus in Caria, lived at Alexandria in the reign 
of Ptolemy Soter, who is said to have given him 
the surname of Cronus on account of his inability 
to solve at once some dialectic problem proposed 
by Stilpo, when the 2 philosophers were dining 
with the king. Diodorus is said to have taken 
that disgrace so much to heart, that after his return 
from the repast, and writing a treatise on the pro- 
blem, he died in despair. According to another 
account he derived his surname from his teacher 
Apollonius Cronus. He belonged to the Megaric 
school of philosophy, of which he was the head. 
He was celebrated for his great dialectic skill, for 
which he is called 6 SiaAeKxiKoy, or 5ia\€KTiKco- 
Taros. — 2. Siculus, of Agyrium in Sicily, was a 
contemporary of Julius Caesar and Augustus. In 
order to collect materials for his history, he tra- 
velled over a great part of Europe and Asia, and 
lived a long time at Rome. He spent altogether 
30 years upon his work. It was entitled BiSAio- 
B-fiKt] IcTTopiK^, The Historical Library, and was an 
universal history, embracing the period from the 
earliest mythical ages down to the beginning of 
Caesar's Gallic wars. It was divided into 3 great 
sections and into 40 books. The 1st section, which 
consisted of the first 6 books, contained the history 
of the mythical times previous to the Trojan war. 
The 2nd section, which consisted of 11 books, con- 
tained the history from the Trojan war down to the 
death of Alexander the Great. The 3rd section, 
which contained the remaining 23 books, treated of 
the history from the death of Alexander down to 
the beginning of Caesar's Gallic wars. Of this work 
only the following portions are extant entire : the 
first 5 books, which contain the early history of 
the Eastern nations, the Egyptians. Aethiopians, 
and Greeks ; and from book 11 to book 20, con- 
taining the history from the 2nd Persian war, 
B. c. 480, down to 302. Of the remaining portion 
there are extant a number of fragments and the 
Excerpta, which are preserved partly in Photius, 
and partly in the Eclogae made at the command of 
Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The work of Dio- 
dorus is constructed upon the plan of annals, and 
the events of each year are placed one after the 
other without any internal connection. In com- 
piling his work Diodorus exercised no judgment or 
criticism. He simply collected what he found in 
tis different authorities, and thus jumbled together 
history, my thus, and fiction : he frequently mis- 



understood authorities, and not seldom contradicts 
in one passage what he has stated in another. 
But nevertheless the compilation is of great im- 
portance to us, on account of the great mass of 
materials which are there collected from a num- 
ber of writers whose works have perished. The 
best editions are by Wesseling, Amsterd. 1746, 
2 vols. foL, reprinted at Bipont, 1793, &c., 11 vols. 
8vo. ; and by Dindorf, Lips. 1828, 6 vols. 8vo.^ 
3. Of Sinope, an Athenian comic poet of the 
middle comedy, flourished 353.-4. Of Tyre, a 
peripatetic philosopher, a disciple and follower of 
Critolaiis, whom he succeeded as the head of the 
Peripatetic school at Athens. He flourished b. c. 
110.^^ „ 

Diodotus (At(iSoTos), a Stoic philosopher and a 
teacher of Cicero, in whose house he lived for many 
years at Rome. In his later years, Diodotus be- 
came blind : he died in Cicero's house, b. c. 59, 
and left to his friend a property of about 1 00,00(> 
sesterces. 

Diogenes {Aioyivrjs). 1. Of Apollonia in Crete, 
an eminent natural philosopher, lived in the 5th 
century B. c, and was a pupil of Anaximenes. He 
wrote a work in the Ionic dialect, entitled UcpX 
4>u(r6cos, On Nature, in which he appears to have 
treated of physical science in the largest sense of 
the words. — 2. The Babylonian, a Stoic philo- 
sopher, was a native of Seleucia in Babylonia, was 
educated at Athens under Chrysippus, and suc- 
ceeded Zeno of Tarsus as the head of the Stoic 
school at Athens. He was one of the 3 ambas- 
sadors sent by the Athenians to Rome in b. c. 155. 
[Carneades : Critolaus.] He died at the age 
of 88.-3. The Cynic philosopher, was born at 
Sinope in Pontus, about B. c. 412. His father was 
a banker named Icesias or Icetas, who was con- 
victed of some swindling transaction, in conse- 
quence of which Diogenes quitted Sinope and went 
to Athens. His youth is said to have been spent 
in dissolute extravagance ; but at Athens his at- 
tention was arrested by the character of Antis- 
thenes, who at first drove him away. Diogenes, 
however, could not be prevented from attending him 
even by blows, but told him that he would find no 
stick hard enough to keep him away. Antisthenes 
at last relented, and his pupil soon plunged into 
the most frantic excesses of austerity and morose- 
ness. In summer he used to roll in hot sand, and 
in winter to embrace statues covered with snow ; 
he wore coarse clothing, lived on the plainest food, 
slept in porticoes or in the street, and finally, ac- 
cording to the common story, took up his residence 
in a tub belonging to the Metroum, or temple of 
the Mother of the Gods. The truth of this latter 
tale has, however, been reasonably disputed. In 
spite of his strange eccentricities, Diogenes appears 
to have been much respected at Athens, and to 
have been privileged to rebuke anything of which 
he disapproved. He seems to have ridiculed and 
despised all intellectual pursuits which did not 
directly and obviously tend to some immediate 
practical good. He abused literary men for read- 
ing about the evils of Ulysses, and neglecting their 
own ; musicians for stringing the lyre harmoniously 
while they left their minds discordant ; men of 
science for troubling themselves about the moon 
and stars, while they neglected what lay imme- 
diately before them ; orators for learning to say 
what was right, but not to practise it. — On a 
voyage to Aegina he was taken prisoner by pirates, 



222 



DIOGENIANUS. 



DION. 



and carried to Crete to be sold as a slave. Here 
when he was asked what business he understood, 
he answered, " How to command men." He was 
purchased by Xeniades of Corinth, over Avhom he 
acquired such influence, that he soon received from 
him his freedom, was entrusted with the tare of 
his children, and passed his old age in his house. 
During his residence at Corinth his celebrated in- 
terview with Alexander the Great is said to have 
taken place. The conversation between them begun 
by the king's saying, " I am Alexander the Great;" 
to which the philosopher replied, " And I am Dio- 
genes the Cynic." Alexander then asked whether 
he could oblige him in any way, and received no 
answer except, " Yes, you can stand out of the 
sunshine." We are further told that Alexander 
admired Diogenes so much that he said, " If I were 
not Alexander, I should wish to be Diogenes." 
Diogenes died at Corinth at the age of nearlj- 90, 
B.C. 323.-4. Laertius, of Laerte in Cilicia, of 
whose life we have no particulars, probably lived 
in the 2nd century after Christ. He -wrote the 
Lives of the Philosophers in 10 books: the work 
is entitled irepi jBi'ajv, doyfxaToov, Koi j.irocpQe'yfxa.rwy 
ruv iv <piXo0o(pia ev5oKiiJ.r](rdvTcov. Accordinir to 
some allusions which occur in it, he wrote it for a 
lady of rank, who occupied herself Avith philosophy, 
and who, according to some, Avas Arria, the friend 
of Galen. In this work Diogenes divides the phi- 
losophy of the Greeks into the Ionic — which com- 
mences with Anaximander and ends witli Clito- 
machus, Chrj^sippus, and Theophrastus — and the 
Italian, which was foimded by Pythagoras, and 
ends with Epicurus. He reckons the Socratic 
school, with its various ramifications, as a part of 
the Ionic philosophy, of which he treats in the first 
7 books. The Eleatics, with Heraclitus and the 
Sceptics, are included in the Italian philosoph}', 
which occupies the 8th and 9th books. Epicurus 
and his philosophy are treated of in the 10th book 
with particular minuteness, which has led some 
writers to the belief that Diogenes himself was an 
Epicurean. The work is of great value to us, as 
Diogenes made use of a great number of writers on 
the history of philosophy, whose works are now 
lost ; but it is put together without plan, criticism, 
or connection, and the author had evidently no 
conception of the real value and dignity of philo- 
sophy. The best editions are by Meibom, Amsterd. 
1692, 2 vols. 4to., and Hiibner, Lips. 2 vols. 8vo. 
1828 — 1831.— 6. Oenomaus, a tragic poet, who 
began to exhibit at Athens b. c. 404. 

Diogenianus (ALoyeveiavos), of Heraclea on the 
Pontus, a distinguished grammarian in the reign 
of Hadrian, wrote a Greek Lexicon, from which 
the Lexicon of Hesychius seems to have been 
almost entirely taken. A portion of it is still 
extant, containing a collection of proverbs first 
printed by Schottus, with the proverbs of Zenobius 
and Suidas, Antv. 1612, 4to., and subsequently in 
other editions of the Paroemiograplii Graeci. 

Diomea (to Aioix^ia : Aioixeievs, AiOfieus), a 
demus in Attica belonging to the tribe Aegeis, 
with a temple of Hercules ; the Diomean gate in 
Athens led to this demus. [See p. 103, a.] 

Diomedeae Insulae, 5 small islands in the 
Adriatic sea, N. of the promontory Garganum in 
Apulia, named after Diomedes. [Diomedes.] The 
largest of these, called Diomedea Insula or Trimerus 
(Tre7niti), was the place Avhere Julia, the grand- 
daughter of Augustus, died. 



Diomedes (Aio^utjStjv). 1. Son of Tydeus and 
Deipyle, whence he is constantly called Tydides 
(TvteiS-qs), succeeded Adrastus as king of Argos. — 
Homeric Slori/. Tydeus fell in the expedition 
against Thebes, while his son Diomedes was yet a 
boy ; but Diomedes was afterwards one of the 
Epigoni who took Thebes. He went to Troy with 
80 ships, and was, next to Achilles, the bravest 
hero in the Greek army. He enjoyed the especial 
protection of Athena ; he fought against the 
most distinguished bf the Trojans, such as Hector 
and Aeneas, and even with the gods who espoused 
the cause of the Trojans. He thus wounded both. 
Aphrodite and Ares. ■ — Later Stories. Diomedes 
and Ulysses carried off the palladium from the 
city of Troy, since it was believed that Troy- 
could not be taken so long as the palladium was 
within its walls. Diomedes carried the palladium 
with him to Argos ; but according to others it 
was taken from him by Demophon in Attica, 
where he landed one night on his return from 
Troy, without knowing where he was. [Demo- 
phon.] Another tradition stated, that Diomedes 
restored the palladium to Aeneas. On his arrival 
in Argos Diomedes found his wife Aegialea living in 
adulter}-- Avith Hippolytus, or, according to others, 
Avith Cometes or Cyllabarus. This misfortune 
befell him through the anger of Aphrodite, Avhom 
he had Avounded before Troy. He therefore quitted 
Argos, either of his OAvn accord, or he Avas expelled 
by the adulterers, and went to Aetolia. He sub- 
sequently attempted to retiu-n to Argos, but on his 
way home a storm threw him on the coast of 
Daunia in Italy, where he was kindly received by 
Daunus, the king of the country. Diomedes as- 
sisted Daunus in his war against the Messapians, 
married Euippe, the daughter of Daunus, and set- 
tled in Daunia, Avhere he died at an advanced age. 
He AA^as buried in one of the islands oflf cape Gar- 
ganum, Avhich Avere called after him the Diomedean 
islands. His companions were inconsolable at his 
loss, and Avere metamorphosed into birds (^Aves 
Diomedeae), Avhich, mindful of their origm, used 
to fly jojrfully tOAvards the Greek ships, but to 
avoid those of the Romans. According to others 
Diomedes returned to Argos, or disappeared in one 
of the Diomedean islands, or in the country of the 
Heneti. A number of towns in the E. part of Italy, 
such as Beneventum, Argos Hippion (afterAA-ards 
Argyripa or Arpi), Venusia, Canusium, Venafrum, 
Brundusium, &c. Avere believed to have been 
founded by Diomedes. A plain of Apulia, near 
Salapia and Canusium, was called Diomedei Campi 
after him. He Avas Avorshipped as a diA^ne being, 
especially in Italy, where statues of him existed 
at Argyripa, Metapontum, Thurii, and other places. 
— 2. Son of Ares and Cyrene, king of the Bis- 
tones in Thrace, killed by Hercules on account of 
his mares, Avhich he fed AA'ith human flesh. 

Diomedes, a Latin grammarian, probably lived 
in the 4th or 5th century after Christ, and is the 
author of an extant work, De Oratione et Partibus 
Oraiionis et Vario Genere Metrorum lihri III.^ 
printed in the Grammaticae Lati?2(xe Auetores Aji- 
tiqui of Putschius, 4to. Hanov. 1605. 

Diomedon (AtO;ueSwj/), an Athenian commander 
during the Peloponnesian Avar. He AA-as one of the 
commanders at the battle of Arginusae (b. c. 406), 
and AA'as put to death Avith 5 of his colleagues on 
his return to Athens. 

Dion {Aioiv), a Syracusan, son of Hipparinus, 



DION. 



DION. 



223 



and a relation of Dionysius. His sister Aristomache 
was the second wife of the elder Dionysius ; and 
Dion himself was married to Arete, the daughter 
of Dionysius by Aristomache. Dion was treated 
by Dionysius with the greatest distinction, and 
was employed by him in many services of trust 
and confidence. Of this close connection and favour 
with the t3"rant he seems to have availed himself 
to amass great wealth. He made no opposition to 
the succession of the younger Dionysius to his 
father's power, but he became an object of suspicion 
to the j^outhful tyrant, to Avhom he also made 
himself personally disagreeable by the austerity of 
his manners. Dion appears to have been naturally 
a man of a proud and stern character, and having 
become an ardent disciple of Plato when that phi- 
losopher yisited Syracuse in the reign of the elder 
Dionysius,, he carried to excess the austerity of a 
philosopher, and viewed vnth undisguised contempt 
the debaucheries and dissolute pleasures of his 
nephew. From these he endeavoured to withdraw 
him by persuading him to invite Plato a second 
time to Syracuse ; but the philosopher, though 
received at first with the utmost distinction, failed 
in obtaining a permanent hold on the mind of 
Dionysius; and the intrigues of the opposite party, 
headed by Philistus, were successful in procuring 
the banishment of Dion. Dion retired to Athens, 
where he lived in habitual intercourse with Plato 
and his disciples ; but Plato having failed in pro- 
curing his recall (for which purpose he had a third 
time visited Syracuse), and Dionysius having con- 
fiscated his property, and compelled his wife to marry 
another person, he determined on attempting the 
expulsion of the tyrant by force. He sailed from 
Zacynthus with only a small force and obtained 
possession of Syracuse without opposition during 
the absence of Dionysius in Italy. Dionysius re- 
turned shortly afterwards, but found himself obliged 
to quit Syracuse and sail away to Italy, leaving 
Dion undisputed master of the city, B. C. 356. His 
despotic conduct however soon caused great dis- 
content, and the people complained with justice 
that they had only exchanged one tyrant for 
another. He caused his chief opponent, Heraclides, 
to be put to death, and confiscated the property of 
his adversaries. Callippus, an Athenian, who had 
accompanied him from Greece, formed a conspiracy 
against hirn, and caused him to be assassinated in 
his own house, 353. 

Dion Cassius, the historian, was the son of a 
Roman senator, Cassius Apronianus, and was born 
A. D. 155, at Nicaea in Bithynia. He also bore 
the surname Cocceianus, which he derived from 
the orator Dion Chrysostomus Cocceianus, his ma- 
ternal grandfather. He was educated with great 
care ; he accompanied his father to Cilicia, of which 
he had the administration ; and after his father's 
death, he went to Ronie, about 180. He was 
straightway made a senator, and frequently pleaded 
in the courts of justice. He was aedile and quaestor 
under Commodus, and praetor under Septimius 
Severus, 194. He accompanied Caracalla on his 
journey to the East; he was appointed by Macrinus 
to the government of Pergamus and Smyrna, 218; 
was consul about 220; proconsul of Africa 224, 
under Alexander Severus, by whom he was sent 
as legate to Dalmatia in 226, and to Pannonia in 
227. In the latter province he restored strict 
discipline among the troops ; which excited the 
discontent of the praetorians at Rome, who de- 



manded his life of Alexander Severus But the 
emperor protected him and raised him to his second 
consulship 229. Dion, however, retired to Cam- 
pania, and shortly afterwards obtained permission 
of the emperor to return to his native town Nicaea, 
where he passed the remainder of his life and 
died. — Dion wrote several historical works, but the 
most important Avas a History of Rome ('P(w/xai«:)/ 
to-Topi'a), in 80 books, from the landing of Aeneas 
in Italy to A. d. 229, the year in which Dion 
returned to Nicaea. Unfortunately, only a com- 
paratively small portion of this work has come 
down to us entire. Of the first 34 books Ave possess 
only fragments ; but since Zonaras in his Annals 
chiefly followed Dion Cassius, we may regard the 
Annals of Zonaras as to some extent an epitome of 
Dion Cassius. Of the 35th book we possess a 
considerable fragment, and from the 86th book to 
the 54th the work is extant complete, and embraces 
the history from the Avars of Lucullus and Cn. 
Pompey against Mithridates, down to the death of 
Agrippa, b. c. 10. Of the remaining books Ave have 
only the epitomes made by Xiphilinus and others. 
Dion Cassius treated the history of the republic 
with brevity, but gave a more minute account of 
these events, of which he had been himself an eye- 
Avitness. He consulted original authorities, and 
displayed great judgment and discrimination in 
the use of them. He had acquired a thorough 
knowledge of his subject, and his notions of the 
ancient Roman institutions were far more correct 
than those of some of his predecessors, sucb as 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The best editions are 
by Reimarus, Hamb. 1750 — 52, 2 vols, fo]., and by 
Sturz, Lips. 1824, 9 vols. 8vo. 

Dion Chrysostomus, that is, the golden-mouthed, 
a surname given to him on account of his eloquence. 
He also bore the surname Cocceianus, which, he 
derived from the emperor Cocceius Nerva, Avith 
Avhom he was very intimate. He was born at 
Prusa in Bithynia, about the middle of the first 
century of our era. He received a careful educa- 
tion, increased his knowledge by travelling in 
different countries, and came to Rome in the reign 
of Vespasian, but having incurred the suspicions of 
Domitian, Avas obliged to leave the city. On the 
advice of the Delphic oracle, he put on a beggar's 
dress, and in this condition visited Thrace, Mysia, 
Scythia, and the country of the Getae. After the 
murder of Domitian, a. d. 96, Dion used his in- 
fluence with the army stationed on the frontier in 
faA'our of his friend NerA^a, and seems to have 
returned to Rome immediately after his accession. 
Trajan also entertained the highest esteem for 
Dion, and shoAved him the most marked favour. 
Dion died at Rome about A. D. 117. — Dion Chry- 
sostom is the most eminent of the Greek rhetoricians 
and sophists in the time of the Roman empire. 
There are extant 80 of his orations ; but they are 
more like essays on political, moral, and philoso- 
phical subjects than real orations, of which they 
have only the form. We find among them XoyoL 
irepl ^acTLXdas or xSyoi ^aaiXiKoi, 4 orations ad- 
dressed to Trajan on the virtues of a sovereign; 
Aioyeuris t) irepl rupavv'iSos, on the troubles to 
which men expose themselves by deserting the 
path of nature, and on the difficulties Avhich a so- 
vereign has to encounter ; essays on slavery and 
freedom ; on the means of attaining eminence as an 
orator ; political discoui-ses addressed to various 
toAvns ; on subjects of ethics and practical philo- 



2'24 DIONAEA. 

sophy ; and lastly, orations on mythical subjects 
and show-speeches. All these orations are written 
in pure Attic Greek, and, although tainted with 
the rhetorical embellishments of the age, are dis- 
tinguished by their refined and elegant style. The 
best editions are by Reiske, Lips, 1784, 2 vols, 
and by Emperius, Bruns. 1044. 
Dionaea. [Dione.] 

Dione (Aiwu-n), daughter of Oceanus and Tethj's, 
or of Uranus and Ge, or of Aether and Ge. She 
was beloved by Zeus, by whom she became the 
mother of Aphrodite (Venus). She received her 
daughter in Olympus, when she was wounded by 
Dioraedes. — Aphrodite is hence called Dionaea, 
and this epithet is frequently applied to any thing 
sacred to Aphrodite. Hence we find Dionaeum 
antrum (Hor. Carm. ii. 1. 39), and Dio7iaeus Caesar 
(Virg. Ed. ix. 47), because Caesar claimed descent 
from Venus. Aphrodite is sometimes also called 
Dione. 

Dionysius (Atoi^wfrio?) I. Historical. -^1. The 
Elder, tyrant of Syracuse, son of Hermocrates, born 
B. c. 430. He was born in a private but not low 
station, and began life as a clerk in a public office. 
He was one of the partizans of Hermocrates, the 
leader of the aristocratical party, and was severely 
•wounded in the attempt which Hermocrates made 
to effect by force his restoration from exile. He 
subsequently served in the great war against the 
Carthaginians, who had invaded Sicily under Han- 
nibal, the son of Gisco, and successively reduced 
and destroyed Selinus, Himera, and Agrigentum. 
These disasters, and especially the failure of the 
Syracusan general, Daphnaeus, to relieve Agrigen- 
tum, had created a general spirit of discontent and 
alarm, of which Dionysius skilfully availed himself. 
He succeeded in procuring a decree for deposing 
the existing generals, and appointing others in their 
stead, among whom was Dionysius himself, B.C. 406. 
His efforts were from this time directed towards 
supplanting his new colleagues and obtaining the sole 
direction of affairs. These efforts were crowned with 
success. In the following year (405), the other ge- 
nerals were deposed, and Dionysius, though only 25 
years of age, was appointed sole general, with full 
powers. From this period we may date the com- 
mencement of his reign, or tyranny, which continued 
without interruption for 38 years. His first step was 
to procure the appointment of a body-guard, which he 
speedily increased to the number of 1000 men : at 
the same time he induced the Syracusans to double 
the pay of all the troops, and took everj' means to 
ingratiate himself with the mercenaries. By his 
marriage with the daughter of Hermocrates he 
secured to himself the support of all the remaining 
partizans of that leader. He converted the island 
of Ortygia into a strong fortress, in which he took 
up his own residence. After concluding a peace 
with Carthage, and putting down a formidable 
insurrection in Syracuse, he began to direct his 
arms against the other cities of Sicily. Naxos, 
Catana, and Leontini, successively fell into his 
power, either by force or treachery. For several 
years after this he made preparations for renewing 
the war with Carthage. In 397 he declared war 
against Carthage. At first he met with great suc- 
cess, but in 395 his fleet was totally defeated, and 
he was obliged to shut himself up within the walls 
of SjTacuse, where he was besieged by the Car- 
thaginians both by sea and land. A pestilence 
shortly after broke out in the Carthaginian camp, 



DIONYSIUS. 

and greatly reduced the enemy; whereupon Dio- 
nysius suddenly attacked the enemy both by 
sea and land, defeated the army, and burnt 
great part of their fleet. The Carthaginians were 
now obliged to withdraw. In 393 they renewed 
the war with no better success, and in 392 they 
concluded a peace with Dionysius. This treaty 
left Dionysius at leisure to continue the ambitious 
projects in which he had previously engaged against 
the Greek cities in Italy. He formed an alliance 
with the Lucanians, and crossed over into Italy. 
He subdued Caulonia, Hipponium. and Rhegium, 
387. He was in close alliance with the Locrians; 
and his powerful fleets gave him the command both 
of the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic seas. He was now 
at the summit of his greatness, and during the 20 
years that elapsed from this period to his death, 
he possessed an amount of power and influence far 
exceeding those enjoyed by any other Greek before 
the time of Alexander. During this time he was 
twice engaged again in war with Carthage, namely 
in 383, when a treaty was concluded, by which 
the river Halycus was fixed as the boundary of the 
two powers ; and again in 368, in the middle of 
which war Dionysius died at Syracuse, 367. His 
last illness is said to have been brought on by 
excessive feasting ; but according to some accounts, 
his death was hastened by his medical attendants, 
in order to secure the succession for his son. After 
the death of his first wife, Dionysius had married 
almost exactly at the same time — some said even 
on the same day — Doris, a Locrian of distinguished 
birth, and Aristomache, a Sj-racusan, the daughter 
of his supporter Hipparinus, and the sister of Dion. 
By Doris he had 3 children, of which the eldest 
was his successor, Dionysius. The character of 
Dionysius has been drawn in the blackest colours 
by many ancient writers ; he appears indeed to 
have become a sort of type of a tyrant, in its worst 
sense. In his latter years he became extremely 
suspicious, and apprehensive of treachery even from 
his nearest friends, and is said to have adopted the 
most excessive precautions to guard against it. 
Many of these stories have however an air of great 
exaggeration. (Cic. Tusc. v. 20.) He built the 
terrible prison, called Lautmniae, which was cut 
out of the solid rock in the part of Syracuse, named 
Epipolae. (See Diet, of Ant. art. Lazitumiae.) 
Dionysius was fond of literature and the arts. He 
adorned Syracuse with splendid temples and other 
public edifices, so as to render it imquestionably 
the greatest of all Greek cities. He was himself a 
poet, and repeatedly contended for the prize of 
tragedy at Athens. Here he several times obtained 
the second and third prizes; and, finally, just before 
his death, bore away the first prize at the Lenaea, 
with a play called " The Ransom of Hector," He 
sought the society of men distinguished in literature 
and philosophy, entertaining the poet Philoxenus 
at his table, and inviting Plato to Syracuse, He 
however soon after sent the latter away from Sicily 
in disgrace ; and though the story of his having 
caused him to be sold as a slave, as well as that of 
his having sent Philoxenus to the stone quarries 
for ridiculing his bad verses, are probably gross 
exaggerations, they may well have been so far 
founded in fact, that his intercoiu-se Avith these 
persons was interrupted by some sudden burst of 
capricious violence. — 2, The Younger, son of the 
preceding, succeeded his father as tyrant of Syra- 
cuse, B. c. 367. He was at this time under 30 years 



DIOIS-YSUS (BACCHUS). 




COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. CROTOX — DIONYSOPOLIS. 




DIONYSIUS. 



DIONYSIUS. 



225 



of age : he had been brought up at his father's 
court in idleness and hixury, and studiously pre- 
cluded from taking any part in public affairs. The 
ascf.-ndancy which Dion, and through his means 
Plato, obtained for a time over his mind was under- 
rained by flatterers and the companions of his 
pleasures. Yet his court was at this time a great 
place of resort for philosophers and men of letters : 
besides Plato, whom he induced by the most urgent 
entreaties to pay him a second visit, Aristippus of 
Cyrene, Eudoxus of Cnidus, Speusippus, and 
others, are stated to have spent some time with 
him at Syracuse ; and he cultivated a friendly in- 
tercourse with Archytas and the Pythagoreans of 
Magna Graecia. Dion, who had been banished by 
Dionysius, returned to Sicily in 357, at the head 
of a small force, with the avowed object of de- 
throning Dionysius. The latter was absent from 
S\Tacuse at the time that Dion landed in Sicily; 
but he instantly returned to Syracuse, where the 
citadel still held out for him. But finding it im- 
possible to retain his power, he sailed away to 
Italy with his most valuable property, and thus 
lost the sovereignty after a reign of 12 years, 356, 
He now repaired to Locri, the native city of his 
mother, Doris, where he was received in the most 
friendly manner; but he made himself tyrant of the 
city, and is said to have treated the inhabitants 
with the utmost cruelty. After remaining at Locri 
10 years, he availed himself of the internal dissen- 
sions at Syracuse to recover possession of his power 
in that city, 346. The Locrians took advantage of 
his absence to revolt against him, and wreaked 
their vengeance in the most cruel manner on his 
wife and daughters. He continued to reign in 
Syracuse for the next 3 years, till Timoleon came 
to Sicily, to deliver the Greek cities of the island 
from the tyrants. As he was unable to resist Ti- 
moleon, he surrendered the citadel into the hands of 
the latter, on condition of being allowed to depart 
in safety to Corinth, 343. Here he spent the re- 
mainder of his life in a private condition, and is 
said to have frequented low company, and sunk 
gradually into a very degraded and abject state. 
According to some writers, he was reduced to sup- 
port himself by keeping a school ; others say, that 
he became one of the attendants on the rites of 
Cybele, a set of mendicant prieets of the lowest 
class. — 3. Tyrant of Heraclea on the Euxine, son 
of Clearchus, succeeded his brother Tiraotheus 
m the tyranny about b. c, 338. He is said to have 
been the mildest and justest of all the tyrants that 
had ever lived. He married Amastris, niece of 
Darius. In 306 he assunsed the title of king, and 
died shortly afterwards at the age of 55. He is 
said to have been choked by his own fat. 

II. Literary. 1. Surnamed Areopagita, because 
he was one of the council of the Areopagus, was 
converted by St. Paul's preaching at Athens. There 
are extant several works under his name, which 
however could scarcely have been written before 
the 5th century of our era. — 2. Cato. [Cato.]-— 
3. Surnamed Clialcus (d XaAKovs), an Attic poet 
and orator, who derived his surname from his having 
advised the Athenians to coin brass money for the 
purpose of facilitating traffic. Of his oratory we 
know nothing ; but his poems, chiefly elegies, are 
often referred to and quoted. He was one of the 
leaders of the colony to Thurii in Italy, B. c. 444. 
~ 4. Of Halicarnassus, a celebrated rhetorician, 
came to Rome about b. c. 29, for the purpose of 



making himself acquainted with the Latin language 
and literature. He lived at Rome on terms of 
friendship with many distinguished men, such as 
Q. Aelius Tubero, .and the rhetorician Caecilius ; 
and he remained in the city for 22 years, till his 
death, b. c. 7. His principal work, which he 
composed at Rome at the later period of his life, 
was a history of Rome in 22 books, entitled 'Pw- 
p.atKT] 'ApxaioXoy'ia. It contained the history of 
Rome from the mythical times down to b. c. 264, 
in which year the histor}^ of Polybius begins with 
the Punic wars. The first 9 books alone are 
complete ; of the 10th and 11th we have the 
greater part ; 'and of the remaining 9 we possess 
nothing but fragments and extracts. Dionysius 
treated the early history of Rome with great mi- 
nuteness. The 11 books extant do not carry the 
history beyond B.C. 441, so that the 11th book 
breaks off very soon after the decemviral legislation. 
This peculiar minuteness in the early history, how- 
ever, was in a great measure the consequence of 
the object he had proposed to himself, and which, 
as he himself states, was to remove the erroneous 
notions which the Greeks entertained with regard 
to Rome's greatness. Dionysius had no clear 
notions about the early constitution of Rome, and 
was led astray by the nature of the institutions 
which he saw in his own day ; and thus makes 
innumerable mistakes in treating of the history of 
the constitution. He introduces numerous speeches 
in his work, which, though written with artistic 
skill, nevertheless show that Dionysius was a rhe- 
torician, not an historian, and still less a statesman. 
— Dionysius also wrote various rhetorical and cri- 
tical works, which abound with the most exquisite 
remarks and criticisms on the works of the classical 
writers of Greece. They show that he was a 
greater critic than historian. The following are 
the extant works of this class : 1. Tex^r] prjropLKr], 
addressed to one Echecrates, part of which is 
certainly spurious. 2. Hep] crvvQiaews ouo/j-drcoy^ 
treats of oratorical poAver, and on the combination 
of words according to the different styles of oratory. 
3. Tcou apxalcov Kpiais, contains characteristics of 
poets, from Homer down to Euripides, of some 
historians, such as Herodotus, Thucydides, Phi- 
listus, Xenophon, and Theopompus, and lastly, of 
some philosophers and orators. 4. Uspl ru>v ap- 
Xatwj' priTopcov virojj.vr]fj.aTia/j.o], contains criticisms 
on the most eminent Greek orators, of which we now 
possess only the first 3 sections, on Lysias, Isocrates, 
and Isaeus. The other 3 sections treated of De- 
mosthenes, Hj^perides, and Aeschines ; but they 
are lost, with the exception of the 1st part of the 
4th section, which treated of the oratorical power 
of Demosthenes. 5. 'EincrTo\^ -n-phs 'Anixaiov, a 
letter to his friend Ammaeus, in which he shows 
that most of the orations of Demosthenes had been 
delivered before Aristotle Avrote his Rhetoric, and 
consequently that Demosthenes had derived no in- 
struction from Aristotle. 6. 'ETrtcrToA^ irphs Tvaiov 
Tlo/j.-n-fjiop, Avas Avritten by Dionysius with a view 
of justifying the unfavourable opinion which he 
had expressed upon Plato, and which Pompey had 
censured. 7. Uep\ rod &ouKvdidou x^p^^'^'^Vpos koX 
tS.'V XonvS>v rov avyypacpeus i5^coftaTco^',was written 
by Dionysius at the request of his friend Tubero 
for the purpose of explaining more minutely what 
he had written on Thucydides. As Dionysius in 
this work looks at the great historian from his rhe. 
torical point of view, his judgment is often unjust 



226 DI0XY50P0LIS. 
and incorrect 8. Uepi rwf rod QovkvS'lSov iSia.^ 
itaTuv^ addressed to Ammaeus. 9. Advapxos, a 
very valuable treatise on the life and orations of 
Dinarchus. The best editions of the complete 
works of Dionysius are bv Sylburg, Frankf. 1586, 
2 vols. fol. reprinted at Leipzig, 1691 ; by Hudson, 
Oxon. 1 704, 2 vols. fol. ; and by Reiske, Lips. 
1774. —5. Of Heraclea, son of Theophantus, 
•was a pupil of Zeno, and adopted, the tenets of the 
Stoics. But in consequence of a most painful com- 
plaint, he abandoned the Stoic philosophy, and 
joined the Eleatics, whose doctrine, that Tidotnj 
and the absence of pain was the highest good, had 
more charms for him than the austere ethics of the 
Stoa. This renunciation of his former creed drevv- 
upon him the nickname of ixeradeuevos, i. e. the 
renegade. He died in his 80th year of voluntary 
starvation. He ■nTote several works, all of which 
are lost. Cicero censures him for ha\-ing mixed up 
verses with his prose, and for his want of elegance 
and refinement. — 6. Of Magnesia, a distinguished 
rhetorician, taught in Asia between B. c. 79 and 
77, when Cicero visited the E.— 7. Of Miletus, 
one of the earliest Greek historians, and a contem- 
porary of Hecataeus, wrote a history of Persia. — 
8. Of Mytilene, sumamed Scyfobrachion, taught at 
Alexandria in the 1st century B. c. He wrote a prose 
work on the Argonauts, which was consulted by 
Diodorus Siculus.— 9. Sumamed Periegetes, from 
his being the author of a irepiriyn^^s ttjs yJjs, which 
is still extant; probably lived about a. d. 300. The 
work contains a description of the whole earth, in 
hexameter verse, and is -rt-ritten in a terse and elegant 
style. It enjoyed great popularity in ancient times. 
Two translations or paraphrases of it were made by 
Romans, oneby Rufus Festus Avienus [Avienus], 
and the other by the grammarian Priscian. [Pris- 
ciAXUS.] The best edition of the original is by 
Bemhardy, Lips. 1828. — 10. Of Sinope, an 
Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy. — 11. 
Sumamed Thrax, from his father being a Thracian-, 
was himself a native either of Alexandria or By- 
zantium. He is also called a Rhodian, because at 
one time he resided at Rhodes, and gave instruc- 
tions there. He also taught at Rome, about b. c. 
80. He was a very celebrated grammarian ; but 
the only one of his works come down to us is a 
small treatise, entitled re'xvTj ypaufiaTiicf], which 
became the basis of all subsequent grammars, and 
was a standard book in grammar schools for many 
centuries. 

m. Artists. — 1. Of Argos, a statuary, flou- 
rished B.C. 476.-2. Of Colophon, a painter, con- 
temporary with Polygnotus of Thasos, whose works 
he imitated in every other respect except in grandeur. 
Aristotle {Pott. 2) says that Polygnotus painted 
the likenesses of men better than the originals, 
Pauson made them worse, and Dionysius just like 
them (o/ioiuvs). It seems from this that the pic- 
tures of Dionysius were deficient in the ideal. 

Dionysopolis {Aiovvaov 7roA:s), a town in Phrv- 
gia, belonging to the conventus juridicus of Apa- 
mea, founded by Attains and Eumenes, 

DionysTis (Aiowaos or Auowaos), the youthful, 
beautiful, but effeminate god of wine. He is also 
called both by Greeks and Romans Bacchus (Ba/c- 
Xos), that is, the noisy or riotous god, wluch v.-a3 
originally a mere epithet or surname of Dionysus, 
and does not occur till after the time of Herodotus. 
According id the common tradition, Dionysus was 
the son of Zeus and Semele, the daughter of 



DIONYSUS. 

Cadmus of Thebes ; though other traditions give 
him a different parentage and a different birth-place. 
It was generally believed that when Semele was 
pregnant, she was persuaded by Hera, who ap- 
peared to her in disguise, to request the father of 
the gods to appear to her in the same glory and ma- 
jesty in which he was accustomed to approach his 
own wife Hera. Zeus unwillingly complied, and 
appeared to her in thunder and lightning. Semele 
was terrified and overpowered by the sight, and 
being seized by the flames, she gave prematxu-e birth 
to a child. Zeus saved the child from the flames, 
sewed him up in his thigh, and thus preserved 
him till he came to maturity. Variotis epithets 
which are given to the god refer to that oc- 
currence, such as TTupiyei'Tis, fi7]poppa<pr)s, firipo- 
rpacpTjs, and ignigena. After the birth of Diony- 
sus, Zeus entmsted him to Hermes, or, according 
to others, to Persephone or Rhea, who took the 
child to Ino and Athamas at Orchomenos, and per- 
suaded them to bring him up as a girl. Hera was 
now urged on by her jealousy to throw Ino and 
Athamas into a state of madness. Zeus, in order 
to save his child, changed him into a ram, and 
carried him to the nymphs of Mt. Nysa, who 
brought him up in a cave, and were afterwards re- 
warded by Zeus, by being placed as Hyades 
among the stars. Mt. Xysa, from which the god 
was believed to have derived his name, was placed 
in Thrace ; but moimtains of the same name are 
found in different parts of the ancient world where 
he was worshipped, and where he was believed to 
have introduced the cultivation of the vine. Various 
other nymphs are also said to have reared him. 
When he had grown up, Hera drove him mad, in 
which state he wandered about through various 
parts of the earth. He first wei>t to Egypt, 
where he was hospitably received by king Proteus. 
He thence proceeded through Syria, where he 
flayed Damascus alive, for opposing the introduction 
of the vine. He then traversed all Asia, teaching 
the inhabitants of the different countries of Asia 
the cultivation of the vine, and introducing among 
them the elements of civilization. The most fa- 
mous part of his wanderings in Asia is his expedi- 
tion to India, which is said to have lasted several 
years. On his return to Europe, he passed through 
Thrace, but was ill received by Lycurgus, king of 
the Edones, and leaped into the sea to seek refuge 
with Thetis, whom he afterwards rewarded for her 
kind reception with a golden um, a present of He- 
phaestus. AU the host of Bacchantic women and 
Satyrs, who had accompanied him, were taken pri- 
soners by Lycurgus, but the women were soon set 
free again. The country of the Edones thereupon 
ceased to bear fixdt, and Lycurgus became mad 
and killed his own son, whom he mistook for a 
vine. After this his madness ceased, but the 
country stiU remained barren, and Dionysus de- 
clared that it would remain so tiU Lycurgus died. 
The Edones. in despair, took their king and put 
him in chains, and Dionysus had him torn to 
pieces by horses. He then returned to Thebes, 
where he compelled the women to quit their houses, 
and to celebrate Bacchic festivals on Mt. Cithaeron, 
or Parnassus. Pentheus, who then ruled at 
Thebes, endeavoured to check the riotous proceed- 
ings, and went out to the mountains to seek the 
Bacchic women ; but his own mother. Agave, in 
her Bacchic furv, mistook him for an animal, and 
tore him to pieces. Dionysus next went to Ajgos, 



DIONYSUS. 



DIOPHANTUS. 



227 



where the people first refused to acknowledge him, 
but after punishing the women with frenzy, he was 
recognised as a god and temples were erected to him. 
His last feat was performed on a voyage from 
Icaria to Naxos. He hired a ship which belonged 
to Tyrrhenian pirates ; but the men, instead of 
landing at Naxos, steered towards Asia to sell 
him there as a slave. Thereupon the god changed 
the mast and oars into serpents, and himself 
into a lion ; ivy grew around the vessel, and 
the sound of flutes was heard on every side ; 
the sailors were seized with madness, leaped into 
the sea, and were metamorphosed into dolphins. 
After he had thus gradually established his divine 
nature throughout the world, he took his mother 
out of Hades, called her Thyone, and rose with 
her into Olympus. — Various mythological beings 
are described as the offspring of Dionysus ; but 
among the women, both mortal and immortal, who 
won his love, none is more famous in ancient story 
than Ariadne. [Ariadne.] The extraordinary 
mixtiu-e of traditions respecting the historj^ of 
Dionysus seems evidently to have arisen from the 
traditions of different times and countries, referring 
to analogous divinities, and transferred to the Greek 
Dionysus. The worship of Dionysus was no pait 
of the original religion of Greece, and his mystic 
AYorship is comparatively of late origin. In Homer 
he does not appear as one of the great divinities, 
and the story of his birth by Zeus and the Bacchic 
orgies are not alluded to in any way : Dionysus is 
there simply described as the god who teaches man 
the preparation of wine, whence he is called the 
"drunken god" (fiaLvojuieuos), and the sober king 
Lycurgus will not, for this reason, tolerate him 
in his kingdom. (Horn. //. vi. 132, Od. xviii. 
406, comp. xi. 325.) As the cultivation of the 
vine spread in Greece, the worship of Diom'sus 
likeAvise spread further ; the mystic worship Avas 
developed hj the Orphici, though it probably ori- 
ginated in the transfer of Phrygian and Lydian 
modes of worship to that of Dionysus. After the time 
of Alexander's expedition to India, the celebration 
of the Bacchic festivals assumed more and more their 
wild and dissolute character. — As far as the nature 
and origin of the god Dionysus is concerned, he 
appears in all traditions as the representative of the 
productive, overflowing, and intoxicating power of 
nature, which carries man away from his usual 
quiet and sober mode of living. Wine is the most 
natural and appropriate symbol of that power, and 
it is therefore called " the fruit of Dionysus." 
Dionysus is, therefore, the god of wine, the in- 
ventor and teacher of its cultivation, the giver of 
joy, and the disperser of grief and sorrow. As the 
god of wine, he is also both an inspired and an 
inspiring god, that is, a god who has the power of 
revealing the future to man by oracles. Thus, it 
is said, that he had as great a share in the 
Delphic oracle as Apollo, and he himself had an 
oracle in Thrace. Now, as prophetic power is 
always combined with the healing art, Dionysus 
is, like Apollo, called larpSs, or vyiarrjs, and is 
hence invoked as a ^ehs acoTTjp against raging dis- 
eases. The notion of his being the cultivator and 
protector of the vine was easily extended to that 
of his being the protector of trees in general, which 
is alluded to in various epithets and surnames 
given him by the poets of antiquity, and he thus 
comes into close connection with Demeter, This 
character is still further developed in the notion of 



his being the promoter of civilization, a law-giver, 
and a lover of peace. As the Greek drama had 
groAvn out of the dithyrambic choruses at the fes- 
tivals of Dionysus, he was also regarded as the god 
of tragic art, and as the protector of theatres. The 
orgiastic worship of Dionysus seems to have been 
first established in Thrace, and to have thence 
spread southward to Mts. Helicon and Parnassus, 
to Thebes, Naxos, and throughout Greece, Sicily, 
and Italy, though some writers derived it from 
Egypt. Respecting his festivals and the mode of 
their celebration, and especially the introduction 
and suppression of his worship at Rome, see Diet, 
of A?it. art. Dionysia. — In the earliest times the 
Graces or Charites were the companions of Diony- 
sus. This circumstance points out the great change 
which took place in the course of time in the mode 
of his worship, for afterwards we find him accom- 
panied in his expeditions and travels by Bacchantic 
women, called Lenae, Maenades, Thyiades, Mimal- 
lones, Clodones, Bassarae or Bassarides, all of 
whom are represented in works of art as raging 
with madness or enthusiasm, in vehement motions, 
their heads thrown backwards, with dishevelled 
hair, and carrying in their hands thyrsus-staffs 
(entv/ined with ivy, and headed with pine-cones), 
cymbals, swords, or serpents. Sileni, Pans, satyrs, 
centaurs, and other beh)gs of a like kind, are also 
the constant companions of the god. — The temples 
and statues of Dionysus were very numerous in the 
ancient world. The animal most commonly sacri- 
ficed to him was the ram. Among the things sacred 
to him, we may notice the vine, ivy, laurel, and 
asphodel ; the dolphin, serpent, tiger, lynx, panther, 
and ass ; but he hated the sight of an owl. In 
later works of art he appears in 4 different forms : 
1. As an infant handed over by Hermes to his 
nurses, or fondled and played with by satyrs and 
Bacchae. 2. As a manly god with a beard, com- 
monly called the Indian Bacchus. He there ap- 
pears in the character of a wise and dignified 
Oriental monarch ; his beard is long and soft, and 
his Lydian robes {I3a<radpa) are long and richly 
folded. 3. The youthful or so-called Theban Bac- 
chus was carried to ideal beauty by Praxiteles. The 
form of his body is manly and with strong outlines, 
but still approaches to the female form by its soft- 
ness and roundness. The expression of the coun- 
tenance is languid, and shows a kind of dreamy 
longing ; the head, with a diadem, or a wreath of 
vine or ivy, leans somewhat on one side ; his atti- 
tude is easy, like that of a man who is absorbed in 
sweet thoughts, or slightly intoxicated. He is 
often seen leaning on his companions, or riding on 
a panther, ass, tiger, or lion. The finest statue of 
this kind is in the villa Ludovisi. 4. Bacchus with 
horns, either those of a ram or of a bull. This re- 
presentation occurs chiefly on coins, but never in 
statues. 

Biophanes (Aiocpdvrjs). 1. Of Mytilene, a dis- 
tinguished Greek rhetorician, came to Rome, where 
he instructed Tib. Gracchus, and became his inti- 
mate friend. After the murder of Gracchus, Dio- 
phanes was also put to death. — 2. Of Nicaea, in 
Bithynia, in the 1st century b. c, abridged the 
agricultural work of Cassius Dionysius for the use 
of king Deiotarus. 

Diophantus (Aiocpapros). 1. An Attic orator 
and contemporary of Demosthenes, with whom he 
opposed the Macedonian party. — 2. Of Alexan- 
dria, the only Greek writer on Algebra. His period 
Q 2 



DIOPITHES. 



DIOSCURI. 



is unknown ; but he probably ought not to be placed 
before the end of the 5th century of our era. He 
wrote Arithmeiica, in 13 books, of which only 6 
are extant, and I book, De Multancjulis Numeris, 
on polygonal numbers. These books contain a 
system of reasoning on numbers by the aid of ge- 
neral symbols, and with some use of symbols of 
operation ; so that, though the demonstrations are 
■very much conducted in words at length, and 
arranged so as to remind us of Euclid, there is no 
question that the work is algebraical : not a trea- 
tise on algebra, but an algebraical treatise on the 
relations of integer numbers, and on the solution 
of equations of more than one variable in integers. 
Editions by Bachet de Meziriac, Paris, 1621, fol., 
and by Format, Toulouse, 1670, fol, 

Diopithes (AioTrei'erjs). 1. A half-fanatic, half- 
impostor, who made at Athens an apparently 
thriving trade of oracles : he was much satirised 
by the comic poets. — 2. An Athenian general, 
father of the poet Menander, was sent out to the 
Thracian Chersonesus about B. c. 344, at the head 
of a body of Athenian settlers or KXrjpovxoi. In 
the Chersonese he became involved in disputes 
with the Cardians, who were supported by Philip. 
The latter sent a letter of remonstrance to Athens, 
and Diopithes was arraigned by the Macedonian 
party, but was defended by Demosthenes in the 
oration, still extant, on the Chersonese, B.C. 341, 
in consequence of which he Avas pei'mitted to retain 
his command, 

Dioscoridis Insula (AioaKopi^ov vncros : Soco- 
tra)^ an island off the S. coast of Arabia, near the 
promontory Syagrus. The island itself was marshy 
and unproductive, but it was a great commercial 
emporium ; and the N. part of the island was in- 
habited by Arabian, Egyptian, and Greek mer- 
chants. 

Dioscorides (Aiocr/coptSTjs). 1. A disciple of 
Isocrates, and a Greek grammarian, wrote upon 
Homer. — 2. The author of 39 epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology, seems to have lived in Egypt 
about the time of Ptolemy Euergetes. — 3. Peda- 
cius or Pedanius, of Anazarba in Cilicia, a Greek 
physician, probably lived in the 2nd centurj"- of 
the Christian era. He has left behind him a 
Treatise on Materia Medica (Flepl "TAtjs '\arpi- 
K-ns), in 5 books, a work of great labour and re- 
search, and which for many ages was received as a 
standard production. It consists of a description 
of all the articles then used in medicine, with an 
account of their supposed virtues. The other works 
extant under the name of Dioscorides are probably 
spurious. The best edition is hj Sprengel, Lips. 
1829, 1830, 2 vols. 8vo.— 4. Sumamed Phacas 
on account of the moles or freckles on his face, 
probably lived in the 1st century B.C. 

Diosciiri (AiocrKovpoi)^ that is, sons of Zeus, the 
"well-known heroes. Castor (Kdarup) and Pollux or 
Polydeuces ( UoXvSevKTjs). The two brothers were 
sometimes called Castores by the Romans. — Ac- 
cording to Homer they were the sons of Leda and 
T}Tidareu?, king of Lacedaemon, and consequently 
brothers of Helen. Hence they are often called by 
the pationymic Tyndaridae. Castor was famous 
for his skill in taming and managing horses, and 
Pollux for his skill in boxing. Both had disap- 
peared from the earth before the Greeks went 
against Troy. Although they were buried, says 
Homer, yet they came to life ever}- other day, and 
they enjoyed honours like those"^ of the gods. — 



According to other traditions both were the sons 
of Zeus and Leda, and were born at the same time 
with their sister Helen out of an egg. [Leda.] 
According to others again, Pollux and Helen only 
were children of Zeus, and Castor was the son of 
Tyndareus. Hence, Pollux v/as immortal, while 
Castor was subject to old age and death like every 
other mortal. They were born, according to dif- 
ferent traditions, at different places, such as Amy- 
clae, mount Taygetus, the island of Pephnos or 
Thalamae. — The fabulous life of the Dioscuri is 
marked by 3 great events. 1. Their expedition 
against Athens. Theseus had carried off their sister 
Helen from Sparta, and kept her in confinement at 
Aphidnae, under the superintendence of his mother 
Aethra. While Theseus was absent from Attica, 
the Dioscuri marched into Attica, and ravaged the 
country round the city, Academus revealed to 
them that Helen was kept at Aphidnae ; the 
Dioscuri took the place by assault, carried away 
their sister Helen, and made Aethra their prisoner. 

2. Their part in the expedition of the Argo7iauts, as 
they had before taken part in the Calydonian hunt. 
During the voyage of the Argonauts, it once hap- 
pened that when the heroes were detained by a 
vehement storm, and Orpheus pra5'ed to the Samo- 
thracian gods, the storm suddenly subsided, and 
stars appeared on the heads of the Dioscuri, On 
their arrival in the countn,' of the Bebrj'ces, Pollux 
fought against Amycus, the gigantic son of Posei- 
don, and conquered him. During the Araronautic 
expedition they founded the to-wn of Dioscurias. 

3. Their battle icith the sons of Aphareus. Once the 
Dioscuri, in conjunction with Idas and Lynceus, 
the sons of Aphareus, had carried away a herd of 
oxen from Arcadia. Idas appropriated the herd 
to himself, and drove it to his home in Messene. 
The Dioscuri then invaded Messene, drove away 
the cattle of which they had been deprived, and 
much more in addition. Hence arose a war be- 
tween the Dioscuri and the sons of Apliareus, 
which was carried on in Messene or Laconia. 
Castor, the mortal, fell by the hands of Idas, but 
Pollux slew Lynceus, and Zeus killed Idas by a 
flash of lightning. Pollux then returned to hia 
brother, whom he found breathing his last, and he 
prayed to Zeus to be permitted to die with him. 
Zeus gave him the option, either to live as his 
immortal son in Olympus, or to share his brother's 
fate, and to live alternately one day under the 
earth, and the other in the heavenly abodes of the 
gods. According to a different form of the storj', 
Zeus rewarded the attachment of the two brothers 
by placing them among the stars as Gemini. — 
These heroic youths received divine honours at 
Sparta. Their worship spread from Peloponnesus 
over Greece, Sicily, and Italy. Their principal 
characteristic was that of i^eoi crwTTjpes, that is„ 
might}' helpers of man, whence they were some- 
times called avaKcs or avuKres. They were wor- 
shipped more especial!)' as the protectors of travel- 
lers by sea, for Poseidon had rewarded their 
brotherly love by giving them power over winds 
and waves, that they might assist the ship- 
wrecked. {Fratres Helenae^ lucida sidera, Hor. 
Carm. i. 3.) Whenever they appeared they were 
seen riding on magnificent white steeds. They 
were regarded as presidents of the public games. 
They were further believed to have invented the 
war-dance and warlike music, and poets and bards 
were favoured by them. Owing to iheir warlike 



DIOSCURIAS. 



DODONA. 



229 



character, it was customary at Sparta for the 2 
kings, whenever they went to Vv-ar, to be accom- 
panied by symbolic representations of the Dioscuri 
(SoKava). Respecting their festivals, see Diet, of 
Ant., arts. Anaceia, Dioscuria. Their usual repre- 
sentation in works of art is that of 2 youthful 
horsemen with egg-shaped helmets, crowned with 
stars, and with spears in their hands. — At Rome, 
the worship of the Dioscuri was introduced at an 
early time. They were believed to have assisted 
the Romans against the Latins in the battle of 
Lake Regillus ; and the dictator, A. Postumius 
Albinus, during the battle vowed a temple to them. 
It was erected in the Forum, on the spot where 
they had been seen after the battle, opposite the 
temple of Vesta. It was consecrated on the 15th 
of July, the anniversary of the battle of Regillus. 
The equites regarded tlie Dioscuri as their patrons. 
From the year b. c. 305, the equites went every 
year, on the 15th of July, in a magnificent pro- 
cession on horseback, from the temple of Mars 
through the main streets of the city, across the 
Forum, and by the ancient temple of the Dioscuri. 

Bioscurias (Aioa-icovpids : AtoaKovpievs : Isku- 
ria or Isgaur), an important town in Colchis on 
the river Anthemus, N. W. of the Phasis, founded 
by the Milesians, was a great emporium for all the 
surrounding people: under the Romans it was called 
Selmstopolis. 

Dios-Hieron (Atb? 'Upbv : Aiocn^pLTrjs), a 
small town on the coast of Ionia, between Lebedus 
and Colophon. 

Biospolis (AiOCTTToAis : Ajoo-TroAtTrjs). 1. D. 
Magna, the later name of Thebes in Egypt, 
[Thebae.]— 2. D. Parva, called by Pliny Jovis 
Oppidura, the capital of the Nomos Diospolites in 
Upper Egypt. — 3. A town in Lower Egypt in the 
Delta near Mendes, in the midst of marshes.— 

4. (Ludd, Lydd), the name given by the Greek and 
Roman writers to the Lydda of the Scriptures. — 

5. A town in Pontus, originally called Cabira. 
Diovis, an ancient Italian (Umbrian) name of 

Jupiter. 

Diphilus (Ai(piXos), one of the principal Athe- 
nian comic poets of the new comedy and a con- 
temporary of Menander and Philemon, was a native 
of Sinope. He is said to have exhibited 100 plays. 
Though, in point of ' time, Diphilus belonged to the 
new comedy, his poetry seems to have had more 
of the character of the middle. This is shown, 
among other indications, by the frequency with 
which he chose mythological subjects for his plays, 
and by his bringing on the stage the poets Archi- 
lochus, Hipponax, and Sappho. The Roman comic 
poets l3orrowed largely from Diphilus. The Casma 
of Plautus is a translation of his KKrjpovfieuoi. 
His '2,vvaTro6vri(TKovTe9 was translated by Plautus 
in the lost play of the Commorientes., and was 
partly followed by Terence in his Adelphi. The 
Rudens of Plautus is also a translation of a play of 
Diphilus, but the title of the Greek play is not 
known. 

Dipoenus and Scyllis {Aittoivos koX Sku'a- 
Aij), very ancient Greek statuaries, who are always 
mentioned together, flourished about B. c. 560. 
They were natives of Crete, whence they went to 
Sicyon, which was for a long time the chief seat 
of Grecian art. Their disciples were Tectaeus 
and Angelion, Learchus of Rhegium, Doryclidas 
and his brother Medon, Dontas, and Theocles, 
who were all 4 Lacedaemonians. Dipoenus and 



Scyllis are sometimes called sons of Daedalus, by 
which we are only to understand that they be- 
longed to the Daedalian style of art. [Daedalus.] 

Dirae, a na;me of the Furiae. [Eumenides.] 

Dirce (Ai'p/cTj), daughter of Helios and wife of 
L3'cus. Her story is related under Amphion. 

Dirphys (At, ^us\ a mountain in Euboea. 

Dis, contracted from Dives, a name sometimes 
given to Pluto, nnd hence also to the lower world, 

Bium (Atoi': Ateuy, Aiaarris). 1. An impor- 
tant town in Macedonia on the Thermaic gulf, so 
called after a temple of Zeus, Here Avere placed 
the equestrian statues by Lysippus of the Macedo- 
nians who had fallen at the battle of the Granicus. 
— 2, A town in Chalcidice in Macedonia, on the 
Strymonic gulf. — 3, A town in Euboea, not far 
from the promontory Cenaeum. 

Bivico, the leader of the Helvetians in the war 
against L, Cassius in b, c, 107, was at the head of 
the embassy sent to Julius Caesar, nearly 50 years 
later, b, c. 58, when he was preparing to attack 
the Helvetians. 

Bivitiacus, an Aeduan noble and brother of 
Dumnorix, was a warm adherent of the Romans 
and of Caesar, who, in consideration of his en- 
treaties, pardoned the treason of Dumnorix in 
b. c. 58. In the same year he took the most pro- 
minent part among the Gallic chiefs in requesting 
Caesar's aid against Ariovistus ; he had some time 
before gone even to Rome to ask the senate for 
their interference, but without success. During 
this visit he was the guest of Cicero, 

Bivodiirum (Metz), subsequently Mediomatrici, 
and still later Metis or Mettis, the capital of the 
Mediomatrici in Gallia Belgica. 

Bivona. [Cauurci.] 

Biyllus (AtuAAos), an Athenian, who wrote a 
history of Greece and Sicily in 26 or 27 books, 
from the seizure of the Delphic temple by Philo- 
melus. The exact period at which he flourished 
cannot be ascertained, but he belongs to the age of 
the Ptolemies. 

Boberus (AoSrjpos), a town in Paeonia in Ma- 
cedonia, E. of the river Echedorus. 

Bocinua or Bocimeum (AoKi/xia, Amci/xeLov : 
Ao/<:i/,teus, AoKi^r]v6s), a town in Phrygia, not far 
from Synnada : in its neighbourhood were cele- 
brated marble quarries. 

Bodona (AwSaSi/Tj), the most ancient oracle in 
Greece, was situated in Epirus, and probably at 
the S. E. extremity of the lake of Joannina near 
Kastritza. It was founded by the Pelasgians, and 
was dedicated to Zeus. The responses of the ora- 
cle were given from lofty oaks or beech trees, pro- 
bably from a grove consisting of these trees. The 
will of the god was declared by the wind rustling 
through the trees ; and in order to render the 
sounds more distinct,brazen vessels were suspended 
on the branches of the trees, Avhich being set in 
motion by the wind came in contact with one an- 
other. These sounds were in early times interpreted 
by men, but afterwards, when the worship of Dione 
became connected with that of Zeus, by 2 or 3 
aged women, who were called TreAetaoes or ireXaiai, 
because pigeons were said to have brought the 
command to found the oracle. There were, how- 
ever, also priests, called Selli or Helli, who had the 
management of the temple. The oracle of Dodona 
had less influence in historical times than in the 
heroic age. It was chiefly consulted by the neigh- 
bouring tribes, the Aetolians, Acamanians, and 

Q 3 



230 



DOLABELLA. 



DOMITIANUS. 



Epirots, and by those who would not go to Delphi 
on account of* its partiality for the Dorians. In 

B. c. 219, the temple was destroyed by the Aeto- 
lians, and the sacred oaks cut down. But the town 
continued to exist, and we hear of a bishop of Do- 
dona in the council of Ephesus. 

Dolabella, Cornelius. 1. P., consul b. c. 28.3, 
conquered the Senones.— 2. Cn., curule aedile IGo, 
in which year he and his colleague, Sex. Julius 
Caesar, had the Hecyra of Terence performed at 
the festival of the Megalesia. In 159 he was con- 
sul.— 3. Cn., a partizan of Sulla, by whom he 
was made consul, 81. He afterwards received 
^Macedonia for his province. In 77 he was ac- 
cused by the young Julius Caesar of having been 
guilty of extortion in his province, but he was 
acquitted.— 4. Cn., praetor urbanus 81, when the 
cause of P. Quintius was tried : Cicero charges 
him with having acted on that occasion unjustly. 
The year after he had Cilicia for his province ; 

C. Malleolus was his quaestor, and the notorious 
Verres his legate. Dolabella not only tolerated the 
extortions and robberies committed by them, but 
shared in their booty. On his return to Rome, 
Dolabella was accused by M. Aemilius Scaurus of 
extortion in his province, and on that occasion 
Verres deserted his accomplice and furnished the 
accuser with all the necessary information. Dola- 
bella was condemned, and went into exile.— 
5. P., the son-in-law of Cicero, whose daughter 
Tullia he married after divorcing his Avife Fabia, 
51. He was one of the most profligate men of his 
age, and his conduct caused Cicero great uneasi- 
ness. On the breaking out of the civil war he 
joined Caesar and fought on his side at the battle 
of Pharsalia (48), in Africa (46), and in Spain 
(45). Caesar raised him to the consulship in 44, 
notwithstanding the opposition of Antony. After 
the murder of Caesar, he forthwith joined the 
assassins of his benefactor ; but when Antony gave 
him the province of Syria, with the command 
against the Parthians, all his republican enthu- 
siasm disappeared at once. On his way to his 
province he plundered the cities of Greece and 
Asia Minor, and at Smyrna he murdered Trebonius, 
who had been appointed by the senate proconsul 
of Asia. When his proceedings became known at 
Rome, he was declared a public enemy ; and Cas- 
sius, who had received Syria from the senate, 
marched against him. Dolabella threw himself 
into Laodicea, which was besieged by Cassius, 
who at length succeeded in taking it. Dolabella, 
in order not to fall into the hands of his enemies, 
ordered one of his soldiers to kill him, 43. 

Dbliche (AoXixv)- 1- The ancient name of the 
island Icarus. — 2. A town in Thessaly on the W. 
slope of Olympus. — 3. A town in Commagene, 
between Zeugma and Germanicia, also called Doli- 
chene, celebrated for the worship of Jupiter. — 4. 
Or Dulichium. [Echinades.] 

rolichiste {AoKr/icrrr] ; Kakava), an island off 
the coast of Lycia, opposite the promontory Chi- 
maera. 

Doliones (AoMoves), a Pelasgic people in My- 
fiia, who dwelt between the rivers Aesepus and 
Rh}-ndaciis, and in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus, 
which was called after them Dolionis. 

Dolon (AoAwj/), a Trojan, sent by night to spy 
the Grecian camp, was taken prisoner by Ulysse's 
and Diomedes, compelled to give intelligence re- 
specting the Trojans, and then slain by Diomedes. 



The lOih book of the Iliad was therefore called 
Ao\ci}ueia or Ao?y(t}vo(povia. 

Dolonci (A6\oyKoi), a Thracian people in the 
Thracian Chersonesus. 

Dolopes (AoAoTres), a powerful people in Thes- 
saly, dwelt on the Enipeus, and fought before Troy. 
(Horn. //. ix. 484.) At a later time they dwelt at 
the foot of Mt. Pindus ; and their country, called 
Dolopia (AoAoTT^a), was reckoned part of Epirus. 

Domitia. 1. Sister of Cn. Domitius Ahenobar- 
bus [Ahexobarbus, No. 10], and consequently 
an aunt of the emperor Nero. She was the wife 
of Crispus Passienus. and was murdered in her old 
age by Nero, who wished to get possession of her 
property. — 2. Lepida, sister of the preceding, 
wife of M. ^'alerius iMessala Barbatus, and mother 
of Messalina, was put to death by Claudius at the 
instigation of Agrippina.— 3. Longina, daughter 
of Domitius Corbulo, was first married to L. Lamia 
Aemilianus, and afterwards to the emperor Domi- 
tian. In consequence of her adulterous intercourse 
with Paris, an actor, Domitian repudiated her, but 
was afterwards reconciled to her. She was j)viyj 
to Domitian's murder. 

Donutia Gens, plebeian, was divided into the 
2 illustrious families of Ahenobarbus and Cal- 
vin cs. 

Domitianus, or with his full name T. Flavins 
Domitianns Augustus, Roman emperor a. d. 81 
— 96, was the younger son of Vespasian, and was 
bom at Rome, A. D. 51. When Vespasian was 
proclaimed emperor by the legions in the E. (69), 
Domitian, who was then at Rome, narrowly escaped 
being murdered by Vitellius, and concealed himself 
until the victor}' of his fathers party was decided. 
After the fall of Vitellius, Domitian was proclaimed 
Caesar, and obtained the government of the city 
till the return of bis father. In this short time 
he gave full proofs of his sanguinary and licentious 
temper. Vespasian entrusted Domitian with no 
public affairs, and during the 10 years of his reign 
(69 — 79), Domitian lived as a private person on 
an estate near the Alban Mount, surrounded by a 
number of courtezans, and devotuig a great part of 
his time to the composition of poetry and the reci- 
tation of his productions. During the reign of his 
brother Titus (79-81), he was also not allowed to 
take any part in public affairs. On the death of Titus 
(81 ), which was in all probability the work of Do- 
mitian, he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers. 
During the first few years of his reign he kept a 
strict superintendence over the governors of pro- 
vinces, enacted several useful laws, endeavoured to 
correct the licentious conduct of the higher classes ; 
and though he indulged himself in strange passions, 
his government was much better tlian had been 
expected. But his conduct was soon changed for 
the v.-orse. His wars were mostly unforttmate ; 
and his want of success both wounded his vanity 
and excited his fears, and thus led him to delight 
in the misfortunes and sufferings of others. In 83 
he undertook an expedition against the Chatti, 
which was attended with no result, though on his 
return to Rome in the following year, he celebrated a 
triumph, and assumed the name of Germanicus. In 

85 Agricola, whose success and merits excited his 
jealousy, was recalled to Rome. [Agricola.] From 

86 to 90 he had to carry on war with Decebalus and 
the Dacians, who defeated the Roman armies, and 
at length compelled Domitian to purchase peace on 
very humiliating terms. [Decebalus.] It was 



DOMITIUS 



DORIS. 



231 



after the Dacian war especially, that he gave full 
sway to his cruelty and tyranny. No man of dis- 
tinction was safe, unless he would degrade him- 
self to flatter the tyrant. The silent fear Avhich 
prevailed in Rome and Italy during the latter 
years of Domitian's reign are briefly but energeti- 
cally described by Tacitus in the introduction to 
his Life of Agricola, and his vices and tjTanny are 
exposed in the strongest colours b}' the withering 
satire of Juvenal. All the philosophers who lived 
at Rome were expelled. Christian writers attri- 
bute to him a persecution of the Christians like- 
wise, but there is some doubt upon the matter; 
and the belief seems to have arisen from the strict- 
ness with which he exacted the tribute from the 
JeAvs, and which may have caused much suffering 
to the Christians also. Many conspiracies had been 
formed against his life, and at length 3 officers of 
his court, assisted by Domitia, the emperor's wife, 
had him murdered by Stephanus, a fieedman, on 
the 18th of September, 96. 

Domitilla, Flavia, the first wife of Vespasian, 
and mother of Titus, Domitian, and Domitilla. 

Domitius Afer. [Afer.] 

Domitius Corbulo. [Corbulo.] 

Domitius Marsus. [Marsus.] 

Domitius Ulpianus. [Ulpianfs.] 

Domna, Julia, of Emesa, was born of humble 
parents, and married the emperor Septimius Seve- 
rus, when he was in a private station. She was 
beautiful and profligate, but at the same time 
gifted with strong powers of mind, and fond of 
literature and of the society of literary men. She 
had great influence over her husband, and after 
his death was entrusted by her son Caracalla with 
the administration of the most important affairs of 
state. After the murder of Caracalla, she was at 
first kindly treated by Macrinus ; but having in- 
curred the suspicions of Macrinus, and being com- 
manded to quit Antioch, she put an end to lier 
own life by voluntary starvation, a. d. 217. 

Donatus. 1. A celebrated grammarian, who 
taught at Rome in the middle of the 4th century, 
and was the preceptor of Saint Jerome. His most 
famous work is a system of Latin Grammar, Avhich 
has formed the groundwork of most elementary 
treatises upon the same subject, from his own time 
to the present da}-. It has been usually published 
in the form of 2 separate tracts : 1. Ars s. Editio 
Prima, de Uteris, syllahis,pedihus,et tonis ; 2. Editio 
Secunda, de octo jxiHibus orationis; to which are 
commonly annexed De harharismo, De soloecismo, 
De ceteris vitiis ; De metaplasmo ; De schemaiibus ; 
De tropis ; but in the recent edition of Lindemann 
(in Corpus Gramm. Latin. Lips. 1831) these are 
all combined imder one general title, Doiiati Ars 
Crrammatica tribus libris comprehensa. We also 
possess introductions {enarrationes) and scholia, hj 
Donatus, to 5 out of the 6 plays of Terence, those to 
the Heautontimorumenos having been losr. They are 
attached to all complete editions of Terence. — 2. 
Tiberius Claudius, the author of a life of Virgil 
in 25 chapters, prefixed to many editions of Virgil. 
Nothing is known with regard to this Donatus ; 
but it has been conjectured that some grammarian, 
who flourished about the commencement of the 
Sth century, may have drawn up a biography 
which formed the groundwork of the piece we now 
possess. 

Donusa or Donusia {^^ovovaia : Aovovaios : 
Stenosa), one of the smaller Sporades in the Aegean 



sea, S. of Naxos, subject to the Rhodians in early 
times. It produced green marble, whence Virgil 
(Aeji. iii. 125) calls the island viridis. Under the Ro- 
man emperors it was used as a place of banishment. 

Dora, Dorus, Dorum (ra Awpa, Acopos : Aw- 
pirrjs), called Dor in the 0. T., the most southerly 
town of Phoenicia on the coast, on a kind of pe- 
ninsula at the foot of Mt. Carmel. It was an 
ancient town, formerly the residence of a Canaan- 
itish king, and afterwards belonged to the tribe 
of jManasseh. Under the Seleucidae it was a 
strong fortress, and was included in Coele-Syria. 
It subsequently fell into decay, but was restored 
and again made a fortified place by the Roman 
general Gabinius. 

Dorieus (Awpiews). 1. Eldest son of Anaxan- 
drides, king of Sparta, by his first wife, was how- 
ever bom after the son of the second marriage, 
Cleomenes, and therefore excluded from the imme- 
diate succession. [Anaxaxprides.] On the 
accession of Cleomenes to the throne, Dorieus left 
Sparta to establish for himself a kingdom else- 
where. He led his colony first to Libya ; but 
driven away thence, he passed over to Eryx in 
Sicily, where he fell in a battle with the Eges- 
taeans and Carthaginians, about B. c. 508. •— 
2. Son of Diagoras of Rhodes [Diagoras], was 
celebrated for his victories in all the great Grecian 
games. He settled in Thurii, and from this place, 
after the defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse, he led 
30 galleys to the aid of the Spartan cause in Greece, 
B. c. 412. He continued to take an active part in 
the war till 407, when he was captured by the 
Athenians ; but the people, in admiration of his 
athletic size and noble beauty, dismissed him with- 
out so much as exacting a ransom. He is said at 
a later tune to have been put to death by the 
Spartans. 

Doris (Acopis). 1. Daughter of Oceanus and 
Thetis, wife of her brother Nereus, and mother of 
the Nereides. The Latin poets sometimes use the 
name of this divinit)'- for the sea itself. (Virg. 
Eclog. X. 5.) — 2. One of the Nereides, daughter 
of the preceding. 

Doris (AapLs). 1. A small and mountainous 
country in Greece, formerly called Dryopis {Apvo- 
TTts), was bomided by Thessaly on the N., by 
Aetolia on the "W., by Locris on the S., and by 
Phocis on the E. It contained 4 towns, Boum, 
Citinium, Erineus, and Pindus, which formed the 
Dorian tetrapolis. These towns never attained 
any consequence, and in the time of the Romans 
were in ruins ; but the countrv' is of importance as 
the home of the Dorians (AojpieTs: Dores), one of 
the great Hellenic races, who claimed descent from 
the mythical Dorus. [DoRus.] The Dorians, how- 
ever, had not always dwelt in this land. Herodotus 
relates (i. 56), that they first inhabited Phthiotis 
in the time of Deucalion ; that next, under Dorus, 
thoy inhabited Histiaeotis at the foot of Ossa and 
OljTnpus ; that, expelled from thence b}- the Cad- 
means, they settled on Mt. Pindus ; and that they 
subsequently took up their abode in Drj'opis, after- 
wards called Doris, Their 5th and last migration 
was to Peloponnesus, which they conquered, ac- 
cording to tradition, 80 years after the Trojan war. 
It was related that Aegimius, the king of the 
Dorians, had been driven from his dominions by 
the Lapithae, but was reinstated by Hercules ; that 
the children of Hercules hence took refuge in this 
land when they had been excelled from Pelopon- 

G 4 



•232 DORISCUS. 
nesus ; aiid that it was to restore them to their 
rights that the Dorians invaded Peloponnesus. Ac- 
wrdingly, the conquest of Peloponnesus by the 
Dorians' is usually called the Return of the Ilera- 
clidae. See Hkraclidak. — The Dorians were 
divided into 3 tribes : the HuUcis {'TWeh), Pain- 
}^ht/!i {Uda<pv\oi'), and Di/ma>ics (Ai'/idres), The 
liret derived their name from Hyllus, son of Her- 
cules, the two last from Pamphylus and Dymas, 
sons of Aeginiius. The Dorians were the ruling 
class througlunit Peloponnesus ; the old inhabitants 
were reduced to slavery, or became subjects of the 
Dorians under the name of Piriotci (UfploiKoi). 
{Diet, of Antiq. art. Ferkwi.) — 2. A district in 
Asia INIinor consisting of the Dorian settlements 
on the coast of Caria and the neighbouring islands. 
() of these towns fonned a league, called the Tio- 
rian hexapolis, consisting of Lindas, lalysus, and 
Camirus in the island of Rhodes, the island Cos, 
and Cnidus and Halicarnassiis on the mainland. 
There were also other Dori:m settlements in the 
neighbourhood, but they were never admitted to 
the league. The members of the hexapolis were 
accustomed to celebrate a festival with games on 
the Triopian promontory near Cnidus, in honour of 
the Triopian Apollo ; the prizes in those games 
were brazen tripods, which the victors had to de- 
dicate in the temple of Apollo ; and Halicarnassus 
was struck out of the league, because one of her 
citizens carried the tripod to his own house instead 
of leaving it in the temple. The hexapolis thus 
became a pentapolis. 

Doriscus {Aop'LaKos\ a town in Thrace at the 
mouth of the Hebrus, in the midst of an extensive 
plain of the same name, where Xerxes reviewed 
his vast forces. 

Dorso. C. Fabius. greatly distinguished himself 
when the Capitol was besieged by the Gauls, B. c. 
390. The Fabian gens was accustomed to cele- 
brate a sacririce at a fixed time on the Quirinal 
hill, and accordingly, at the appointed time, C. 
Dorso, who was then a young man, descended 
from the Capitol, carrying the sacred things in his 
hands, passed in safety through the enemy's posts, 
and, after performing the sacrifice, returned in 
safety to the Capitol. 

Borus {^Aupos). the mythical ancestor of the 
Doriivns, is described either as a son of Hellen, 
the nymph Orse'is, and a brother of Xuthus and 
Aeolus, or as a son of Apollo and Phthia, and a 
brother of Laodocus and Polypoetes. 

Dorylaeum {AopvXaiov -. AopvXaevs : £gki- 
Shdir), a town in Phrygia Epictetus, on the river 
Thymbris, w ith warm baths which are used at the 
present day ; important under the Romans as the 
place from which the roads diverged to Pessinus, 
Iconium. and Apamea, 

Dosiadas (AwaidSas), of Rhodes, the author of 
2 poems in the Greek Anthology, the verses of 
which are so arranged that each poem presents the 
profile of an altar. 

Dositbeus {Aucrldeos), surnamed ^[agister, a 
Greek grammarian, taxight at Rome about a. d. 
207. He has left behind him a work entitled 
'Ep,u7ji'6u',aaTa, of which the 1st and Cnd books 
contain a Greek grammar written in Latin, and 
Greek- Latin and Latin-Greek glossaries. The 
third book, which is the most important, contains 
translations from Latin authors into Greek, and 
vice versa, and has been published separately bv j 
Rocking, Bonn, 183i ' ' \ 



DREPANUM. 

Dossennus Fabias, or Dorsennus, an ancient 
Latin comic dramatist, censured by Horace {Ep. ii. 
1. 173) on account of the exaggerated buftbonery 
of his characters. It appears that the name Dos- 
sennus (like that of Maccltus) was appropriated to 
one of the standard characters in the Atcllane 
farces. Hence some have supposed that DossenniLS 
in Horace is not the name ot a real person. 

Dotluni (Au'Tio^ ; AtcTjei's), a town and plain 
in Thessaly S. of i\It. Ossa, on the lake Robeis. 

Drabescus {ApdSijcrKos, also ApdSicrKos), a town 
in tlie district Edonis in Macedonia, on the Strymon. 

Dracanon {AodKovor), a town and promontory 
in the island Icaria. 

Di*acon {Apdnui'), the author of the first written 
code of laws at Athens, which were called ^ea/noL, 
as distinguished from the vo/xoi of Solon. In this 
code he affixed the penalty of death to almost all 
crimes — to petty thefts, for instance, as well as to 
sacrilege and murder — which gave occasion to the 
remark that his laws were written not in ink, but 
in blood, AVe are told that he himself defended 
this extreme harshness by saying that small ofiencea 
deserved death, and that he knew no severer pu- 
nishment for great ones. His legislation is placed 
in B.C. 621. After the legislation of Solon (o.'^4\ 
most of the laws of Dracon fell into disuse ; but 
some of them were still in force at the end of the 
Peloponnesian war. as for instance the law which 
permitted the injured husband to slay the adulterer, 
if taken in the act. We are told that Dracon died 
at Aegina, being smothered by the number of hats 
and cloaks showered upon him as a popular mark 
of honour in the theatre. 

Drangiana {Apa-)yiavr} : Seiljesidn), apart of 
Ariana, was bounded by Gedrosia. Carmania, Ara- 
chosia, and Aria. It sometimes formed a separate 
satrapy, but was more usually united to the sa- 
trapies either of Arachosia or of Gedrosia, or of 
Aria. The chief prodv.ct of the country was tin : 
the chief river was the Erymanthus or Erymandrus 
{Hilmcmi or Hindmcnd^. In the N. of the country 
dwelt the Drangae i^Apd'yyai'), a warlike people, 
from whom the province derived its name : their 
capital was Prophthasia. The Zarangae, Sarangae, 
or Darandae, who are also mentioned as inhabitants 
of the country, are probably only other fonns of 
the name Drangae. The Ariaspae inhabited the 
S. part of the province. [Ariaspae.] 

Draudaciim {Dardasso), a fortress of the Pe- 
nestae in Greek Illyria. 

Dravus {Drave), a tributary of the Danube, rises 
in the Noric Alps near Agnntum, fiows throiiijh 
Xoricnm and Pannonia; and, after receivhifr the 
^lurius (^Muhr^, falls into the Danube E. of !Mursa 
{Esscck). 

Drecanum (ApeKavov), a promontory on the 
W. side of the island Cos. 

Drepanius, Latinus Pacatus, a friend of Au- 
sonius. and a correspondent of Symmachus, deli- 
vered a panegyric on the emperor Theodosius, 
A. D. 391, after the victory of the latter over Maxi- 
mus. This panegyric, which is extant, is the 11th 
in the collection of the Pantyi/rici Vcteres. 

Drepaniun {^Apeiravov : Apeiravtvs), that is. a 
sickle, 1. Also Drepana (t^ Apiirava), more 
rarely Drepane ( Trapatii), a seaport town in the 
N. W. corner of Sicily, so called because the land 
on which it was built was in the fonn of a sickle, 
j It ^^•as fomided by the Carthaginian Hamilcar, at 
! the commencement of the 1st Punic War, and was 



DREPSA. 



DRUSUS. 



233 



one of the chief naval stations of the Carthaginians. 
Under the Romans it was an important commercial 
town. It was here that Anchises died, according 
to Virgil. — 2. A promontory in Achaia. [Rhium.] 
— 3. The ancient name of Corcyra.— 4. Also 
Drepane, a town in Bithj-nia, on the Sinus Asta- 
cenus, the birth-place of Helena, mother of Con- 
stantine the Great, in whose honour it was called 
Helenopolis, and made an important place. In 
its neighbourhood were warm medicinal baths, 
which Constantine the Great frequently used in 
the latter part of his life. 

Drepsa (Ape\pa, also "'ASpaipa, Aapai^a, Apa\|/a- 
Ka : Anderab or Inderab)^ a town in the N.E. of 
Bactriana, on the frontiers of Sogdiana. 

Drilae (ApiAat), a brave people in Pontus, on 
the frontiers of Colchis, near Trapezus. 

Brilo, a river in Illyricum, flows into the 
Adriatic near Lissus. 

Dromichaetes (ApoyuixaiTTjs), a king of the 
Getae, who took Lysimachus prisoner. [Lysima- 

CHUS.] 

Dromos Achilleus. [Achilleus Dromos.] 

Druentia {Durance), a large and rapid river in 
Gallia Narbonensis, rises in the Alps, and flows 
into the Rhone near Avenio {Avignon). 

Druna {Drome), a small river in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, rises in the Alps, and flows into the 
Rhone S. of Valencia ( Valerice). 

Brasilia. 1. Livia, mother of the emperor Ti- 
berius and wife of Augustus. [Livia.] — 2. 
Daughter of Gcrmanicus and Agrippina, married 
1st to L. Cassius Longinus, and afterwards to 
M. Aemilius Lepidus ; but she lived in incestuous 
intercourse with her brother Caligula, whose pas- 
sion for her exceeded all bounds. On her death, 
in A. D. 38, he commanded that she should be 
worshipped, by the name Panthea, with the same 
honours as Venus. — 3. Daughter of Herodes 
Agrippa I., king of the Jews, married 1st Azizus, 
king of Emesa, whom she divorced, and •2ndly 
Felix, the procurator of Judaea. She was present 
with her husband Avhen St. Paul preached before 
Felix in a. d. 60. 

Brusus, the name of a distinguished family of 
the Livia gens. It is said that one of the Livii 
acquired the cognomen Drusus for himself and his 
descendants by having slain in close combat one 
Drausus, a Gallic chieftain ; but this statement 
deserves little credit.. — !. M. Livius Brasus, 
tribune of the plebs with C. Gracchus, B. c. 122. 
He was a staunch adherent of the aristocracy, 
and after putting his veto upon the laws pro- 
posed by Gracchus, he brought forward almost 
the very same measures, in order to gain popu- 
larit)-- for the senate, and to impress the people 
with the belief that the optimates were their best 
friends. The success of this system earned for 
him the designation patronus senaius. Drusus was 
consul 112, obtained Macedonia as his province, 
and conquered the Scordisci. — 2. M. Livius Bra- 
sus, son of No. 1, an eloquent orator, and a man of 
great energy and ability. He was tribune of the 
plebs, 91, in the consulship of L. Marcius Philip- 
pus and Sex. Julius Caesar. Although, like his 
father, he belonged to the aristocratical party, he 
meditated the most extensive and organic changes 
in the Roman state. To conciliate the people he 
renewed several of the measures of the Gracchi. 
He proposed and carried laws for the distribu- 
tion of com or for its sale at a low price, and lur 



the assignation of public land. He also gained the 
support of the Latini and the Socii by promising 
to secure for them the Roman citizenship. Thus 
strengthened, he proposed to transfer the judicia 
from the equites to the senate ; but as a compen- 
sation to the former order, he further proposed that 
the senate, now reduced below the regular number 
of 300, should be reinforced by the introduction of 
an equal number of new members selected from the 
equites. This measure proved unsatisfactory to 
both parties. The Roman populace also were op- 
posed to the Roman franchise being given to the 
Latins and the Socii. The senate, perceiving the 
dissatisfaction of all parties, voted that all the laws 
of Drusus, being carried against the auspices, were 
null and void from the beginning. Drusus now 
began to organise a formidable conspiracy against 
the government ; but one evening as he was enter- 
ing the hall of his own house, he was stabbed and 
died a few hours afterwards. The assassin was 
never discovered, and no attempts were made to 
discover him. Caepio and Philippus were both 
suspected of having suborned the crime ; but Cicero- 
attributes it to Q. Varius. The death of Drusus 
destroyed the hopes of the Socii, and was thus im- 
mediately followed by the Social War.— 3. Livius. 
Brusus Claudianus, father of Livia, who was the 
mother of the emperor Tiberius. He was one of 
the gens Claudia, and was adopted by a Livius 
Drusus. It was through this adoption that the 
Drusi became connected with the imperial family. 
The father of Livia, after the death of Caesar, 
espoused the cause of Brutus and Cassius, and,, 
after the battle of Philippi (42), being proscribed 
by the conquerors, he killed himself in his tent. — 
4. Nero Claudius Brusus, commonly called by 
the moderns Brusus Senior, to distinguish him 
from No. 5, was the son of Tib. Claudius Nero and 
Livia, and younger brother of the emperor Tibe- 
rius. He was born in the house of Augustus 3. 
months after the marriage of Livia and Augustus, 
38. Drusus, as he grew up, was more liked by 
the people than was his brother. His manners 
were affable, and his conduct witliout reproach. 
He married Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir, 
and his fidelity to his wife was a theme of admira- 
tion in a profligate age. He was greatly trusted 
by Augustus, who employed him in important 
ofiices. He carried on the Avar against tlie Ger- 
mans, and penetrated far into the interior of the 
countrj^ In 12 he drove the Sicambri and their 
allies out of Gaul, crossed the Rhine, then followed 
the course of the river down to the ocean, and 
subdued the Frisians. It was apparently during 
this campaign that Drusus dug a canal (Fossa Dru- 
siana) from the Rhine near Arnheim to the Yssel, 
near Doesberg ; and he made use of this canal to 
sail from the Rhine into the ocean. In his 2nd 
corapaign (11), Drusus subdued the Usipetes, in- 
vaded the countiy of the Sicambri, and passed on 
through the territory of the Cherusci as far as the 
Visurgis {Weser). On his return he Avas attacked 
by the united forces of the Germans, and defeated 
them with great slaughter. — In his 3rd campaign 
(10), he conquered the Chatti and other German 
tribes, and then returned to Rome, where he was 
made consul for the following year. — In his 4tli 
campaign (9), which he carried on as consul, he 
advanced as far as the Albis {Elbe), sweeping 
every thing before him. It is said that he had 
resolved to cross the Elbe, but was deterred by the 



L>34 DRYADES. 
apparition of a woman of dimensions greater than 
human, who said to him in the Latin tongue, 
" Whither goest thou, insatiable Drusus ? The 
Fates forbid thee to advance. Away ! The end of 
thy deeds and thy life is nigh." On the return of 
the army to the Rhine, Drusus died in consequence 
of a fracture of his leg, which happened through a 
fall from his horse. Upon receiving tidings of the 
dangerous illness of Drusus, Tiberius immediately 
crossed the Alps, and after travelling with extra- 
ordinary speed arrived in time to close the eyes of 
his brother. Tiberius brought the body to Italy : 
it was burnt in the field of Mars, and the ashes 
deposited in the tomb of Augustus. — 5. Drusus 
Caesax, commonly called by modern writers Dru- 
sus Junior, was the son of the emperor Tiberius 
by his 1st wife, Vipsania. He married Livia, the 
sister of Gerraanicus. After the death of Augustus, 
A. D. 14, he was sent into Pannonia to quell the 
mutiny of the legions. In 15 he was consul, and 
in 1 6 he was sent into Illyricum : he succeeded in 
fomenting dissension among the Germanic tribes, 
and destroyed the power of Maroboduus. In 21 
he was consul a 2nd time ; and in 22 he received 
the iribiinicia potestas, by which he was pointed 
out as the intended successor to the empire. But 
Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius, aspired to the 
empire. He seduced Livia, the wife of Drusus, 
and persuaded her to become the murderer of her 
husband. A poison was administered to Drusus, 
which terminated his life by a lingering disease, 
that was supposed at the time to be the conse- 
quence of intemperance, a. d. 23.-6. Drusus, 
2nd son of Germanicus and Agrippina. After the 
death of Drusus, the son of Tiberius [No. 5], 
Drusus and his elder brother Nero became the 
heirs to the imperial throne. Sejanus therefore 
resolved to get rid of them both. He first engaged 
Drusus in the plots against his elder brother, Avhich 
ended in the banishment and death of that prince. 
[Nero.] The turn of Drusus came next. He was 
accused in 30, and condemned to death as an 
enemy of the state. Tiberius kept him imprisoned 
for 3 years, and then starved him to death, 33. 
Diyades. [Nymphae.] 

Dryas (Apvas), father of the Thracian king Ly- 
curgus, who is hence called Dryantides. 

Drymaea or Drymus (Ap'j,uai'a, Apvuos : Apv- 
/j-i^vs: Baba ?), a town in Phocis, a little S. of the 
Cepliissus, Avas destroyed by Xerxes. 

Drymus (Api/uds). 1. See Drymaea. — 2. A 
strong place in Attica, on the frontiers of Boeotia. 

Drymussa {Apvixovaaa : Apvjxcvcrcraios), an 
island in the Hermaean gulf, off the coast of Ionia, 
opposite Clazomenae ; given by the Romans to 
Clazoraenae. 

Dryope (ApuoTTTj), daughter of king Dryops, and 
the plapiiate of the Hamadryades on ilt. Oeta. 
She Avas beloved by Apollo, Avho, to gain possession 
of her, metamorphosed himself into a tortoise. 
Dryope took the creature into her lap, whereupon 
the god changed himself into a serpent. The 
nymphs fled away in affright, and thus Apollo re- 
mained alone with Dryope. Soon after she married 
Andraemon, but became, by Apollo, the mother of 
Amphissus, who built the town of Oeta, and a 
temple to Apollo. Dryope was afterwai-ds carried 
off by the Hamadryades, and became a m-mph. 

Dryopes (ApuoTres), a Pelasgic people, descended 
from a mythical ancestor Dryops, dwelt first in 
Thessal}', from the Spercheus to Parnassus, and 



DUILIUS. 

afterwards in Doris, which was called from tliem 
Dryopis {Apvoms). Driven out of Doris by the 
Dorians, they migrated to other countries, and 
settled in Peloponnesus, Euboea, and Asia Minor. 

Dryops (Apuoi|«), son of the river-god Spercheus 
and th.> Danaid Polydora, or of Lycaon and Dia, 
the daughter of Lycaon, the mythical ancestor of 
the Dryopes. 

Dryos Cephalae {Apvhs Ke<paKai), a narrow 
pass of Mt.Cithaeron, between Athens andPlataeae. 

Dubis (Doubs)^ a river in Gaul, rises in M. 
Jurassus (Jura), flows past Vesontio (Besari^on), 
and falls into the Arar (Saone) near Cabillonum 
(Chalojis). 

Dubris Portus (Dover), a seaport town of the 
Cantii, in Britain : here was a fortress erected by 
the Romans against the Saxon pirates. 

Ducas, Michael, a Byzantine historian, held 
a high office imder Constantine XIII., the last 
emperor of Constantinople. After the capture of 
Constantinople, A. D. 1453, he fled to Lesbos. His 
history extends from the death of John VL Pa- 
laeologus, 1355, to the capture of Lesbos by the 
Turks, 1462. The Avork is Avritten in barbarous 
Greek, but gives a clear and impartial account of 
events. The best edition is by Bekker, Bonn, 1834. 

Ducetius (AovK€Tios), a chief of the Sicelians, 
or Sicels, the native tribes in the interior of Sicily, 
carried on a formidable war in the middle of the 
5th centun,- B. c. against the Greeks in the island. 
Having been at last defeated in a great battle by 
the Syracusans, he repaired to Syracuse as a sup- 
pliant, and placed himself at their mercj'. The 
Syracusans spared his life, but sent him into an 
honourable exile at Corinth. He returned soon 
afterwards to Sicily, and founded the city of Ca- 
lacte. He died about B. c. 440. 

Dullius. 1. M., tribune of the plebs B. c. 471. 
He was one of the chief leaders of the plebeians, 
and it was on his advice that the plebeians migrated 
from the Aventine to the Mons Sacer, just before 
the overthrow of the decemvirs. He was then 
elected tribune of the plebs a 2nd time, 449.-2. 
K., one of the decemvirs, 450, on Avhose overthrow 
he Avent into voluntary exile. — 3. C, consul 260, 
with Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina, in the 1st Pimic 
"War. In this year the Romans buUt their first fleet, 
using for their model a Carthaginian vessel AA'hich 
had been throAra on the coast of Itah'. The com- 
mand of this fleet was given to Scipio, who was 
defeated by the Carthaginians off Lipara. There- 
upon Duilius AA-as entrusted Avith the command, and 
as he perceived the disadvantages under Avhich the 
clumsy ships of the Romans were labouring, he 
devised the Avell-knoAvn grappling-irons, hy means 
oi Avhich the enemy's ships might be drawn toAA-ards 
liis, and the sea-fight thus changed into a land- 
fight. By this means he gained a brilliant victory 
over the Carthaginian fleet near Mylae, and then 
prosecuted the Avar in Sicily with success, relieA'ing 
Egesta, and taking Macella by assault. On his 
return to Rome, Duilius celebrated a splendid 
triumph, for it was the first naval victory that the 
Romans had ever gained, and the memory of it 
Avas perpetuated by a column Avhich Avas erected in 
the forum, and adorned with the beaks of the con- 
quered ships (Columna Rostrata). It is generally 
believed that the original inscription AA'hich adorned 
the basis of the column is still extant. It Avas dug 
out of the ground in the 1 6th century, in a muti- 
lated condition, and it has since often been printed 



DULGIBINL 



EBURONES. 



235 



with attempts at restoration. There are, however, 
in that inscription some orthographical peculiarities, 
which suggest, that the present inscription is a 
later restoration of the original one. Duilius was 
further rewarded for this victory, by being per- 
mitted, whenever he returned home from a ban- 
quet at night, to be accompanied by a torch and a 
flute-player. 

Dulgibini, a people in Germany, dwelt S.E. of 
the Angrivarii, on the W. bank of the Weser. 

Dulichium. [Echinades.] 

Dumnorix, a chieftain of the Aedui, conspired 
against the Romans, B. c. 58, but was then par- 
doned by Caesar in consequence of the entreaties 
of his brother, Divitiacus. When Caesar was 
going to Britain in 54, he suspected Dumnorix too 
much to leave him behind in Gaul, and he insisted 
therefore on his accompanying him. Dumnorix, 
upon this, fled from the Roman camp with the 
Aeduan cavalry, but was overtaken and slain. 

Dunium. [Durotriges.] 

Dura (to. Aovpa : Aovp7]v6s}. 1. A town in 
Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, not far from Cir- 
cesium, founded by the Macedonians, and hence 
surnamed Nicanoris; also called Europus (Evpcj- 
TTos) by the Greeks. In the time of Julian it was 
deserted. — 2. (Dor), a town in Assyria, on the 
Tigris. 

Diiranius {Dordogne), a river in Aquitania, 
which falls into the Garumna. 

Diiria {Dora Baltea), a river which rises in the 
S. of the Alps, flows through the country of the Sa- 
lassi, bringing gold dust with it, and falls into the 
Po. 

Duris (Aovpis), of Samos, the historian, was a 
descendant of Alcibiades, and lived in the reign of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus. He obtained the tyranny 
of his native island, though it is unknown by what 
means. He wrote a considerable number of 
T/orks, of which the most important was a history 
of Greece, from B. c. 370 to 281. He does not 
appear to have enjoyed any very great reputation 
as an historian among the ancients. His fragments 
have been collected by HuUeman, Duridis Samii 
quae super sunt, Traject. ad Rhen. 1841. 

DuriUS (Aovpios, AaipLos : Duero, Douro), one 
of the chief rivers of Spain, rises among the Pe- 
lendones, at the foot of M. Idubeda near Numantia, 
and flows into the Atlantic; it was auriferous, and 
is navigable a long Avay from its mouth. 

Durobrivae {Rochester), a town of the Cantii 
in Britain. 

Durocasis (Dreux) a town of the Carnutes in 
Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Durocatelauni. [Catalauni.] 

Durocortorum (Bheims), the capital of the 
Remi in Gallia Belgica, and subsequently called 
Remi, was a populous and powerful town. 

Duronia, a town in Samnium in Italy, W. of 
• the Caudine passes. 

Durotriges, a people in Britain, in Dorsetshire 
and the W. of Somersetshire : their chief town was 
Dunium (Dorchester). 

Durovernum or Darvernum (Carderbury\ a 
town of the Cantii in Britain, afterwards called 
Cantuaria. 

Dyardanes or Oedanes {Brahmaputra), river 
in India, falls into the Ganges on the E. side. 

Dymas {Avfxas), son of Aegimius, from whom 
the Dymanes, one of the 3 tribes of the Dorians, 
were believed to have derived their name. 



Dyme or Dymae (Au^tj, Av/^ai: Avfxaios, Dy- 
maeus; nr. Karavostasi, Ru.), a town in the W. 
of Achaia, near the coast; one of the 12 Achaean 
towns; it founded, along with Patrae, the 2nd 
Achaean league; and was at a later time colonised 
by the Romans. 

Dyras (Avpas), a small river in Phthiotis in 
Thessaly, falls into the Sinus Maliacus. 

Dyrrh.ach.ium {Avppdxiov : Avppdxios, Avppa- 
XV^os, Dyrrachinus: Durazzo), formerly called 
Epidamnus {'EmdaiJLvos : 'ETTiSa/^j-tos), a town 
in Greek Illyria, on a peninsula in the Adriatic 
sea. It was founded by the Corcyraeans, and re- 
ceived the name Epidamnus; but since the Romans 
regarded this name a bad omen, as reminding them 
of damnum, they changed it into Dyrrhachium, 
when they became masters of the country. Under 
the Romans it became an important place; it was 
the usual place of landing for persons who crossed 
over from Brundisium. Commerce and trade were 
carried on here with great activity, whence it is 
called Tuherna Adriae by Catullus (xxxvi,15); and 
here commenced the great Egnatia Via, leading to 
the E. In the civil war it was the head-quarters 
of Pompey, who kept all his military stores here. 
In A. D. 345 it was destroyed by an earthquake. 

Dysorum (rb Avacopov), a mountain in Mace- 
donia with gold mines, between Chalcidice and 
Odomantice. 

Dyspontium {Ava-ndvnov : Avcttcovtios), an 
ancient town of Pisatis in Elis, N. of the Alpheus, 
was destroyed by the Eleans; whereupon its inha- 
bitants removed to Epidamnus and ApoUonia. 

E. 

Ebora. 1. Or Ebiira Cerealis, a small town in 
Hispania Baetica, perhaps in the neighbourhood of 
the modern Sta. Cruz. — 2. Surnamed Liberalitas 
Julia {Evora), a Roman municipium in Lusitania. 
—3. Or Ebura {S. Lucar de Barrameda), a town 
in Hispania Baetica, near the mouth of the Baetis. 
—4. A fortress of the Edetaui in Hispania Tarra- 
conensis. 

Eboracum or Eburacum {Yorh), a town of the 
Brigantes in Britain, was made a Roman station 
by Agricola, and soon became the chief Roman 
settlement in the whole island. It was both a 
municipium and a colony. It was the head-quarters 
of the sixth legion, and the resi dence of the Roman 
emperors when they visited Britain. Here the 
emperors Septimius Severus and Constantius Chlo- 
rus died. Part of the ancient Roman walls still 
exist at York; and many Roman remains have 
been found in the modern city. 

Eborolacum {Evreule on the river Sioule), a 
town in Aquitania. 

Ebrodiinum {Emhrun), a town in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, in the Cottian Alps. 

Ebudae or HebMae {Hebrides), islands in the 
Western Ocean off Britain. They were 5 in 
number, according to Ptolemy, 2 called Ebudae, 
Maleus, Epidium, and Ricina. 

Eburomagus or Hebromagus (nr. Bram or 
Villerazons), a town in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Eburones, a German people, who crossed the 
Rhine and settled in Gallia Belgica, between the 
Rhine and the Mosa {Maas) in a marshy and 
woody district. They were dependants ( cUentes) 
of the Treviri, and were in Caesar's time under the 



236 



EBUROVICES. 



EDESSA. 



rule of Ambiorix and Cativolcus. Their insurrec- 
tion against the Romans, B.C. 54, was severely- 
punished by Caesar, and from this time they dis- 
appear from history. 

Eburovices. [Aulerci.] 

Ebusus or Ebiisus (Iviza), the largest of the 
Pityusae insulae, off the E. coast of Spain, reckoned 
by some writers among the Baleares. It was cele- 
brated for its excellent figs. Its capital, also called 
Ebusus, was a civitas foederata, possessed an ex- 
cellent harbour, was well built, and carried on a 
considerable trade. 

Ecbatana (ra 'EKSdraua, Ion. and Poet. 'Ay§a.- 
Tava: Hamadaii)^ a great city, most pleasantly 
situated, near the foot of Mt. Orontes, in the N. of 
Great Media, was the capital of the Median king- 
dom, and afterwards the summer residence of the 
Persian and Parthian kings. Its foundation Avas 
more ancient than any historical record : Herodotus 
ascribes it to Deioces, and Diodorus to Semiramis. 
It had a circuit of 240 stadia, and was surrounded 
by 7 walls, each overtopping the one before it, and 
crowned with battlements of different colours : 
these walls no longer existed in the time of Poly- 
bius. The citadel, of great strength, was used as 
the royal treasury. Below it stood a magniticent 
palace, the tiles of which were silver, and the ca- 
pitals, entablatures, and wainscotings, of silver and 
gold ; treasures which the Seleucidae coined into 
money, to the amount of 4000 talents. The circuit 
of this palace was 7 stadia. 

Ecetra (Ecetranus), an ancient town of the 
Volsci, and, according to Dionysius, the capital of 
this people, was destroyed by the Romans at an 
early period. 

Ecliedorus (*ExeSa)/)oy, in Herod. 'Exei'Swpos), 
a small river in ^Macedonia, rises in Crestonia, flows 
through Mygdonia, and falls into the Thennaic 

gulf: 

Echelidae ('ExeA.i'5at : 'ExcXiStjs), an Attic de- 
mu3 E. of Munychia, called after a hero Echelus. 

Ecliemus ("Exejuos), son of Aeropus and grand- 
son of Cepheus, succeeded Lycurgus as king of 
Arcadia. In his reign the Dorians invaded Pelo- 
ponnesus, and Echemus slew, in single combat, 
Hyllus, the son of Hercules. In consequence of 
this battle, which was fought at the Isthmus, the 
Heraclidae were obliged to promise not to repeat 
their attempt npon Peloponnesus for 50 years. 

Ech.estratus ('ExeVrpaTos), king of Sparta, son 
of Agis I., and father of Labotas or Leobotes. 

Echetla ('ExeTAa), a town in Sicily, W. of Sy- 
racuse in the mountains. 

Echetus ^ExeTos), a cruel king of Epirus. His 
daughter, Metope or Amphissa, who had yielded 
to her lover Aechmodicus, was blinded by her 
father, and Aechmodicus was cruelly mutilated, 

EcMdna ("ExiSva), daughter of Tartarus and 
Ge, or of Chrysaor and Callirrhoe, or of Peiras and 
Styx. The upper part of her body was that of 
a beautiful maiden with black eyes, while the 
lower part was that of a serpent, of a vast size. 
She was a horrible, and blood-thirst}' monster. 
She became by Typhon the mother of the 
Chimaera, of the many-headed dog Orthus, of 
the hundred-headed dragon who guarded the 
apples of the Hesperides, of the Colchian dragon, 
of the Sphinx, of Cerberus (hence called Echid- 
neus cams), of Scylla, of Gorgon, of the Lernaean 
Hydra {Echidna Lemaea), of the eagle which 
consumed the liver of Prometheus, and of the Ne- 



mean lion. She was killed in her sleep by Argus 
Panoptes. According to Hesiod she lived with 
Typhon in a cave in the country of the Arimi, but 
another tradition transported her to Scythia, where 
she became by Hercules the mother of Agathyrsus, 
Gelonus, and Scythes. (Herod, iv. 8 — 10.)' 

Echinades ('ExtmSej or 'Ext»'at : CurzoIari\ 
a group of small islands at the mouth of the Ache- 
lous, belonging to Acamania, said to have been 
formed by the alluvial deposits of the Achelous. 
The legend related that they were originally 
Nymphs, who dwelt on the mainland at the mouth 
of the Achelous, and that on one occasion having 
forgotten to present any offerings to the god Ache- 
lous, when they sacrificed to the other gods, the 
river-god, in wrath, tore them away from the main- 
land with the ground on which they were sacrific- 
ing, carried them out to sea, and formed them into 
islands. — The Echinades appear to have derived 
their name from their resemblance to the Echinus 
or sea-urchin. — The largest of these islands was 
named Dulichmm (AouAixioi/). It is mentioned 
by Homer, and from it Meges, son of Phyleus, 
went to the Trojan War. At the present day it 
is united to the mainland. 

EcMon ('Exi'wi'). 1. One of the 5 surviving 
Sparti who had grown up from the dragon's teeth, 
which Cadmus had soa\ti. He married Agave, by 
whom he became the father of Pentheus : he as- 
sisted Cadmus in the building of Thebes.— 2. Son 
of Hermes and Antianira, twin-brother of Erj-tus 
or Eurytus, with whom he took part in the Caly- 
donian hunt, and in the expedition of the Argonauts. 
— 3, A celebrated Grecian painter, flourished B.C. 
352. One of his most noted pictures was Semi- 
ramis passing from the state of a handmaid to that 
of a queen ; in this picture the modesty of the new 
bride was admirably depicted. The picture in the 
Vatican, knoAvn as " the Aldobrandini Marriage," 
is supposed by some to be a copy from the 
" Bride " of Echion. 

Echo ('Hxw), an Oreade who, according to the 
legend related by Ovid, used to keep Juno engaged 
by incessantly talking to her, while Jupiter was 
sporting with the nj-mphs. Juno, however, found 
out the trick that was played upon her, and pu- 
nished Echo by changing her into an echo, that is, 
a being with no control over its tongue, which is 
neither able to speak before anybody else has 
spoken, nor to be silent when somebody else has 
spoken. Echo in this state fell desperately in love 
with Narcissus ; but as her love was not returned, 
she pined away in grief, so that in the end there 
remained of her nothing but her voice. (Ov. Met. 
iii. 356—401.) 

Ecphantides ('E/c^a^TiSTjs), one of the earliest 
poets of the old Attic comedy, flourished about B. c. 
460, a little before Cratinus. The meaning of the 
surname of Kairvias, which was given to him by 
his rivals, seems to imply a mixture of subtilty and 
obscurit}'. He ridiculed the rudeness of the old 
Megaric corned}-, and was himself ridiculed on the 
same ground by Cratinus and Aristophanes. 

Edessa or Antiochia CaUirrhoe ("ESeo-o-a, 'Af- 
TjoxetaTj eVi KaKXippoT)^ or 'A. fxi^oSdoSapos : 0. T. 
Ur : Urfah), a very ancient city in the N. of Me- 
sopotamia, the capital of Osroene, and the seat of 
an independent kingdom from B.C. 137 to A. D. 
216. [Abgarus.] It stood on the river Scirtua 
or Bardesanes, which often inundated and damaged 
the city. It was here that Caracalla was murdered. 



EDETANI. 

Having suffered by an earthquake in the reign of 
Justin I,, the city was rebuilt and named Justino- 
polis. — The Edessa of Strabo is evidently a dif- 
ferent place, namely the city usually called Bam- 
byce or Hierapolis. 

Edetani or Sedetani, a people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, E. of the Celtiberi. Their chief 
towns were Valencia, Saguntum, Caesar- 
august a, and Edeta, also called Liria (Li/ria). 

Edoni or Edones {'Hduvoi, 'Udwues), a Thracian 
people, between the Nestus and the Strymon. 
They were celebrated for their orgiastic worship of' 
Bacchus ; whence Edoais in the Latin poets sig- 
nifies a female Bacchante, and Horace says (Carm. 
ii. 7. 26), Non ego sanius baccliabor Edonis. — The 
poets frequently use Edoni as synonymous with 
Thracians. 

Eetion (^Ueriav), king of -the Placian Thebe in 
Cilicia, and father of Andromache, the wife of 
Hector. He and 7 of his sons were slain by 
Achilles, when the latter took Thebes. 

Egelasta, a town of the Celtiberi in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, 

Egeria. [Aegeria.] 

Egesta. [Segesta.] 

Egnatia { 'J'orre Anazzo), a town in Apulia, 
on the coast, called Gnatia by Horace (Sat. i. 5. 
97), who speaks of it as Lymplds (i. e. Nymphis) 
iratis exstrucfa, probably on account of its bad 
or deficient supply of water. It was celebrated 
for its miraculous stone or altar, which of itself 
set on fire frankincense and wood ; a prodigy 
which afforded amusement to Horace and his 
friends, who looked upon it as a mere trick. — 
Egnatia owed its chief importance to being situated 
on the great high road from Rome to Brundisium. 
This road reached the sea at Egnatia, and from 
this town to Brundisium it bore the name of the 
Via Egnatia. The continuation of this road on 
the other side of the Adriatic from Dyrrhachium to 
Byzantium also bore the name of the Via Egiiatia. 
It Avas the great military road between Italy and 
the E. Commencing at Dyrrhachium, it passed by 
Lychnidus, Heraclea, Lyncestis, Edessa, Thessa- 
lonica, Araphipolis, Philippi, and traversing the 
whole of Thrace, finally reached Byzantium. 

Egnatii, a family of Samnite origin, some of! 
whom settled at Teanum. 1. Gellius Egnatius, 
leader of the Samnites in the 3rd Samnite war, fell 
in battle against the Romans, B.C. 295.— 2. Marius 
Egnatius, one of the leaders of the Italian allies 
in the Social War, was killed in battle, 89.-3. M. 
Egnatius Rufus, aedile 20 and praetor 19, was 
executed in the following year, in consequence of 
his having formed a conspiracy against the life of 
Augustus.— 4. P. Egnatius Celer. [Barea.] 

Eion ('Hia'v: 'Hi'oveus : Contessa or Rendina), 
a towTi in Thrace, at the mouth of the Strymon, 
25 stadia from Amphipolis, of which it was the 
harbour. Brasidas, after obtaining possession of 
Amphipolis, attempted to seize Eion also, but was 
prevented by the arrival of Thucydides with an 
Athenian fleet, B. c. 424. 

Eiones (^Hi6p€s), a town in Argolis with a 
harbour, subject to Mycenae in the time of Homer, 
but not mentioned in later times. 

Elaea ('EXaia : Kazlu), an ancient city on the 
coast of Aeolis in Asia Minor, said to have been 
founded by Mnestheus, stood 12 stadia S. of the 
mouth of the Caicus, and 120 stadia (or 16 Roman 
miles) from Pergamus, to which city, in the time of 



ELAVER. 2:^7 

the Pergamene kingdom, it served for a harbour 
{imviLov). It was destroyed by an earthquake in 
B. c. 90. The gulf on which it stood, which forms 
a part of the great Gulf of Adramyttium, was named 
after it Sinus Ela'iticus {^EXaiTiKbs k6K-kos, G. of 
ChandeLi). 

ElaeHs ('EAaioDs, -ovvros : ""E^Xaiovaios). 1. Or 
Eleus ('EAeous : Critia), a town on the S.E. point 
of the Thracian Chersonese, with a harboui- and 
an heroum of Protesilaus. — 2. {MesolongJii), a 
town in Aetolia, S, of Pleuron. — 3. A town in 
Argolis. — 4. A demus in Attica, belonging to 
the tribe Hippothoontis. 

Elagabalus, Roman emperor, A. d. 218 — 222, 
son of Julia Soemias and Varius Marcellus, was 
bom at Emesa about 205, and was originally called 
Varius Avitus Bassianus. While almost a 
child he became, along with his first cousin Alex- 
ander Severus, priest of Elagabalus, the Syro- 
Phoenician Sun-god, to whose worship a temple 
was dedicated in his native city. It was from this 
circumstance that he obtained the name Elagabalus, 
by which he is usually known. He owed his 
elevation to the purple to the intrigues of his 
grandmother Julia Maesa, who circulated the report 
that Elagabalus was the offspring of a secret com- 
merce between Soemias and Caracalla, and induced 
the troops in Syria to salute him as their sovereign 
by the title of M. Aurelius Antoninus, the 
16th of May, 218. Macrinus forthwith marched 
against Elagabalus, but was defeated near Antioch, 
June 8th, and was shortly afterwards put to death. 
Elagabalus was now acknowledged as emperor by 
the senate, and in the following year came to Rome. 
The reign of this prince, who perished at the age 
of 18, after having occupied the throne nearly 4 
years, was characterised throughout by an accumu- 
lation of the most fantastic folly and superstition, 
together with impurity so bestial that the particulars 
almost transcend the limits of credibility. In 221 
he adopted his first cousin Alexander Severus, and 
proclaimed hini Caesar. Having become jealous 
of Alexander, he attempted to put him to death, 
but was himself slain along with his mother Soemias 
by the soldiers, with whom Alexander was a great 
favourite. 

Elana. [Aelana.] 

Elara ('EAapa), daughter of Orchomenus or 
Minyas, bore to Zeus the giant Tityus. Zeus, from 
fear of Hera, concealed her under the earth. 

Elatea ('EAareto : 'EAareus). 1. (Nr. Elephtlia 
Ru.), a town in Phocis, and the most important 
place in the country next to Delphi, was situated 
near the Cephissus in a fertile valley, which was 
an important pass from Thessaly to Boeotia. Elatea 
was thus frequently exposed to hostile attacks. It 
is said to have been founded by Elatus, son of 
Areas. — 2. A town in Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, 
near Gonni. — 3. Or Elatrea, a town in Epirus, 
near the sources of the Cocytus. 

Elatus ("EAaros). 1. Son of Areas and Leanira, 
king of Arcadia, husband of Laodice, and father 
of Styraphalus, Aepytus, Cyllen, and Pereus. He 
resided on moimt Cyllene, and went from thence 
to Phocis, where he foimded the town of Elatea.— 
2. A prince of the Lapithae at Larissa in Thessaly, 
husband of Hippea, and father of Caeneus and 
Polyphemus. He is sometimes confounded with 
the Arcadian Elatus. 

Elaver (Allier), subsequently Elaris or Elauris, 
a river in Aquitania, a tributary of the Liger. 



238 ELBO. 

Elbo {'E\€u), an island on the coast of the 
Delta of Efrypt, in the midst of the marshes be- 
tween the Phatnitic and the Tanitic mouths of the 
Nile, was the retreat of the blind Pharoah Anysis 
from the Aethiopian Sabacon, and afterwards of 
Amyrtaeus from the Persians. 

Elea. [Velia.] 

Electra ('HAefcrpa), i. e. the bright or brilliant 
one. 1. Daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, wife of 
Thaumas, and mother of Iris and the Harpies, 
Aello and Ocypete. — 2. Daughter of Atlas and 
Pleione, one of the 7 Pleiades, and by Zeus mother 
of lasion and Dardanus. According to an Italian 
tradition, she was the wife of the Italian king 
Cory thus, by whom she had a son lasion ; whereas 
bv Zeus she was the mother of Dardanus. It was 
through her means, according to another tradition, 
that the Palladium came to Troy; and when she 
saw the city of her son Dardanus perishing in 
flames, she tore out her hair for grief, and was 
placed among the stars as a comet. According to 
others, Electra and her 6 sisters were placed among 
the stars as the 7 Pleiades, and lost their brilliancy 
on seeing the destruction of Ilium. — 3. Sister of 
Cadmus, from Avhom the Electrian gate at Thebes 
was said to have received its name.— 4. Daughter 
of Agamemnon and Clytaemnestra, also called 
Laodice, sister of Iphigenia and Orestes. After 
the murder of her father by her mother, she saved 
the life of her young brother Orestes, by sending 
him under the protection of a slave to king Stro- 
phius at Phanote in Phocis, w^ho had the boy 
educated together with his own son Pylades. When 
Orestes had grown up to manhood, Electra excited 
him to avenge the death of Agamemnon, and as- 
sisted him in slaying their mother, Clytaemnestra. 
[Orestes.] After the death of the latter, Orestes 
gave her in marriage to his friend Pylades. The 
history and character of Electra form the subject 
pf the " Choephori " of Aeschylus, the " Electra " 
of Euripides, and the " Electra " of Sophocles. 

Electrides Insiilae. [Eridanus.] 

Electryon {'UXeKTpvwv), son of Perseus and 
Andromeda, king of Mycenae, husband of Anaxo, 
and father of Alcmene, the wife of Amphitryon. 
For details see Amphitryon. 

Electryone ('HAe/cTpuwi'Tj). 1. Daughter of 
Helios and Rhodes. — 2. A patronymic from Elec- 
tryon, given to his daughter, Alcmene. 

Eleon ('EA.e«v), a town in Boeotia, near Ta- 
nagra. 

Eleos (^EAeos), the personification of pity or 
mercy, worshipped by the Athenians alone. 

Elephantine or Elephantis ('EAe^ai/TtVr?, 'EAe- 
(pavTis : Jezirah-el-Zahv\ or Jezi)-ah-el-Assoua?i), 
an island in the Nile, with a city of the same name, 
opposite to Syene, and 7 stadia beiow the Little 
Cataract, was the frontier station of Egypt towards 
Ethiopia, and was strongly garrisoned under the 
Persians and the Romans. The island was ex- 
tremely fertile, the vine and the fig-tree never 
ahedding their leaves : it had also great quarries. 
Among the most remarkable objects in it were the 
temple of Cnuphis and a Nilometer ; and it is still 
celebrated for the ruins of its rock-hewn temples. 

Elephantis, a Greek poetess imder the early 
Roman emperors, wrote certain amatory works 
{moUes Elephantidos Ubelli), which are referred to 
by Martial and Suetonius. 

Elephenor {^EAecp-nvwp), son of Chalcodon and of 
Imenarete or Melanippe, and prince of the Abantes 



ELIS. 

in Euboea, whom he led against Troy. He was 
one of the suitors of Helen : he was killed before 
Troy by Agenor. 

Elensis ('EAevai's, later 'EAeutrtV : 'EXevaiuios : 
Leosina or Lessina), a town and demus of Attica, 
belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, Avas situated 
N. W. of Athens, on the coast near the frontiers of 
Megara. It possessed a magnificent temple of De- 
meter, and it gave its name to the great festival 
and mj'steries of the Eleusinia, which w^ere cele- 
brated in honour of Demeter and Persephone. 
The Eleusinia were originally a festival peculiar 
to Eleusis, which was an independent state ; but 
after the Eleusinians had been conquered by the 
Athenians in the reign of Erechtheus, according to 
tradition, the Eleusinia became a festival common 
to both cities, though the superintendence of the 
festival remained with the descendants of Eumol- 
pus, the king of Eleusis. For an account of the 
festival see Diet, of Antiq. art. Eleusinia. 

Eleutherae (^EK^vQepai : 'EAevdepevs)^ a town 
in Attica on the frontiers of Boeotia, originally be- 
longed to the Boeotian confederacy, and afterwards 
voluntarily united itself to Attica. 

Eleutherius ('EAeu0epior), a surname of Zeus, 
as the Deliverer, (Did. of Aid. art. Eleutheria.) 

Eleuthema {'EXevOepva : 'E\eveepva7os), a 
town in the interior of Crete. 

Eleutherns {'EXevdepos : Nahr-el-Kebir, i. e. 
Great River), a river forming the boundary between 
Syria and Phoenice, rose in Mt. Bargylus, the N. 
prolongation of Lebanon, and fell into the sea be- 
tween Antaradus and Tripolis. 

Elicms, a surname of Jupiter at Rome, where 
king Numa dedicated to Jupiter Elicius an altar 
on the Aventine. The origin of the name is re- 
ferred to the Etruscans, who by certain prayers 
and sacrifices called forth (eliciebant or evocabant) 
lightning, or invited Jupiter to send lightning. The 
object of calling down lightning was according to 
Livy's explanation to elicit prodigies (ad prodigia 
elicienda, Liv. i. 20.). 

Elimberrum. [Ausci.] 

Elimea, -ia, or Elimiotis {'Exifieia, 'EMfxia^ 
'EXifiiwTis), a district of Macedonia, on the frontiers 
of Epirus and Thessaly, originally belonged to 
Illyria, and was bounded by the Cambunian moun- 
tains on the S. and the Tjnnphaean mountains on 
the W. Its inhabitants, the Elimaei {'EAei/xiu- 
Tai), were Epirots. 

Elis (^HAis, Dor. "^AAis, 'HAei'a: 'H\e7os, Dor. 
"AMos, whence Alii in Plautus), a country on the 
W. coast of Peloponnesus, bounded- by Achaia on 
the N., Arcadia on the E., Messenia on the S., 
and the Ionian sea on the W. The country was 
fertile, w^atered by the Alpheus and its tributaries, 
and is said to have been the only country in Greece 
which produced flax. The Pexeus is the only 
other river in Elis of any importance. Elis was 
divided into 3 parts : — 1. Elis Proper or Hollow 
Elis {v KoiAtj "^HAis), the N. part, watered by 
the Peneus, of which the capital was also called 
Elis. — 2. Pisatis (ij UiaaTis), the middle portion, 
of which the capital was Pisa. — 3. Triphylia 
(tj Tpj(f>uAta), the S. portion, of which Pvi.os was 
the capital, lay between the Alpheus and the 

Neda In the heroic times we find the kingdom 

of Nestor and the Pelidae in the S. of Elis ; while 
the N. of the country was inhabited by the Epeans 
('ETretoi), with whom some Aetolian tribes were 
mingled. On the conquest of Peloponnesus by 



ELTSO. 

the Heraclidae, the Aetolian chief Oxylus received 
Elis as his share of the conquest ; and it was the 
union of his Aetolian and Dorian followers with 
the Epeans, which formed the subsequent popula- 
tion of the country, under the general name of 
Eleans. Elis owed its importance in Greece to 
the worship of Zeus at Olympia near Pisa, in 
honour of whom a splandid festival was held every 
4 years. [Olympia.] In consequence of this 
festival being common to the whole of Greece, the 
country of Elis was declared sacred, and its inha- 
bitants possessed priestly privileges. Being ex- 
empt from war and the dangers of invasion, the 
Eleans became prosperous and wealthy ; their 
towns were unwalled and their country Avas richly 
cultivated. The prosperity of their country was 
ruined by the Peloponnesian War ; the Athenians 
were the first to disregard the sanctity of the 
country ; and from that time it frequently had to 
take part in the other contests of the Greeks. — 
The town of Elis was situated on the Peneus, and 
was built at the time of the Persian War by the 
inhabitants of 8 villages, Avho united together, and 
thus formed one town. It originally had no walls, 
being sacred like the rest of the country, but sub- 
sequently it was fortified. The inhabitants of Elis 
formed a close alliance with the Spartans, and by 
their means destroyed the rival city of Pisa, and 
became the ruling city in the country, b. c. 572. 
In the Peloponnesian War they quarrelled with 
the Spartans, because the latter had espoused the 
cause of Lepraeum, which had revolted from Elis. 
The Eleans retaliated upon the Spartans by ex- 
cluding them from the Olympic games. 

Eliso. [Aliso.] 

Elissa. [Dido.] 

EUopia ('EAAoTTia). 1. A district in the N. 
of Euboea, near the promontory Cenaeum, with a 
town of the same name which disappeared at an 
early period : the whole island of Euboea is some- 
times called EUopia. — 2. An ancient name of the 
district about Dodona in Epirus. 

Elone ('HAwi/Tj), a town of the Perrhaebi in 
Thessaljr, afterwards called Limone (Ae/juwi/?}). 

Elpenor {'EXtttiucjop), one of the companions of 
Ulysses, who were metamorphosed by Circe into 
swine, and afterwards back into men. Intoxicated 
with wine, Elpenor one day fell asleep on the roof 
of Circe's residence, and in his attempt to rise he 
fell down and broke his neck. When Ulysses 
was in the lower world, he met the shade of El- 
penor, who implored him to burn his body. After 
his return to the upper world, Ulysses complied 
with this request of his friend. 

Elpinice CE\irLvii<-q), daughter of Miltiades, 
and sister of Cimon, married Callias. [Callias.] 

Elusates, a people in Aquitania in the interior 
of the country. Their chief town was Elusa. (Nr. 
Fuse or Eause.) It was the birthplace of Rufinus, 
the minister of Arcadius. 

Elymaei, Elymi. [Elymais.] 

Elymais, a district of Susiana, extending from 
the river Eulaeus on the W. to the Oroatis on the 
E., derived its name from the Elymaei or Elymi 
('EAu/ia?oi, "EAvfioi), a warlike and predatory 
people, who are also found in the mountains of 
Great Media : in the Persian armies they served 
as archers. These Elymaei were probably among 
the most ancient inhabitants of the country N. of 
the head of the Persian Gulf: in the 0. T. Susiana 
is called Elam. 



EMPEDOCLES. 23!i 

Elymi. [Elymus.] 
Elymiotis. [Elimea.] 

Elymus ("EAu/^os), a Trojan, natural son of 
Anchises and brother of Eryx. Previous to the 
emigration of Aeneas, Elymus and Aegestus had 
fled from Troy to Sicily, and had settled on the 
banks of the river Crimisus. When afterwards 
Aeneas also arrived there, he built for them the 
towns of Aegesta and Elyme. The Trojans who 
settled in that part of Sicily called themselves 
Elymi, after Elymus. 

Elyrus ("EAvpos), a town in the W. of Crete, 
S. of Cydonia. 

Elysium {'H\v(riou Trediov, later simply 'HAu- 
aLov), the Elysian fields. In Homer {Od. iv. 563) 
Elysium forms no part of the realms of the dead ; 
he places it on the W. of the earth, near Ocean, 
and describes it as a happy land, where there is 
neither snow, nor cold, nor rain, and always fanned 
by the delightful breezes of Zephyrus. Hither fa- 
voured heroes, like Menelaus, pass without dying, 
and live happy under the rule of Rhadamanthys. 
— The Elysium of Hesiod and Pindar are in the 
Isles of the Blessed (/j^aKapocv vrjaoi), which they 
place in the Ocean. From these legends arose the 
fabulous island of Atlantis. — The Elysium of 
Virgil is part of the lower world, and the residence 
of the shades of the Blessed. 

EmatMa CUfiadia: 'Hfj.a6L€vs), a district of 
Macedonia, between the Haliacmon and the Axius, 
formerly part of Paeonia, and the original seat of 
the Macedonian monarchy. The poets frequently 
give the name of Emathia to the whole of Mace- 
donia, and sometimes even to the neighbouring 
Thessaly. 

Emathides, the 9 daughters of Pierus, king of 
Emathia. 

Emathion ('UfjLadiwv), son of Tithonus and 
Eos, brother of Memnon, was slain by Hercules. 

Embolima {'EjLi.§6\i/xa), a city of the Paropa- 
misadae in N. India, near the fortress of Aornos, 
16 days' march from the Indus. (Q. Curt.) 

Emesa or Emissa ("E/^ecra, "Efxia-aa : 'Efiecrr]- 
vos : Hums or Horns), a city of Syria, on the E. 
bank of the Orontes, in the province of Apamene, 
but afterwards the capital of Phoenice Libanesia, 
was in Strabo's time the residence of independent 
Arabian princes ; but under Caracalla it was made 
a colony with the Jus Italicum. It is a remarkable 
place in the history of the Roman empire, being 
the native city of Julia Domna, the wife of Sep- 
timius Severus, of Elagabalus, who exchanged the 
high priesthood of the celebrated temple of the Sun 
in this city for the imperial purple, and of the 
emperor Alexander Severus ; and also the scene of 
the decisive battle between Aurelian and Zenobia, 
A. D. 273. 

Emmenidae ('E^u^ei/tSai), a princely family at 
Agrigentum, which traced their origin to the my- 
thical hero Polynices. Among its members we 
know Emmenides (from Avhom the family derived 
its name) the father of Aenesidamus, whose sons 
Theron and Xenocrates are celebrated by Pindar 
as victors at the great games of Greece. 

Emodi Montes, or -us, or -es, or -on (ra 'H^c^- 
da bprj, Th ^Uixwdhv opos, or 6 'H/j-coSos : Himalaya 
M.), a range of mountains N. of India, forming the 
prolongation E. wards of the Paropamisus. 

Empedocles ('EjUTreSoKATjs), of Agrigentum in 
Sicily, flourished about b. c. 444. Although he 
was descended from an ancient and wealthy family, 



240 



EMPORIAE. 



ENNA. 



he joined the revohitioji in which Thrasydaeus, the 
Bon and successor of Theron, was expelled. His 
zeal in the establishment of political equality is 
aaid to have been manifested by his magnanimous 
support of the poor, by his severity in persecuting 
the overbearing conduct of the aristocrats, and in 
his declining the sovereignty wliich was offered to 
him. His brilliant oratory, his penetrating know- 
ledge of nature, and the reputation of his mar- 
vellous powers, which he had acquired by curing 
diseases, by his successful exertions in removing 
marshy districts and in averting epidemics and 
obnoxious winds, spread a lustre around his name. 
He was called a magician (ySris)^ and he appears 
to have attributed to himself miraculous powers. 
He travelled in Greece and Italy, and made 
some stay at Athens. His death is said to have 
heen njarvellous, like his life. One tradition 
represented him as having been removed from the 
earth, like a divine being ; and another related that 
he threw himself into the flames of mount Aetna, 
that by his sudden disappearance he might be be- 
lieved to be a god ; but it was added that the vol- 
aano threw up one of his sandals, and thus revealed 
the manner of his death. The rhetorician Gorgias 
was a disciple of Empedocles. — The works of 
Empedocles were all in verse. The two most im- 
portant were a didactic poem on nature (Tlepl 4>v- 
ceccs), of which considerable fragments are extant, 
and a poem, entitled Kadapfxoi, which seems to 
have recommended good moral conduct as the 
means of averting epidemics and other evils. Lu- 
cretius, the greatest of all didactic poets, speaks of 
Empedocles with enthusiasm, and evidently makes 
him his model. Empedocles was acquainted with 
the theories of the Eleatics and the Pythagoreans ; 
but he did not adopt the fundamental principles of' 
either school, although he agreed with the latter i 
in his belief in the migration of souls, and in a 
few other points. AVith the Eleatics he agreed in 
thinking that it was impossible to conceive any- 
thing arising out of nothing. Aristotle with justice 
mentions liim among the Ionic physiologists, and 
places him in very close relation to the atomistic 
philosophers and to Anaxagoras. Empedocles first 
established the number of 4 elements, which he 
called the roots of things. 

Eniporiae or Emporium ('E/x7ropi'ai, 'E^tto- 
pe7ou, ^E/xTrSpiov : 'E/xiropiTrjs : A mpurius) ^ tlXov/w 
of the Indigetes in Hispania Tarraconensis near 
the Pyrenees, was situated on the river Clodianus, 
which formed the harbour of the town. It was 
founded by the Phocaeans from Massilia, and was 
■divided into 2 parts, at one time separated from 
each other by a wall : the part near the coast being 
inhabited by the Greeks, and the part towards the 
interior by the Indigetes. It was subsequently 
colonised by Julius Caesar. Its harbour was much 
frequented : here Scipio Africanus first landed 
when he came to Spain in the 2nd Punic War. 

Empiilum {A7npiglione?), a small town, in La- 
tium, near Tibur. 

Empusa {"Eixirovaa), a monstrous spectre, which 
was believed to devour human beings. It could 
assume different forms, and was sent by Hecate to 
frighten travellers. It was believed' usually to 
appear with one leg of brass and the other of an 
ass, whence it was called ovoaKeXis or ouokuKt]. 
The Laraiae and Mormolyceia, who assumed the 
fonn of handsome women for the purpose of attract- 
ing Tcimg men, and then sucked their blood like 



vampyrs and ate their flesh, were reckoned among 
the Empusae. 

Enarephorus {''E.vapr\(popo'i), son of Hippocoon, 
a passionate suitor of Helen, when she was yet 
quite young. Tyndareus, therefore, entrusted the 
maiden to the care of Theseus. Enarephorus had 
a heroum at Sparta. 

Enceladus ('E7/ceAa5os), son of Tartarus and Ge, 
and one of the hundred-armed giants who made 
war upon the gods. He was killed, according to 
some, by a flash of lightning, by Zeus, who buried 
him under mount Aetna ; according to others, 
Athena killed him with her chariot, or threw upon 
him the island of Sicil}'. 

Encbeles ("EyxeXeTs, also 'Eyxe^eo', '£7x6- 
Aioi), an Illyrian tribe. 

Endoeus {"EvZoios), an Athenian statuary, is 
called a disciple of Daedalus, whom he is said to 
have accompanied on his flight from Crete. This 
statement must be taken to express, not the time 
at which he lived, but the style of art which he 
practised. It is probable that he lived in the time 
of Pisistratus and his sons, about B. c. 560. 

Endymion. ('Ei'Su/xio)!/), a youth distinguished 
by his beauty, and renowned in ancient story- for 
his perpetual sleep. Some traditions about En- 
dymion refer us to Elis, and others to Caria, and 
others again are a combination of the two. Ac- 
cording to one set of legends, he was a son of 
Aethlius and Calyce, or of Zeus and Calyce, and 
succeeded Aethlius in the kingdom of Elis. Others 
related that he had come from Elis to mount 
Latmus in Caria, whence he is called the Latmian 
(Latmius). As he slept on Latmus, his surprising 
beauty warmed the cold heart of Selene (the moon), 
who came dowTi to him, kissed him, and lay by 
his side. His eternal sleep on Latmus is assigned 
to different causes ; but it was generally believed 
that Selene had sent him to sleep, that she might 
be able to kiss him Avithout his knowledge. Bv 
Selene he had 50 daughters. There is a beautiful 
statue of a sleeping Endymion in the British 
Museum. 

Engyum ("EyYi/ov or 'Eyyviov : 'Eyyiuvos, En- 
guinus : Gangi), a town in the interior of Sicily 
ne^ir the sources of the Monalus, was originally a 
town of the Siculi, but is said to have been colo- 
nised by the Cretans imder Minos : it possessed a 
celebrated temple of the great mother of the gods. 

Enipeus {'Evnrevs). 1. A river in Thessaly, 
rises in Mt. Othrj-s, receives the Apidanus near 
Pharsalus, and flows into the Peneus. Poseidon 
assumed the form of the god of this river in order 
to obtain possession of Tyro, who was in love with 
Enipeus. She became by Poseidon the mother of 
Pelias and Neleus. Ovid relates {Met. \i. TIG) 
that Neptune (Poseidon) having assumed the form 
of Enipeus, became by Iphimedia the father of 
Otus and Ephialtes. — 2. A small river in Pisatis 
(Elis) flows into the Alpheus near its mouth.— 
3. A small river in Macedonia, which rises in 
Olympus. 

Enna or Henna ("Evm : 'Eyva7o5 : Castro Gio- 
vanni)^ an ancient and fortified town of the Siculi 
in Sicily, on the road from Catana to Agrigentum, 
said to be the centre of the island {d/x(pakhs 2t/c6- 
Ai'as). It was surrounded by fertile plains, which 
bore large crops of wheat ; it was one of the chief 
seats of the worship of Demeter (Ceres), and pos- 
sessed a celebrated temple of this goddess. Ac- 
cording to later tradition it was in a fiowery rcea- 



COINS OF PERSONS. 



DECIUS — DOMITTAN. 




Decius, Roman Emperor, a. d. 249 — 251. Page 209. 




Dciotarus, Tetrarcli of Galatia. Page 209. 




Delmatius, Roman Caesar, ob. a. d. 337. Page 210. 




Demetrius II. Nicator, King of Syria, ob. b.c. 125. Page 214. 
To face p. 241.] 




Demetrius III. Eucaenis, King of Syria, ob. B.C. 84. 
Page 214. 




Diocletianus, Roman Emperor, a.d. 284 — 303. Page 220. 




Dionysius of Heraclea, b. c. 306. Page 225. 




Domitian, Roman Emperor, a. d. 81— 96. Pages 230, 231. 



ENNIUS. 



EPAMINONDAS. 



241 



dow in the neighbourhood of Enna that Pluto 
carried off I'roserpine, and the cave was shown 
through which the god passed as he carried off his 
prize. Its importance gradually declined from the 
time of the 2nd Punic war, when it was severely 
punished by the Romans, because it had attempted 
to revolt to the Carthaginians. 

Ennius, Q., the Roman poet, Avas bom at Ru- 
diae, in Calabria, B. c. 239. He was a Greek by 
birth, but a subject of Rome, and served i:i the 
Roman armies. In 204 Cato, who was then 
quaestor, found Ennius in Sardinia, and brought 
him in his train to Rome. In 189 Ennius accom- 
panied M. Fulvius Nobilior during the Aetolian 
campaign, and shared his triumph. Through the 
son of Nobilior, Ennius, Avhen far advanced in life, 
obtained the rights of a Roman citizen. He dwelt 
in a humble house on the Aventine, and maintained 
himself by acting as a preceptor to the youths of 
the Roman nobles. He lived on terms of the 
closest intimacy with the elder Scipio Africanus. 
He died 169, at the age of 70. He was buried in 
the sepulchre of the Scipios, and his bust was 
allowed a place among the effigies of that noble 
house. Ennius was regarded by the Romans as 
the father of their poetry {alter Homerus, Hor. Ep. 
ii. 1. 50). Cicero calls him Summus potta noster ; 
and Virgil was not ashamed to borrow many of 
his thoughts, and not a few of his expressions. 
All the works of Ennius are lost with the 
exception of a few fragments. His most im- 
portant work was an epic poem, in dactylic hex- 
ameters, entitled Annalium Libri xviii., being 
a history of Rome, commencing with the loves of 
Mars and Rhea, and reaching down to his own 
times. The beautiful history of the kings in Livy 
may have been taken from Eimius. No great 
space, however, was allotted to the earlier records, 
for the contest with Hannibal, which was described 
■with great minuteness, commenced with the 7th 
book, the first Punic war being passed over alto- 
gether. He wTote numerous tragedies, which 
appear to have been all translations or adaptations 
from the Greek, the metres of the originals being 
in most cases closely imitated. He wrote also a few 
comedies, and several other works, such as Satirae, 
composed in a great variety of metres, from which 
circumstance they probably received their name ; 
a didactic poem, entitled Epicharmus ; a panegyric 
on Scipio ; Epigrams, &c. The best collection of 
the fragments of Ennius is by Hieronymus Co- 
lumna, Neapol. 4to. 1590, reprinted with consider- 
able additions, by Hesselius, Amstel. 4to. 1707. 

Enope ('EvoTTTj), a town in Messenia, mentioned 
by Homer, supposed to be the same as Gerenia. 

Entella ("Ei/TeAAa: Entellinus, Entellensis : 
Entella)^ an ancient town of the Sicani in the in- 
terior of the island on the W. side, said to have 
been founded by Entellus, one of the companions 
of the Trojan Aegestus. It was subsequently 
seized and peopled b}' the Campanian mercenaries 
of Dionysius. 

Enyalius (ZwdKLos), the Warlike, frequently 
occurs in the Iliad (never in the Odyssey) as an 
epithet of Ares. At a later time Enyalius and 
Ares were distinguished as 2 different gods of 
war ; Enyalius was looked upon as a son of Ares 
and Enyo, or of Cronos and Rhea. The name is 
evidently derived from Enyo. 

Enyo ('Evi/w'), the goddess of war, who delights 
in bloodshed and the destruction of towns, and 



accompanies Ares in battles. Respecting the Ro- 
man goddess of war, see Bellona. 

Eordaea ('EopSai'a, also 'EopSta), a district and 
town in the N. W. of Macedonia, inhabited by the 
Eordi ('EopSoi, also 'EopSaTot). 

Eos ('Hcos-, Att. "Ecjjs), in Latin Aurora, the 
goddess of the morning red, daughter of Hy- 
perion and Thia or Euryphassa ; or of Pallas, 
according to Ovid. At the close of every night 
she rose from the couch of her spouse Tithonus, 
and on a chariot drawn by the swift horses Lam- 
pus and Phaeton she ascended up to heaven from 
the river Oceanus, to announce the coming light 
of the. sun to the gods as well as to mortals. lu 
the Homeric poems Eos not only announces the 
coming Sun, but accompanies him throughout the 
day, and her career is not complete till the even- 
ing ; hence she came to be regarded as the goddess 
of the daylight, and was completely identified by 
the tragic writers with Hernera. She carried off 
several youths distinguished for their beauty, sucli 
as Orion, Cephalus, and Tithonus, w^hence she 
is called by Ovid Titltojiia covjux. She bore 
Memnon to Tithonus. [Memnon.] By Astraeus 
she became the mother of Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, 
Heosphorus, and other stars. 

EpUminondaS (^Enm^LVoovZas, 'EiraaivcSpBas), 
the Theban general and statesman, son of Polym- 
nis, was born and reared in poverty, though his 
blood was noble. His close and enduring friend- 
ship with Pelopidas is said to have originated in 
the campaign in which they served together on the 
Spartan side against Mantinea, Avhere Pelopidas 
having fallen in a battle, apparently dead, Epami- 
nondas protected his body at the imminent risk of 
his own life, B. c. 385. After the Spartans had been 
expelled from Thebes, 379, Epaminondas took an 
active part in public affairs. In 371 he was one of 
the Theban commanders at the battle of Leuctra, so 
fatal to the Lacedaemonians, in which the success 
of Thebes is said to have been owing mainly to 
the tactics of Epaminondas. He it was who most 
strongly urged the giving battle, while he em- 
ployed all the means in his power to raise the 
courage of his countrymen, not excluding eveii 
omens and oracles, for which, when unfavourable, 
he had but recently expressed his contempt. Iii 
369 he was one of the generals in the 1st invasion 
of Peloponnesus by the Thebans ; and before leav- 
ing Peloponnesus he restored the Messenians to 
their country and established a new city, named 
Messene. On their return home Epaminondas and 
Pelopidas were impeached by their enemies, on a 
capital charge of having retained their command 
beyond the legal terra. The fact itself was true 
enough ; but they were both honourably acquitted, 
Epaminondas having expressed his willingness to 
die if the Thebans would record that he had been 
put to death because he had humbled Sparta and 
taught his countrymen to face and to conquer her 
armies. In 368 he again led a Theban army into 
the Peloponnesus, but did not advance far, and, on 
his return, was repulsed by Chabrias in an attack 
which he made on Corinth. In the same year we 
find him serving, but not as general, in the Theban 
army which was sent into Thessaly to rescue Pelo- 
pidas from Alexander of Pherae, and which was. 
saved from utter destruction only by the ability of 
Epaminondas. In 367 he was sent at the head of 
another force to release Pelopidas, and accomplished 
his object without even striking a blow, and by 



242 



EPAPIIRODITUS. 



EPHORUS. 



the mere prestige of his name. In 3G6' he invaded 
the Peloponnesus for the 3rd time, and in 362 for 
the 4th time. In the latter year he gained a brilliant 
victory over the Lacedaemonians at Mantinea ; but 
in the full career of victory he received a mortal 
wound. He was told that his death would follow 
directly on the javelin being extracted from the 
wound ; and he would not allow this to be done 
till he had been assured that his shield was safe, 
and that the victory was with his countr\Tuen. It 
was a disputed point by whose hand he fell : 
among others, the honour was assigned to Gryllus, 
the son of Xenophon. Epaminondas was one of 
the greatest men of Greece. He raised Thebes to 
the supremacy of Greece, which she lost almost as 
soon as he died. Both in public and in private 
life he was distinguished by integritj' and upright- 
ness, and he carried into dailj' practice the lessons 
of philosophy, of which he was an ardent student. 

Epaphroditus {'ETra^p65iTos). 1. A freedman 
and favourite of the emperor Nero. He assisted 
Nero in killing himself, and he was afterwards put 
to death by Domitian. The philosopher Epictetus 
was his freedman. — 2. M. Mettius Epaphrodi- 
tus, of Chaeronea, a Greek grammarian, the slave 
and afterwards the freedman of Modestus, the prae- 
fect of Egypt. He subsequenth' went to Rome, 
where he resided in the reign of Nero and down 
to the time of Nerva. He was the author of several 
grammatical works and commentaries. 

Epaphus ("E-rracpos), son of Zeus and lo, born 
on the river Nile, after the long wanderings of his 
mother. He was concealed by the Curetes, at the 
request of Hera, but was discovered by lo in 
Syria. He subsequently became king of Egypt, 
married Memphis, a daughter of Nilus, or, according 
to others, Cassiopea, and built the city of Memphis, 
He had a daughter Libya, from whom Libj^a 
(Africa) received its name. 

Epei. [Elis.] 

Epetium CEniTiov : nr. Strobnecz, Ru.), a town 
of the Lissii in Dalmatia with a good harbour. 

Epeus ('ETreto's). 1. Son of Endjonion, king in 
Elis, from whom the Epei are said to have derived 
their name. — 2. Son of Panopeus, went with 30 
ships from the Cyclades to Troy. He built the 
wooden horse Avith the assistance of Athena. 

Ephesus (^E^ea-os : 'E^iaios : Ru. near Ayasa- 
luk, i. e. "Ayios QeoAoyos, the title of St. John), 
the chief of the 12 Ionian cities on the coast of 
Asia Minor, was said to have been founded by 
Carians and Leleges, and to have been taken pos- 
session of by Androclus, the son of Codrus, at the 
time of the great Ionian migration. It stood a 
little S. of the river Cayster, near its mouth, where 
a marshy plain, extending S. from the river, is 
bounded by two hills. Prion or Lepre on the E., 
and Coressus on the S. The city was built ori- 
ginally on Mt. Coressus, but, in the time of Croesus, 
the people transferred their habitations to the 
valley, whence Lysimachus, the general of Alex- 
ander, compelled thera again to remove to M. Prion. 
On the N. side of the cit}' was a lake, communi- 
cating with the Cayster, and forming the inner 
harbour, now a marsh ; the outer harbour (jravop- 
lios) was formed by the mouth of the river. In 
the plain, E. of the lake, and N.E. of the city, be- 
yond its Avails, stood the celebrated temple of Ar- 
temis, which was built in the 6th century b. c, by 
an architect named Chersiphron, and, after being 
burnt down by Herostratus in the night on which 



Alexander the Great was born (Oct. 13 — 14, E. c. 
356). was restored by the joint efforts of all the 
Ionian states, and was regarded as one of the 
wonders of the world : nothing noAv remains of the 
temple, except some traces of its foundations. The 
temple was also celebrated as an asylum, till Au- 
gustus deprived it of that privilege. The other 
buildings at Ephesus, of which there are any ruins, 
are the agora, theatre, odeum, stadium, gA'mnasium, 
and baths, temples of Zeus Olympius and of Julius 
Caesar, and a large building near the inner harbour : 
the foundations of the walls maj' also be traced, — 
With the rest of Ionia, Ephesus fell under the 
power successively of Croesus, the Persians, the 
Macedonians, and the Romans, It was always 
very flourishing, and became even more so as the 
other Ionian cities decayed. It was greatly fa- 
voured by its Greek rulers, especially by Lysima- 
chus, who, in honour of his second wife, gave it 
her name, Arsinoe, which, however, it did not 
long retain. Attains II. Philadelphus constructed 
docks for it, and improved its harbours. Under 
the Romans it was the capital of the province of Asia, 
and by far the greatest city of Asia Minor. It 
is conspicuous in the early history of the Christian 
Church, both St. Paul and St. John having laboured 
in it, and addressed epistles to the church of 
Ephesus ; and at one time its bishop possessed the 
rank and power of a patriarch over the churches 
in the province of Asia. Its position, and the ex- 
cellence of its harbours, made it the chief emporium 
for the trade of all Asia within the Taurus ; and 
its downfall was chiefly owing to the destruction of 
its harbours by the deposits of the Cayster. — In 
the earliest times Ephesus Avas called by various 
names, Alope, Ortygia, Morges, SniATna Tracheia, 
Samornia. and Ptelea. 

EpMaltes ('E^tdATTjy). 1. One of the Aloidae. 
[Aloeus.] -—2, a Malian, Avho in b.c, 480, when 
Leonidas AA-as defending the pass of Thermopylae, 
guided a body of Persians over the mountain path, 
and thus enabled them to fall on the rear of the 
Greeks. — 3. An Athenian statesman, Avas a friend 
and partisan of Pericles, whom he assisted in 
carrying his political measures. He is mentioned 
in particular as chiefly instrumental in that abridg- 
ment of the poAver of the Areopagus, which in- 
flicted such a blow on the oligarchical party, and 
against Avhich the Eumcnides of Aeschylus Avas 
directed. His services to the democratic cause 
excited the rancorous enmity of some of the oli- 
garchs, and led to his assassination during; the 
night, probably in 456. 

Ephippus ("E^tTTTTos). 1. An Athenian poet of 
the middle comed}-. — 2. Of OljTithus, a Greek 
historian of Alexander the Great, 

Ephorus ("E^opos), of Cymae in Aeolis, a cele- 
brated Greek historian, was a contemporary of 
Philip and Alexander, and flourished about B, c. 
340. He studied rhetoric under Isocrates, of Avhose 
pupils he and Theopompus were considered the 
most distinguished. On the advice of Theopompus 
he Avrote A History (^laropiai) in 30 books, which 
began Avith the return of the Heraclidae, and came 
doAA'n to the siege of Perinthus in 341. It treated 
of the history of the barbarians as "well as of the 
Greeks, and Avas thus the first attem.pt at Avriting 
a universal histor}"- that was eA"er made in Greece. 
It embraced a period of 750 years, and each of the 
30 books contained a compact portion of the his- 
tor\', Avhich formed a complete A\'hole by itself. 



EPHYRA. 

Epliorus did not live to complete the work, and 
it was finished by his son Demophilus. Diyllus 
began his history at the point at which the work 
of Ephorus left off. Ephorus also wrote a few 
other works of less importance, of which the titles 
only are preserved by the grammarians. Of the 
history likewise we have nothing but fragments. 
It was written in a clear and polished style, but 
was at the same time deficient in power and energy, 
Ephorus appears to have been faithful and impartial 
in the narration of events ; but he did not always 
follow the best authorities, and in the later part 
of his work he frequently differed from Herodotus, 
Thucydides, and Xenophon, on points on which 
they are entitled to credit. Diodorus Siculus made 
great use of the work of Ephorus. The fragments of 
his work have been published by Marx, Carlsruhe, 
1815, and in Miiller's Fragm. Historicor. Graec. 
Paris, 1841. 

Ephyra ("E(pvpa), 1. The ancient name of 
Corinth [Corinthus.] — 2. An ancient town of 
the Pelasgi near the river Selleis in Elis. —3. A 
town in Thessaly, afterwards called Cranon.— 4. 
A town in Epirus, afterwards called Cichyrus. 
=— 5. A small town in the district of Agraea in 
Aetolia. 

Epicaste ('ETr^/cafrTTj), commonly called Jocaste. 

Epicephesia (''ETriKrjcprjaia : 'ETriKrjcpriaLOs), a 
demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe Oeneis. 

Epich.arm.us ('ETrtxap/ios), the chief comic poet 
among the Dorians, was bom in the island of Cos, 
about B. c. 540. His father, Elothales, Avas a 
physician, of the race of the Asclepiads. At the age 
of 3 months, Epicharmus was carried to Megara, in 
Sicily ; thence he removed to Syracuse, when Megara 
was destroyed by Gelon (484 or 483). Here he 
spent the remainder of his life, which was prolongcil 
throughout the reign of Hieron, at whose court 
Epicharmus associated with the other great writers 
of the time, and among them with Aeschylus. He 
died at the age of 90 (450), or, according to Lucian, 
97 (443). Epicharmus was a Pythagorean philo- 
sopher, and spent the earlier part of his life in the 
study of philosophy, both physical and metaphy- 
sical. He is said to have followed for some time 
his father's profession of medicine ; and it appears 
that he did not commence writing comedies till his 
removal to Sj'racuse. Comedy had for some time 
existed at Megara in Sicily, which was a colony 
from Megara on the Isthmus, the latter of which 
towns disputed with the Athenians the invention of 
comedy. But the comedy at the Sicilian Megara 
before Epicharmus seems to have been little more 
than a low buifoonery. It was he, together with 
Phormis, who gave it a new form, and introduced 
a regular plot. The number of his comedies is 
diff'erently stated at 52, or at 35. There are still 
extant 35 titles. The majority of them are on my- 
thological subjects, that is, travesties of the heroic 
myths, and these plays no doubt very much re- 
sembled the satyric dramas of the Athenians. But 
besides mythology, Epicharmus wrote on other 
subjects, political, moral, relating to manners and 
customs, &c. The stj-le of his plays appears to 
have been a curious mixture of the broad buffoonery 
which distinguished the old Megarian comedy, and 
of the sententious wisdom of the Pythagorean phi- 
losopher. His language was remarkably elegant : 
he was celebrated for his choice of epitliets : his 
plays abounded, as the extant fragments prove, 
v.'ith philosophical and moral maxims. He was 



EPICURUS. 



243 



imitated by Crates, and also by Plautus, as we 
learn from the line of Horace {Epist. ii. 1. 58), — 

" Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi." 

The parasite, who forms so conspicuous a character 
in the plays of the new comedy, is first found in 
Epicharmus. 

Epicnemidii Locri. [Locris.] 

Epicrates {'EiriKparris). 1. An Athenian, took 
part in the overthrow of the 30 Tyrants ; but after- 
wards, when sent on an embassy to the Persian 
king Artaxerxes, he was accused of corruption in 
receiving money from Artaxerxes. He appears to 
have been acquitted this time ; but he was tried 
on a later occasion, on another charge of corruption, 
and only escaped death by a voluntary exile. He 
was ridiculed by the comic poets for his large beard, 
and for this reason was called (rafcecr^opos. =— 2. Of 
Ambracia, an Athenian poet of the middle comedy. 

Epictetus ('ETTi'/cTTjTos), of Hierapolis in Phrygia, 
a celebrated Stoic philosopher, was a freedman of 
Epaphroditus, who was himself a freedman of 
Nero. [Epaphroditus.] He lived and taught 
first at Rome, and, after the expulsion of the phi- 
losophers by Domitian, at Nicopolis in Epirus. 
Although he Avas favoured by Hadrian, he does 
not appear to have returned to Rome ; for the dis- 
courses which Arrian took down in writing were 
delivered by Epictetus when an old man at Nico- 
polis. Only a few circumstances of his life are re- 
corded, such as his lameness, which is spoken of in 
different ways, his poverty, and his few wants. 
Epictetus did not leave any works behind him, and 
the short manual (JEnchiridion), vv^hich bears his 
name, Avas compiled from his discourses by his 
faithful pupil Arrian. Arrian also wrote the phi- 
losophical lectures of his master in 8 books, from 
Avliich, though 4 are lost, we are enabled to gain a 
complete idea of the way in which Epictetus con- 
ceived and taught the Stoic philosophy. [Ar- 
RiANUS.] Being deepl}-- impressed with his voca- 
tion as a teacher, he aimed in his discourses at 
nothing else but winning the minds of his hearers 
to that which was good, and no one Avas able to 
resist the impression Avhich they produced. 

Epictetus Pkrygia. [Phrygia.] 

Epicurus {'Eir'iKovpos), a celebrated Greek phi- 
losopher, and the founder of a philosophical school 
called, after him, the Epicurean. He was a son of 
Neocles and Charestrata, and Avas born B, c. 342, 
in the island of Samos, where his father had settled 
as one of the Athenian cleruchi ; but he belonged 
to the Attic demos of Gargettus, and hence is some- 
times called the Gargettian. (Cic. adFam. xv. 16.) 
At the age of 18 Epicurus came to Athens, and 
there probably studied under Xenocrates, who was 
tlien at the head of the academy. After a short 
stay at Athens he went to Colophon, and subse- 
quently resided at Mytilene and Lampsacus, in 
which places he was engaged for 5 years in teach- 
ing philosophy. In 306, Avhen he had attained 
the age of 35, he again came to Athens, where he 
purchased for 80 minae a garden — the famous 
Ki]TToi 'E-jTiKovpov — in which he established his 
philosophical school. Here he spent the remainder 
of his life, surrounded by numerous friends and 
pupils. His mode of living was simple, temperate, 
and cheerful ; and the aspersions of comic poets 
and of later philosophers, Avho were opposed to 
his philosophy and describe him as a person de- 
voted to sensual pleasures, do not seem entitled to 

R 2 



241 



EPICURUS. 



EPIGONI. 



the least credit. He took no part in puLlic affairs. 
He died in 270, at the age of 7'2, after a long and 
painful illness, which he endured with truly philo- 
sophical patience and courage. — Epicurus is said 
to have written 300 volumes. Of these the most 
important was one On Nature (Uepl ^vaews), in ?>7 
books. All his works are lost ; but some frag- 
ments of the work on Nafore were found among the 
rolls at Herculaneum, and were published by 
Orelli, Lips. 1818. In his philosophical sj-stem, 
Epicurus prided himself in being independent of 
all his predecessors ; but he was in reality in- 
debted both to Democritus and the C}Tenaics. Epi- 
curus made ethics the most essential part of his 
philosophical system, since he regarded human 
happiness as the idtimate end of all philosophy. 
His ethical theory was based upon the dogma of 
the Cyrenaics. that pleasure constitutes the highest 
happiness, and must consequently be the end of all 
human exertions. Epicunis, however, developed 
and ennobled this theory in a manner which con- 
stitutes the real merit of his philosophy, and which 
gained for him so many friends and admirers both 
in antiquity and in modern times. Pleasure with 
him was not a mere momentary and transitory sen- 
sation, but he conceived it as something lasting and 
imperishable, consisting in pure and noble mental 
enjoyments, that is, in arapa^ia and aTrovia^ or the 
freedom from pain and firom all influences which 
disturb the peace of our mind, and thereby our 
happiness, which is the resTilt of it. The swiwium 
lonum. according to him, consisted in this peace of 
mind ; and this was based upon <pp6vr\<TLs^ which 
he described as the beginning of everything good, 
as the origin of all virtues, and which he himself 
therefore occasionally treated as the highest good 
itself. — In the physical part of his philosophy, he 
followed the atomistic doctrines of Democritus and 
Diagoras. His views are well knowm from Lucre- 
tius's poem De Rerum Katura. We obtain our 
knowledge and form our conceptions of things, ac- 
cording to him, through etSwAa, i. e. images of 
things which are reflected from them, and pass 
through our senses into our minds. Such a theory 
is destructive of all absolute truth, and a mere 
momentar}' impression upon our senses or feelings 
is substituted for it. The deficiencies of his system 
are most striking in his views concerning the gods, 
which drew upon him the charge of atheism. His 
gods, like every thing else, consisted of atoms, and 
our notions of them are based upon the u5w\a 
w^hich are reflected from them and pass into our 
minds. They were and always had been in the 
eni.ivinent of perfect happiness, which had not been 
disturbed by the laborious business of creating the 
world ; and as the government of the world would 
interfere with their happiness, he conceived them 
as exercising no influence whatever upon the world 
or man. The pupils of Epicurus were very nume- 
rous, and were attached to their master in a manner 
which has rarely been equalled either in ancient or 
modem times. But notwithstanding the extraor- 
dinary devotion of his pupils, there is no philosopher 
in antiquity who has been so violently attacked as 
Epicurus. This has been owing partly to a super- 
ficial knowledge of his philosophy, and partly to 
the conduct of men who called themselves Epicu- 
reans, and who, taking advantage of the facility 
with which his ethical theory was made the hand- 
maid of a sensual life, gave themselves up to the 
enjoyment of sensual pleasures. 



Epicydes ('EttjkuStjs), a Syracusan by origin, 
but born and educated at Carthage. He served, 
together with his elder brother Hippocrates, with 
much distinction in the army of Hannibal, both in 
Spain and Italy ; and when, after the battle of 
Cannae (b. c. 216), Hieronymus of Syracuse sent 
to make overtures to Hannibal, that general se- 
lected the 2 brothers as his envoys to Syracuse, 
They soon induced the young king to desert the 
Roman alliance. Upon the murder of Hieronj-mus 
shortly after, they were the leaders of the Cartha- 
ginian party at Syracuse, and eventually became 
masters of tlie city, which they defended against 
!Marcellus. Epicydes fled to Agrigentum, when 
he saw that the fall of Syracuse was inevitable. 

Epidanmus. [Dyrrhachium.] 

Epldaurus {'ETtidavpos : ^EinSavpios). L (Epi^ 
dauro). a town in Argolis on the Saronic gulf, 
formed with its territory Epidanria ('ETrtSaupi'a), a 
district independent of Argos, and was not in- 
cluded in Argolis till the time of the Romans. It 
was originally inhabited by lonians and Carians, 
whence it was called Epicarus^ but it was subdued 
by the Dorians under Deiphontes, who thus be- 
came the ruling race. Epidaurus was the chief 
seat of the worship of Aesculapius, and was to this 
circumstance indebted for its importance. The 
temple of this god, which was one of the most mag- 
nificent in Greece, was situated about 5 miles 
S. W. of Epidaurus. A few ruins of it are still 
extant. The worship of Aesculapius was intro- 
duced into Rome from Epidaurus. See Aescula- 
pius. —2. Surnamed Limera (77 Aifirjpd: Alonem- 
Lasia or Old Mahasia)^ a town in Laconia, on the 
E. coast, said to have been founded by Epidaurus- 
in Argolis, possessed a good harbour. — 3. {Old 
Baausa), a town in Dalmatia, 

Epidelium {'Ett Ld-fjMov), a town in Laconia on 
the E. coast, S. of Epidaurus Limera, with a 
temple of Apollo and an image of the god, which 
once thrown into the sea at Delos is said to have 
come to land at this place. 

Epigenes CETriyevns). 1. An Athenian poet 
of the middle comedy, flourished about B. c. 380. 
— 2. Of Sicyon, who has been confounded by 
some with his namesake the comic poet, preceded 
Thespis, and is said to have been the most ancient 
writer of tragedy. It is probable that Epigenes 
was the first to introduce into the old dithyrambre 
and satyrical TpaycvSia other subjects than the 
original one of the fortunes of Dionysus. — 3. Of 
Byzantium, a Greek astronomer, mentioned by 
Seneca, Pliny, and Censorinus. He professed to 
have studied in Chaldea, but his date is uncertain. 

Epigoni {'Ewiyovoi), that is, " the Descendants," 
the name in ancient mythology of the sons of the 7 
heroes who perished before Thebes. [Adrastus.] 
Ten years after their death, the descendants of the 
7 heroes marched against Thebes to avenge their 
fathers. The names of the Epigoni are not the 
same in all accounts ; but the common lists contain. 
Alcmaeon, Aegialeus, Diomedes, Promachus, Sthe- 
nelus, Thersander, and Euryalus. Alcmaeon un- 
dertook the command, in accordance w-ith an oracle, 
and collected a considerable body of Argives. The 
Thebans marched out against the enemy, under the 
command of Laodamas, after whose death they 
fied into the city. On the part of the Epigoni, 
Aegialeus had fallen. The seer Tiresias, knowing 
that the city was doomed to fall, persuaded the 
inhabitants to quit it. and take their wives and 



EPIMENIDES. 



EPOPEUS. 



245 



children with them. The Epigoni thereupon took 
possession of Thebes, and razed it to the ground. 
They sent a portion of the booty and Manto, the 
daughter of Tiresias, to Delphi, and then returned 
to Peloponnesus. The war of the Epigoni Avas 
made the subject of epic and tragic poems. 

Epimenides ('ETrj/xei'i'STjs). 1. A celebrated 
poet and prophet of Crete, whose history is to a 
great extent mythical. He was reckoned among 
the Curetes, and is said to have been the son of a 
nymph. He was a native of Phaestus in Crete, 
and appears to have spent the greatest part of his 
life at Cnossus, Avhence he is sometimes called a 
Cnossian. There is a legend that when a boy, he 
was sent out by his father in search of a sheep, 
nnd that seeking shelter from the heat of the mid- 
day sun, he went into a cave, and there fell into a 
deep sleep, which lasted 57 years. On waking and 
returning home, he found to his great amazement 
that his younger brother had in the mean time 
grown an old man. He is further said to have 
attained the age of 154, 157, or even of 229 years. 
— His visit to Athens, hov/ever, is an historical 
fact, and determines his date. The Athenians, 
Avho were visited by a plague in consequence of 
the crime of Cylon [Cylon], consulted the Del- 
phic oracle about the means of their delivery. The 
god commanded them to get their city purified, 
and the Athenians invited Epimenides to come 
and undertake the purification. Epimenides ac- 
cordingly came to Athens, about B. c. 596, and 
performed the desired task by certain mysterious 
rites and sacrifices, in consequence of which the 
plague ceased. Epimenides was reckoned by some 
among the 7 Avise men of Greece ; but all that 
tradition has handed down about him suggests a 
very different character from that of the seven ; 
be must rather be ranked in the class of priestly 
bards and sages who are generally comprised under 
the name of the Orphici. Many works, both in 
prose and verse, were attributed to him by the an- 
cients, and the Apostle Paul has preserved {Titus, i. 
12) a celebrated verse of his against the Cretans. 

iSpimetlieus. [Prosietheus and Pandora.] 

Epiphanes, a surname of Antiochus IV. and 
Antiochus XI., kings of Syria. 

Epiphania or ea (^'E-KKpaveia.). 1. In S3'ria 
(0. T. Hamath : Hamah), in the district of Cas- 
siotis, on the left bank of the Orontes, an early 
colony of the Phoenicians ; may be presumed, from 
its later name, to have been restored or improved 
by Antiochus Epiphanes. — 2. In Asia Minor 
(Urzin), on the S. E. border of Cilicia, close to 
the Pylae Amanides, was formerly called Oenian- 
dus, and probably owed its new name to Antiochus 
Epiphanes. Pompey repeopled this city with some 
of the pirates whom he had conquered. — There 
■were some other Asiatic cities of the name. 

Epiphanius {"Eir^cpdvios), one of the Greek fa- 
thers, was born near Eleutheropolis in Palestine, 
about A. D. 320, of Jewish parents. He went to 
Egypt when young, and there appears to have 
been tainted with Gnostic errors, but afterwards 
fell into the hands of some monks, and by them 
was made a strong advocate for the monastic life. 
He returned to Palestine, and lived there for some 
time as a monk, having founded a monastery near 
his native place. In A. D. 367 he was chosen 
bishop of Constantia, the metropolis of Cyprus, 
formerly called Salamis. His writings shew him 
to have been a man of great reading ; for he was 



acquainted with Hebrew, Syriac, Greek, Egyptian, 
and Latin. But he was entirely without critical or 
logical power ; of real piet}^ but also of a very 
bigoted and dogmatical turn of mind. He distin- 
guished himself by his opposition to heresy, and 
especially to Origen's errors. He died 402. His 
most important work is entitled Fanariiim^ being 
a discourse against heresies. The best edition of 
his works is by Petavius, Paris, 1622, and Lips. 
1682, with a commentary by Valesius. 

Epipolae. [Syracusae.] 

Epirus {"HTveipos : 'HTreipwTrjs, fem. 'HTreipwTis: 
Albania), that is, " the mainland," a country in the 
N. W. of Greece, so called to distinguish it from 
Corcyra and the other islands off the coast. Homer 
gives the name of Epirus to the whole of the W. 
coast of Greece, thus including Acarnania in it. 
Epirus was bounded by Illyria and Macedonia on 
the N., by Thessaly on the E., by Acarnania and 
the Ambracian gulf on the S., and by the Ionian 
sea on the W. The principal mountains Avere the 
Acroceraunii, forming the N. W. boundary, and 
Pindus, forming the E. boundary ; besides which 
there were the mountains Tomarus in the E., and 
Crania in the S. The chief rivers were the Celyd- 
nus, Thyamis, Acheron, and Arachthus. — The in- 
habitants of Epirus were numerous, but were not of 
pure Hellenic blood. The original population ap- 
pears to have been Pelasgic ; and the ancient 
oracle of Dodona in the country was always re- 
garded as of Pelasgic origin. These Pelasgians 
Avere subsequently mingled Avith Illyrians, who at 
various times invaded Epirus and settled in the 
country. Epirus contained 14 different tribes. Of 
these the most important were the Chaones, The^:- 
PROTi and MoLOSSi, Avho gave their names to ti t 
3 principal divisions of the country Chaonia, 
Thesprotia, and Molossis. The different tribes 
Avere originally governed by their oAvn princes. The 
Molossian princes, Avho traced their descent from 
Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus), son of Achilles, subse- 
quently acquired the sovereignty over the whole 
country, and took the title of kings of Epirus. The 
first Avho bore this title Avas Alexander, Avho in- 
A'aded Italy to assist the Tarentines against the 
Lucanians and Bruttii, and perished at the battle 
of Pandosia, B. c. 326. The most celebrated of 
the later kings AA'as Pyrrhus, Avho carried on war 
Avith the Romans. About B. c. 200 the Epirots esta- 
blished a republic ; and the Romans, after the con- 
quest of Philip, 197, guaranteed its independence. 
But in consequence of the support which the Epi- 
rots afforded to Antiochus and Perseus, Aemiiius 
Paulus received orders from the senate to punish 
them with the utmost severity. He destroyed 70 
of their towns, and sold 150,000 of the inhabitants 
for slaves. In the time of Augustus the country 
had not yet recovered from the effects of this 
deA-astation. 

Epirus Nova. [Illyricum.] 

Epona (from epus^ that is, equus), a Roman god- 
dess, the protectress of horses. Images of her, 
either statues or paintings, were frequently seen in 
niches of stables. 

Epopeus ('ETTWTreus). 1, Son of Poseidon and 
Canace, came from Thessaly to Sicyon, of wliicli 
place he became king. He carried away from 
Thebes the beautiful Antiope, daughter of Nycteus, 
Avho therefore made war upon Ep&peus. The two 
kings died of the wounds Avhich they received m 
the Avar. —2, One of the Tyrrhenian pirates, who 

R 3 



246 



EPOREDTA. 



ERESUS. 



attempted to cany off Bacchus, but were changed 
by the pod into dolpliins. 

Eporedia {Ivrea), a town in Gallia Cisalpina on 
the Duria in the territory of the Salassi, colonised 
by the Romans, B. c. 100, on the command of the 
Sibylline books, to serve as a bulwark against the 
neighbouring Alpine tribes. 

Eporedoriz, a chieftain of the Aedui, was one 
of the commanders of the Aeduan cavalry, which 
was sent to Caesar's aid against Vercingetorix, in 
B. c. 52; but he himself revolted soon afterwards and 
joined the enemj', 

Epytus, a Trojan, father of Periphas, who was 
a companion of lulus, and is called by the patro- 
nymic Epytides. 

Equester ("iTTTTios), a surname of several divi- 
nities, but especially of Poseidon (Neptune), who 
had created the horse, and in whose honour horse- 
races were held. 

Equus Tuticus or Aequum Tuticum, a small 
town of the Hirpini in Samnium, 21 miles from 
Beneventum. The Scholiast on Horace {Sat. i. 5. 
87), supposes, but without sufficient reasons, that it 
is the town, qicod versu dicere non est. 

Erae ("Epai: Sighajik?), a small but strong 
seaport town on the coast of Ionia, N. of Teos. 

Erana, a tovm in M. Amanus, the chief seat 
of the Eleutherocilices in the time of Cicero. 

Erarmoboas ( 'EpawoSoas Gundzik), a river 
of India, one of the chief tributaries of the Ganges, 
into which it fell at Palimbothra. 

Erasinides {'Epaa-rAd-ns), one of the Athenian 
commanders at the battle of Arginusae. He was 
among the 6 commanders who returned to Athens 
after the victory, and were put to death, B.C. 406. 

Erasmus {'Epaaivos). 1. (KepJialari), the chief 
river in Argolis, rises in the lake Stymphalus, then 
disappears under the earth, rises again out of the 
mountain Chaon, and after receiving the river 
Phrixus, flows through the Lernaean marsh into 
the Argolic gulf.— 2. A small river near Brauron 
in Attica. 

Erasistratus ('Epaa-iarTparos), a celebrated phy- 
sician and anatomist, was bom at lulis in the island 
of Ceos. He was a pupil of Chrysippus of Cnidos, 
Metrodorus, and apparently Theophrastus. He 
flourished from B.C. 300 to 260. He lived for 
some time at the court of Seleucus Nicator, king of 
Syria, where he acquired great reputation by dis- 
covering that the illness of Antiochus, the king's 
eldest son, was owing to his love for his mother-in- 
law, Stratonice, the young and beautiful daughter 
of Demetrius Poliorcetes, whom Seleucus had lately 
married. Erasistratus afterwards lived at Alex- 
andria, which was at that time beginning to be a 
celebrated medical school. He gave up practice in 
his old age, that he might pursue his anatomical 
studies without interruption. He prosecuted his 
experiments in this branch of medical science Avith 
great success, and with such ardour that he is paid 
to have dissected criminals alive. He had numerous 
pupils and followers, and a medical school bearing 
his name continued to exist at Smyrna in Ionia 
about^the beginning of the Christian era. 

Eratldae ('EpariSai), an illustrious family of 
lalysus in Rhodes, to which Damagetus and his 
son Diagoras belonged. 

Erato ('Eparw), 1. Wife of Areas, and mother 
of Elatus and Aphidas. [Arcas,]— 2. One of the 
Muses. [MusAE.] 

Eratosthenes ('EpaToa-0eVrjs), of Gyrene, was 



I born B. c. 276. He first studied in his native city 
and then at Athens. He was taught by Ariston 
I of Chius, the philosopher ; Lysanias of Cyrene, the 
I grammarian ; and Callimachus, the poet. He left 
i Athens at the invitation of Ptolemy Evergetes, 
! who placed him over the library at Alexandria. 

Here he continued till the reign of Ptolemy Epi- 
I phanes. He died at the age of '60, about B. c, 196, 
of voluntary starvation, having lost his sight, and 
being tired of life. He was a man of very extensive 
learning, and wrote on almost all the branches of 
knowledge then cultivated — astronomy, geometrj', 
geography, philosophy, history, and grammar. He 
is supposed to have constructed the large armillae 
or fixed circular instruments which were long in 
use at Alexandria. His works have perished, with 
the exception of some fragments. His most cele- 
brated work was a systematic treatise on geograph}-, 
entitled T^wyparpiKa, in 3 books. The first book, 
which formed a sort of introduction, contained a 
critical review of the labours of his predecessors 
from the earliest to his own times, and investiga- 
tions concerning the form and nature of the earth, 
which, according to him, was an immovable globe. 
The second book contained what is now called 
mathematical geography. He was the first person 
who attempted to measure the magnitude of the 
earth, in which attempt he brought forward and 
used the method which is employed to the present 
day. The third book contained political geo- 
graphy, and gave descriptions of the various coun- 
tries, derived from the works of earlier travellers 
and geographers. In order to be able to determine 
the accurate site of each place, he drew a line pa- 
rallel with the equator, running from the pillars of 
Hercules to the extreme east of Asia, and dividing 
the whole of the inhabited earth into two halves. 
Connected with this v.-ork was a new map of the 
earth, in which towns, mountains, rivers, lakes, 
and climates were marked according to his ovrn 
-improved measurements. This important work of 
Eratosthenes forms an epoch in the history of ancient 
geography. Strabo, as well as other A\Titers, made 
great use of it. Eratosthenes also wrote 2 poems on 
astronomical subjects : one entitled 'Ep^^y or Kara- 
arepia/xo'i, which treated of the constellations; and 
another entitled ^Upiyovrj : but the poem KaTacrre- 
pia/u-OL, which is still extant under his name, is not 
the work of Eratosthenes. He wrote several his- 
torical works, the most important of which was a 
chronological work entitled Xpovoypacp'ia, in which 
he endeavoured to fix the dates of all the important 
events in literary, as well as political history. The 
most celebrated of his grammatical works was On 
the Old Attic Comedy (Uepl ttJs 'Apxa'iasKufi(fB'ias). 
The best collection of his fragments is by Bemhardy, 
JSratosthenica^ Berol. 1822. 

Erbessus ('Ep§7jo-(r(5s), a town in Sicily, N.E. of 
Agrigentum near the sources of the Acragas, Avhich 
must not be confounded with the town Herbessus 
near Syracuse. 

Ercta {ElpKTT} or ElpKrai), a fortress in Sicily 
on a hill with a harbour near Panormus. 

Erebus ("Epegos), son of Chaos, begot Aether 
and Hemera (Day) by Nyx (Night), his sister. 
The name signifies darkness, and is therefore ap- 
plied also to the dark and gloomy space under the 
earth, through which the shades pass into Hades. 
Erechtheum. [Erichthonius.] 
Erechtlieus. [Erichthonius.] 
Eresus or Eressus (^^Ep^cos, "Epecraos : 'Epi. 



ERETRIA. 



ERIPHYLE. 



247 



<rios\ a town on the W. coast of the island of 
Lesbos, the birthplace of Theophrastus and Phanias, 
and, according to some, of Sappho. 

'Eietria,CEpeTpia:'Eperpievs:FaIaeo-Castro),an 
ancient and important town in Euboea on the Eu- 
ripus, with a celebrated harbour Porthmos {Porto 
Bufulo), Avas founded by the Athenians, but had a 
mixed population, among Avhich Avas a considerable 
number of Dorians. Its commerce and navy raised 
it in early times to importance ; it contended with 
Chalcis for the supremacy of Euboea; it ruled over 
several of the neighbouring islands, and planted 
colonies in iMacedonia and Italy. It was destroyed 
by the Persians, B. c. 490, and most of its inha- 
bitants were carried away into slavery. Those 
who were left behind built, at a little distance from 
the old city, the town of New Eretria, which, 
however, never became a place of importance. — 2. 
A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly near Pharsalus. 

Erglnus ('Ep7rj^os), son of Clymenus, king of 
Orchomenos. After Clymenus had been killed at 
Thebes, Erginus, who succeeded him, marched 
against Thebes, and compelled them to pay him an 
annual tribute of 100 oxen. The Thebans were 
released from the payment of this tribute Her- 
cules, who killed Erginus. 

Erichthonii* {'EpixQovLos), or Erechtlieus 
('Epex^eus). In the ancient myths these two 
names indicate the same person ; lout later writers 
mention 2 heroes, one of whom is usually called 
Erichthonius or Erechtheus I. and the other Erech- 
theus 11. Komer knows only one Erechtheus, as 
an autochthon and king of Athens; and the first | 
writer Avho distinguishes 2 personages is Plato. | 
—1. Erickthonius or Erechtheus I., son of He- | 
phaestus and Atti^is, the daughter of Cranaus. i 
Athena reared the child Avitliout the knowledge of j 
the other gods, and entrusted him to Agraulos, | 
Pandrosos, and Herse, concealed in a chest. They 
were forbidden to open the chest, but they dis- 
obeyed the command. Upon opening the chest 
they saw the child in the form of a serpent, or 
entwined by a serpent, whereupon they Avere seized 
with madness, and threAv themselves doAvn the 
rock of the acropolis, or, according to others, into 
the sea. When Erichthonius had groAvn up, he 
expelled Amphictyon, and became king of Athens. 
His wife Pasithea bore him a son Pandion. He is 
said to have introduced the worship of Athena, to 
have instituted the festiA'al of the Panathenaea, 
and to have built a temple of Athena on the acro- 
polis. When Athena and Poseidon disputed about 
the possession of Attica, Erichthonius declared in 
favour of Athena. He was further the first Avho 
used a chariot Avith 4 horses, for which reason he 
was placed among the stars as auriga. He AA'as 
buried in the temple of Athena, and Avas Avor- 
shipped as a god after his death. His famous 
temple, the Erechtheum, stood on the acropolis, 
and contained 3 separate temples ; one of Athena 
Polias or the protectress of the state, the Erech- 
ilieum proper or sanctuary of Erechtheus, and the 
Pandrosmm or sanctuary of Pandrosos.— >2. Erech- 
theus II., grandson of the former, son of Pandion 
by Zeuxippe, and brother of Butes, Procne, and 
Philomela. After his father's death, he succeeded 
him as king of Athens, and was regarded in later 
times as one of the Attic eponymi. He AA'as married 
to Praxithea, by whom he became the father of 
Cecrops, Pandoros, Metion, Omeus, Procris, Creusa, 
Chthonia, and Orithyia. In the war betAveen the 



Eleusinians and Athenians, Eumolpus, the son of 
Poseidon, was slain; Avhereupon Poseidon demanded 
the sacrifice of one of the daughters of Erechtheus. 
When one Avas draAvn by lot, her 3 sisters resolved 
to die Avith her; and Erechtheus himself Avas killed 
by Zeus Avith a flash of lightning at the request of 
Poseidon. 

Erichthonius, son of Dardanus and Batea, hus- 
band of Astyoche or Callirrhoe, and father of Tros 
or Assaracus. He was the Avealthiest of all mortals; 
3000 mares grazed in his fields, Avhich Avere so 
beautiful, that Boreas fell in love Avith them, Ke 
is mentioned also among the kings of Crete. 

Ericinium, a tOA\-n in Thessaly near Gomphi. 

Eridanus (Hpidavos), a riA-er god, a son of 
Oceanus and Tethys, and father of Zeuxippe. He 
is called the king of rivers, and on his banks amber 
Avas found. In Homer the name does not occur, 
and the first Avriter Avho mentions it is Hesiod. 
The position which the ancient poets assign to the 
river Eridanus differed at different times. In later 
times the Eridanus Avas supposed to be the same as 
the Padus, because amber Avas found at its mouth. 
Hence the Electrides Insulae or " Amber Islands 
are placed at the mouth of the Po, and here 
Phaethon AA'as supposed to haA'e fallen AA^hen 
struck by the lightning of Zeus. The Latin 
poets frequenth' give the name of Eridanus to the 
Po. [Padus.] 

Erigon ('Ep^Yuj;/), a tributary of the Axius in 
Macedonia the Agrianus of Herodotus. [Axius.] 

Erigone QYipi-yovri). 1. Daughter of Icarius, 
beloA-ed by Bacchus. For the legend respecting 
her, see Icarius. =-2. Daughter of Aegisthus and 
Clytaemnestra, and mother of Penthilus by Orestes. 
Another legend relates that Orestes wanted to kill 
her Avith her mother, but that Artemis removed 
her to Attica, and there made her her priestess. 
Others state that Erigone put an end to herself 
Avhen she heard that Orestes Avas acquitted by the 
Areopagus. 

Erineus ('Epi^/eo's or 'Epiveov : 'Epivevs, 'Epived- 
TTjs). 1. A small but ancient toAvn in Doris, be- 
longing to the Tetrapolis. [Doris.]— 2. A toAvn 
in Phthiotis in Thessaly. 

Erinna ('HpiVva), a Greek poetess, a contem- 
porary and friend of Sappho (about B.C. 612), who 
died at the age of 19, but left behind her poems 
Avhich Avere thought Avorthy to rank Avith those of 
Homer. Her poems Avere of the epic class : the 
chief of them Avas entitled 'HAawraTr/, ihe Distaff: 
it consisted of 300 lines, of Avhich only 4 are ex- 
tant. It was Avritten in a dialect Avhich Avas a 
mixture of the Doric and Aeolic, and Avhich was 
spoken at Rhodes, Avhere, or in the adjacent island 
of Telos, Erinna Avas born. She is also called a 
Lesbian and a Mytilenaean, on account of her re- 
sidence in Lesbos Avith Sappho. There are several 
epigrams upon Erinna, in Avhich her praise is cele- 
brated, and her untimely death is lamented. 3 epi- 
grams in the Greek Anthology are ascribed to her, 
of which the first has the genuine air of antiquity ; 
but the other two, addressed to Baucis, seem to be 
a later fabrication. — Eusebius mentions another 
Erinna, a Greek poetess, contemporary Avith De- 
mosthenes and Philip of Macedon, b. c. 352 ; but 
this statement ought probably to be rejected. 

Erinyes. [Eumenides.] 

Eriphus (^EpKpos)^ an Athenian poet of the 
middle comedy. 

Enphyle {^Epi(pvKri), daughter of Talaus and 

R 4 



248 



ERIS. 



ERYTHRAE. 



Lysimache, and wife of Amphiaraus, whom she 
betrayed for the sake of the necklace of Harnionia. 
For details see Amphiaraus, Alcmaeon, Har- 

WONIA, 

Eris ("Epis), the goddess of Discord. Homer 
describes her as the friend and sister of Ares, and 
as delighting with him in the tumult of war and 
the havoc and anguish of the battle-field. Accord- 
ing to Ilesiod she was a daughter of Night, and 
the poet describes her as the mother of a variety 
of allegorical beings, which are the causes or re- 
presentatives of man's misfortunes. It was Eris 
who threw the apple into the assembly of the gods, 
tlie cause of so much suffering and war. [Paris.] 
— Virgil introduces Discordia as a being similar 
to the Homeric Eris ; for Discordia appears in 
company with Mars, Bellona, and the Furies, and 
Virgil is evidently imitating Homer. 

Eriza (ra "Epi^a : 'EpL^-quos), a cit}^ of Caria, 
on the borders of Lycia and Phr^-gia, on the river 
Chaiis (or rather Caiis). The surrounding dis- 
trict was called Asia Erizena. 

Eros (*'Epos), ill Latin, Amor or Cupido, the 
god of Love. In order to understand the ancients 
properly we must distinguish 3 gods of this name : 
1. The Eros of the ancient cosmogonies ; 2. The 
Eros of the philosophers and mysteries, who bears 
great resemblance to the first ; and 3. The Eros 
whom we meet with in the epigrammatic and 
erotic poets. Homer does not mention Eros, and 
Hesiod, the earliest author who speaks of him, 
describes him as the cosmogonic Eros. First, says 
Hesiod, there was Chaos, then came Ge, Tartarus, 
and Eros, the fairest among the gods, who rules 
over the minds and the council of gods and men. 
By the philosophers and in the mysteries Eros was 
regarded as one of the fundamental causes in the 
formation of the world, inasmuch as he was the 
uniting power of love, which brought order and 
harmony among the conflicting elements of which 
Chaos consisted. The Orphic poets described him 
as a son of Cronus, or as the first of the gods who 
sprang from the world's egg ; and in Plato's Sym- 
posium he is likewise called the oldest of the gods. 
The Eros of later poets, who gave rise to that 
notion of the god whicli is most familiar to us, is 
one of the youngest of all the gods. The parentage 
of this Eros is very differently described. He is 
usually represented as a son of Aphrodite (Venus), 
but his father is either Ares (Mars), Zeus (Ju- 
piter), or Hermes (Mercury). He was at first 
represented as a handsome youth ; but shortly after 
the time of Alexander the Great the epigrammatists 
and erotic poets represented him as a wanton boy, 
of whom a thousand tricks and cruel sports were 
related, and from whom neither gods nor men were 
safe. In this stage Eros has nothing to do with 
uniting the discordant elements of the universe, or 
with the higher sympathy or love which binds 
human kind together; but he is purely the god of 
sensual love, who bears sway over the inhabitants 
of Olympus as well as over men and all living 
creatures. His arms consist of arrows, which he 
carries in a golden quiver, and of torches which no 
one can touch with impunit3^ His arrows are of 
different power : some are golden, and kindle love 
in the heart they wound ; others are blunt and 
heavy with lead, and produce aversion to a lover. 
Eros is further represented with golden wings, and 
as fluttering about like a bird. His eyes are some- 
times covered, so that he acts blindly. He is the 



usual companion of his mother Aphrodite, and 
poets and artists represent him moreover as accom- 
panied by such allegorical beings as Pothos, Hime- 
ros, Tyche, Peitho, the Charites or Muses. — • 
Anteros, which literally means return-love, is usually 
represented as the god who punishes those who did 
not return the love of others : thus he is the avenging 
Eros, or a deus iiltur (Ov. Afet. xiii. 750). But in 
some accounts he is described as a god opposed to 
Eros and struggling against him. — The immber of 
Erotes (Amores and Cupidines) is playfully ex- 
tended ad libitum by later poets, and these Erotes 
are described either as sons of Aphrodite or of 
nymphs. — Among the places distinguished for the 
worship of Eros, Thespiae in Boeotia stands fore- 
most : there a quinquennial festival, the Erotidia 
or Erotia, was celebrated in his honour. In an- 
cient Avorks of art, Eros is represented either as a 
full-grown youth of the most perfect beauty, or as 
a wanton and sportive boy. — Respecting the con- 
nection between Eros and Psyche, see Psyche. 

Erotianus {^EpwTiavos), a Greek grammarian 
or physician in the reign of Nero, wrote a work 
still extant, entitled Tu>u nap' 'iTnvoKpdTci Ad^euv 
'2,vuayuyri, Vocum, quae apud Hippocratem sunt^ 
Collection which is dedicated to Andromachus, the 
archiater of the emperor. The belt edition is by 
Franz, Lips. 1780. 

Erubrus {Riiher\ a small tributary of the Mo- 
selle, near Treves. 

Erymanthus (^EpvixauQos). 1. A lofty mountain 
in Arcadia on the frontiers of Achaia and Elis, 
celebrated in mythology as the haunt of the savage 
Erymanthian boar destroyed by Hercules. [Her- 
cules.] — The Arcadian nymph Callisto, who was 
changed into a she-bear, is called Erymanthis ursa^ 
and her son Areas Eryynanthidis ursae custos. 
[Arctos.]— 2. A river in Arcadia, which rises in 
the above-mentioned mountain, and falls into the 
Alpheus. 

Erymanthus or Etymandrus ('Epvixav6os, 'Etv- 
IxavZpos Arrian. : Heimund), a considerable river 
in the Persian province of Arachosia, rising in M. 
Paropamisus, and flowing S.W. and W. into the 
lake called Aria (Zarah). According to other 
accounts, it lost itself in the sand, or flowed on 
through Gedrosia into the Indian Ocean. 

Erysichthon ('Epu<n'x0co;/), that is, " the Tearer 
up of the Earth." 1. Son of Triopas, cut down trees 
in a grove sacred to Deraeter, for which he was 
punished by the goddess with fearful hunger.— 
2. Son of Cecrops and Agraulos, died without issue 
in his father's lifetime on his return from Delos, 
from whence he brought to Athens the ancient 
image of Ilithyia. 

Erythini CEpvQlpoi)^ a city on the coast of 
Paphlagonia, between Cromna and Amastris. A 
range of cliMs near it was called by the same name. 

Erythrae CEpvOpai: 'Epvepalos). l.CNr.Pigadia 
Ru.), an ancient town in Boeotia, not far from 
Plataeae and Hysia, and celebrated as the mother 
city of Erythrae in Asia Minor. — 2. A town of 
the Locri Ozolae, but belonging to the Aetolians, 
E, of Naupactus. — 3. (Riiri, Ru.), one of the 
1 2 Ionian cities of Asia Minor, stood at the bot- 
tom of a large bay, on the W. side of the penin- 
sula Avhich lies opposite to Chios. Tradition 
ascribed its foundation to a mixed colony of Cretans, 
Lycians, Carians, and Pamphylians, under Ery- 
thros the son of Rhadamanthus ; and the leader of 
the lonians, who afterwards took possession of it, 



ERYTHRAEUM. 



ETRURIA. 



249 



"was said to have been Cnopus, the son of Codrus, 
after whom the city was also called Cnopopolis 
(KuccTToviroXis). The little river Aleos (or rather 
Axus, as it appears on coins) flowed past the city, 
and the neighbouring sea-port towns of Cyssus or 
Casystes, and Phoenicus, formed its harbours. 
Er3'thrae contained a temple of Hercules and 
Athena Polias, remarkable for its antiquity ; and 
on the coast near the city v/as a rock called Nigrum 
Promontorium (^Kpa /xeXaiva), from Avhich excel- 
lent mill-stones were hewn. 

Erythraeum Mare (ij 'EpvOpa Sfdhaatxa, also 
rarely 'Epudpa7os ttSptos), was the namo applied 
originally to the whole expanse of sea between 
Arabia and Africa on the W., and India on the E., 
including its two great gulfs (the Red Sea and 
Persian Gulf). In this sense it is used by Hero- 
dotus, who also distinguishes the Red Sea by the 
name of 'ApdSios k6\tvos. [Arabicus Sinus.] 
Supposing the shores of Africa and Arabia to trend 
more and more away from each other the further 
S. you go, he appears to have called the head of 
the sea between them o ""ApdSios k6Kttos^ and the 
rest of that sea, as far S. as it extended, and also 
E. wards to the shores of India, ?7 'Epvdp^ ^dXaacra, 
and also 77 NoxiTj SfdKacraa ; though there are, again, 
some indications of a distinction between these 2 
terms, the latter being applied to the whole ex- 
panse of ocean S. of the former ; in one passage, 
however, they are most expressly identified (ii. 
158). Afterwards, when the true form of these 
seas became to be better known, through the pro- 
gress of maritime discovery under the Ptolemies, 
their parts were distinguished by different names, 
the main body of the sea being called Indicus Ocea- 
nus, the Red Sea Arabicus Sinus, the Persian Gulf 
Persicus Sinus, and the name Erythraeum Mare 
being confined by some geographers to the gulf be- 
tween the Straits of Bah-el-Mandeb and the Indian 
Ocean, but far more generally used as identical 
with Arabicus Sinus, or the corresponding genuine 
Latin term. Mare Rubrum {Red Sea). Still, how- 
ever, even long after the commencement of our era, 
the name Erythraeum Mare was sometimes used in 
its ancient sense, as in the Uep[ir\ovs ttjs 'Epvdpas 
^a\d<Tar]s, ascribed to Arrian, but really the work 
of a later period, which is a description of the 
coast from Mjos Hormos on the Red Sea to the 
shores of India. The origin of the name is doubt- 
ful, and Avas disputed by the ancients : it is gene- 
rally supposed that the Greek 'Epvdpd ^d\aaaa is 
a significant name, identical in meaning with the 
Latin and English names of the Red Sea ; but 
why red no very satisfactory reason has been given ; 
the Hebrew name signifies the sedgy sea. 

Eryx {"Epvi,). 1. Also ErycusMons {S. Giu- 
Uano), a steep and isolated mountain in the N.W. 
of Sicily near Drepanum. On the summit of this 
mountain stood an ancient and celebrated temple of 
Aphrodite (Venus), said to have been built by 
Eryx, king of the Elymi, or, according to Virgil, 
by Aeneas, but more probably by the Phoenicians, 
who introduced the worship of Aphrodite into 
Sicily. [Aphrodite.] From this temple the god- 
dess bore the surname Erycina, under which name 
her worship was introduced at Rome about the 
'beginning of the 2nd Punic war. At present there 
is standing on the summit of the mountain the 
remains of a castle, originally built by the Saracens. 
— 2. The town of this name was on the W. slope 
of the mountain. It was destroyed by the Cartha- 



ginians in the time of Pyrrhus ; was subsequently 
rebuilt; but was again destroyed by the Cartha- 
ginians in the 1st Punic war, and its inhabitants 
removed to Drepanum. 

Esdraela CEcrSpariXd) and Esdraelon or Esdre- 
lon, or-om {'Eadp-qXcov or -cift), the Greek names 
for the city and valley of Jezreel in Palestine. 

Esquiliae. [Roma.] 

Essiii, a people in Gaul, W. of the Sequana, 
probably the same as the people elsewhere called 
Esubii and Sesuvii. 

Estiones, a people in Rhaetia Secunda or Vin- 
delicia, whose capital was Campodiinum {Kemjnten') 
on the Iller. 

Eteocles ('Ereo/cA^s.) 1. Son of Andreus and 
Evippe, or of Cephisus ; said to have been the first 
who offered sacrifices to the Charites at Orchome- 
nos in Boeotia.— 2. A son of Oedipus and Jocaste. 
After his father's flight from Thebes, he and his 
brother Polynices undertook the government of 
Thebes by turns. But, disputes having arisen be- 
tween them, Polynices fled to Adrastus, who then 
brought about the expedition of the Seven against 
Thebes. [Adrastus.] When many of the he- 
roes had fallen, Eteocles and Polynices resolved 
upon deciding the contest by single combat, and 
both the brothers fell. 

Eteoclus ('Ereo/fAos), a son of Iphis, was, ac- 
cording to some traditions, one of the 7 heroes who 
went with Adrastus against Thebes. He had to 
make the attack upon the Neitian gate, where lie 
was opposed by Megareus. 

Eteonus ('Erecox/o?), a town in Boeotia, be- 
longing to the district Parasopia, mentioned by 
Homer, subsequently called Scarphe. 

Etesiae ('ExTjcr/ai, sc. dv^ixoi), the Etesian Winds, 
derived from eros "year," signified &uy periodical 
winds, but the word was used more particularly by 
the Greeks to indicate the northerly winds, which 
blew m the Aegean for 40 days from the rising of 
the dog star, 

Etis or Etia C^Htis, "Hreta : "Hxios, 'Hretos), 
a town in the S. of Laconia near Boeae, said to 
have been founded by Aeneas, and named after 
his daughter Etias. Its inhabitants were trans- 
planted at an early time to Boeae, and the place 
disappeared. 

Etovissa, a town of the Edetani in Hispania 
Tarraconensis. 

Etruria or Tuscia, called by the Greeks Tyrrlie- 
nia or Tyrsenia {TvppTjma, Tvpa-nvia), a country 
in central Italy. The inhabitants were called by 
the Romans Etrusci or Tusci, by the Greeks 
Tyrrheni or Tyrseni (Tvpprivoi, Tvpa-ni/oi), and 
by themselves Rasena. Etruria was bounded on 
the N. and N.W. by the Apennines and the river 
Macra, which divided it from Liguria, on the W. 
by the Tyrrhene sea or Mare Inferum, on the E. 
and S. by the river Tiber, which separated it from 
Umbria and Latium, tlms comprehending almost 
the whole of modern Tuscany, the Duchy of Lucca, 
and the Transtiberine portion of the Roman states. 
It was intersected by numerous mountains, off- 
shoots of the Apennines, consisting of long ranges 
of hills in the N., but in the S. lying in detached 
masses, and of smaller size. The land was cele- 
brated in antiquity for its fertility, and yielded 
rich harvests of corn, wine, oil, and flax. The upper 
part of the country was the most healthy, namely, 
the part at the foot of the Apennines, near tho 
sources of the Tiber and the Ajnus, in the neigh- 



250 ETRURIA. 

bourhood of Arretiuni, Cortona, and Perusia. The 
lower part of the country on the coast was marshy 
and unhealthy, like the Marcmma at the present 
dav. — The early history of the population of 
Etruria has given rise to much discussion in modem 
times. It is admitted on all hands that the people 
known to the Romans under the name of Etruscans 
were not the original inhabitants of the country, 
but a mixed race. The most ancient inhabitants 
appear to have been Ligurians in the N. and Sicu- 
lians in the S., both of whom were subsequently 
expelled from the country by the Umbrians. So 
far most accounts agree ; but from this point there 
is great difference of opinion. The ancients gene- 
rally believed that a colony of Lydians, led by 
Tyrsenus, son of the king of Lydia, settled in the 
country, to which they gave the name of their 
leader ; and it has been maintained by some mo- 
dem writers that the Oriental character of many 
of the Etruscan institutions is in favour of this 
account of their origin. But most modern critics 
adopt an entirely different opinion. They believe 
that a Pelasgic race, called T^Trheni, subdued the 
Umbrians, and settled in the country, and that 
these Tyrrhene-Pelasgians were in their turn con- 
quered by a powerful Rhaetian race, called Rasena, 
who descended from the Alps and the valley of the 
Po. Hence it was from the tinion of the Tvrrhene- 
Pelasgians and the Rasena that the Etruscan nation 
was formed. It is impossible, however, to come 
to any definite conclusion respecting the real origin 
of the Etruscans ; since we are entirely ignorant 
of the language which they spoke; and the language 
of a people is the only means by which we can 
pronounce with certainty respecting their origin. 
But whatever may have been the origin of the 
Etruscans, we know that they were a very power- 
ful nation when Rome was still in its infancy, and 
that they had at an early period extended their do- 
minion over the greater part of Italy, from the Alps 
and the plains of Lombardy on the one hand, to 
Vesuvius and the gulf of Sarento on the other. 
These dominions may be divided into 3 great 
districts : Circumpadane Etruria in the X., Etruria 
Proper in the centre, and Campanian Etrui'ia in 
the S. In each of these districts there v.-ere 12 
principal cities or states, who formed a confederacy 
for mutual protection. Through the attacks of the 
Gauls in the N., and of the Sabines, Samnites, and 
Greeks in the S., the Etruscans became confined 
within the limits of Etruria Proper, and continued 
long to flourish in this country, after they had dis- 
appeared from the rest of Italy. Of the 12 cities, 
which formed the confederacy in Etruria Proper, 
no list is given by the ancients. They v.-ere most 
probably Cortona, Arrbtium, Clusium. Pe- 
rusia, VOLATERRAE, VeTCLOXIA, RuSELLAE, 

Volsinii, Tarquinii, Valerii, Veii, Caere 
more anciently called Agylla. Each state was in- 
dependent of all the others. The government was 
a close aristocracy, and was strictly confined to the 
family of the Lucumones, who united in their own 
persons the ecclesiastical as well as the civil func- 
tions. The people were not only rigidly excluded 
from all share in the government, but appear to 
have been in a state of vassalage or serfdom. From 
the noble and priestly families of the Lucumones a 
supreme magistrate was chosen, who appears to 
have been sometimes elected for life, and to have 
borne the title of king ; but his power was much 
fettered by the noble families. At a later time the 



ETRURIA. 

kingly dignity was abolished, and the government 
entrusted to a senate. A meeting of the confe- 
deracy of the 12 states was held annually in the 
spring, at the temple of Voltumna near Volsinii. — • 
The Etruscans were a highly civilised people, and 
from them the Romans borrowed many of their 
religious and political institutions. The 3 last 
kings of Rome were imdoubtedly Etruscans, and 
they left in the city enduring traces of Etruscan 
power and greatness. The Etruscans paid the 
greatest attention to religion ; and their religious 
system was closely interwoven with all public and 
private affairs. The principal deities were di- 
vided into 2 classes. The highest class were the 
Shrouded Gods," who did not reveal themselves to 
man, and to Avhom all the other gods VN-ere subject. 
The 2nd class consisted of the 12 great cods, 6 
male and 6 female, called by the Romans Dii Con- 
sentes. They formed the council of Tina or Tinia, 
the Roman Jupiter, and the 2 other most powerful 
gods of the 12 were Cupra^ corresponding to Juno, 
and Menrva or Menerva. corresponding to the Ro- 
man Minerva, Besides these 2 classes of gods, 
there was a great number of other gods, penates 
and lares, to whom worship was paid. The mode 
in which the gods were worshipped was prescribed 
in certain sacred books, said to have been written 
by Tages, These books contained the •' Etrasca 
Disciplina," and gave minute directions respect- 
ing the whole of the ceremonial worship. They 
were studied in the schools of the Lucumones, 
to which the Romans also were accustomed to 
send some of their noblest youths for instraction ; 
since it was from the Etmscans that the Romans 
borrowed most of their arts of divination, — 
In architecture, statuary, and painting, the Etrus- 
cans attained to great eminence. They were ac- 
quainted with the use of the arch at an early 
period, and they employed it in constructing the 
great cloacae at Rome. Their bronze candelabra 
were celebrated at Athens even in the time of 
Pericles ; and the beauty of their bronze statues is 
still attested by the She "Wolf of the Capitol and 
the Orator of the Florence Gallery. The beauti- 
ful vases, which have been discovered in such 
numbers in Etruscan tombs, cannot be cited as 
proofs of the excellence of Etruscan workmanship, 
since it is now admitted by the most competent 
judges, that these vases were either made in Greece, 
or by Greek artists settled in Italy. — Of the 
private life of the Etmscans we have a Uvely 
picture from the paintings discovered in their 
tombs ; but into this subject oiur limits forbid us 
to enter. — The later history of Etraria is a stmggle 
against the rising power of Rome, to which it was 
finally compelled to yield. After the capture of Veii 
by the dictator Camillus, B. c. 396, the Romans ob- 
tained possession of the E. part of Etruria ; and the 
Ciminian forest, instead of the Tiber, now became 
the boimdary of the 2 people. The defeat of the 
Etrascans by Q. Fabius Maximus in 31U, was a 
great blow to their power. They still endeavoured 
to maintain their independence "n'ith the assistance 
of the Samnites and the Gauls ; but after their de- 
cisive defeat by Cornelius Dolabella in 283, they 
became the subjects of Rome. In 9\ they re- 
ceived the Roman franchise. The numerous mili- 
tary colonies established in Etruria by Sulla and 
Augustus destroyed to a great extent the national 
character of the people, and the country thus b©« 
came in course of time completely Romanized. 



EUBOEA. 



EUDOCIA. 



251 



EulJOea (Ev€oia: Ev§oisvs,Eu§oevs,fem.Ev§oi's). 
1. (Negi-opont), the largest island of the Aegaean 
sea, lying along the coasts of Attica, Boeotia, and 
the S. part of Thessaly, from Avhich countries it is 
separated by the Enboean sea, called the Euripus 
in its narrowest part. Euboea is about 90 miles 
in length : its extreme breadth is 30 miles, but in 
the narrowest part it is only 4 miles across. 
Throughout the length of the island runs a lofty 
range of moimtains, which rise in one part as high 
as 7266 feet above the sea. It contains neverthe- 
less many fertile plains, and was celebrated in an- 
tiquity for the excellence of its pasturage and corn- 
fields. According to the ancients it was once 
united to Boeotia, from which it was separated by 
an earthquake. In Homer the inhabitants are 
called Abantes, and are represented as taking part 
in the expedition against Troy. In the N. of 
Euboea dwelt the Histiaei, from whom that part 
of the island was called Histiaea ; below these were 
the Ellopii, who gave the name of Ellopia to the 
district, extending as far as Aegae and Cerinthus ; 
and in the S. were the Dryopes. The centre of 
the island was inhabited chiefly by lonians. It was 
in this part of Euboea that the Athenians planted 
the colonies of Chalcis and Eretria, which were 
the 2 most important cities in the island. After 
the Persian Avars Euboea became subject to the 
Athenians, who attached much importance to its 
possession ; and consequently Pericles made great 
exertions to subdue it, when it revolted in b. c. 
445. Under the Romans Euboea formed part of 
the province of Achaia. — Since Cumae in Italy 
Avas a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, the adjective 
Euhoicus is used by the poets in reference to the 
former city. Thus Virgil {Aen. vi. 2) speaks of 
Euboicis Cumarum oris. — 2. A town in the in- 
terior of Sicily, founded by Chalcis in Euboea, but 
destroyed at an early period. 

Eubulides (EugouAi'STjs), of Miletus, a philo- 
sopher of the Megaric school. He Avas a contem- 
porary of Aristotle, against whom he Avrote with 
great bitterness; and he is stated to have given De - 
mosthenes instruction in dialectics. He is said to 
have invented the forms of several of the most 
celebrated false and captious syllogisms. 

Eubulus {EvSovKos). 1. An Athenian, of the 
demus Anaphlystus, a distinguished orator and 
statesman, was one of the most formidable oppo- 
nents of Demosthenes. It was Avith him that 
Aeschines served as secretary in the earlier part of 
his life. — 2, An Athenian, son of Euphranor, of 
the Cettian demus, a disthiguished poet of the 
middle comedy, flourished B. c. 376. He Avrote 
104 plays, of Avhich there aie extant more than 50 
titles. His plays were chiefly on mythological 
subjects. Several of them contained parodies of 
passages from the tragic poets, and especially from 
Euripides. 

Euclides (Eu/cAetSTjs). 1. The celebrated ma- 
thematician, Avho has almost given his OAvn name 
to the science of geometry, in every country in 
which his Avritings are studied ; but we knoAv 
next to nothing of his private history. The place 
of his birth is uncertain. He lived at Alexandria 
in the time of the first Ptolemy, B. c. 323—283, 
and Avas the founder of the Alexandrian mathe- 
matical school. He was of the Platonic sect, and 
Avell read in its doctrines. It was his answer to 
Ptolemy, Avho asked if geometry could not be made 
easier, that there Avas no royal road. Of the nu- 



merous Avorks attributed to Euclid the following 
are still extant: — 1. SrozxeTa, the Elements., in 13 
books, AA'ith a 14th and 15th added by Hypsicles. 
2. AsSofxeua, the Data, containing 100 proposi- 
tions, Avith a preface by Marinus of Naples. 3. 
Elaayooy}} 'Ap/iiouucT], a Treatise on Music. ; and 4. 
KaraToixT] KavSvos^^ the Division of the Scale : one 
of these Avorks, most likely the former, must be 
rejected. 5. ^aivdjxeva, the Appearances (of the 
heavens). 6. 'OTrxiK-a, on Optics ; and 7. KaroTr- 
rpLKci, on Catoptrics. The only complete edi- 
tion of all the reputed Avorks of Euclid is 
that published at Oxford, 1703, folio, by David 
Gregory, A\'ith the title EvKKe'iSov ra a-w(6iJ.sva. 
The Elements and the Data were published in 
Greek, Latin, and French, in 3 vols. 4to. Paris, 
1814 — 16 — 18, byPeyrard. The most convenient 
edition for scholars of the Greek text of the Ele- 
ments is the one by August, Berol. 1826, 8vo.-— 2. 
Of Megara, was one of the chief of the disciples of 
Socrates, but before becoming such, he had studied 
the doctrines, and especially the dialectics, of the 
Eleatics. Socrates on one occasion reproved him 
for his fondness for subtle and captious disputes. 
On the death of Socrates (b. c. 399), Euclides took 
refuge in Megara, and there established a school 
Avhich distinguished itself chiefly by the cultivation 
of dialectics. The doctrines of the Eleatics formed 
the basis of his philosophical system. With these 
he blended the ethical and dialectical principles of 
Socrates, He Avas the author of 6 dialogues, none 
of which however have come down to us. He 
has frequently been erroneously confounded Avith 
the mathematician of the same name. The school 
Avhich he founded was called sometimes the Me- 
garic, sometimes the Dialectic or Eristic. 

Eucratides (EuKpan'STj?), king of Bactria, from 
about B. c. 181 to 161, Avas one of the most power- 
ful of the Bactrian kings, and made great conquests 
in the N. of India. 

Euctemon, the astronomer. [Meton.] 
Eudamidas (EvSafxidas). I. King of Sparta, 
reigned from B. c. 330 to about 300. He Avas the 
younger son of Archidamus III. and succeeded his 
brother Agis III. -—II. King of Sparta, Avas son 
of Archidamus IV., whom he succeeded, and father 
of Agis IV. 

Eudemus (EvSrjfxos). 1. Of Cyprus, a Peripa- 
tetic philosopher, to Avhom Aristotle dedicated the 
dialogue Evdrj/xos t] -rrepl Tpvxvs, Avhich is lost. — > 
2. Of Rhodes, also a peripatetic philosopher, and 
one of the most important of Aristotle's disciples. 
He edited many of Aristotle's v/ritings ; and one 
of them even bears the name of Eudemus, namely^ 
the 'HfliKK EvBriixeia, Avhich Avork Avas in all pro- 
bability a recension of Aristotle's lectures edited by 
Eudemus. [See p. 85, b.] — > 3. The physician of 
Livilla, the Avife of Drusus Caesar, Avho assisted 
her and Sejanus in poisoning her husband, A. D. 23. 

Eudocia (EuSoKta). 1. Originally called Athe- 
nais, daughter of the sophist Leontius, Avas dis- 
tinguished for her beauty and attainments. She 
married the emperor Theodosius II., A. d. 421 ; 
and on her marriage she embraced Christianity, 
and received at her baptism the name of Eudocia. 
She died at Jerusalem, a. b. 460. She Avrote se- 
veral works ; and to her is ascribed by some the 
extant poem Homero-Centones, which is composed 
of verses from Homer, and relates the history of 
the fall and of the redemption of man by Jesus 
Christ ; but its genuineness is very doubtful. — 2. 



252 



EUDOSES. 



EUMENES. 



Of Macrembolis, wife of the emperors Constantine 
XI. Ducas and Ronianiis IV. Diogenes (a. d. 1059 
— 1071), wrote a dictionary of history and mytho- 
logy, which she called 'lu)vid, Violanum, or Bed 
of Violets. It was printed for the first time by 
Villoison, in \ns Anecdota Graeca,\en\ce^ 1781. 
The sources from which the work was compiled are 
nearly the same as those used by Suidas. 

Eudoses, a people in Germany near the Varini, 
probably in the modern Mccklenburfi. 

Eudoxus (EuSo^os). 1. Of Cnidus, son of 
Aeschines, a celebrated astronomer, geometer, phy- 
sician, and legislator, lived about b. c. 366. He 
was a pupil of Archytas and Plato, and also 
went to Egypt, where he studied some time with 
the priests. He afterwards returned to Athens, 
but it would appear that he must have spent some 
time in his native place, for Strabo says that the 
observatory of Eudoxus at Cnidus was existing in 
his time. He died at the age of 53. He is said 
to have been the first who taught in Greece the 
motions of the planets ; and he is also stated to 
har\-e made separate spheres for the stars, sun, moon, 
and planets. He wrote various works on astronom}- 
and geometry, which are lost ; but the substance 
of his ^aivofxeva is preserved by Aratus, who turned 
into verse the prose work by Eudoxus with that 
title. — 2. An Athenian comic poet of the new 
comedy, was by birth a Sicilian and the son of 
Agathocles — 3. Of C3'zicus, a geographer, who 
went from his native place to Egypt, and was em- 
ployed by Ptolemy Evergetes and his wife Cleo- 
patra, in voyages to India ; but afterwards being 
robbed of all his property by Ptolemy Lathyrus, 
he sailed away down the Red Sea, and at last 
arrived at Gades. He afterwards made attempts 
to circumnavigate Africa in the opposite direction, 
but without success. He lived about b. c. 130. 

Eugamon (Evyd/xuv), one of the Cyclic poets, 
was a native of Cyrene, and lived about B. c. 568. 
His poem (TTjXeyov'ia) was a continuation of the 
Odyssey, and formed the conclusion of the epic 
cycle. It concluded with the death of Ulysses. 

Euganei, a people who formerly inhabited Ve- 
netia on the Adriatic sea, and were driven towards 
the Alps and the Lacus Benacus by the Heneti 
or Veneti. According to some traditions they 
founded Patavium and Verona, in the neighbour- 
liood of which were the Euganei Colles. They 
possessed numerous flocks of sheep, the wool of 
which was celebrated. (Jut. viii. 15.) 

Euhemerus (Eurjfxepos), probably a native of 
Messene in Sicily, lived at the court of Cassander 
in Macedonia, about b. c. 31 6. Cassander furnished 
him with the means to undertake a voyage of 
discovery. He is said to have sailed down the Red 
Sea and round the southern coasts of Asia, until 
he came to an island called Panchaea. After his 
return he wTote a work entitled 'Ie/?a 'Auaypacpr], 
or a Sacred History., in 9 books. He gave this 
title to his work, because he pretended to have 
derived his information from ' Auaypacpa'i, or inscrip- 
tions in temples, which he had discovered in his 
travels, especially in the island of Panchaea. Eu- 
hemerus had been trained in the school of the 
Cyrenaics, who were notorious for their scepticism 
in matters connected with the popular religion; 
and the object of his work was to exclude every 
thing supernatural from the popular religion, and 
to dress up the myths as so many plain histories. 
In his work the several gods were represented as 



having originally been men who had distinguished 
themselves either as warriors, or benefactors of 
mankind, and who after their death were wor- 
shipped as gods by the grateful people. Zeus, for 
example, was a king of Crete, who had been a 
great conqueror ; and he asserted that he had seen 
in the temple of Zeus Triphylius a column with an 
inscription detailing all the exploits of the kings 
Uranus, Cronus, and Zeus. The book was written 
in an attractive style, and became very popular, 
and many of the subsequent historians, such as 
Diodorus, adopted his mode of dealing with myths. 
The great popularity of the work is attested by 
the circumstance that Ennius made a Latin trans- 
lation of it. But the pious believers, on the other 
hand, called Euhemerus an atheist. The Chris- 
tian writers often refer to him to prove that the 
pagan mythology was nothing but a heap of fables 
invented by men. 

Eulaeus (EvXaTos : 0. T. Ulai : Karoon), a 
river in Susiana, on the borders of Elymais, rising 
in Great Media, flowing S. through Mesobatene, 
passing E. of Susa, and, after uniting with the Pa- 
sitigris, falling into the head of the Persian Gulf. 
Some of the ancient geographers make the Eulaeus 
fall into the Choaspes, and others identify the two 
rivers. 

Eumaeus (Ev/uLaios), the faithful swineherd of 
Ulysses, was a son of Ctesius, king of the island of 
Sv'rie ; he had been carried away from his father's 
house by a Phoenician slave, and Phoenician 
sailors sold him to Laertes, the father of Ulysses. 

Eumelus (Ev/x7i\os). 1. Son of Admetus and 
Alcestis, went with 1 1 ships from Pherae to Tro}'. 
He was distinguished for his excellent horses, 
which had once been under the care of Apollo, and 
with which Eumelus would have gained the prize 
at the funeral games of Patroclus, if his chariot 
had not been broken. His wife was Iphthima, 
daughter of Icarius. — 2. Of Corinth, one of the 
Bacchiadae, an ancient Epic poet, belonged, ac- 
cording to some, to the Epic cycle. His name is 
significant, referring to his skill in poetry. He 
flourished about B. c. 760. His principal poem 
seems to have been his Corinthian History. 

Eumenes (Eu^eVT??). 1. Of Cardia, served 
as private secretary to Philip and Alexander, 
whom he accompanied throughout his expedition 
in Asia, and who treated him with marked 
confidence and distinction. After the death of 
Alexander (a. c. 323) Eumenes obtained the go- 
vernment of Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus, 
which provinces had never yet been conquered by 
the Macedonians. Eumenes entered into a close 
alliance with Perdiccas, who subdued these pro- 
vinces for him. When Perdiccas marched into 
Egj'pt against Ptolemy, he committed to Eumenes 
the conduct of the war against Antipater and Cra- 
tenis in Asia JNIinor. Eumenes met with great 
siiccess; he defeated Neoptolemus,who had revolted 
from Perdiccas ; and subsequently he again defeated 
the combined armies of Craterus and Neoptolemus: 
Craterus himself fell, and Neoptolemus was slain 
by Eumenes with his own hand, after a deadly 
struggle in the presence of the 2 armies. Meantime 
the death of Perdiccas in Egypt changed the aspect 
of alFairs. Antigonus now employed the whole 
force of the jMacedonian army to crush Eumenes. 
The struggle was carried on for some years (320 — 
316). It was conducted by Eumenes with con- 
siunmate skill; and notwithstanding the numerical 



EUMENIA. 

inferiority of his forces, he maintained his ground 
against his enemies, till he was sm-rendered by 
the Argyraspids to Antigonus, by whom he was 
put to death, 316. He was 45 years old at 
the time of his death. Of his ability, both as a 
general and a statesman, no doubt can be enter- 
tained ; and it is probable that he would have 
attained a far more important position among the 
successois of Alexander, had it not been for the 
accidental disadvantage of his birth. But as a 
Greek of Cardia, and not a native Macedonian, he 
Avas constantly looked upon with dislike both by 
his opponents and companions in arras. — 2. I. 
King of Pergamus, reigned B. c. 263 — 241 ; and 
was the successor of his uncle Philetaerus. He 
obtained a victory near Sardis over Antiochus 
Soter, and thus established his dominion over the 
provinces in the neighbourhood of his capital.— 3. 
II. King of Pergamus, reigned b. c. 197 — 159; 
and was the son and successor of Attalus I. He 
inherited from his predecessor the friendship and 
alliance of the Romans, which he took the utmost 
pains to cultivate. He supported the Romans in 
their war against Antiochus ; and after the con- 
quest of the latter (190) he received from the 
senate Mysia, Lydia, both Phrygias, and Lycaonia, 
as well as Lysimachia, and the Thracian Chersonese. 
By this means he was at once raised from a state 
of comparative insignificance to be the sovereign of 
a powerful monarchy. Subsequently he was in- 
volved in war with Pharnaces, king of Pontus, and 
Prusias, king of Bithynia, but both wars were 
brought to a close by the interposition of the 
Romans. At a later period Eumenes was regarded 
with suspicion by the Roman senate, because he 
was suspected of having corresponded secretly with 
Perseus, kmg of Macedonia, during the war of the 
latter with the Romans. Eumenes assiduously cul- 
tivated all the arts of peace : Pergamus became 
under his rule a great and flourishing city, which 
he adorned with splendid buildings, and in which 
he founded that celebrated library which rose to be 
a rival even to that of Alexandria. 

Eumenia (Ev/xeVeia or Ev/j-euia : IsJiekli), a 
city of Great Phrygia, on the rivers Glaucus and 
Cludrus, N. of the Maeander, named by Attalus 
11. after his brother and predecessor Eumenes II. 
There are indications which seem to connect the 
time of its foundation with that of the destruction 
of Corinth. 

Eumenides (Ev/j-euLdes)^ also called Erinyes, 
not Erinnyes {'Epivves, 'Epiuvs), and by the 
Romans Furiae or Dirae, the Avenging Deities, 
were originally only a personification of curses pro- 
nounced upon a criminal. The name Erinys is 
the more ancient one ; its etymology is uncertain, 
but the Greeks derived it from ipivu or ep^vvdw, 
I hunt up or persecute, or from the Arcadian 
ipivvco, I am angry ; so that the Erinyes were 
either the angry goddesses, or the goddesses who 
hunt up or search after the criminal. The name 
Eumenides, which signifies " the well-meaning," 
or " soothed goddesses," is a mere euphemism, be- 
cause people dreaded to call these fearful goddesses 
by their real name. It was said to have been first 
given them after the acquittal of Orestes by the 
Areopagus, when the anger of the Erinyes had be- 
come soothed. It was by a similar euphemism 
that at Athens the Erinyes were called a^fjLvai i^eal, 
or the venerable goddesses. — Homer sometimes 
mentions an Erinys, but more frequently Erinyes 



EUMOLPUS. 'J5H 

in the plural. He represents them as inhabitants 
of Erebos, where they remain quiet until some 
curse pronounced upon a criminal calls them into 
activity. The crimes which they punish are dis- 
obedience towards parents, violation of the respect 
due to old age, perjury, murder, violation of the law 
of hospitality, and improper conduct towards sup- 
pliants. They took away from men all peace of 
mind, and led them into misery and misfortune. 
Hesiod says that they were the daughters of Ge,. 
and sprung from the drops of blood that fell upon 
her from the body of Uranus. Aeschylus calls 
them the daughters of Night ; and Sophocles of 
Darkness and Ge. In the Greek tragedians neither 
the names nor the number of the Erinyes are men- 
tioned. Aeschylus describes them as divinities 
more ancient than the Olympian gods, dwelling in 
the deep darkness of Tartarus, dreaded by gods 
and men ; with bodies all black, serpents twined 
in their hair, and blood dripping from their eyes. 
Euripides and other later poets describe them as 
winged. With later writers their number is usually 
limited to 3, and their names are Tisiphone, Alecto, 
and Megaera. They gradually assumed the cha- 
racter of goddesses who punished men after death, 
and they seldom appeared upon earth. The sacri- 
fices offered to them consisted of black sheep and 
nephalia, i. e. a drink of honey mixed with water. 
They were worshipped at Athens, where they had 
a sanctuary and a grotto near the Areopagus : their 
statues, however, had nothing formidable, and a 
festival Eumenidea was there celebrated in their 
honour. Another sanctuary, Avith a grove Avhich 
no one Avas allowed to enter, existed at Colonus. 

Eumenius, a Roman rhetorician of Augusto- 
dunum (Autun) in Gaul, held a high office under 
Constantius Chlorus. He is the author of 4 orations 
in the " Panegyrici Veteres," namely : 1 . Oratio 
pro instaurandis scholis, a lecture delivered on the 
re-establishment by Constantius Chlorus of the 
school at Autun, a. d. 296 or 297. 2. Panegyricus. 
Constaniio Caesari dieius, delivered 296 or 297. 3. 
Panegyricus ConstMiiino Augiisto dictus, delivered 
310. 4. Gratiarum actio Constantino Augusto Fla- 
viensium tiomitie, delivered 31 1. 

Eumolpus (Ev/xoXttos), that is " the good 
singer," a Thracian bard, usually represented as a 
son of Poseidon and Chione, the daughter of Boreas. 
As soon as he was born, he was thrown into the 
sea by his mother, Avho was anxious to conceal her 
shame, but was preserved by his father Poseidon, 
who had him educated in Ethiopia by his daughter 
Benthesicyma. When he had grown up, he married 
a daughter of Benthesicyma; but as he made an 
attempt upon the chastity of his wife's sister, h.» 
was expelled together Avith his son Ismarus. They 
went to the Thracian king Tegyrius, Avho gave his 
daughter in marriage to Ismarus; but as Eumolpus 
drew upon himself the suspicion of Tegyrius, he 
Avas again obliged to take to flight, and came ta 
Eleusis in Attica, where he formed a friendship 
with the Eleusinians. After the death of his son 
Ismarus, he returned to Thrace at the request of 
Tegyrius, The Eleusinians, who were involved in 
a Avar with Athens, called Eumolpus to their assist- 
ance, Eumolpus came with a numerous band of 
Thracians, but he Avas slain by Erechtheus. Eu- 
molpus Avas regarded as the founder of the Eleusinian 
mysteries, and as the first priest of Demeter and 
Dionysus. He Avas succeeded in the priestly office 
by his son Ceryx (who was, according to some 



264 EUNAPIUS. 

accounts, the son of Ilerraes), and his family, the 
Eumolpidae, continued till the latest times the 
priests of Dcmeter at Eleusis. — The legends con- 
nected Eumolpus with Hercules, whom he is said 
to have instructed in music, or initiated into the 
mysteries. Tliere were so many different traditions 
about Eumolpus that some of the ancients supposed 
that there were 2 or 3 persons of that name. 

Eiinapius {Evvoltvios), a Greek sophist, was born 
at Sardis a. d. 347, and lived and taught at Athens 
as late as the reign of Theodosius II. He wrote, 
1. Lives of Sophists (Bi'oj (piKocroc^pwv koX ao(piaTS)v)^ 
still extant, containing 23 biographies of sophists, 
most of whom were contemporaries of Eunapius, 
or had lived shortly before him. Though these 
biographies are extremeh-- brief, and the style is 
intolerablj' inflated, yet they supply us with im- 
portant information respecting a period, on which 
we have no other information. Eunapius was an 
enthusiastic admirer of the philosophy of the New 
Platonists, and a bitter enemy of Christianity. 
Edited by Boissonade, Amsterdam, 1822. 2. A 
continuation of the history of Dexippus (Mera 
Ae'ltTTTTov xpoviKT] IffTopLo), in 1 4 books, began with 
A. D. 270, and went down to 404. Of this work 
we have only extracts, which are published along 
with Dexippus. [Dexippus.] 

Euneus {Evurjos or Euuevs), a son of Jason and 
Hypsipyle in Lemnos, supplied the Greeks with 
wine during their war against Troy. He purchased 
Lycaon of Patroclus for a silver urn. 

Eunomia. [Horae.] 

Eunomus (Ewo/xos), king of Sparta, is described 
by some as the father of Lycurgus and Polydectes. 
Herodotus, on the contrary, places him in his list 
after Polydectes. In all probability, the name was 
invented with reference to the Lycurgean EvvofAa, 
and Eunomus, if not wholly rejected, must be 
identified Avith Polydectes. 

Eunus (Eui/ous), a Sicilian slave, and a native 
of Apamea in Syria, was the leader of the Sicilian 
slaves in the servile war. He first attracted atten- 
tion by pretending to the gift of prophecy, and by 
interpreting dreams ; to the effect of which he 
added by appearing to breathe flames from his 
mouth and other similar juggleries. He was pro- 
claimed king, and soon collected formidable forces, 
with which he defeated several Roman armies. 
The insurrection now became so formidable that 
for 3 successive years (b. c. 134 — 132) 3 consuls 
were sent against the insurgents, and it was not 
till the 3rd year (132) that the revolt was finally 
put down by the consul Rupilius. Eunus was taken 
prisoner, and died in prison at Morgantia, of the 
disease called morbus pedicular is. 

Eupalium or Eupolium (EuTraAtoi', EvirdKiov : 
EviraXievs), a town of the Locri Ozoiae, N. of Nau- 
pactus. subsequently included in Aetolia Epictetus. 

Eupator (EvTrarw/j), a surname assumed by 
many of the kings in Asia after the time of Alex- 
ander the Great. See Antiochus, Mithridates. 

Eupatormm or Eupatoria (EvrraTopiou, Evira- 
ropia) a town in the Chersonesus Taurica, founded 
by Mithjidates Eupator, and named after him. 

Euphaes {Ev^aTjs), king of the Messenians, fell 
in battle against the Spartans in the first Messenian 
war. He was succeeded by Aristodemus. 

Euphemus (Eu^tj^uos), son of Poseidon by 
Europe, the daughter of Tityus, or by Mecionice or 
Oris, a daughter of Orion or Eurotas. According 
to one account he was an inhabitant of Panopeus 



EUPHRATES. 

on the Cephissus in Phocis, and according to 
another of Hyria in Boeotia, and afterwards lived 
at Taenarus. He was married to Laonome, the 
sister of Hercules ; he was one of the Calydonian 
hunters, and the helmsman of the vessel of the 
Argonauts, and, by a power which his father had 
granted to him, he could walk on the sea just as 
on firm ground. He is mentioned also as the 
ancestor of Battus, the founder of Gyrene. 

Euphorbus {Ev(pop§os). 1. Son of Panthous, one 
of the bravest of the Trojans, was slain by Mene- 
laus, who subsequently dedicated the shield of 
Euphorbus in the temple of Hera, near Mj'cenae. 
Pythagoras asserted that he had once been the 
Trojan Euphorbus, and in proof of his assertion 
took down at first sight the shield of Euphorbus 
from the temple of Hera (clipeo Trojana refixo tem- 
pora iestaius, Hor. Carm. i. 28. 11). — 2. Physician 
of Juba II., king of Mauretania, about the end of 
the first century B. c, and brother to Antonius 
Musa, the physician to Augustus. 

Euphorion (Eucpopiuv). 1. Father of the poet 
Aeschylus. — 2. Son of Aeschylus, and himself a 
tragic poet.— 3. Of Chalcis in Euboea, an eminent 
grammarian and poet, son of Polymnetus, was bom 
about B. c. 274. He became the librarian of 
Antiochus the Great, 221, and died in Syria, 
either at Apamea, or at Antioch. The following 
were the most important of the poems of Euphorion 
in heroic verse : — 1. "Ra'iodos, probablj' an agri- 
cultural poem. 2. Mo\poiTia, so called from an old 
name of Attica, the legends of which country seem 
to have been the chief subject of the poem. 3. 
XiKiddes, a poem written against certain persons, 
who had defrauded Euphorion of money which he 
had entrusted to their care. It probably derived 
its title from each of its books consisting of 1 000 
verses. He also wrote epigrams, which were imi- 
tated by many of the Latin poets, and also by the 
emperor Tiberius, with whom he was a great fa- 
vourite. Euphorion likewise wrote many historical 
and grammatical works. All his works are lost, 
but the fragments are collected by Meineke, in his 
Analecta Alexandrina, Berol. 1843. 

Euphranor (Ev(ppav(t3p)^ a distinguished statuary 
and painter, was a native of the Corinthian isthmus, 
but practised his art at Athens. He flourished 
about B. c. 336. His most celebrated statue was a 
Paris, which expressed alike the judge of the god- 
desses, the lover of Helen, and the slayer of Achil- 
les ; the very beautiful sitting figure of Paris, in 
marble, in the Museo Pio-Clementino is, no doubt, 
a copy of this work. His best paintings were pre- 
served in a porch in the Ceramicus at Athens. On 
the one side were the 12 gods; and on the oppo- 
site Avail, Theseus, Avith Democracy and Demos. 
— Euphranor also Avrote Avorks on proportion and 
on colours {de Symmetria et Coloribus), the two 
points in Avhich his OAvn excellence seems chiefly 
to have consisted. Pliny says that he Avas the 
first Avho properly expressed the dignity of heroes, 
by the proportions he gave to their statues. He 
made the bodies somewhat more slender, and 
the heads and limbs larger. 

Euphrates (Evcppdrris), an eminent Stoic philo- 
sopher, AA^as a native of Tyre, or, according to 
others, of Byzantium. He Avas an intimate friend 
of the younger Pliny. In his old age he hecame 
tired of life, and asked and obtained from Hadrian 
permission to put an end to himself by poison. 

Euphrates (EvcppaTrfs : 0. T. Phrat: El Frai), 



EUPHRON. 



EURIPIDES. 



^255 



a great river of W. Asia, forming the boundary of 
Upper and Lower Asia, consists, in its upper course, 
of 2 branches, both of which rise in the mountains 
of Armenia. The N. branch (Kara-Sou), which 
is the true Euphrates, rises in the mountain above 
Erzeroiim (the M. Abus or Capotes of the ancients) 
and flows W. and S.W. to a little above lat. 39° 
and E. of long. 39°, Avhere it breaks through the 
chain of the Anti-Taurus, and, after receiving the 
S. branch {Mourad-Chai), or, as the ancients called 
it, the Arsanias, it breaks through the main chain 
of the Taurus between Melitene and Samosata, and 
then flows in a general S. direction, till it reaches 
lat. 36°, whence it flows in a general S. E. direc- 
tion, till it approaches the Tigris opposite to Se- 
leucia, where the distance between the 2 rivers 
was reckoned at only 200 stadia. Then it flows 
through the plain of Babylonia, at first receding 
further from the Tigris, and afterwards approaching 
it again, till it joins it about 60 miles above the 
mouth of the Persian Gulf, having already had its 
waters much diminished by numerous canals, which 
irrigated the country in ancient times, but the neg- 
lect of which at present has converted much of the 
once fertile district watered by the Euphrates into a 
marshy desert. The whole length of the Euphrates 
is between 500 and 600 miles. In its upper course, 
before reaching the Taurus, its N. branch and a 
part of the united stream divided Armenia Major 
from Colchis and Armenia Minor, and its lower 
course divided Mesopotamia from Syria. Its chief 
tributary, besides the Arsanias, was the Ahorrhas. 

Euphron (Y.v^pwv), an Athenian poet of the 
new comedy, whose plays, however, partook 
largely of the character of the middle comedy. 

Euphrosyne, one of the Charites or Graces. 
[Charis.] 

Eupolis (EuTToAis), son of Sosipolis, an Athenian 
poet of the old comedy, and one of the 3 who are 
distinguished by Horace, in his well-known line, 
" Eupolis, atque Cratinus, Aristophanesque poetae," 
above all the ..." alii quorum prisca comoedia 
virorum est." He was born about b. c, 446, and 
is said to have exhibited his first drama in his 17th 
year, 429, two years before Aristophanes. The 
date of his death is uncertain. The common story 
was, that Alcibiades, when sailing to Sicily (415), 
threvv Eupolis into the sea, in revenge for an attack 
which he had made upon him in his BaTrrat ; but this 
cannot be true, as we know that Eupolis produced 
plays after the Sicilian expedition. He probably 
died in 411. The chief characteristic of the poetry 
of Eupolis seems to have been the liveliness of his 
fancy, and the power which he possessed of impart- 
ing its images to the audience. In elegance he is 
said to have even surpassed Aristophanes, while in 
bitter jesting and personal abuse he emulated Cra- 
tinus. Among the objects of his satire was Socrates, 
on whom he made a bitter, though less elaborate 
attack than that in the Clouds of Aristophanes. 
The dead were not exempt from his abuse, for 
there are still extant some lines of his, in which 
Cimon is most unmercifully treated. — A close re- 
lation subsisted between Eupolis and Aristophanes, 
not only as nvals, but as imitators of each other. 
Cratinus attacked Aristophanes for borrowing from 
Eupolis, and Eupolis in his Batrrai made the same 
charge, especially with reference to the KniyMs. 
The Scholiasts specify the last Parabasis of the 
Knights as borrowed from Eupolis. On the other 
hand, Aristophanes, in the second (or third) edition 



of the Clouds^ retorts upon Eupolis the charge of 
imitating the Knights in his Maricas, and taunts 
him with the further indignity of jesting on his 
rival's baldness. 

Eupompus (EvTrofxiros), of Sicyon, a distin- 
guished Greek painter, was the contemporary of 
Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Timanthes, and the in- 
structor of Pamphilus, the master of Apelles. The 
fame of Eupompus led to the creation of a 3rd 
school of Greek art, the Sicyonian, at the head of 
Avhich he was placed. 

Euripides {EvpnTlS-qs). 1. The distinguished 
tragic poet, was the son of Mnesarchus and Clito, 
and is said to have been born at Salamis, B. c. 
480, on the very day that the Greeks defeated the 
Persians off that island, whither his parents had 
fled from Athens on the invasion of Xerxes. Some 
writers relate that his parents were in mean circum- 
stances, and his mother is represented by Aristo- 
phanes as a herb-seller, and not a very honest one 
either ; but much weight cannot be accorded to 
these statements. It is more probable that his 
family was respectable. We are told that the poet, 
when a boy, was cup-bearer to a chorus of noble 
Athenians at the Thargelian festival, — an ofiice for 
which nobility of blood was requisite. We know 
also that he was taught rhetoric by Prodicus, Avho 
was certainly not moderate in his terms for in- 
struction, and who was in the habit of seeking his 
pupils among youths of high rank. It is said that 
the future distinction of Euripides was predicted 
by an oracle, promising that he should be crowned 
with sacred garlands," in consequence of which 
his father had him trained to gymnastic exercises ; 
and we learn that, while yet a boy, he won the 
prize at the Eleusmian and Thesean contests, and 
offered himself, when 17 years old, as a candidate 
at the Olympic games, but was not admitted be- 
cause of some doubt about his age. But he soon 
abandoned gymnastic pursuits, and studied the art 
of painting, not, as we learn, without success. To 
philosophy and literature he devoted himself with 
much interest and energy, studying physics under 
Anaxagoras, and rhetoric, as we have already seen, 
under Prodicus. He lived on intimate terms with 
Socrates, and traces of the teaching of Anaxagoras 
have been remarked in many passages of his plays. 
He is said to have written a tragedy at the age of 
18 ; but the first play, which was exhibited in his 
own name, was the Peliades, when he was 25 
years of age (b. c. 455). In 441 he gained for the 
first time the first prize, and he continued to ex- 
hibit plays until 408, the date of the Orestes. 
Soon after this he left Athens for the court of 
Archelaiis, king of Macedonia, his reasons for which 
step can only be matter of conjecture. Traditionary 
scandal has ascribed it to his disgust at the intrigue 
of his wife with Cephisophon, and the ridicule 
which was showered upon him in consequence by 
the comic poets. But the whole story has been re- 
futed by modern writers. Other causes more pro- 
bably led him to accept an invitation from Arche- 
laiis, at whose court the highest honours aAvaited 
him. The attacks of Aristophanes and others had 
probably not been without their eflfect ; and he 
must have been aware that his philosophical tenets 
were regarded with considerable suspicion. He 
died in Macedonia in 406, at the age of 75. Most 
testimonies agree in stating that he was torn in 
pieces by the king's dogs, which, according to 
some, were set upon him through envy by Arrhi- 



2,^6 ErniriuES. 

daeus and Crateuas, two rival poets. The regret 
of Sophocles for his death is said to have been so 
great, that at the representation of his next play he 
made his actors appear uncrowned. The accounts 
which we find in some writers of the profligacy of 
Euripides are mere idle scandal, and scarcely 
worthy of serious refutation. Nor does there appear 
to be any better foundation for that other charge 
which has been brought against him, of hatred to 
the female sex. This is said to have been occa- 
sioned by the infidelity of his wife ; but, as has 
been already remarked, this tale does not deserve 
credit. He was a man of a serious and austere 
temper: and it was in consequence of this that the 
charge probably originated. It is certain that the 
poet who drew such characters as Antigone, Iphi- 
genia, and, above all, Alcestis, was not blind to 
the gentleness, the strong affection, the self-aban- 
doning devotedness of women. "With respect to 
the world and the Deity, he seems to have adopted 
the doctrines of Anaxagoras, not unmixed appa- 
rently with pantheistic views. [Anaxagoras.] 
To cla«s him with atheists, as some have done, is 
undoubtedly unjust. At the same time, it must 
be confessed that we look in vain in his plays for 
the high faith of Aeschylus ; nor can we fail to 
admit that the pupil of Anaxagoras could not sym- 
pathise with the popular religious system around 
him, nor throw himself cordially into it. He fre- 
quently altered in the most arbitrary manner the 
ancient legends. Thus, in the Orestes, Menelaiis 
comes before us as a selfish coward, and Helen as a 
worthless wanton ; in the Helena, the notion of 
Stesichorus is adopted, that the heroine was never 
carried to Troy at all, and that it Avas a mere 
c^Bu}\ov of her for which the Greeks and Trojans 
fought ; Andromache, the widow of Hector and 
slave of Neoptolemus, seems almost to forget the 
past in her quarrel with Hermione and the perils of 
her present situation ; and Electra, married by the 
policy of Aegisthus to a peasant, scolds her hus- 
band for inviting guests to dine without regard to 
the ill-prepared state of the larder. In short, with 
Euripides traged}' is brought down into the sphere 
of every-day life ; men are represented, according 
to the remark of Aristotle, not as they ought to be, 
but as they are ; vmder the names of the ancient 
heroes, the characters of his own time are set before 
us ; it is not Medea, or Iphigenia, or Alcestis 
that is speaking, but abstractedly a mother, a 
daughter, or a wife. All this, indeed, gave fuller 
scope, perhaps, for the exhibition of passion and for 
those scenes of tenderness and pathos in which Euri- 
pides especially excelled ; and it will serve also to 
account in great measure for the preference given to 
his plays b}' the practical Socrates, who is said to 
have never entered the theatre unless when thoy 
were acted, as well as for the admiration felt for 
him by Menander and Philemon, and other poets 
of the new comedy. The most serious defects in 
his tragedies, artistically speaking, are : his con- 
stant employment of the " Deus ex machina ; " 
the disconnexion of his choral odes from the sub- 
ject of the play ; the extremely awkward and for- 
mal character of his prologues ; and the frequent 
introduction of frigid yvw/xai and of philosophical 
disquisitions, making Medea talk like a sophist, 
and Hecuba like a free thinker, and aiming rather 
at subtilty than simplicity. On the same prin- 
ciples on which he brought his subjects and cha- 
racters to the level of common life, he adopted 



KUilOPA. 

also in his style the everj'-day mode of speaking'- 
According to some accounts, he wrote, in all, 75 
plays ; accprding to others, 9-2. Of these, 1 8 are 
extant, if we omit the BJiesus, which is probably 
spurious. A list is subjoined of the extant plays 
of Euripides, with their dates, ascertained or pro- 
bable : — Alcestis, B. c. 438. This play was brought 
out as the last of a tetralogy, and stood therefore 
in the place of a satyric drama, to which indeed it 
bears, in some parts, great similarity, particularly 
in the representation of Hercules in his cups. 
Medea, 4iJl. Hippolytus Coronifer, 428, gained 
the first nrize. Hecuba, exhibited before 423. 
Heraclidae, about 421. Supplices, about 42 1 . /oh, 
of uncertain date. Hercules Furcns, of uncertain 
date. Andromache, about 420 — 417. Troades, 
415. Electra, about 415—413. Helena, 412. 
Iphigenia at Tauri of uncertain date. Orestes, 408. 
Phoejiissae, of uncertain date. Bacchae : this play 
was apparently Avritten for representation at Mace- 
donia, and therefore at a ven,^ late period of the 
life of Euripides. Iphige7tia at Aulis : this play, 
together with the Bacchae and the Alcmaeon, was 
brought out at Athens, after the poet's death, by 
the younger Euripides. Cyclops, of uncertain date : 
it is interesting as the only extant specimen of the 
Greek satyric drama. Besides the plays, there 
are extant 5 letters, purporting to have been writ- 
ten by Euripides, but thej- are spurious. — Editions. 
By Musgrave, Oxford, 1778 ; by Beck, Leipzig, 
1778—88 ; by Matthiae, Leipzig,' 1813—29 ; and 
a variorum edition, Glasgow, 1821. Of separate 
plays there have been many editions, e. g. by Por- 
son, Elmsley, Valckenaer, Monk, Pflugk, and Her- 
mann.— 2. The youngest of the 3 sons of the 
above. After the death of his father he brought 
out 3 of his plaj's at the great Dionysia, viz. the 
Alcmaeon (no longer extant), the Iphigenia at Aur 
lis, and the Bacchae. 

Euripus (EvpiTTos), any part of the sea where 
the ebb and flow of the tide were remarkably vio- 
lent, is the name especially of the narrow strait 
which separates Euboea from Boeotia, in which the 
ancients asserted that the sea ebbed and flowed 7 
times in the day. The extraordinary tides of the 
Euripus have been noticed by modern observers : 
the water sometimes runs as much as 8 miles an 
hour. At Chalcis there was a bridge over the 
Euripus, uniting Euboea with the mainland. 

Euromus (Evpwuos : JaUys), a small town of 
Caria, at the foot of Mt. Grion (a ridge parallel to 
Mt. Latmus), in the conventus juridicus of Ala- 
banda. It lay 8 English miles N.W. of Mylasa. 

Europa {Evpcoirrj), according to the Iliad (xiv. 
321), a daughter of Phoenix, but according to the 
common tradition a daughter of the Phoenician 
king Agenor. Her surpassing beauty charmed 
Zeus, who assumed the form of a buU and mingled 
with the herd as Europa and her maidens were 
sporting on the sea-shore. Encouraged by the 
tameness of the animal, Europa ventured to moun- 
his back ; whereupon Zeus rushed into the sea, and 
swam with her in safety to Crete. Here she be- 
came by Zeus the mother of Minos, Rhadaman- 
thus, and Sarpedon. She afterwards married 
Asterion, king of Crete, who brought up the chil- 
dren whom she had had by the king of the gods. 

Europa {EvpwTn]), one of the 3 divisions of the 
ancient world. The name is not found in the Iliad 
and Odyssey, and first occurs in the Homeric 
Hymn to Apollo (251), but even there it does not 



THE ERECHTHEUM. 




The Erechtheum restored. Page 247. 



Divisiorts. 

Temple of Athena Polias. 
Pandroseum, divided into 
f Pandroseum proper. 
\ Cecropium. 

A. Eastern portico : entrance to the tem- 
ple of Athena Polias. 

B. Temple of Athena Polias. 
a. Altar of Zeus Hypatos. 
&. c. d. Altars of Poseidon-Erech- 

theus, of Butes, and of Hephaes- 
tus, 
c. Palladium. 

/. g. Statue of Hermes. Chair of 
Daedalus. 

h. Golden Lamp of Callimachus. 

C. Northern portico : entrance to the 
Pandroseum. 

i. The salt well. 

Tc. Opening in the pavement, by 
which the traces of Poseidon's 
trident might be seen. 

D. Pronaos of the Pandroseum, serving 
also as an entrance to the Cecro- 
pium. 

I. m. Altars, of which one was de- 
dicated to Hallo. 

E. Cella of Pandrosus. 
n. Statue of Pandrosus. 
o. The olive tree. 
p. Altar of Zeus Hyrceus. 

F. Southern portico : the Cecropium. 

G. Passage on the level of the Pandro- 
seum, leading to the souterrains of 
the building. 

H. Passage of communication by means 
of the steps I. between the temples 
of Polias and Pandrosus. 

K. Steps leading down to the Temenos, 
L. Temenos or sacred enclosure of the 
building. 

One of the Caryatides sup- Ground Plan of the Erechtheum. (i or a description of 
portmg the southern por- the building, see Diet, of Geog. Vol. I. pp. 275—280.) 
tico of the Erechtheum. 

iTofacep. 256. 




EUROPUS. 



EURYPYLUS. 



•257 



uidicate the continent, but simply the mainland of 
l[ellas proper, in opposition to Peloponnesus and 
the neighbouring islands. Herodotus is the first 
writer who uses it in the sense of one of the divi- 
sions of the world. The origin of the name is 
doubtful ; but the most probable of the numerous 
conjectures is that which supposes that the Asiatic 
Greeks called it Europa (from evpvs, " broad," and 
the root ott, " to see"), from the wide extent of its 
coast. Most of the ancients supposed the name to 
be derived from Europa, the daughter of Agenor. 
The boundaries of Europe on the E. differed at 
various periods. In earlier times the river Phasis 
was usually supposed to be its boundary, and some- 
times even the Araxes and the Caspian sea ; but 
at a later period the river Tanais and the Palus 
Maeotis were usually regarded as the boundaries 
between Asia and Europe, The N. of Europe was 
little known to the ancients, but it was generally 
believed, at least in later times, that it was bounded 
on the N. by the Ocean. 

EurOpUS. [TlTAKESIUS.] 

Europiis (EvpooTvos). 1. A city of Caria, after- 
wards named Idrias. — 2. (Yerabolus, or Kulat-el- 
Nejin ?), a city in the district of Cyrrhestice in 
Syria, on the W. bank of the Euphrates, a few 
miles S. of Zeugma ; called after the town of the 
same name in Macedonia. — 3, Europus was the 
earlier name of Dura Nicanoris in Mesopotamia ; 
and (4) it was also given by Seleucus Nicator 
to Rhagae in Media. [Arsacia.] 

Eurotas (Eupwras). 1. {Basilipotamo)^ the 
chief river in Laconia, but not navigable, rises in 
Mt. Boreum in Arcadia, then disappears under the 
€arth, rises again near Sciritis, and flows S. wards, 
passing Sparta on the E., through a narrow and 
fruitful valley, into the Laconian gulf. — 2. See 

TiTARESIUS. 

Euryalus (EupvaAos). 1, Sonof Mecisteus,one 
of the Argonauts, and of the Epigoni, accompanied 
Diomedes to Troy, where he slew several Trojans. 
«— 2. One of the suitors of Hippodamia. 

Euryanassa. [Pelops.J 

Eurybates {Y.vpvSdrr]s). 1. Called Eribotes by 
Latin writers, son of Teleon, and one of the Argo- 
nauts.— 2. The herald of Ulysses, whom he fol- 
lowed to Troy. 

Eurybatus (Eupygaros), an Ephesian, whom 
Croesus sent with a large sum of money to the 
Peloponnesus to hire mercenaries for him in his 
war with Cyrus. He, however, went over to Cy- 
rus, and betra5'ed the whole matter to him. In 
consequence of this treachefy, his name passed into 
a proverb amongst the Greeks. 

Eurybia (Ei/pugia), daughter of Pontus and Ge, 
mother by Crius of Astraeus, Pallas, and Parses. 

Eurybiades. [Themistocles.] 

Euryclea (Eupw/cAeta), daughter of Ops, was 
purchased by Laertes and brought up Telemachus, 
When Ulysses returned home, she recognised him 
by a scar, and afterwards faithfully assisted him 
against the suitors. 

EurydicS (EupuSi'/cTj). 1. Wife of Orpheus 
[Okpheus.J. — 2. An lUyrian princess, wife of 
Amyntas II., king of Macedonia, and mother of 
the famous Philip. — 3. An Illyrian, wife of Philip 
of Macedon, and mother of Cynane or Cynna.— 4. 
Daughter of Amyntas, son of Perdiccas III., king 
of Macedonia, and Cynane, daughter of Philip. 
After the death of her mother in Asia [Cynane], 
Perdiccas gave her in marriage to the king Arrhi- 



daeus. She \vas a woman of a masculine spirit, 
and entirely ruled her weak husband. On her re- 
turn to Europe with her husband, she became in- 
volved in war with Polysperchon and OljTupias, but 
she was defeated in battle, taken prisoner, and com- 
pelled by Olympias to put an end to her life, B.C. 317. 
— 5. Daughter of Artipater, and wife of Ptolemy 
the son of Lagus. She was the mother of 3 sons, 
viz. Ptolemy Ceraunus, Meleager, and a third 
(whose name is not mentioned) ; and of "2 daugh- 
ters, Ptolemais, afterwards married to Demetrius 
Poliorcetes, and Lysandra, the wife of Agathocles, 
son of Lysimachus. —6. An Athenian, of a family 
descended from the great Miltiades. She was first 
married to Ophelias, the conqueror of Cyrene, and 
after his death returned to Athens, where she mar- 
ried Demetrius Poliorcetes, on occasion of his first 
visit to that city. 

Euryloclius {EvpvXoxos). 1, Companion of 
Ulysses in his wanderings, was the only one that 
escaped from the house of Circe, when his friends 
were metamorphosed into swine. Another per- 
sonage of the same name is mentioned among the 
sons of Aegyptus. — 2. A Spartan commander, in 
the Peloponnesian war, b. c. 426, defeated and 
slain by Demosthenes at Olpae. 

Eurymedon (EupyfteSoji'). 1. One of the Ca- 
blri, son of Hephaestus and Cabiro, and brother of 
Alcon. — 2. An attendant of Nestor. — 3. Son of 
Ptolemaeus, and charioteer of Agamemnon. — 4. 
Son of Thucles, an Athenian general in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. He was one of the commanders in 
the expedition to Corcyra, b. c. 428, and also in 
the expedition to Sicil}^, 425. In 414, he was ap- 
pointed, in conjunction with Demosthenes, to the 
command of the second Syracusan armament, and 
fell in the first of the two sea-fights in the harbour 
of Syracuse. 

Eurymedon {Evpvixi^cov : Kapri-Su), a small 
river in Pamphylia, navigable as far up as the city 
of AsPENDUS, through which it flowed ; celebrated 
for the victory which Cimon gained over the Per- 
sians on its banks (b. c. 469). 

Eurymenae (Eupu^uevat), a town in Magnesia 
in Thessaly, E. of Ossa. 

Eurynome {Evpvv6fj.-n)., 1. Daughter of Ocea- 
nus. When Hephaestus was expelled by Hera 
from Olympus, Eurynome and Thetis received him 
in the bosom of the sea. Before the time of Cro- 
nos and Rhea, Eurynome and Ophion had ruled in 
Olympus over the Titans. — 2. A surname of 
Artemis at Phigalea in Arcadia, Avhere she was 
represented half woman and half fish. 

Euryplion {'Supvcpwu), a celebrated physician of 
Cnidos in Caria, was a contemporary of Hippo- 
crates, but older. He is quoted by Galen, who 
says that he was considered to be the author of the 
ancient medical work entitled KvidiaL Tw/xa/, and 
also that som.e persons attributed to him several 
works included in the Hippocratic Collection. 

Eurypon, otherwise called Eurytion (EvpvTrcov, 
EiipvTLcov)^ grandson of Procles, was the third king 
of that house at Sparta, and thenceforward gave it 
the name of Eurypontidae. 

Eurypylus (EvpvirvXos). 1. Son of Euaemon 
and Ops, appears in different traditions as king 
either of Ormenion, or Hyria, or Cyrene. In the 
Iliad he is represented as having come from Or- 
menion to Troy v^rilh 40 ships. He slew many 
Trojans, and when wounded by Paris, he was 
nursed and cured by Patroclus. Among the heroes 

s 



2Mi EURYSACES. 
of Hyria, he is mentioned as a. son of Poseidon and 
Celaeno, who went to Libya where he ruled in 
the country afterwards called Cyrene, and there 
became connected with the Argonauts. He mar- 
ried Sterope, the daugliter of Helios, by whom he 
became the father of Lycaon and Leucippus. — 2. 
Son of Poseidon and Astypalaea, king of Cos, was 
killed by Hercules v/ho on his return from Troy 
landed in Cos, and being taken for a pirate, was 
attacked by its inhabitants. According to another 
tradition Hercules attacked the island of Cos, in 
order to obtain possession of Chalciope, the daugh- 
ter of Eurypylus, whom he loved. — 3. Son of 
Telephus and Astyochc, king of Mysia or Cilicia, 
was induced by the presents which Priam sent to 
]iis mother or wife, to assist the Trojans against the 
Greeks. Eurypylus killed Machaon, but was him- 
self slain by Neoptolemus. 

Eurysaces (EvpvaaKrjs), son of the Telamonian 
Ajax and Tecmcssa, named after the " broad shield" 
of his father. An Athenian tradition related, that 
Eurysaces and his brother Philaeus had given up 
to tile Athenians the island of Salamis, which they 
had inherited from their grandfather, and that the 
2 brothers received in return the Attic franchise. 
Eurysaces was honoured like his father, at Athens, 
with an altar. 

Eurysthenes (Evpvadeurjs), and Procles (ripo- 
/fA^s), the twin sons of Aristodemus, Avere born, 
according to the common account before, but, ac- 
cording to the genuine Spartan story, after their 
father's return to Peloponnesus and occupation of 
his allotment of Laconia. He died immediately 
after the birth of his children, and had not even 
time to decide which of the 2 should succeed him. 
The mother professed to be unable to name the 
elder, and the Lacedaemonians applied to Delphi, 
and were instructed to make them both kings, but 
give the greater honour to the elder. The difficulty 
thus remaining was at last removed at the sugges- 
tion of Panites, a Messenian, by watching whichr 
of the children was first washed and fed by the 
mother; and the first rank Avas accordingly given 
to Eurj^sthenes and retained by his descendants. 
From these 2 brothers, the 2 royal families in 
Sparta were descended, and were called respectively 
the Etirptlienidae and Proclidae. The former Avere 
also called iheAgidae from Agis, son of Eurysthenes; 
and the latter Eurypontidae from Eurypon, grand- 
son of Procles. 

Eurystlieus. [Hercules.] 

Eurytns (Eupwros). 1. Son of Melaneus and 
Stratonice, was king of Oechalia, probably the 
Thessalian town of this name. He was a skilful 
archer and married to Antioche, by whom he be- 
came the father of lole, Iphitus, Molion or Deion, 
Clytius, and Toxeus. He was proud of his skill in 
using the bow, and is said to have instructed even 
Hercules in his art. He offered his daughter lole 
as a prize to him who should conquer him and his 
sons in shooting Avith the boAv. Hercules Avon the 
prize, but Eurytus and his sons, Avith the exception 
of Iphitus, refused to give up lole, because they 
feared lest Hercules should kill the children he 
might have by her. Hercules accordingly marched 
against Oechalia Avith an army, took the place and 
killed Eurytus and his sons. According to Homer, on 
the other hand, Eurytus Avas killed by Apollo Avhom 
he presumed to rival in using the boAv. {Od. viii. 
226.) — 2. Son of Actor and Molione of Elis. 
[MoLioNES,] — 3. Son of Hermes and AntianTra, 



EUSEBIUS. 

and brother of Echion, AA^as one of the Argonauts. 

— 4. An eminent Pythagorean philosopher, a dis- 
ciple of Philolaus. 

Eusebius (Eucre'gios), surnamed Pampldli to 
commemorate his devoted friendship for Pamphilus, 
bishop of Caesarea. Eusebius Avas born in Palestine 
about A. D. 264, Avas made bishop of Caesarea 315, 
and died about 340. He had a strong leaning 
toAvards the Arians, though he signed the creed of 
the council of Nicaea. He Avas a man of great 
learning. His most important Avorks are : — 1. The 
CItronicon (xpoviKO. irai/TodairTjs laropias), a AA'^ork 
of great value to us in the study of ancient history. 
It is in 2 books. The first, entitled xpof07pa(/)ta, 
contains a sketch of the history of several ancient 
nations, as the Chaldaeans, Assyrians, Medes, Per- 
sians, Lydians, Hebrews, and Egyptians. It is 
chiefl}' taken from the AA'ork of Africanus [Afri- 
CANUs], and gives lists of kings and other magis- 
trates, Avith short accounts of remarkable events 
from the creation to the time of Eusebius. The 
second book consists of synchronological tables, 
Avith similar catalogues of rulers and striking occur- 
rences, from the time of Abraham to the celebration 
of Constantine's Vicennalia at Nicomedia, A. D. 327, 
and at Rome, A. D. 328. The Greek text of the 
Chronicon is lost, but there is extant part of a Latin 
translation of it by Jerome, published by Scaliger, 
Ley den, 1606, of Avhich another enlarged edition ap- 
peared at Amsterdam, 1658. There is also extant 
an Armenian translation, Avhich AA^as discovered at 
Constantinople, and published by Mai and Zohrab 
at Milan, 1818, and by Aucher, Venice, 1818.— 2. 
The Pracparatio Evangelica (evayyeXiKrjs otto- 
8ei'|ecos irpoTrapacrKeuT]) in 15 books, is a collection 
of various facts and quotations from old AATiters, by 
Avhich it Avas supposed that the mind Avould be 
prepared to receive the evidences of Christianity. 
This book is almost as important to us in the study 
of ancient philosophy, as the Chronicon is Avith 
reference to history, since in it are preserA'ed spe- 
cimens from the Avritings of almost CA^ery philosopher 
of any note whose works are not now extant. 
Edited by R. Stephens, Paris, 1544, and again in 
1628, and by F. Viger, Cologne, 1688. —3. The 
Demonstratio Evangelica {evayyeXiKr] cTroSei^is) in 
20 books, of AA'hich 10 are extant, is a collection of 
evidences, chiefly from the Old Testament, ad- 
dressed principally to the Jcavs. This is the com- 
pletion of the preceding work, giving the arguments 
which the Pracparatio was intended to make the 
mind ready to receive. Edited Avith the Pracpa- 
ratio in the editions both of R. Stephens and Vigor. 

— 4. The Ecclesiastical History (eKKX-naiaariK^ 
IcrropLa), in 10 books, containing the history of 
Christianity from the birth of Christ to the death 
of Licinius, A. d. 324. Edited with the other 
Ecclesiastical historians by Reading, Cambridge, 
1720, and separately by Burton, Oxford, 1838. — 
5. De MaHyrihits Palaestinae^ being an account of 
the persecutions of Diocletian and Maximin from 
A. D. 303 to 310. It is in one book, and generally 
found as an appendix to the eighth of the Ecclesi- 
astical History. — 6. Against Hierocles- Hierocles 
had advised Diocletian to begin his persecution, 
and had Avritten 2 books, called X6yoL (pLXaKif]Oeis, 
comparing our Lord's miracles to those of Apollo- 
nius of Tyana. In ansAvering this Avork, Eusebius 
roA-iews the life of Apollonius by Philostratus. It 
is published with the works of Philostratus.— 
7. Against Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra, in 2 books. 



EUSTATHITJS. 



EVAGORAS. 



259 



0. De Ecdesiasiica Theologia, a continuation of the 
former work. — 9. De Vita Coiistantini^ 4 books, a 
panegyric rather than a biography. It has gene- 
rally been published with the Ecclesiastical History, 
but edited separately bj' Heinichen, 1830. — 10. 
Onomasticon de Locis Hchrcdcis, a description of the 
towns and places mentioned in Holy Scripture, 
arranged in alphabetical order. It was translated 
into Latin by Jerome. 

Eustathms {'Ehcxra.Qios). 1. Of Cappadocia, a 
Neo-Platonic philosopher, was a pupil of lamblichus 
and Aedesius. In A. d. 358, he was sent by Con- 
stantius as ambassador to king Sapor, and remained 
in Persia, where he was treated with the greatest 
honour. — 2. Or Eumathius, probably lived as 
late as the twelfth century of our era. He wrote 
a Greek romance in 11 books, still extant, con- 
taining an account of the loves of Hysminias and 
Hysmine. The tale is wearisome and improbable, 
and shows no power of invention on the part of its 
author. Edited by Gaulmin, Paris, 1617, and by 
Teucher, Lips. 1792. — 3. Archbishop of Thessa- 
lonica, was a native of Constantinople, and lived 
during the latter half of the twelfth century. He was 
a man of great learning and wrote numerous works, 
the most important of which is his commentary on 
the Iliad and Odyssey {TlapiK§oXal €hTT]v'0,u'f}pou 
'IkidSa Kal 'OSvcTcre'iav), or rather his collection of 
extracts from earlier commentators on those two 
poems. This vast compilation Avas made from the 
numerous and extensive works of the Alexandrian 
grammarians and critics ; and as nearly all the 
works from which Eustathius made his extracts 
are lost, his commentary is of incalculable value to 
us. Editions : At Rome, 1542 — 1550, 4 vols. fol. ; 
at Basle, 1559-60 ; at Leipzig, 1825-26, con- 
taining the commentary on the Odyssey, and at 
Leipzig, 1827-29, the commentary on the Iliad. 
There is also extant by Eustathius a commentarj' 
on Dionysius Periegetes, Avhich is published with 
most editions of Dionysius. Eustathius likewise 
wrote a commentary on Pindar, which seems to be 
lost. — 4. Usually called Eustathius Romanus, 
a celebrated Graeco-Roman jurist, filled various 
high offices at Constantinople, from a. d. 960 to 
1000. 

Eustratius (Eua-TpdrLos), one of the latest 
commentators on Aristotle, lived about the be- 
ginning of the twelfth century after Christ, under 
the emperor Alexius Comnenus, as m.etropolitan of 
Nicaea. Of his writings only two are extant, and 
these in a very fragmentarj' state : viz. 1. A Com- 
mentary on the 2nd book of the Analytica. 2. A 
Commentary on the Etltica Nicomaeliea, 

Euterpe. []Musae.] 

Suthydemus {'EvQv^piOs). 1. A sophist, was 
born at Chios, and migrated Avith his brother Dio- 
nysodorus to Thurii in Italj'. Being exiled thence, 
they came to Athens, where they resided many 
years. The pretensions of Euthydeimis and his 
brother are exposed by Plato in the dialogue 
which bears the name of the former. — 2. King of 
Bactria, was a native of Magnesia. We know no- 
thing of the circumstances attending his elevation 
to the sovereignty of Bactria. He extended his 
power over the neighbouring provinces, so as to 
become the founder of the greatness of the Bac- 
trian monarchy. His dominions were invaded 
about B. c, 212, by Antiochus the Great, Avith 
whom he eventually concluded a treaty of peace. 

Euthymus {EvQvixos), a hero of Locri in Italy, 



son of Astyclos or of the river-god Caecinus. He 
was famous for his strength and skill in boxing, 
and delivered the tOAvn of Temesa from the evil 
spirit Polites, to whom a fair maiden was sacrificed 
every year. Euthpnus himself disappeared at an 
advanced age in the river Caecinus. 

Eutocius (EuTo/cios) of Ascalon, the commenta- 
tor on Apollonius of Perga and on Archimedes, 
lived about a. d. 560. His commentaries are 
printed in the editions of Apollonius and Ar- 
chimedes. 

Eutrapelus, P. Voluinnius, a Roman knight, 
obtained the surname of Eutrapelus (EurpaTreAos), 
on account of his liveliness and wit. He Avas an 
intimate friend of Anton}-, and a companion of his 
pleasures and debauches. Cytheris, the mistress 
of Antony, AA^as originally the freedAvoman and 
mistress of Volumnius Eutrapelus, Avhence Ave find 
her called Volumnia, and Avas surrendered to An- 
tony by his friend. Eutrapelus is mentioned by 
Horace. {Epist. i. 18. 31.) 

Eutresii (EuTp-qa-LOL), the inhabitants of a dis- 
trict in Arcadia, N. of Megalopolis. 

Eutresis (Eurprjcris), a small town in Boeotia 
betAveen Thespiae and Plataeae, Avith a temple and 
oracle of Apollo, Avho hence had the surname Eu- 
tresltes. 

Eutropius. 1. An eunuch, the favourite of 
Arcadius, became the virtual governor of the E. on 
the death of Rufinus, A. D. 395. He Avas consul 
in 399, but in that year AA-as deprived of his 
poAver hy the intrigues of the empress Eudoxia 
and Gainas, the Goth ; he AA-as first banished to 
Cyprus, AA'as shortly afterAvards recalled and put to 
death at Chalcedcn. The poet Claudian Avrote an 
iuA-ective against Eutropius. — 2. A Roman his- 
torian, held the office of a secretary under Constan- 
tine the Great, Avas patronised by Julian the 
Apostate, Avhom he accompanied in the Persian 
expedition, and Avas alive in the reign of Valen- 
tinian and Valens. He is the author of a brief 
compendium of Roman histon,' in 10 books, from 
the foundation of the city to the accession of Valens, 
A. D. 364, to AA'hom it is inscribed. In draAving up 
this abridgment Eutropius appears to haA^e con- 
sulted the best authorities, and to have executed 
his task in general with care. The style is in 
perfect good taste and keeping Avith the nature of 
the undertaking, being plain, precise, and simple. 
The best editions are by Tzschucke, Lips. 1796, 
and by Grosse, Hal., 1813. 

Eutychides (EvTvxiBrjs), of Sicyon, a staluarj-, 
and a disciple of Lysippus, flourished B. c. 300. 

Euxinus Pontus. [Pontus Euxinus.] 

Evadne (EvdBvT]). 1. Daughter of Poseidon 
and Pitane, Avho Avas brought up by the Arcadian 
king Aepytus, and became by Apollo the mother 
of lamus. — - 2. Daughter of Iphis (hence called 
Iphias), or Philax, and wife of Capaneus. For 
details see Capaneus. 

Evagoras (Euayopas), king of Salamis in Cy- 
prus. He AA-as sprung from a family AA^hich claimed 
descent from Teucer, the reputed founder of Sala- 
mis ; and his ancestors appear to have been during 
a long period the hereditarj- rulers of that city 
under the supremacy of Persia. They had, hoAv- 
ever, been expelled by a Phoenician exile, Avho 
obtained the sovereignty for himself, and trans- 
mitted it to his descendants. EA-agoras succeeded 
in recovering his hereditary kingdom, and putting 
the reigning tvrant to death, about b. c. 410. His 

s 2 



2f)0 EVAGRICS. 
rule was distinp;uished for its mildness and equity, 
and he greatly increased the power of Salamis, speci- 
ally by the formation of a powerful fleet. He gave 
a friendly reception to Conon. when the latter took 
refuge at Salamis after the defeat of the Athenians 
at Aogospotami, 405 ; and it was at his interces- 
sion that the king of Persia allowed Conon the 
support of the Phoenician fleet. But his growing 
power excited the jealousy of the Persian court, 
and at length war was declared against him by 
Artaxerxes. Evagoras received the assistance of 
an Athenian fleet under Chabrias, and at first met 
with great success ; but the fortune of war after- 
wards turned against him, and he was glad to con- 
clude a peace with Persia, by which he resigned 
his conquests in Cyprus, but was allowed to retain 
possession of Salamis, vrith. the title of king. This 
war was brought to a close in 385. Evagoras was 
assassinated in 374, together with his eldest son 
Pnytagoras, He was succeeded by his son Nico- 
cles. There is still extant an oration of Isocrates 
in praise of Evagoras, addressed to his son Nico- 
cles. 

Evagrius {Evdypios), of Epiphania in Syria, 
bom about a. d. 536, was by profession a " scho- 
lasticus" (advocate or pleader), and probably prac- 
tised at Antioch. He wrote Aji Ecclesiastical 
History, still extant, which extends from a. d. 
431 TO 594. It is published with the other Eccle- 
iiasiical Historians, by Reading, Camb. 1720. 

Evaader (Evai/dpos). 1. Son of Hermes by an 
Arcadian nymph, called Themis or Nicostrata, and 
in Roman traditions Carmenta or Tiburtis. About 
60 years before the Trojan war, Evander is said to 
have led a Pelasgian colony from Pallantium in 
Arcadia into Italy, and there to have built a 
town, Pallantiura, on the Tiber, at the foot of 
the Palatine Hill, which town was subsequently 
incorporated v.-ith Rome. Evander taught his 
neighbours milder laws and the arts of peace and 
of social life, and especially the art of writing, 
with which he himself had been made acquainted 
by Hercules, and music ; he also introduced among 
them the worship of the Lycaean Pan, of Demeter, 
Poseidon, and Hercules. Virgil (Aen. xiii. 51) 
represents Evander as still alive at the time when 
Aeneas arrived in Italy, and as forming an alliance 
with him against the Latins. Evander was wor- 
shipped at Pallantium in Arcadia, as a hero. At 
Rome he had an altar at the foot of the Aventine. 
— 2. A Phocian, was the pupil and successor 
of Lacydes as the head of the Academic School at 
Athens, about B. c. 215. 

Evenus (Evrjuos). 1. Son of Ares and Demonice, 
and father of Marpessa. For details see^MARPESSA. 
—2. Two elegiac poets of Paros. One of these 
poets, though it is ixncertain whether the elder or 
the younger, v/as a contemporary of Socrates, whom 
he is said to have instructed in poetry ; and Plato 
in several passages refers to Evenus, somewhat 
ironically, as at once a sophist or philosopher and 
a poet. There are 16 epigrams in the Greek 
Anthology bearing the name of Evenus, but it is 
difficult to determine which of them should be 
assigned to the elder and which to the younger 
Evenus. 

Evenus {Ev-nvos : Fidhari). formerly called Ly- 
cormas, rises in [Mt. Oeta, and flows with a rapid 
stream through Aetolia into the sea, 120 stadia 
"W. of Antirrhium. 

Evenus {Eiirivos : SandarU), a river of Mvsia, 



FABRICII. 

rising in Mt. Temnus, flowing S. through Aeolis, 
and falling into the Sinus Elaiticus near Pitane. 
The city of Adramyttiimi, which stood nearly due 
W. of its sources, was supplied with water from it 
by an aqueduct. 

Evergetes (Ei'6/>7e'T7js), the " Benefactor," a 
title of honour, frequently conferred by the Greek 
states upon those from whom they had received 
benefits. It was assumed by many of the Greek 
kings in Egypt and elsewhere [Ptole.maecs.] 

Evius (Euios), an epithet of Bacchus, given 
him from the cheering and animating cry, eSa, euot 
(Lat. cvoe), in the festivals of the god. 

Exadius ('E|a5ios), one of the Lapithae, fought 
at the nuptials of Piritholis. 

Exsuperantius, Julius, a Roman historian, 
who lived perhaps about the 5th or 6th centun.- of 
our era. He is the author of a short tract entitled 
De Marii, Lepidi, ac Sertorii helUs civilibus, which 
many suppose to have been abridged from the 
Histories of Sallust. It is appended to several 
editions of Sallust. 

Eziongeber. [Berenice, No. 1.] 



F. 



Fabaris or Farfarus {Far/a), a small river in 
Italy in the Sabine territory between Reate and 
Cures. 

Fabatus, I. Eoscius, one of Caesar's lieute- 
nants in the Gallic war, and praetor in B. c. 49. 
He espoused Pompey's party, and was twice sent 
with proposals of accommodation to Caesar. He 
was killed in the battle at INIutina, b. c. 43. 

Fabatus, Calpurnius, a Roman knight, ac- 
cused in A. D. 64, but escaped punishment. He 
was grandfather to Calpurnia, wife of the younger 
Pliny, many of whose letters are addi'essed to him. 

Faberius. 1. A debtor of M. Cicero. — 2. 
One of the private secretaries of C. Julius Caesar. 

Fabia, 2 daughters of ^M. Fabius Ambustus. 
The elder was married to Ser. Sulpicius, a patri- 
cian, and one of the military tribunes B. c. 376, and 
the younger to the plebeian C. Licinius Stolo. 

Fabia Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
gentes at Rome, which traced its origin to Her- 
cules and the Arcadian Evander. The Fabii oc- 
cupy a prominent part in history soon after the 
commencement of the republic ; and 3 brothers be- 
longing to the gens are said to have been invested 
with 7 successive consulships, from B. c. 485 to 
479. The house derived its greatest lustre from 
the patriotic courage and tragic fate of the 306 
Fabii in the battle on the Cremera, B. c. 477. 
[ViBULAXUS.] The principal families of this 
gens bore the names of A-aibustus, Buteo, Dor- 
so, Labeo, Maximus, Pictor, and ViBULANa'S. 

Fabianus, Papirius, a Roman rhetorician and 
philosopher in the time of Tiberius and Caligula. 
He wrote works on philosophy and physics, which 
are referred to by Seneca and Pliny. 

Fabrateria ( Fabratemus : Fahaterra), a town 
in Latium on the right bank of the Trerus, originally 
belonged to the Volscians, but was subsequently 
colonised by the Romans. 

Fabricii belonged originally to the Hernicau 
town of Aletrium, where some of this name lived 
as late as the time of Cicero. 1. C. Fabricius 
Luseinus, was probably the first of his family 
who quitted J\ irtrium and settled at Rome. He 



FADUS. 



FANNIUS. 



26] 



was one of the most popular heroes in the Roman 
annals, and, like Cincinnatus and Curius, is tlie 
representative of the purity and honesty of the 
good old times. In his first consulship, b. c. 282, 
he defeated the Lucanians, Bruttians, and Sam- 
nites, gained a rich booty and brought into the 
treasury more than 400 talents. Fabricius pro- 
bably served as legate in the unfortunate cam- 
paign against Pyrrhus in 280 ; and at its close he 
was one of the Roman ambassadors sent to Pyr- 
rhus at Tarentum to negotiate a ransom or ex- 
change of prisoners. The conduct of Fabricius on 
this occasion formed one of the most celebrated 
stories in Roman history, and was embellished in 
every possible way by subsequent writers. So 
much, however, seems certain, — that Pyrrhus used 
every effort to gain the favour of Fabricius ; that 
he offered him the most splendid presents, and en- 
deavoured to persuade him to enter into his service, 
and accompany him to Greece ; but that the sturdy 
Roman was proof against all his seductions, and 
rejected all his offers. On the renewal of the 
war in the following year (279), Fabricius again 
served as legate, and shared in the defeat at the 
battle of Asculum. In 278 Fabricius was consul 
a second time, and had the conduct of the war 
against Pyrrhus. The king was anxious for peace ; 
and the generosity with Avhich Fabricius sent back 
to Pyrrhus the traitor who had offered to poison 
him, afforded an opportunity for opening negotia- 
tions, which resulted in the evacuation of Italy by 
Pyrrhus. Fabricius then subdued the allies of the 
king in the S. of Italy. He was censor in 275, 
and distinguished himself by the severity with 
which he attempted to repress the growing taste 
for luxury. His censorship is particularly cele- 
brated, from his expelling from the senate P. Cor- 
nelius Rufinus, on account of his possessing ten 
pounds' weight of silver plate. The love of luxury 
and the degeneracy of morals wiiich had already 
commenced, brought out still more prominently 
the simplicity of life and the integrity of character 
which distinguished Fabricius as well as his con- 
temporary Curius Dentatus ; and ancient writers 
love to tell of the frugal way in which they lived 
on their hereditary farms, and how they refused 
the rich presents which the Samnite ambassadors 
offered them. Fabricius died as poor as he had 
lived ; he left no dowry for his daughters, which 
the senate, however, furnished ; and in order to 
pay the greatest possible respect to his memory, 
the state interred him within the pomaerium, al- 
though this was forbidden by the 12 Tables. — 2, 
L. Fabricius, curator viarum in b. c. 62, built a 
new bridge of stone, which connected the city with 
the island in the Tiber, and which was, after him, 
called pons Fabricius. The name of its author is 
still seen on the remnants of the bridge, which 
now bears the name of ponte quattro capi. — 3. Q. 
Fabricius, tribune of the plebs, 57, proposed as 
early as the month of Januar}-- of that year, that 
Cicero should be recalled from exile ; but this 
attempt was frustrated by P. Clodius by armed 
force. 

Fadus, Cuspius, appointed by the emperor Clau- 
dius procurator of Judaea in a. b. 44. He was 
succeeded by Tiberius Alexander. 

Faesulae (Faesulilnus : Fiesole), a city of Etruria, 
situated on a hill 3 miles N.E. of Florence, was 
probably not one of the 12 cities of the League. 
SuUa sent to it a military colony ; and it was the 



head-quarters of Catiline's army. There are still 
to be seen the remains of its ancient walls, of a 
theatre, &c. 

Falacrine or Falacrinum, a Sabine town at the 
foot of the Apennines on the Via Salaria between 
Asculum and Reate, the birthplace of the emperor 
Vespasian. 

Falerii orFalerium, a town in Etruria, situated 
on a steep and lofcy height near Mt. Soracte, was 
an ancient Pelasgic town, and is said to have been 
founded by Halesus, who settled there with a body 
of colonists from Argos. Its inhabitants were called 
Falisci, and v/ere regarded by many as of the 
same race as the Aequi, whence we find them often 
called Aequi Falisci. Falerii afterwards became 
one of the 12 Etruscan cities; but its inhabitants 
continued to differ from the rest of the Etruscans 
both in their language and customs even in the 
time of Augustus. After a long struggle with Rome, 
the Faliscans yielded to Camillus B. c. 394. They 
subsequently joined their neighbours several times 
in warring against Rome, but were finally subdued. 
At the close of the 1st Punic war, 241, they again 
revolted. The Romans now destroj'ed Falerii and 
compelled the Faliscans to build a new town in the 
plain. The ruins of the new city are to be seen 
at Falleri ; while the remains of the more ancient 
one are at Civita Castellana. The ancient town of 
Falerii was afterwards colonised by the Romans 
under the name of " Colonia Etruscorum Falisca," 
or " Colonia Junonia Faliscorum," but it never be- 
came again a place of importance. The ancient 
town was celebrated for its worship of Juno Curitis 
or Quiritis, and it was in honour of her that the 
Romans founded the colony. Minerva and Janus 
were also worshipped in the town. — Falerii had 
extensive linen manufactories, and its white cows 
were prized at Rome as victims for sacrifice. 

Falemus Ager, a district in the N. of Campania, 
extending from the Massic hills to the river Vul- 
turnus. It produced some of the finest wine in 
Italy, which was reckoned only second to the wine 
of Setia. Its choicest variety was called Faustianum. 
It became fit for drinking in 10 j^ears, and might 
be used when 20 years old. 

Falesia Portus, a harbour in Etruria, S. of 
Populonium, opposite the island Ilva. 

Falisci. [Falerii.] 

Faliscus, Gratius, a contemporary of Ovid, and 
the author of a poem upon the chase, entitled 
Cynegeticon Liber, in 540 hexameter lines. Printed 
in Burmann's and Wernsdorf 's Poet. Lot. Min. 

Fannia. 1. A woman of Minturnae, who hos- 
pitably entertained Marius, when he came to Min- 
tm-nae in his flight, B. c. 88, though he had formerly 
pronounced her guilty of adultery.— 2. The second 
wife of Helvidius Priscus. 

Fannius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 187. 
—2. L., deserted from the Roman army in 84, 
with L. Magius, and went over to Mithridates, 
whom they persuaded to enter into negotiations 
with Sertorius in Spain. Fannius afterwards com- 
manded a detachment of the army of Mithridates 
against LucuUus. 3. C, one of the persons 
who signed the accusation brought against P. 
Clodius in 61. In 59 he was mentioned by L. 
Vettius as an accomplice in the alleged conspiracv 
against Pompey. — 4. C, tribune of the plebs, 
59, opposed the lex agraria of Caesar. He be- 
longed to Pompey 's party, and in 49 went as 
praetor to Sicily. — 5. C, a contemporary of the 

s 3 



2C2 



FELIX. 



younger Pliny, the author of a work, verj- popular 
at the time, on the deaths of persons executed or 
exiled by Nero. 

Faanius Caepio. [Caepio.] 
Famuus Strabo. [Strabo.] 
Fannius Quadratus. [Qcadratus.] 
Fanum Fortunae (Fano), an important town 
in Umbria at the mouth of the jNIetaurus, with a 
celebrated temple of Fortuna, whence the town 
derived its name. Augustus sent to it a colony of 
veterans, and it was then called " Colonia Jijlia 
Fanestris." Here was a triumphal arch in honour 
of Augustus. 
Farfarus. [Fabaris.] 

Fascinus, an early Latin divinity, and identical 
with ]Mutinus or Tutinus. He was worshipped as 
the protector from sorcery, witchcraft, and evil 
daemons ; and represented in the form of a phal- 
lus, the genuine Latin for which is fascmum, as 
this symbol was believed to be most efficacious in 
averting all evil influences. 

Faula or Fauna, according to some, a concu- 
bine of Hercules in Italy ; according to others, 
the wife or sister of Faunus. [Faunus.] 

Faunus, son of Picus, grandson of Satumus, 
and father of Latinus. was the third in the series 
of t!ie kings of the Laurentes. Faunus acts a very 
prominent part in the mythical historv' of Latium, 
and was in later times worshipped in 2 distinct 
capacities : first, as the god of fields and shepherds, 
because he had promoted agriculture and the breed- 
ing of cattle ; and secondly, as an oracular divinitv", 
because he was one of the great founders of the 
religion of the country. The festival of the Fau- 
nalia, celebrated on the oth of December by the 
country people, had reference to him as the god of 
agriculture and cattle. As a prophetic god, he was 
believed to reveal tbe future to man, partlj' in 
dreams, and partly by voices of unknown origin, 
in certain sacred groves, one near Tibur, around 
the well Albunea, and another on the Aventine," 
near Eome. What Faunus was to the male sex, 
his wife Faula or Fauna was to the female. — At 
Rome there was a round temple of Faunus, sur- 
rounded with columns, on Mount Caelius ; and 
another was built to him, in B.C. 196. on the 
island in the Tiber, where sacrifices were oifered 
to him on the ides of February. — As the god 
manifested himself in various ways, the idea arose 
of a plurality of Fauns (Faimi), who are described 
as half men, half goats, and with horns. Faunus 
gradually came to be identified with the Arcadian 
Pan. and the Fauni with, the Greek Satyrs. 

3'austa. 1. Cornelia, daughter of the dictator 
Salla, and twin sister of Faustus Sulla, was born 
about B. c. 88. She was first married to C. Mem- 
mius, and afterwards to Milo. She was infamous 
for her ad'olteries, and the historian Sallust is said 
to have been one of her paramours, and to have 
received a severe flogging from Milo when he was 
detected on one occasion in the house of the latter. 
Villius was another of her paramoui's, whence Ho- 
race calls him"Sullae gener." (Sat. i. 2. B-i.) 
— 2. Flavia Maximiana, daughter of ]Max:mi- 
anus, and wife of Constantine the Great, to whom 
she bore Constantinus, Constantius, and Constans. 

Faustina. 1. Annia Galeria, commonly distin- 
guished as Fcmsdna Senior, the Avife of Antoninus 
Pius, died in the 3d year of his reign, a.d. 141. 
Notwithstanding the profligacy of "her life, her ' 
husband loaded her with honours both before | 



and after her decease. It was in honour of her 
that Antoninus established a hospital for the edu- 
cation and support of young females, who were 
called after her pucllae alimeniariae Faustinianae. 
— 2. Annia, or Faustina Jioiior, daughter of the 
elder Faustina, was married to !M. Aurelius in a. d. 
145 or 146, and she died in a A'lllage on the skirts 
of Mount Taurus, in 175, having accompanied the 
emperor to Syria. Her profligacy was so open and 
infamous, that the good nature or blindness of her 
husband, who cherished her fondly while alive, 
and loaded her with honours after her death, ap- 
pears truly marvellous.— 3. Annia, grand-daughter 
or great-grand-daughter of M. Aurelius, the third 
of the numerous wives of Elagabalus. 
Faustulus. [Ro.MULus.] 
Faventia (Faventinus : Faenze), a town in 
i Gallia Cisalpina on the river Anemo and on the 
Via Aemilia, celebrated for its linen manufactories. 

Favonii Portus {Forto Favone), a harboiu- on 
the coast of Corsica. 

M. Fav5nius, an imitator of Cato Uticensis, 
whose character and conduct he copied so servilely 
as to receive the nickname of Cato's ape. He was 
always a warm supporter of the party of the op- 
timates, and actively opposed all the measiu-es of 
the first triumvirate. On the breaking out of the 
civil war in b. c. 49, he joined Pompey, notwith- 
standing his personal aversion to the latter, and op- 
posed all proposals of reconciliation between Caesar 
and Pompey. He served in the campaign against 
Caesar in Greece in 48, and after the defeat of his 
party at Pharsalus, he accompanied Pompey in his 
flight, and showed him the greatest kindness and 
attention. Upon Pompey's death he returned to 
Italy, and was pardoned by Caesar. He took no 
part in the conspiracy against Caesar's life, but 
after the murder of the latter, he espoused the side 
of Brutus and Cassius. He was taken prisoner in 
the battle of Philippi in 42, and was put to death 
by Octavianus. 

Favorinus, a philosopher and sophist in the 
reign of Hadrian, was a native of Aries in Gaul. 
He resided at different periods of his life in Rome, 
Greece, and Asia Minor, and obtained high dis- 
tinctions. He was intimate with some of his most 
distinguished contemporaries, among others, with 
Plutarch, who dedicated to him his treatise on the 
principle of cold, and with Herodes Atticus, to 
whom he bequeathed his library^ and house at 
Rome. He wrote several works on various sub- 
jects, but none of them are extant. 

Febris, the goddess, or rather the averter, of 
fever. She had 3 sanctuaries at Rome, in which 
amulets were dedicated which people had worn 
during a fever. 

Fehruus, an ancient Italian divinity, to whom 
the month of February was sacred, for in the latter 
half of that month general purifications and lustra- 
tions vi'-ere celebrated. The name is connected 
with fehruare (to purify), and fehruae (purifica- 
tions). Februus was also regarded as a god of the 
lower Avorld, and the festival of the dead {Feralia) 
was celebrated in February. 

Felicitas, the personification of happiness, to 
whom a temple was erected bj' Lucullus in b. c. 
75, which was biu-nt doA\Ti in the reign of Clau- 
dius. Felicitas is frequently seen on Roman me- 
dals, in the form of a matron, with the staff of 
Mercury {caduceiis) and a cornucopia. 

Felix, Antonius, procurator of Judaea, in the 



FELIX. 



FIDENAE. 



263 



reigns of Claudius and Nero, wns a brother of tlic 
freedman Pallas, and was himself a freedman of the 
emperor Claudius. Hence he is also called Clau- 
dius Felix. In his private and his public charac- 
ter alike Felix was unscrupulous and profligate. 
Having fallen in love with DrusiJla, daughter of 
Agrippa T., and wife of Azizus, king of Emesa, he 
induced her to leave her husband ; and she was 
still living with him in 60, Avhen St. Paul preached 
before him " of righteousness, temperance, and 
judgment to come." His government, though cruel 
and oppressive, Avas strong ; he suppressed all dis- 
turbances, and cleared the country of robbers. He 
was recalled in 62, and succeeded by Porcius 
Festus ; and the Jews having lodged accusations 
against him at Rome, he was saved from condign 
punishment only by the influence of his brother 
Pallas with Nero. 

Felix, M. Minucius, a Roman lawyer, who 
flourished about a. d. 230, wrote a dialogue en- 
titled Octavius, which occupies a conspicuous place 
among the early Apologies for Christianit}'. Edited 
by Gronovius, Lng. Bat. 1707 ; by Ernesti, ibid. 
1773 ; and by Muralto, Turic. 1 836. 

Felsina. [Bononia.] 

Feltria (Feltrlnus : Feltre), a town in Rhaetia, 
a little N. of the river Plavis. 

Eenestella, a Roman historian, who lived in 
the time of Augustus, and died A. D. 21, in the 
70th year of his age. His work, entitled Annales, 
extended to at least 22 books. The few fragments 
preserved relate to events subsequent to the Car- 
thaginian wars ; and we know that it embraced 
the greater part of Cicero's career. A treatise, De 
Sacerdotiis et Maqistratibus Romanorum Lihri 11.^ 
ascribed to Fenestella, is a modern forgery. 

Fenni, a savage people living by the chase, 
whom Tacitus {Germ. 46) reckons among the 
Germans. They appear to have dwelt in the further 
part of E. Prussia, and to have been the same as 
the modern Finns. 

Ferentinum (Ferentinas, Ferentlnus). 1. {Fe- 
rento), a town of Etruria, S. of Volsinii, the birth- 
place of the emperor Otho. It is called both a 
coionia and a municipium. There are still remains 
of its walls, of a theatre and of sepulchres at Ferento. 
— 2. {Fererdo), an ancient town of the Hemici in 
Latium, S.W. of Anagnia, colonised by the Romans 
in the 2nd Punic war. There are still remains of 
Its ancient Avails. In its neighbourhood was the 
source of the sacred brook Fereatina, at which the 
Latins used to hold their meetings. 

Ferentum. [Forentum.] 

Feretrius, a surname of Jupiter, derived from 
ferire, to strike ; for persons who took an oath 
called upon Jupiter to strike them if they swore 
falsely, as they struck the victim which they sacri- 
ficed to him. Others derived it from ferre, because 
he was the giver of peace, or because people de- 
dicated {ferehanf) to him spolia opima. 

Feronia, an ancient Italian divinity, who ori- 
ginally belonged to the Sabines and Faliscans, and 
Avas introduced by them among the Romans. It 
is difficult to form a definite notion of the nature of 
this goddess. Some consider her to have been xhe 
goddess of liberty ; others look upon her as the 
goddess of commerce and traffic, and others again 
regard her as a goddess of the earth or the loAver 
Avorld. Her chief sanctuary was at Terracina, near 
mount Soracte. 

Ferox, Urseius, a Roman jurist, Avho probably 



flourished between the time of Tiberius and "Ves- 
pasian. 

Ferratus Mons {Jchel-Jurjurcdi\ one of the 
principal mountain-chains in the Lesser Atlas 
system, in N. Africa, on the borders of Mauretania 
Caesariensis and Mauretania Sitifensis. 

Fescenmum or Fescennia (Fescenninus), a 
town of the Falisci in Etruria, and consequently 
like Falerii of Pelasgic origin. [Falerii.] From 
this toAvn the Romans are said to have derived the 
Fescennine songs. The site of the toAvn is uncer- 
tain ; it may perhaps be placed at S. Silvesto. Many 
AA'riters place it at Civiia Castellana, but this Avas the 
site of Falerii. 

Festus, Sext. Pompeius, a Roman grammarian, 
probably lived in the 4th century of our era. His 
name is attached to a dictionary or glossary of 
Latin Avords and phrases, divided into 20 books,- 
and commonly called Seciti Pompeii Festi de Verbo- 
rum Significatione. It Avas abridged by Festus 
from a work Avith the same title by M. Verrius 
Flaccus, a celebrated grammarian in the reign of 
Augustus. Festus made a few alterations and cri- 
ticisms of his OAvn, and inserted numerous extracts 
from other Avritings of Verrius ; but altogether 
omitted those Avords Avhich had fallen into disuse, 
intending to make these the subject of a se- 
parate volume. ToAvards the end of the 8th 
century, Paul, son of Warnefrid, better knoAvn 
as Paulus Diaconus, from having officiated as a 
deacon of the church at Aquileia, abridged the 
abridgment of Festus. The original Avork of Ver- 
rius Flaccus has perished Avith the exception of one 
or two inconsiderable fragments. Of the abstract 
by Festus one imperfect MS. only has come down 
to us. The numerous blanks in this MS. haAre 
been ingeniously filled up by Scaliger and Ursinus, 
partly from conjecture and partly from the corre- 
sponding paragraphs of Paulus, Avhose performance 
appears in a complete form in many MSS. The 
best edition of Festus is by K. 0. Miiller, Lips. 
1839, in Avhich the text of Festus is placed face to 
face Avith the corresponding text of Paulus, so as 
to admit of easy comparison. The work is one of 
great value, containing a rich treasure of learning 
upon many points connected Avith antiquities, my- 
thology, and grammar. 

Festus, Porcius, succeeded Antonius Felix as 
procurator of Judaea in A. d. 62, and died not long 
after his appointment. It was he Avho bore testi- 
mony to the innocence of St. Paul, when he de- 
fended himself before him in the same year. 

Fibrenus. [Arpinum.] 

Ficana (Ficanensis), one of the ancient Latin 
towns destroyed by Ancus Martins. 

Ficulea (Ficuleas, -atis, Ficolensis), an ancient 
toAvn of the Sabines, E. of Fidenae, said to have 
been founded by the Aborigines, but early sunk 
into decay. 

Fidenae, sometimes Fidena (Fidenas, -atis : 
Cartel Giidjileo), an ancient toAvn in the land of the 
Sabines, 40 stadia (5 miles) N.E. of Rome, situated 
on a steep hill, betAveen the Tiber and the Anio. 
It is said to have been founded by Alba Longa, 
and also to have been conquered and colonised by 
Romulus ; but the population appears to haA'e been 
partly Etruscan, and it Avas probably colonised by 
the Etruscan Veil, Avith Avhich city we find it in 
close alliance. It frequently revolted and Avas fre- 
quently taken by the Romans. Its last revolt was 
in B. c. 438, and in the folloAving year it was de- 

s 4 



264 



FIDENTIA. 



FLACCUb. 



stroyed by the Romans. Subsequently llio town 
was rebuilt ; but it is not mentioned again till the 
reign of Tiberius ; when in consequence of the fall 
of a temporary wooden theatre in the town 20,000, 
or, according to some accounts, 50,000 persons 
lost their lives- 

Fidentia (Fidentinus: Borgo S. Donino)^ a 
town in Cisalpine Gaul on the Via Aemilia between 
Parma and Placentia, memorable for the victory 
which Sulla's generals gained over Carbo, B. c. 82. 

Fides, the personification of fidelity or faithful- 
ness. Nuraa is said to have built a temple to Fides 
publica, on the Capitol, and another was built there 
in the consulship of M. Aemilius Scaurus, B.C. 115. 
She was represented as a matron wearing a wreath 
of olive or laurel leaves, and carr^^ng in her hand 
com ears, or a basket with fruit. 

Fldius, an ancient form of Jiltus, occurs in the 
connection of Dius Fidius, or Afedius Fidius, that 
is, me Dius (Aios) filius, or the son of Jupiter, that 
is, Hercules. Hence the expression medius fidius 
is equivalent to me Hercules^ soil, juvet. Some- 
times Fidius is used alone. Some of the ancients 
connected^a'ms \\\ihfi/les. 

Figiilus, C. Marcius. 1. Consul b. c. 162, and 
again consul 156, when he carried on war with tlie 
Dalraatae in Illyricum. — 2. Consul 64, supported 
Cicero in his consulship. 

Figulus, P. Nigidius, a Pythagorean philoso- 
pher of high reputation, who flourished about B. c. 
60. Mathematical and physical investigations ap- 
pear to have occupied a large share of his attention ; 
and such was his fame as an astrologer, that it 
was generallj' believed, in later times at least, that 
he had predicted the future greatness of Octavianus 
on hearing the announcement of his birth. He, 
morLOver, possessed considerable influence in poli- 
tical aiFairs ; was one of the senators selected by 
Cicero to take down the depositions of the wit- 
nesses who gave evidence with regard to Catiline's 
conspiracy, B. c. 63 ; was praetor, 59 ; took an 
active part in the civil war on the side of Pompe)'- ; 
was compelled in consequence by Caesar to live 
abroad, and died in exile, 44. 

Fimbria, C. Flavius. 1. A Twmo novus, who 
rose to the highest honours through his own merits 
and talents. Cicero praises him both as a jurist 
and an orator. He was consul B. c. 104, and was 
subsequently accused of extortion in his province, 
but was acquitted. — 2. Probably son of the pre- 
ceding, was one of the most violent partizans of 
Marius and Cinna during the civil war Avith Sulla. 
In B. c. 86 he was sent into Asia as legate of Vale- 
rius Flaccus, and took advantage of the unpopu- 
larity of his commander wdth the soldiers to excite 
a mutiny against him. Flaccus was killed at 
Chalcedon, and was succeeded in the command by 
Fimbria, who carried on the war with success 
against the generals of Mithridates. In 84 Sulla 
crossed over from Greece into Asia, and, after con- 
cluding peace with Mithridates, marched against 
Fimbria. The latter was deserted by his troops, 
and put an end to his life. 

Fines, the name of a great number of places, 
either on the borders of Roman provinces or of 
different tribes. These places are usually found 
only in the Itineraries, and are not of sufiicient 
importance to be enumerated here. 

Firmanus, Tanitius, a mathematician and 
astrologer, contemporaiy with M. Varro and Cicero. 
At Varro's request Firmanus took the horoscope of 



Romulus, and horn the circumstances of the life and 
death of the founder determined the era of Rome. 

Firmianus Symposius, Caelius, of uncertain 
age and country, the author of 100 insipid riddles, 
each comprised in 3 hexameter lines, collected, as 
we are told in the prologue, for the purpose of pro- 
moting the festivities of the Saturnalia. Printed 
in the Poet. Lat. Min. of Wemsdorf, vol. vi. 
^ Fii-micus Matemus, Julius, or perhaps Vil- 
lius, the author of a work entitled MulJieseos 
Lihri VI n., which is a formal introduction to ju- 
dicial astrology, according to the discipline of the 
Egyptians and Babylonians. The writer lived in 
the time of Constantine the Great, and had during 
a portion of his life practised as a forensic pleader. 
There is also ascribed to this Firmicus JNIaternus a 
work in favour of Christianity, entitled De Errore 
Profanarum Religionum ad Conslanlium ct Constan- 
iem. This work was, however, probably written 
by a different person of the same name, since the 
author of the work on astrology was a pagan. 

Firmum (Firmanus : Fermo)^ a town in Picenum, 
3 miles from the coast, and S. of the river Tinna, 
colonised by the Romans at the beginning of the 
1st Punic war. On the coast was its strongly 
fortified harbour, Castellum Firmanum or Fir- 
manorum {Porto di Fermo). 

M. Firmus, a native of Seleucia, the friend and 
ally of Zenobia, seized upon Alexandria, and pro- 
claimed himself emperor, but was defeated and 
slain by Aurelian, a. d. 273. 

Flaccus, Calpumius, a rhetorician in the reign 
of Hadrian, whose 51 declamations are frequently 
printed with those of Quintilian. 

Flaccus, Fulvius. 1. M., consul with App. 
Claudius Caudex, b. c. 264, in which year the first 
Punic war broke out. — 2. Q., son of No. 1, consul 
237, fought against the Ligurians in Italy. In 
224 he v/as consul a 2nd time, and conquered the 
Gauls and Insubrians in the N. of Italy. In 215 
he was praetor, after having been twice consul ; 
and in the following year (214) he was re-elected 
praetor. In 213 he was consul for the 3rd time, 
and carried on the war in Campania against the 
Carthaginians. He and his colleague, Ap. Claudius 
Pulcher, took Hanno's camp by storm, and then 
laid siege to Capua, which they took in the follow- 
ing year (212). In 209 he was consul for the 
4th time, and continued the war against the Car- 
thaginians in the S. of Italy. — 3. Cn., brother of 
No. 2, was praetor 212, and had Apulia for his 
province : he was defeated by Hannibal near 
Herdonea. In consequence of his cowardice in 
this battle he was accused before the people, and 
went into voluntary exile before the trial. — 4. Q., 
son of No. 2, was praetor 182, and carried on war 
in Spain against the Celtiberians, whom he defeated 
in several battles. He was consul 179 with his bro- 
tlier, L. ]\Ianlius Acidinus Fulvianus, who had been 
adopted by Manlius Acidinus. In his consulship 
he defeated the Ligurians. I» 174 he was censor 
with A. Postumius Albinus. Shortly afterwards 
he became deranged, and hung himself in his bed- 
chamber.— 5. M., nephew of No. 4, and a friend of 
the Gracchi, was consul 125, when he subdued the 
Transalpine Ligurians. He was one of the tri- 
umvirs for carrying into execution the agrarian law 
of Tib. Gracchus, and was slain together with C. 
Gracchus in 121. He was a man of a bold and 
determined character, and was more ready to have 
recourse to violence and open force than C. Grac- 



FLACCUS. 



FLAMINIUS. 



265 



chus. — 6, Q., praetor in Sardinia, 187, and consul 
180.— 7. Ser., consul 135, subdued the Vardaeans 
in Illyricum. 

Flaccus, Granius, a contemporary of Julius 
Caesar, wrote a book, De Jure Papiriano, which 
was a collection of the laws of the ancient kings of 
Rome, made by Papirius. [Papirius]. 

Flaccus, Horatius. [Horatius.] 

Flaccus, Hordeonius, consular legate of Upper 
Germany at Nero's death, A. D, 68. Pie was 
secretlyattachedto the cause of Vespasian, for which 
reason he made no effectual attempt to put down 
the insurrection of Civilis [CiviLis]. His troops, 
who were in favour of Vitellius, compelled him 
to give up the command to Vocula, and shortly 
afterwards put him to death. 

Flaccus, C. Norbanus, a general of Octavian 
and Antony in the campaign against Brutus and 
Cassius, B. c. 42. Pie was consul in 38. 

Flaccus, Persius. [Persius.] 

Flaccus Siculus, an agrimensor by profession, 
probably lived about the reign of Nerva. He wrote 
a treatise entitled De Conditionibus Agrorum, of^ 
which the commencement is preserved in the col- 
lection of Agrimensores. [Frontinus.] 

Flaccus, Valerius, 1. L., curule aedile b. c. 
201, praetor 200, and consul 195, with M.Porcius 
Cato. In his consulship, and in the following year, 
he carried on war, with great success, against the 
Gauls in the N. of Italy. In 1 84 he was the col- 
league of M. Cato in the censorship, and in the 
same year was made princeps senatus. He died 
180. — 2. L., consul 131, with P. Licinius Cras- 
sus.— 3. L., consul 100 with C. Marius, when he 
took an active part in putting down the insurrec- 
tion of Saturninus. In 97 he was censor with 
M. Antonius, the orator. In 86 he was chosen 
consul in place of Marius, who had died in his 7th 
consulship, and was sent by Cinna into Asia to 
oppose Sulla, and to bring the war against Mithri- 
dates to a close. The avarice and severity of 
Flaccus made him unpopular with the soldiers, who 
at length rose in mutiny at the instigation of 
Fimbria. Flaccus was then put to death by order 
of Fimbria. [Fimbria.] —4. L., the interrex, who 
proposed that Sulla should be made dictator, 82, 
and who was afterwards made by Sulla his magis- 
ter equitum. — 5. C, praetor 98, consul 93, and 
afterwards proconsul in Spain. — 6. L., praetor 63, 
and afterwards propraetor in Asia, where he was 
succeeded by Q. Cicero. In 59 he was accused 
by D. Laelius of extortion in Asia ; but, although 
undoubtedly guilty, he was defended by Cicero (in 
the oration pro Flacco, which is still extant) and 
Q. Hortensius, and was acquitted. —7. C, a poet, 
was a native of Padua, and lived in the time of 
Vespasian. He is the author of the Argonautica, 
an unfinished heroic poem in 8 books, on the Ar- 
gonautic expedition, in which he follows the ge- 
neral plan and arrangement of Apollonius Rhodius. 
The 8th book terminates abruptly, at the point 
where Medea is urging Jason to make her the 
companion cf his homeward journey. Flaccus is 
only a second-rate poet. His diction is pure ; his 
general style is free from affectation ; his versifica- 
tion is polished and harmonious ; his descriptions 
are lively and vigorous ; but he displays no ori- 
ginality, nor any of the higher attributes of genius. 
Editions by Burmannus, Leid. 1724 ; by Harles, 
Altenb. 1781 ; and by Wagner, Getting. 1805. 

Flaccus, Vernus, a freedman by birth, and a 



distinguished grammarian, in the reign of Augus- 
tus, who entrusted him with the education of his 
grandsons, Caius and Iiucius Caesar. He died at 
an advanced age, in the reign of Tiberius. At 
the lower end of the market-place at Praeneste 
was a statue of Verrius Flaccus, fronting the He- 
micyclium, on the inner curve of Avhich were set 
up marble tablets, inscribed with the Fasti Ver- 
riani. These Fasti were a calendar of the days 
and vacations of public business — dies fasti, ne- 
/asti, and intercisi — of religious festivals, triumphs, 
&c., especially including such as were peculiar to 
the family of the Caesars. In 1770 the founda- 
tions of the Hemicyclium of Praeneste were dis- 
covered, and among the ruins were found fragments 
of the Fasti Verriani. They are given at the end 
of Wolf's edition of Suetonius, Lips. 1802. — 
Flaccus Avrote numerous works on philology, his- 
tory, and archaeology. Of these the most cele- 
brated was his work De Verhorum Significatione^ 
which was abridged by Festus. [Festus.] 

Flamininus, Quintius. 1. T., a distinguished 
general, was consul B. c. 198, and had the conduct 
of the war against Philip of Macedonia, Avhich he 
carried on with ability and success. He pretended 
to have come to Greece to liberate the country 
from the Macedonian yoke, and thus induced the 
Achaean league, and many of the other Greek 
states, to give him their support. The war was 
brought to a close in 197, by the defeat of Philip 
by Flamininus, at the battle of Cynoscephalae in 
Thessaly ; and peace was shortly afterwards con- 
cluded with Philip. Flamininus continued in 
Greece for the next 3 years, in order to settle the 
affairs of the country. At the celebration of the 
Isthmian games at Corinth in 196, he caused a 
herald to proclaim, in the name of the Roman se- 
nate, the freedom and independence of Greece. 
In ] 95 he made war against Nabis, tyrant of 
Sparta, whom he soon compelled to submit to the 
Romans ; and in 1 94 he returned to Rome, having 
won the affections of the Greeks by his prudent 
and conciliating conduct. In 192 he was again 
sent to Greece as ambassador, and remained there 
till 190, exercising a sort of protectorate over the 
country. In 183 he was sent as ambassador ta 
Prusias of Bithynia, in order to demand the sur- 
render of Hannibal. He died about 174. — 2. L.. 
brother of the preceding, was curule aedile 200, 
praetor 199, and afterwards served under his bro- 
ther as legate in the war against Macedonia. He 
was consul in 192, and received Gaul as his pro- 
vince, where he behaved with the greatest bar- 
barity. On one occasion he killed a chief of the 
Boii who had taken refuge in his camp, in order 
to afford amusement to a profligate favourite. For 
this and similar acts of cruelty he was expelled 
from the senate in 184, by M. Cato, who was then 
censor. He died in 170.-3. T., consul 150, 
with M'. Acilius Balbus. — 4. T,, consul 123, 
with Q. Metellus Balearicus. Cicero says that he 
spoke Latin with elegance, but that he was an 
illiterate man. 

Flaminius. 1. C, was tribune of the plebs, 
B. c. 232, in which year, notwithstanding the vio- 
lent opposition of the senate, he carried an agrarian 
law, ordaining that the Ager Gallicus Ficemis, 
which had recently been conquered, should be dis- 
tributed among the plebeians. In 227, in which 
year 4 praetors were appointed for the first time, 
he was one of them, and received Sicily for his 



toe FLANATICL'S. 
proTince, where he earned the goodwill of the pro- 
vincials bv his integrity and justice. In 223 he 
was consul, and marched against the Insubrian 
Gauls. As the senate were anxious to deprive 
Flaminius of his office, they declared that the con- 
sular election was not valid on account of some fault 
in the auspices, and sent a letter to the consuls, 
with orders to return to Rome. But as all prepa- 
rations had been made for a battle against the 
Insubrians, the letter vv-as left unopened until the 
battle was gained. In 221) he was censor, and 
executed 2 great works, which bore his name, viz. 
the Circus Flaminius and the Via Flaminia. In 
217 he \\-as consul a second time, and marched 
against Hannibal, but was defeated by the latter 
at the fatal battle of the Trasimene lake, on the 
23d of June, in which he perished with the greater 
part of his army. — 2. C, son of No. 1, was 
quaestor of Scipio Africanus in Spain, 210 ; curule 
aedile 196, when he distributed among the people 
a larse quantity ot grain at a low price, which ii^-as 
furnished him by the Sicilians as a mark of grati- 
tude towards his father and himself ; was praetor 
193, and obtained Hispania Citerior as his pro- 
vince, where he carried on the war with success ; 
and was consul 185, when he defeated the Li- 
gurians. 

Flanaticus or Flanonicus Sinus {Gulf of 
Qnarnaro \ a bay of the Adriatic sea on the coast 
of Libiimia. named after the people Flanates and 
their town Flanona (Fianona). 

ilavia, a surname given to several towns in the 
Roman empire in honour of the Flavian family. 

Flavia gens, celebrated as the house to which 
the emperor Vespasian belonged. During the later 
period of the Roman empire, the name Flavius de- 
scended from one emperor to another, Constantius, 
the father of Constantine the Great, being the first 
in the series. 

riaTia Domitilla. [Domitilla.] 

Flavins, Cn., the son of a freedman, became 
secretary to App. Claudius Caecus, and, in conse- 
quence of this connection, attained distiniruished 
honours in the commonwealth. He is celebrated 
in the annals of Roman law for ha^-ing been the 
first to divulge certain technicalities of procedure, 
which previously had been kept secret as the ex- 
clusive patrimony of the pontiffs and the patricians. 
He was elected curuie aedile B. c. 303, in spite of 
his ignominious birth. 

FlaviTis Fimbria. [Fqibria.] 

Flavins Joseplins. [Josephus.] 

Flavins Vopisens. [Vopiscus.] 

Flavns, L. Caesetins, tribune of the plebs. 
B. c. 44, was deposed from his ofBce by C. Julius 
Caesar, because, in concert with C. Epidius Marul- 
lus, one of his colleaoues in the tribunate, he had 
removed the cro-RHS from the statues of the dic- 
tator, and imprisoned a person who had saluted 
Caesar as " king." 

Flavns or Flavins, Snbrins, tribune in the 
Praetorian guards, was the most active agent in the 
conspiracy against Nero, a. D. 66, which, from its 
most distinguished member, was called Piso's con- 
spiracy. 

Flevnm, a fortress in Germany at the mouth, of 
the Amiiia (Ems). 

Flevnm, Flevo. [Rhexus.] 

Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers and spring. 
The waters, whose object was to bring the Roman 
religion into contempt, relate that Flora was a 



FOXTEIUS. 

courtezan, who had accumulated a lai^e property, 
and bequeathed it to the Roman people, in return 
for which she was honoured with the annual festi- 
val of the Floralia. But her worship was esta- 
blished at Rome in the very earliest times, for a 
temple is said to have been vowed to her by king 
Tatius, and Numa appointed a flamen to her. The 
resemblance ])etween the names Flora and Chloris 
led the later Romans to identify the two divinities. 
Her temple at Rome was situated near the Circus 
Maximus, and her festival was celebrated from the 
28th of April till the 1st of May, with extravagant 
merriment and lasciviousness. {Diet, of Ant. art. 
FloraJ.iu.) 

Florentia (Florentinus). 1. (Firenze, Florence), 
a tov\-n in Etruria on the Amus, was a Roman 
colony, and v.-as probably fotinded by the Romans 
during their wars with the Lignrians. In the time 
of SuUa it was a flourishing municipium, but its 
greatness as a city dates from the middle ages.— 2. 
(Fiorenzuola), a town in Cisalpine Gaul on the 
Aemilia Via between Placentia and Parma. 

Florentinns, a jurist, one of the council of the 
emperor Severus Alexander, wrote Institutiones in 
12 books, which are quoted in the Corpus Juris. 

Florianns, M. Annius, the brother, by a dif- 
ferent father, of the emperor Tacitus, upon whose 
decease he was proclaimed emperor at Rome, A. D. 
276. He was murdered by his own troops at 
Tarsus, after a reign of about 2 months, while on 
his march against Probus, who had been proclaimed 
emperor by the legions in Syria. 

Floms, Annaens. L L., a Roman historian, 
lived under Trajan and Hadrian, and wrote a smn- 
mary of Roman history, divided into 4 books, ex- 
tending from the foundation of the city to the 
establishment of the empire under Augustus, en- 
titled Rerum Romanarum Lihri IV., or Epitome de 
Gestis Romanarum. This compenditim presents 
within a very moderate compass a striking view of 
the leading events comprehended by the above 
limits. It is written in a declamatory style, and 
the sentiments frequently assume the form of tumid 
conceits expressed in violent metaphors. The best 
editions are, bv Duker, Lucr. Bat. 1722, 1744, re- 
printed Lips. 1832 ; by Titze, Prag. 1819 ; and 
by Seebode. Lips. 1821. — 2. A Roman poet in 
the time of Hadrian. 

Florus, Gessins, a native of Clazomenae, suc- 
ceeded Albinns as procurator of Judaea, a. d. 
64 — 65. His cruel and oppressive government 
was the main cause of the rebellion of the Jews. 
He is sometimes called Festus and Cestius Florus. 

Floms, Jnlins, addressed by Horace in 2 
epistles (i- 3, ii,2). was attached to the suite of 
Claudius Tiberius Xero, when the latter was de- 
spatched by Augustus to place Tigranes npon the 
throne of Armenia. He was both a poet and an 
orator. 

Foca or Phocas, a Latin grammarian, author of 
a dull, foolish life of Virgil in hexameter verse, of 
which 119 lines are preserved. Printed in the 
Anthol. Lot. of Burmann and "Wemsdorf. 

Foenicnlarins Campus, i. e., the Fennel Fields, 
a plain covered with fennel, near Tarraco in Spairu 

Fonteins, M., governed as propraetor Narbon- 
nese Gaul, between B. c. 76 — 73, and was accused 
of extortion in his province by M. Plaetorius in 69. 
He was defended by Cicero in an oration {pro M. 
Fonteio), part of which is extant 

Fonteius Capito. [CAPxra] 



FONTUa 



FORUM. 



267 



Fontus, a Roman divinity, son of Janus, had an 
altar on the Janiculus, which derived its name from 
his father, and on which Numa was believed to be 
buried. The name of this divinity is connected 
with fons^ a fountain ; and he was the personifica- 
tion of the flowing waters. On the 13th of Octo- 
ber the Romans celebrated the festival of the 
fountains called Fontinalia, at which the fountains 
were adorned with garlands. 

rorentum or Eerentum (Forentanus : Fo- 
renza\ a town in Apulia, surrounded by fertile 
fields and in a low situation, according to Horace 
(arv2im pingue humilis Forenti, Carm. iii. 4. 16). 
Livy (ix. 20) describes it as a fortified place, Avhich 
vv-as taken by C. Junius Bubulcus, B. c. 317. The 
modern town lies on a hill. 

Formiae (Formianus : nr. Mola di GaUta^ Ru.), 
a town in Latium, on the Appia Via, in the inner- 
most corner of the beautiful Sinus Caietanus (Gulf 
of Ga'iUi). It was a verj^ ancient town, founded 
by the Pelasgic Tyrrhenians ; and it appears to 
have been one of the head-quarters of the Tyrrhe- 
nian pirates, whence later poets supposed the city 
of Lamus, inhabited by the Laestrygones, of which 
Homer speaks {Od. x. 81), to be the same as 
Formiae. Formiae became a municipium and re- 
ceived the Roman franchise at an early period. 
The beauty of the surrounding country induced 
many of the Roman nobles to build villas at this 
spot : of these the best known is the Formianum 
of Cicero, in the neighbourhood of which he w-as 
killed. The remains of Cicero's villa are still to 
be seen at the Villa 3Iarsa?ia near Castiglione. 
The hills of Formiae produced good wine. (Hor, 
Carm. i. 20.) 

rornuo (Form{o7ie, Rusajio), a small river, form- 
ing the N. iDomidary of Istria. 

Fornax, a Roman goddess, said to have been 
worshipped that she might ripen the corn, and pre- 
vent its being burnt in baking in the oven 
{fornax). Her festival, the Fornacalia, was an- 
nounced by the curio maximus. 

Fortuna (Tl-xt?), the goddess of fortune, was 
vv'orshipped both in Greece and Italy. Hesiod de- 
scribes her as a daughter of Oceanus ; Pindar in 
one place calls her a daughter of Zeus the Liberator, 
and in another place one of the Moerae or Fates. She 
Avas represented with different attributes. With 
a rudder, she was conceived as the divinity guiding 
and conducting the affairs of the world ; with a 
ball, she represents the varying unsteadiness of for- 
tune ; with Plutos or the horn of Amalthea, she 
was the symbol of the plentiful gifts of fortune. 
She was worshipped in most cities in Greece. Her 
statue at Smyrna held with one hand a globe on 
her head, and in the other carried the horn of 
Amalthea. Fortuna was still more worshipped 
by the Romans than by the Greeks. Her w^or- 
ship is traced to the reigns of Ancus Mardus and 
Servius TuUius, and the latter is said to have built 
2 temples to her, the one in the forum boarium, 
and the other on the banks of the Tiber. The 
Romans mention her with a variety of surnames 
and epithets, as publica, privaia, midiehris (said to 
have originated at the time when Coriolanus was 
prevented by the entreaties of the women from de- 
stroying Rome), regina^ conservatrix, priinigejiia, 
vinlis, &c. Fortuna Virginensis was worshipped 
by newly-married women, who dedicated their 
maiden garments and girdle in her temple. For- 
tuna Virilis was worshipped by women, who prayed 



to her that she might preserve their charms, and 
thus enable them to please their husbands. Her 
surnames, in general, express either particular 
kinds of good fortune, or the persons or classes of 
persons to whom she granted it. Her worship was 
of great importance also at Antium and Praeneste, 
where her sortes or oracles were very celebrated. 

Fortuaatae or -orum Insiilae {al tS>v ixo.k6^ 
pcav vriffoi, i. e. the Islands of the Blessed). The 
early Greeks, as we learn from Homer, placed 
the Elysian fields, into which favoured heroes passed 
without dying, at the extremity of the earth, near 
the river Oceanus. [Elysium.] In poems later 
than Homer, an island is clearly spoken of as their 
abode ; and though its position was of course in- 
definite, both the poets, and the geographers who 
followed them, placed it beyond the pillars of Her- 
cules. Hence Avhen, just after the time of the 
Marian civil wars, certain islands Avere discovered in 
the Ocean, off the W. coast of Africa, the name of 
Fortunatae Insulae Avas applied to them. As to 
the names of the individual islands, and the exact 
identification of them hj their modern names, there 
are difficulties : but it may be safely said, gene- 
rally, that the Fortunatae Insulae of Pliny, Ptolemy, 
and others, are the Canary Islands, and probably 
the Madeira group ; the latter being perhaps those 
called by Pliny (after .Tuba) Purpurariae. 

Fortunatianus, Atilius, a Latin grammarian, 
author of a treatise {Ars) upon prosody, and the 
metres of Horace, printed in the collection of 
Putschius. 

Fortunatianus, Curius or Chirius, a Roman 
lawyer, flourished about a. d. 450. He is the author 
of a compendium of technical rhetoric, in 3 books, 
under the title Curii Fortunatiani Considti Ariis 
Rhetoricae ScJiolicae Libri ires, which at one period 
was held in high esteem as a manual. Printed in 
the Rlietores Latini Antiqui, of Pithou, Paris, 1599. 

Forum, an open space of ground, in which the 
people met for the transaction of any kind of busi- 
ness. At Rome the number of fora increased with 
the growth of the city. They were level pieces of 
ground of an oblong form, and were surrounded by 
buildings, both private and public. They were 
divided ifito 2 classes •,fora civilia, in Avhich justice 
Avas administered and public business transacted, 
and fora venalia, in Avhich provisions and other 
things Avere sold, and Avhich were distinguished as 
the forum boarium, olitoriicm, siiarium, piscarium, 
^c. The principal fora at Rome were : 1. Forum 
Somanum, also called simply the Forum, and at 
a later time distinguished by the epithets vetus or 
magnum. It is usually described as lying betAveen 
the Capitoline and Palatine hills ; but to speak 
more correctly, it lay betAveen the Capitoline and 
the Velian ridge, which Avas a hill opposite the 
Palatine. It ran lengthwise from the foot of the 
Capitol or the arch of Septimius Severus in the 
direction of the arch of Titus ; but it did not 
extend so far as the latter, and came to an end at 
the commencement of the ascent to the Velian 
ridge, AA'here A\'as the temple of Antoninus and 
Faustina. Its shape was that of an irregular 
quadrangle, of which the 2 longer sides were not 
parallel, but Avere much Avider near the Capitol 
than at the other end. Its length. Avas 630 French 
feet, and its breadth varied from 190 to 100 feet, 
an extent midoubtedly small for the greatness of 
Rome ; but it must be recollected that the limits 
of the forum were fixed in the early days of Rome 



2G8 



FORUM. 



FOSSA. 



and nev(!r underwent any alteration. The origin 
of the forum is ascribed to Konuilus and Tatius, 
who are said to liave filled up the swamp or marsh 
which occupied its site, and to liave set it apart as 
a i)lac(' for the administration of justice and for 
holding the assemblies of the people. The forum 
in its widest sense included the forum properly so 
called, and the Comitium. The Comitium occupied 
the narrow or upper end of the forum, and was 
the place where the patricians met in their comitia 
curiata: the forum, in its narrower sense, was 
originally only a market-place, and was not used 
for any political purpose. At a later time the 
forum in its narrower sense was the place of 
meeting for the plebeians in their comitia tri- 
huta, and was separated from the comitium by 
the Rostra or platform, from which the orators 
addressed the people. The most important of 
the public buildings which surrounded the forum 
in early times was the Curia Hostilia, the place of 
meeting of the senate, which was said to have been 
erected by Tullus Hostilius. It stood on the N. 
side of the Comitia. In the time of Tarquin tlie 
Ibrum was surrounded by a range of shops, pro- 
bably of a mean character, but they gradually un- 
derwent a change, and were eventuall}^ occupied 
hy bankers and money-changers. The shops on 
the N. side underwent this change first, whence 
they were called Novae or Argentariae Tahernae ; 
while the shops on the S. side, though they subse- 
quently experienced the same change, were distin- 
guished by the name of Veteres Tahernae. As 
Rome grew in greatness, the forum was adorned 
with statues of celebrated men, with temples and 
hasilicae, and with other public buildings. The 
site of the ancient forum is occupied by the Campo 
Vaccino.—2. Forum Julium or Forum Caesaris, 
was built by Julius Caesar, because the old forum 
was found too small for the transaction of public 
business. It Avas close by the old forum, behind 
the church of St. Martina. Caesar built here a 
magnificent temple of Venus Genitrix.— 3. Forum 
Augusti, built by Augustus, because the 2 exist- 
ing fora were not found sufficient for the great in- 
crease of business which had taken place. It stood 
behind the Forum Julium, and its entrance at the 
other end was by an arch, now called Arco de'' 
Pantani. Augustus adorned it with a temple of 
Mars Ultor, and with the statues of the most dis- 
tinguished men of the republic. This forum was 
used for causae puhlicae and sortitiones jiidicum. — 
4. Forum Nervae or Forum Transitorium, was 
a small forum lying between the Temple of Peace 
and the fora of Julius Caesar and Augustus. The 
Temple of Peace was built by Vespasian ; and as 
there were private buildings between it and the 
fora of Caesar and Augustus, Domitian resolved to 
pull down those buildings, and thus form a 4th 
forum, which was not, however, intended like the 
other 3 for the transaction of public business, but 
simply to serve as a passage from the Temple of 
Peace to the fora of Caesar and Augustus : hence 
its name IVansitorium. The plan was carried into 
execution by Nerva, whence the forum is also 
called by the name of this emperor. — 5. Forum 
Trajani, built by the emperor Trajan, who em- 
ployed the architect Apollodorus for the purpose. 
It lay between the forum of Augustus and the 
Campus Martius. It was the most splendid of all 
the fora, and considerable remains of it are still 
extant. Here were the Basilica Ulpia and Biblio- 



tlieca Ulpia, the celebrated Columna Trajard, an 
equestrian statue and a triumphal arch of Trajan, 
and a temple of Trajan built by Hadrian. 

Forum, the name of several towns in various 
parts of the Roman empire, which were originally 
simply markets or places for the administration of 
justice. 1. Alieni (Ferrara ?), in Cisalpine Gaul.— 
2, Appii (nr. S. Donato,Uu.), in Latium, on the Ap- 
pia Via, in the midst of the Pomptine marshes, 43 
miles S. E. of Rome, founded by the censor Appius 
Claudius when he made the Appia Via. Here the 
Christians from Rome met the Apostle Paul (Acts, 
xxviii.] .5).— 3. Amelii or Amelium {Montalto), in 
Etruria on the Aurelia Via. — 4. Cassli, in Etru- 
ria on the Cassia Via, near Viterbo. — 5. Clodii 
(Oriulo), in Etruria. — 6. Cornelii (Iviola), in 
Gallia Cispadana, on the Aemilia Via, between 
Bononia and Faventia, a colony founded by Cor- 
nelius Sulla. —7. Flaminii, in Umbria on the 
Flaminia Via.— 8. Fulvii, surnamed Valentinum 
( Valenza), in Liguria on the Po, on the road from 
Dertona to Asta.— 9. Gallorum {Castel Franco), in 
Gallia Cisalpina on the Aemilia Via between Mu- 
tina and Bononia, memorable for the 2 battles fought 
between Antonius and the consuls Pansa and 
Hirtius.— 10. Hadriani (Voorburg), in the island 
of the Batavi in Gallia Belgica, Avhere several 
Roman remains have been found. — 11. Julii or 
Julium (Forojuliensis : Frejus), a Roman colony 
founded by Julius Caesar, B.C. 44, in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, on the river Argenteus and on the coast, 
600 stadia N. E. of MassUia. It possessed a good 
harbour, and was the usual station of a part of the 
Roman fleet. It was the birthplace of Agricola. 
At Frejus are the remains of a Roman aqueduct, 
circus, arch, &c. —12. Julii or Julium (Friaul), a 
fortified town and a Roman colony in the country 
of the Carni, N. E. of Aquileia : in the middle ages 
it became a place of importance.— 13. Julium. See 
Illiturgis.— 14.Livii(Fo?-^i)? Cisalpine Gaul, 
in the territory of the Boii, on the Aemilia Via, 
S.W. of Ravenna : here the Gothic king Athaulf 
married Galla Placidia.— 15. To'piili (Forlimpopoli), 
in Gallia Cisalpina, E. of No. 14, and on the same 
road.— 16. Popilli (Folia), in Lucania, E. of Paes- 
tum on the Tangerand on the Popilia Via. On the 
wall of an inn at Polla was discovered an inscription 
respecting the praetor Popilius. — 17. Segusianorum 
(Feurs), in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the Liger, and 
"VV. of Lugdunum, a town of the Segusiani and a 
Roman colony with the surname Julia Felix.— 18. 
Sempronii (Forosemproniensis : Fossomhrone), a 
municipium in Umbria, on the Flaminia Via.— 19. 
Vocontii ( Vidaubati E. of Canet), a town of the 
Salyes in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Fosi, a people of German}-, the neighbours and 
allies of the Cherusci, in Avhose fate they shared. 
[Cherusci.] It is supposed that their name is 
retained in the river Fuse in Brunswick. 

Fossa or F'ossae, a canal. 1. Clodia, a canal 
between the mouth of the Po and Altinum in the 
N. of Italy; there was a town of the same name 
upon it.— 2. Cluilia or Cluiliae, a trench about 5 
miles from Rome, said to have been the ditch with 
which the Alban king Cluilius protected his camp, 
when he marched against Rome in the reign of 
Tullus Hostilius. — 3. Corbuloms, a canal in the 
island of the Batavi, connecting the Maas and the 
Rhine, dug by command of Corbulo in the reign of 
Claudius. — 4. Drusianae or Drusinae, a canal 
^ which Drusus caused his soldiers to dig in B.C. 11, 



FRANCL 



FUFIUS. 



269 



uniting the Rhine with the Yssel. It probably 
commenced near Axnheim on the Rhine and fell 
into the Yssel near Doesberg. — 6. Mariana or 
Marianae, a canal dug by command of Marius 
during his war with the Cimbri, in order to connect 
the Rhone with the Mediterranean, and thus make 
an easier passage for vessels into the Rhone, because 
the mouths of the river Avere frequently choked up 
with sand. The canal commenced near Arelate, 
but in consequence of the frequent changes in the 
course of the Rhone, it is impossible now to trace 
the course of the canal. — 6. Xerxis. See Athos. 

Franci, i. e., " the Free men,'" a confederacy of 
German tribes, formed on the Lower Rhine in the 
place of the ancient league of the Cherusci, and 
consisting of the Siganibri, the chief tribe, the 
Chamavi, Ampsivarii, Bructeri, Chatti, &c. They 
are first mentioned about A, D. 240. After carrying 
on frequent wars with the Romans, they at length 
settled permanently in Gaui, of which they became 
the rulers under their great king Clovis, a. d. 496. 

Fregellae (Fregellanus : Ceprano), an ancient 
and important town of the Volsci on the Liris in 
Latium, conquered by the Romans, and colonised 
B. c. 328. It took part with the allies in the Social 
war, and was destroyed by Opimius. 

Fregenae, sometimes called Fregellae {Torre 
Alaccarese), a town of Etruria on the coast between 
Alsium and the Tiber, on a low swampy shore, 
colonised by the Romans, B. c. 245. 

Frentani, a Samnite people, inhabiting a fertile 
and well watered territory on the coast of the 
Adriatic, from the river Sagrus on the N. (and sub- 
sequently almost as far N. as from the Aternus) 
to the river Frento on the S., from the latter of 
which rivers they derived their name. They were 
bounded by the Marrucini on the N., by the Peligni 
and by Samnium on the W., and by Apulia on the 
S. They submitted to the Romans in B. c. 304, 
and concluded a peace with the republic. 

Frento (Fortore)^ a river in Italy forming the 
boundary between the Frentani and Apulia, rises in 
the Apennines and falls into the Adriatic sea. 

Friniates, a people in Liguria, probably the 
same as the Briniates, who, after being subdued by 
the Romans, were transplanted to Samnium. 

Frisiabones, probably a tribe of the Frisii, in- 
habiting the islands at the mouth of the Rhine. 

Frisii, a people in the N. W. of Germany, in- 
habited the coast from the E. moutb of the Rhine 
to the Amisia (Ems), and were bomided on the S. 
by the Bructeri, consequently in the modern Fnes- 
la7id, Grmingen, &c. Tacitus divided them into 
Majores and Minores, the former probably in the 
E., and the latter in the W. of the country. The 
Frisii were on friendly terms with the Romans 
from the time of the first campaign of Drusus till 
A. 1). 28, when the oppressions of the Roman offi- 
cers drove them to revolt. In the 5th century we 
find them joining the Saxons and Angli in their 
invasion of Britain. 

Frontinus, Sex. Julius, was praetor a. d. 70, 
and in 75 succeeded Cerealis as governor of Bri- 
tain, Avhere he distinguished himself by the con- 
quest of the Silures, and maintained the Roman 
power unbroken until superseded by Agricola in 
78. In 97 Frontinus was nominated curator aqua- 
rum. He died about 106. Two works undoubt- 
edly by this author are still extant : — 1. Stratege- 
maticon Lihri I V., a sort of treatise on the art of 
war, developed in a collection of the sayings and 



doings of the most renowned leaders of antiquity. 
2. De Aquaedudibus Urbis Romae Libri II., which 
forms a valuable contribution to the history of 
architecture. The best editions of the Strategema- 
lica are, by Oudendorp, Lug. Bat. 1779, and by 
Schwebel, Lips. 1772 ; of the De Aquaedudibus 
Polenus, Patav. 1722. — In the collection of the 
Agrimensores or Rei Agrariae Audores (ed. Goe- 
sius, Amst. 1674 ; ed. Lachmann, Berlin, 1848), 
are preserved some treatises usually ascribed to 
Sex. Julius Frontinus. The collection consists of 
fragments connected with the art of measuring 
land and ascertaining boundaries. It was put 
together without skill, pages of diflferent works 
being mixed up together, and the writings of one 
author being sometimes attributed to another, 

Fronto, M, Cornelius, was bom at Cirta in 
Numidia, in the reign of Domitian, and came to 
Rome in the reign of Hadrian, where he attained 
great celebrity as a pleader and a teacher of rhetoric. 
He was entrusted with the education of the future 
emperors, M. Aurelius and L. Verus, and was re- 
warded with wealth and honours. He was raised 
to the consulship in 143. So great was his fame 
as a speaker, that a sect of rhetoricians arose who 
were denominated Frontoniani. Following the 
example of their founder, they avoided the exag- 
geration of the Greek sophistical school, and be- 
stowed especial care on the purity of their language 
and the simplicity of their style. Fronto lived till 
the reign of M. Aurelius. The latest of his epistles 
belongs to the year 166. — Up to a recent period no 
work of Fronto was known to be in existence, with 
the exception of a corrupt and worthless tract en- 
titled De Differentiis Vocabulorum, and a few frag- 
ments preserved by the grammarians. But about 
the year 1814 Angelo Mai discovered on a pa- 
limpsest in the Ambrosian library at Milan a 
considerable number of letters which had passed 
between Fronto, Antoninus Pius, M. Aurelius, 
L. Verus, and various friends, together with some 
short essays. These were published by Mai at 
Milan in 1815, and in an improved form by Niebuhr, 
Buttmann and Heindorf, Berlin, 1816. Subse- 
quently Mai discovered on a palimpsest in the 
Vatican library at Rome, upwards of 100 new 
letters ; and he published these at Rome in 1823, 
together with those which had been previously dis- 
covered. 

Fronto, Papirms, a jurist, who probably lived 
about the time of Antoninus Pius, or rather earlier, 

Frusmo (Frusinas, -atis : Frosinone), a town of 
the Hernici in Latium, in the valley of the river 
Cosas, and subsequently a Roman colony. It was 
celebrated for its prodigies, which occurred here 
almost more frequently than at any other place, 

Fucentis, Fucentia. [Alba, No. 4.] 

Fucmus Lacus {Logo di Celano or Capistrano), 
a large lake in the centre of Italy and in the coun- 
try of the Marsi, about 30 miles in circumference, 
into which all the mountain streams of the Apen- 
nines flow. As the water of this lake had no 
visible outlet, and frequently inundated the sur- 
rounding country, the emperor Claudius constructed 
an emissarium or artificial channel for carrying off 
the waters of the lake into the river Liris. This 
emissarium is still nearly perfect : it is almost 3 
miles in length. It appears that the actual drainage 
was relinquished soon after the death of Claudius, 
for it was reopened by Hadrian. 

Fufius Calenus. [Calenus.] 



270 FUFIDIUS. 

Fufidius, a jurist, who probably lived between 
the time of Vespasian and Hadrian. 

Fulgentius, Fabius Planciades, a Latin gram- 
marian of uncertain date, probably not earlier than 
the Gth century after Christ, appears to have been 
of African origin. He is the author of : 1. My- 
thologiarum Libri HI. ad Catum Preshijterum, a 
collection of the most remarkable tales connected 
with the history and exploits of gods and heroes. 
2. Ex-positio Scnno7mm Aviiquorum cum Te&thnoniis 
ad Chalcidicum Grammaticurii^ a glossary' of obso- 
lete words and phrases ; of A'ery little value. 3. 
JJhcr de Expositione Virgilumae Continaitiae ad 
Cludcidicina Grammaticum, a title which means, an 
eciplunuUon of what is contained in Virgil^ that is 
to say, of the esoteric truths allegorically conveyed 
in the Virgilian poems. — The best edition of these 
works is in the MytlwgrapJii Latioii of Muncker, 
Auct. 1681, and of Van Staveren, Lug. Bat. 1742. 

Fulginia, Fulginium (Fulginas, -atis : Foligno), 
a town in the interior of Umbria on the Via Fla- 
rainia, was a municipium. 

Fulvia. 1. The mistress of Q. Curius, one of 
Catiline's conspirators, divulged the plot to Cicero. 
"-=2. A daughter of M. Fulvius Bambalio of Tus- 
culum, thrice married, 1st to the celebrated P. 
Clodius, by whom she had a daughter Clodia, 
afterwards the Avife of Octavianus ; 2ndly to C. 
Scribonius Curio, and Srdly to M. Antony-, by 
whom she had 2 sons. She was a bold and am- 
bitious woman. In the proscription of B. c. 43 she 
acted with the greatest arrogance and brutality : 
she gazed with delight upon the head of Cicero, 
the victim of lier husband. Her turbulent and 
ambitious spirit excited a new war in Italy in 41. 
Jealous of the power of Octavianus, and anxious to 
withdraw Antony from the E., she induced L. An- 
tonius, the brother of her husband, to take up arms 
against Octavianus. But Lucius was unable to 
resist Octavianus, and threw himself into Perusia, 
Avhich he was obliged to surrender in the following 
year (40). Fulvia fled to Greece and died at Si- 
cyon in the course of the same year. 

Fulvia Gens, plebeian, but one of the most 
illustrious Roman gentes. It originalh' came from 
Tusculum. The principal families in the gens are 
those of Centumalur, Flaccus, Nobilior, and 
Paetinus. 

Fundamus. 1. C, father of Fundania, the wife 
of M. Terentius Varro, is one of the speakers in 
Varro's dialogue, De Re Rustica. — 2. M., de- 
fended by Cicero, B. c. 65 ; but the scanty fragments 
of Cicero's speech do not enable us to understand 
the nature of the charge. 3. A writer of comedies 
praised by Horace {Sat. i. 10. 41, 42). 

Fundi (Fundanus : Fo?idi), an ancient town in 
Latium on the Appia Via, at the head of a narrow 
bay of the sea running a considerable way into the 
land, called the Lacus Fundanus. Fundi v/as a 
municipium, and was subsequently colonised by 
the veterans of Augustus. The surrounding coun- 
try produced good wine. There are still remains 
at Fondi of the walls of the ancient town. 

Furcuiae Caudlnae. [Caudium.] 

Furia Gens, an ancient patrician gens, probably 
came from Tusculum. The most celebrated fa- 
milies of the gens bore the names of Camillus, 
Medullinus, Pacilus, and Philus. For others 
of less note see Bibaculus,Crassipes,Purpureo. 

Furiae. [Eumenibes.] 

Furina, an ancient Roman divinity, who had a 



GABINIUS. 

sacred grove at Rome. Her worship seems to have 
become extinct at an early time. An annual fes- 
tival {Furinalia or Furinales feriae) had been cele- 
brated in honour of her, and a Ilamen { fiamen Fti- 
riiialis) conducted her worship. She had also a 
temple in the neighbourhood of Satricum. 

C. Furnius, a friend and correspondent of Cicero, 
was tribune of the plebs B. c. 50; sided with Caesar 
in the civil Avar ; and after Caesar's death A\'as a 
staunch adherent of Antony. After the battle of 
Actium, 31, he Avas reconciled to Augustus, through 
the mediation of his son, Avas appointed consul in 
29, and Avas prefect of Hither Spain in 21. 

Fuscus. 1. Arellius, a rhetorician at Rome in 
the latter years of Augustus, instructed in rhetoric 
the poet Ovid. He declaimed more frequenth' in 
Greek than in Latin, and his style of declamation 
is described by Seneca, as more brilliant than 
solid, antithetical rather than eloquent. His rival 
in teaching and declaiming was Porcius Latro. 
[ L ATRO . ] — 2. Aristius, a friend of the poet Horace^ 
Avho addressed to him an ode {Carm. i. 22) and 
an epistle {Ef.'i. 10), and Avho also introduces him 
elsewhere {Sat. i. 9. 61; 10. 83).— 3. Cornelius, 
one of the most active adherents of Vespasian in 
his contest for the empire, a. d. 69. In the reign 
of Domitian he was sent against the Dacians, by 
Avhom he AA^as defeated. Martial Avrote an epitaph 
on Fuscus {Ef. vi, 76), in which he refers to the 
Dacian campaign. 

a 

Gabae (ra§ai). 1. {Daralgherd^), a fortress 
and royal residence in the interior of Persis, S. E. 
of Pasargadae, near the borders of Carmania. — 
2. Or Gabaza, or Cazaba, a fortress in Sogdiana. 
on the confines of the Massagetae. 

Gabala (rdga\a), a sea-port toAAm of Syria 
Seleucis, S. of Laodicea ; whence good storax Avas 
obtained. 

Gabali, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, Avhose 
countrA^ possessed sih-er mines and good pasturage. 
Their chief town Avas Anderitum {Anterieux). 

Gabiana or -ene {Ta€iavr], TaSnjui]), a fertile 
district in the Persian province of Susiana, W. of 
M. Zagros. 

Gabii (Gablnus : nr. Castiglione Ru.), a toAvn 
in Latium, on the Lacus Gabinus {Lago di Gavi), 
between Rome and Praeneste, was in early times 
one of the most poAverfui Latin cities ; a colony 
from Alba Longa ; and the place, according to 
tradition, Avhere Romulus Avas brought up. It Avas 
taken by Tarquinius Superbus by stratagem, and 
it Avas in ruins in the time of Augustus {Gabiis de- 
sertior vicus, B.OV. Ep. i. 11. 7). The cinctus Ga- 
hinics, a peculiar mode of Avearing the toga at Rome, 
appears to have been derived from this toAvn. In 
the neighbourhood of Gabii are the immense stone 
quarries, from Avhich a part of Rome Avas built. 

A. Gabinius, dissipated his fortune in youth 
by his profligate mode of life. He AA^as tribune of 
the plebs B. c. 66, Avhen he proposed and carried a 
laAv conferring upon Pompey the command of the 
Avar against the pirates. He Avas praetor in 61, 
and consul in 58 Avith L. Piso. Both consuls sup- 
ported Clodius in his measures against Cicero, 
Avhich resulted in the banishment of the orator. 
In 57 Gabinius Avent to Syria as proconsid. Hia 
first attention Avas directed to the affairs of Judea. 



GADARA. 



GAINAS. 



271 



Pie restored Hyrcanus to the high priesthood, of 
which he had been dispossessed by Alexander, the 
son of Aristobuhis, He next marched into Egypt, 
and restored Ptolemy Auletes to the throne. The 
restoration of Ptolemy had been forbidden by a 
decree of the senate, and by the Sibylline books ; 
but Gabinius had been promised by the king a 
sum of 1 0,000 talents for this service, and accord- 
ingly set at nought both the senate and the Sibyl. 
His government of the province was marked in 
other respects by the most shameful venality and 
oppression. He returned to Rome in 54. He was 
accused of majestas or high treason, on account of 
his restoration of Ptolemy Auletes, in defiance of 
the Sibyl, and the authority of the senate. He 
was acquitted on this charge ; but he was forthwith 
accused of repetundae, for the illegal receipt of 
10,000 talents from Ptolemy. He was defended 
by Cicero, Avho had been persuaded by Pompey, 
much against his will, to undertake the defence. 
Gabinius, however, was condemned on this charge, 
and went into exile. He was recalled from exile 
by Caesar in 49, and in the following year (48) 
was sent into Ill3^ricum by Caesar with some newly 
levied troops, in order to reinforce Q. Cornificius. 
He died in Illyricum about the end of 48, or the 
beginning of the following year, 

Gadara (raSapa : rabapr]v6s: Um-Keis),a,\aTge 
fortified city of Palestine, one of the 10 which 
formed the Decapolis in Peraea, stood a little S. 
of the Hieromax {Yarmuk), an eastern tributary 
of the Jordan. The surrounding district, S. E. of 
the Lake of Tiberias, was called Gadaris, and was 
very fertile. Gadara was probably favoured by 
the Greek kings of Syria, as it is sometimes called 
Antiochia and Seleucia ; it was restored by Pom- 
pey : Augustus presented it to king Herod, after 
whose death it was assigned to the province of 
Syria. It was made the seat of a Christian 
bishopric. There Avere celebrated baths in its 
neighbourhood, at Amatha. 

G-ades {ra TdBeipa : FaSeipeus, Gaditanus : Ca- 
diz), a very ancient toAvn in Hispania Baetica, 
W. of the Pillars of Hercules, founded by the 
Phoenicians, and one of the chief seats of their 
commerce in the W. of Europe, was situated on a 
small island of the same name (7. de Leon), se- 
parated from the mainland by a narrow channel, 
which in its narrowest part was only the breadth 
of a stadium, and over which a bridge was built. 
Herodotus says (iv. 8) that the island of Erythla 
was close to Gadeira ; whence most later writers 
supposed the island of Gades to be the same as the 
mythical island of Erythia, from which Hercules 
carried off the oxen of Geryon. A new town was 
built by Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades, and 
the circumference of the old and new towns together 
was only 20 stadia. There were, however, several 
inhabitants on the mainland opposite the island, 
as well as on a smaller island {S. Sebastian or Tro- 
cadero) in the immediate neighbourhood of the 
larger one. After the 1st Punic War Gades came 
into the hands of the Carthaginians ; and in the 
2nd Punic war it surrendered of its own accord to 
the Romans. Its inhabitants received the Roman 
franchise from Julius Caesar. It became a muni- 
cipium, and was called Augusta urbs Julia Gadi- 
tana. — Gades was from the earliest to the latest 
times an important commercial town. Its inha- 
bitants were wealthy, luxurious, and licentious ; 
and their lascivious dances were celebrated at 



Rome. (Juv. xi. 162.) Gades possessed cele- 
brated temples of Cronus and Hercules. Its drink- 
ing water was as bad in antiquity as it is in the 
present day. — Gades gave its name to the Fretum 
Gaditamim, the straits at the entrance of the Me- 
diterranean between Europe and Africa {Straits of 
Gibraltar). 

Gaea or Ge {Tola or Tri), the personification 
of the earth. Homer describes her as a divine 
being, to whom black sheep were sacrificed, and 
who was invoked by persons taking oaths ; and he 
calls her the mother of Erechtheus and Tithyus. 
In Hesiod she is the first being that sprang from 
Chaos, and gave birth to Uranus and Pontus. By 
Uranus she became the mother of Oceanus, Coeus, 
Crius, Hyperion, lapetus, Thia, Rheia, Themis, 
Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Thetys, Cronos, the Cyclopes, 
Brontes, Steropes, Arges, Cottus, Briareus, and 
Gyges. These children were hated by their father, 
and Ge therefore concealed them in the bosom of 
the earth ; but she made a large iron sickle, gave it 
to her sons, and requested them to take vengeance 
upon their father. Cronos undertook the task, and 
mutilated Uranus. The drops of blood, which fell 
from him upon the earth (Ge), became the seeds 
of the Erinnyes, the Gigantes, and the Melian 
nymphs. Subsequently Ge became, by Pontus, 
the mother of Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and 
Eurybia. Ge belonged to the gods of the nether 
world ((^6ol x^oVioi), and hence she is frequently 
mentioned where they are invoked. The surnames 
and epithets given to her have more or less refer- 
ence to her character as the all-producing and all-nou- 
rishing mother {mater omnipareiis et alma). Her 
worship appears to have been universal among the 
Greeks, and she had temples or altars in almost 
all the cities of Greece. At Rome the earth was 
worshipped under the name of Tclliis (which is 
only a variation of Terra). She was regarded by 
the Romans also as one of the gods of the nether 
world {Inferi), and is mentioned in connection 
with Dis and the Manes. A temple was built to 
her by the consul P. Sempronius Sophus, in b. c. 
304. Her festival was celebrated on the 15th of 
April, and was called Fordicidia or Hordicidia. 
The sacrifice, consisting of cows, was oftered up in 
the Capitol in the presence of the Vestals. 

Gaeson, Gaesus, or Gessus {Taiffcov), a river 
of Ionia in Asia Minor, falling into the Gulf of 
Maeander near the promontory of Mycale, 

Gaetulia {TairovXla), the interior of N. Africa, 
S. of Mauretania, Numidia, and the region border- 
ing on the Syrtes, reaching to the Atlantic Ocean 
on the W., and of very indefinite extent towards 
the E. and S. The people included under the 
name Gaetuli {TaLTov\oi), in its widest sense, 
were the inhabitants of the region between the 
countries just mentioned and the Great Desert, 
and also in the Oases of the latter, and nearly as 
far S. as the river Niger. They were a great 
nomad race, including several tribes, the chief of 
whom were the Autololes and Pharusii on the W. 
coast, the Darae, or Gaetuli-Darae, in the steppes 
of the Great Atlas, and the Melanogaetuli, a black 
race resulting from the intermixture of the Gaetuli 
Avith their S. neighbours, the Nigritae. The pure 
Gaetulians Avere not an Aethiopic (i. e. negro), 
but a Libyan race, and were most probably of 
Asiatic origin. They are supposed to have been 
the ancestors of the Berbers. 

Gainas. [Arcabius.] 



272 GAIUS. 

Gaius or Caias, a celebrated Roman jurist, 
wTote under Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius. His 
works were very numerous, and great use was 
made of them in the compilation of the Digest. 
One of his most celobrated works was an elemen- 
tary treatise on Roman law, entitled Instititiiones^ 
in A books. This work was for a long time the 
ordinarv text book used by those who were com- 
mencing the study of the Roman law ; but it went 
out of u>e after the compilation of the Institutiones 
of Justinian, and was finally lost This long lost 
■work was discovered by Niebuhr in 1816 in the 
library of the Chapter at Verona. The MS. con- 
taining Gaius was a palimpsest one. The original 
writing of Gaius had on some pages been washed 
out, and on others scratched out, and the whole was 
re- written with the Letters of St. Jerome. The task 
of deciphering the original MS. was a very difficult 
one. and some parts were completely destroyed. It 
was first published by Goschen in 1821 : a second 
edition appeared in 1824, and a third in 1842. 

Gragae (raycu), a town on the coast of Lycia, 
E. of Mvra, whence was obtained the mineral 
called Gasfates lapis, that is, jet, or, as it is still 
called in German, pagat. 

Galanthis. [Galixthias.] 

Galatea (roAareia), daughter of Xereus and 
Doris. For details, see Acis. 

Galatia (TaXaTia : TaAaTTjs : in the E. part of 
Anadoli and the W. part of Rumili \ a country of 
Asia ^Minor, composed of parts of Phrygia and 
Cappadocia, and bounded on the W., S., and S. E. 
by those countries, and on the N. E., N., and 
N. W. by Pontus, Paphlagonia, and Bithynia. 
It derived its name from its inhabitants, who were 
Gauls that had invaded and settled in Asia Minor 
at various periods during the 3d century b. c. 
First, a ponion of the army which Brennus led 
against Greece, separated from the main body, and 
marched into Thrace, and, having pressed forward 
as far as the shores of the Propontis, some of them- 
crossed the Hellespont on their own account, while 
others, who had reached Byzantium, were invited 
to pass the Bosporus by Nicomedes I., king of 
Bithynia, who required their aid against his bro- 
ther Zipoetus (b. c. 279). They speedily overran 
all Asia Minor within the Taurus, and exacted 
tribute from its various princes, and served as 
mercenaries not only in the armies of these princes, 
but also of the kings of Syria and Egypt ; and. 
according to one account, a body of them found 
their way to Babylon. During their ascendancy, 
other bodies of Gauls followed them into Asia. 
Their progress was at length checked by the arms 
of the kings of Pergamus: Eiunenes fought against 
them with various fortune ; but Attains I. gained 
a complete victory over them (b. c. 230), and com- 
pelled them to settle do-«-n within the limits of the 
country thenceforth called Galatia, and also, on ac- 
count of the mixture of Greeks with the Celtic 
inhabitants, which speedily took place, Graeco- 
Galatia and Galiograecia, The people of Galatia 
adopted to a great extent Greek habits and man- 
ners and religious observances, but preserved their 
OAvn language, which is spoken of as resembling 
that of the f reviri. They retained also their poli- 
tical divisions and forms of government. They 
C4>nsisted of 3 great tribes, the Tolistobogi, the 
Trocmi, and the Tectosages, each subdivided into 
4 parts, called by the Greeks T^Tpapxlai. At the 
head of each of these 12 Tetrarchies was a chief. 



OALBA. 

or Tetrarch, who appointed the chief magistrate 
(SiKaaTTjs), and the commander of the army 
(crrpaTo<pv\a^), and 2 lieutenant-generals (viro- 
crTpaTO<pv\aKss). The 12 tetrarchs together had 
the general government of the country, but theii 
power was checked by an assistant senate of 300, 
who met in a place called Drv-naemetum (or, pro- 
bably, Dryaenetum, i". c. the oak-grove), and had 
jurisdiction in all capital cases. This form of 
government had a natural tendency to monarchy, 
according as either of the 12 tetrarchs becarne 
more powerful than the rest, especially under the 
protection of the Romans, to whom Galatia became 
virtually subject as the result of the campaicn 
which the consul Cn. Manlius undertook against 
the Gauls, to punish them for the assistance thej 
had given to Antiochus the Great (b. c 189). 
At length one of the tetrarchs, Deiotarus, was 
rewarded for his ser\-ices to the Romans in the 
Mithridatic War, by the title of king, together 
with a grant of Pontus and Armenia Minor ; and 
after the death of his successor Amyntas, Galatia 
was made by Augustus a Roman province (b. c. 
25). It was soon after enlarged by the addition 
of Paphlagonia. Under Constantine it was re- 
stricted to its old limits, and under Valens it was 
divided into 2 pro^•inces, Galatia Prima and Ga- 
latia Secimda, The country was beautiful and 
fenile, being watered by the rivers Halys and 
Sangarius. Its only important cities were, in the 
S.W. Pessixus, the capital of the Tolistobogi; in 
the centre Axcyra, the capital of the Tectosages ; 
and in the N. E., Tavium, the capital of the 
TrocmL — From the Epistle of St. Paul to the 
Galatians, we learn not only that many Christian 
churches had been formed in Galatia during the 
apostolic age, but also that those churches con- 
sisted, in great part, of Jewish converts. 

Galaxius (VaXd^ios). a small river in Boeotia, 
on which stood a temple of Apollo Galaxios : it 
derived its name from its milky colour, which was 
owing to the chalky nature of the soil through 
which it flowed. 

Gralba, Sulpicius, patricians. 1. P., consul b. c. 
211. received Macedonia as his province, where he 
remained as proconsul till 204, and carried on the 
war against Philip. In 200, he was consul a se- 
cond time, and again obtained Macedonia as his 
province ; but he was unable to accomplish any 
thing of importance against Philip, and was suc- 
ceeded in the command in the following year by 
Villius Tappulus. He was one of the 10 commis- 
sioners sent to Greece in 196, after the defeat of 
Philip by Flamininus, and was one of the ambas- 
sadors sent to Antiochus in 193. — 2. Ser., was 
praetor 151. and received Spain as his province. 
His name is infamous on account of his treacherous 
and atrocious murder of the Lnsitanians, with their 
wives and children, who had surrendered to him 
on the promise of receiving grants of land. Viria- 
thus was one of the few Lnsitanians, who escaped 
from the bloody scene. [Viriathus.] On his 
return to Rome in 149. he was brought to trial on 
account of his horrible massacre of the Lnsitanians. 
His conduct was denounced in the strongest terms 
by Cato, who was then 85 years old, but he was 
nevertheless acquitted. He was consul 144. Ci- 
cero praises his oratory in the highest terms.— 
3. Ser., great-grandfather of the emperor Galba, 
served under Caesar in the Gallic war. and was 
praetor in 54. After Caesar's death ke served 



COINS OF PEESONS. DOMITILLA FLAVIA — FLOKIANUS. 




Doinitilla Flavia, wife of Vespasian, Page 231. 




Claudius Drusus, brother of the Emperor Tiberius, 
ob. B. c. 9. Page 233, Xo. 4. 




Elagabalus, Koman Emperor, a. d. 218— 2"22. Page 237. 





Euthydemus, King of Bactria, about B.C. 212. Page 259. 




Faustina junior, -wife of M. Aurelius, ob. a. d. 175. Page 2G2. 




Florianus, Eoman Emperor, a.d. 276. Page 266. 

I 



GALEA 



GALINTHIAS. 



273 



against Antony in the war of Mutina. — -4. C, 
father of the emperor Galba, was consul in a. d, 22. 

Galba, Ser, Sulpicms, Roman emperor, from 
June A. D. 68 to January, a. d. 69. He was born 
near Terracina, on the 24th of December, b. c. 3. 
Both Augustus and Tiberius are said to have told 
him, that one day he would be at the head of the 
Roman world, from which we must infer that he 
was a young man of more than ordinary talents. 
From his parents he inherited great wealth. He 
was invested with the curule offices before attain- 
ing the legitimate age. He was praetor a. d. 20, 
and consul 33. After his consulship he had the 
government of Gaul, 39, where he carried on a 
successful war against the Germans, and restored 
discipline among the troops. On the death of 
Caligula many of his friends urged him to seize 
the empire, but he preferred living in a private 
station. Claudius entrusted him, in 45, with the 
administration of Africa, which he governed with 
wisdom and integrity. In the reign of Nero he lived 
for several years in retirement, through fear of be- 
coming the victim of the tyrant's suspicion ; but in 6 1 , 
Nero gave him the government of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, where he remained for 8 years. In 68 Vin- 
dex rebelled in Gaul. About the same time Galba was 
informed that Nero had sent secret orders for his as- 
sassination. Pie therefore resolved at once to follow 
the example of Vindex; but he did not assume the 
imperial title, and professed to act only as the legate 
of the Roman senate and people. Shortly after- 
wards Nero was murdered ; and Galba thereupon 
proceeded to Rome, where he was acknowledged 
as emperor. But his severity and avarice soon 
made him unpopular with his new subjects, and 
especially with the soldiers. His powers had also 
become enfeebled by age, and he was completely 
under the sway of favourites, who perpetrated 
many enormities in his name. Perceiviii^ the 
weakness of his government, he adopted Piso Li- 
cinianus, a noble young Roman, as his successor. 
But this only hastened his ruin. Otho, who had 
hoped to be adopted by Galba, formed a conspiracy 
among the soldiers, who rose in rebellion 6 days 
after the adoption of Piso. Galba was murdered, 
and Otho was proclaimed emperor. 

Galenus, Claudius, commonly called Galen, a 
very celebrated physician, whose Avorks have had a 
longer and more extensive influence on the different 
"branches of medical science than those of any other 
individual either in ancient or modern times. He 
was born at Pergamum in A. D. 130. His father 
Nicon, who was an architect and geometrician, 
carefully superintended his education. In his 1 7th 
3''ear (146), his father, who had hitherto destined 
him to be a philosopher, altered his intentions, and, 
in consequence of a dream, chose for him the pro- 
fession of Medicine. He at first studied medicine 
in his native city. In his 20th year (149), he lost 
his father, and about the same time he went to 
Smyrna for the purpose of studying under Pelops 
the physician, and Albinus the Platonic philosopher. 
He afterwards studied at Corinth and Alexandria. 
He returned to Pergamum in his 29th year (158), 
and was immediately appointed physician to the 
school of gladiators, an office which he filled with 
great reputation and success. In 164 he quitted 
his native country on account of some popular com- 
motions, and went to Rome for the first time. Here 
he stayed about 4 years, and gained great reputa- 
tion from his skill in anatomy and medicine. He 



returned to Pergamum in 168, but had scarcely 
settled there, when he received a summons from 
the emperors M. Aurelius and L. Verus to attend 
them at Aquileia in Venetia. From Aquileia Galen 
followed M. Aurelius to Rome in 170. When the 
emperor again set out, to conduct the war on the 
Danube, Galen with difficulty obtained permission 
to be left behind at Rome, alleging that such was 
the will of Aesculapius. Before leaving the city the 
emperor committed to the medical care of Galen his 
son Commodus, who was then 9 years of age. 
Galen stayed at Rome some years, during which 
time he employed himself in lecturing, writing, and 
practising, with great success. He subsequently 
returned to Pergamum, but whether he again visited 
Rome is uncertain. He is said to have died in the 
year 200, at the age of 70, in the reign of Septimius 
Severus ; but it is not improbable that he lived 
some years longer. Galen wrote a great number of 
works on medical and philosophical subjects. 
Tlie works still extant under the name of Galen 
consist of 83 treatises acknowledged to be genuine ; 

19 whose genuineness has been doubted ; 45 un- 
doubtedly spurious ; 19 fragments ; and 15 com- 
mentaries on different works of Hippocrates. Galen 
attached himself exclusively to none of the medical 
sects into which the profession was divided, but 
chose from the tenets of each what he believed to 
be good and true, and called those persons slaves 
who designated themselves as followers of Hippo- 
crates, Praxagoras, or any other man. The best 
edition of his works is by Kuhn, Lips. 1821 — 1833,, 

20 vols. 8vo. 

Galepsus (TaX-nipos . TaX-n^m), a town in Ma- 
cedonia, on the Toronaic gulf. 

Galerius Maximianus. [Maximianus.] 

Galerius Trachalus. [Trachai.us.] 

Galesus {Galeso), a river in the S. of Italy„ 
flows into the gulf of Tarentum, through the mea- 
dows where the sheep fed whose wool was so cele- 
brated in antiquity (du'ce pellitis ovihus Galaesi 
flumen^ Hor. Carm. ii. 6. 10.) 

Galeus (TaAeos), that is, " the lizard," son of 
Apollo and Themisto, the daughter of the Hyper- 
borean king Zabius. In pursuance of an oracle of 
the Dodonean Zeus, Galeus emigrated to Sicily, 
where he built a sanctuary to his father Apollo. 
The Galeotae, a family of Sicilian soothsayers, de- 
rived their origin from him. The principal seat of 
the Galeotae was the town of Hybla, which Avas 
hence called Galeotis or Galeatis. 

Galiiaea (raAiAai'a), at the birth of Christ, 
was the N.-raost of the 3 divisions of Palestine 
W. of the Jordan. It lay between the Jordan and 
the Mediterranean on the E. and W., and the 
mountains of Hermon and Carmel on the N. and S.. 
It was divided into Upper or N. Galilee, and 
Lower or S. Galilee. It was very fertile and. 
densely peopled ; but its inhabitants were a mixed 
race of Jews, Syrians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and 
others, and were therefore despised by the Jews of 
Judaea. [Palaestina.] 

GalintMas or GalantMs (Ov. Met. ix. 306), 
daughter of Proetus of Thebes and a friend of 
Alcmene. When Alcmene was on the point of 
giving birth to Hercules, and the Moerae and 
Ilithyiae, at the request of Hera, were endeavouring 
to delay the birth, Galinthias suddenly rushed in 
with the ialse report that Alcmene had given birth 
to a son. The hostile goddesses were so surprised, 
at this Information that they dropped their arms^ 

T 



27-: 



GALLA. 



Thus the chann was broken, and Alcmene was 
enabled to '/we birtli to Hercules. The deluded 
goddesses avenged ihe deception practised upon 
them by metamorphosing Galinthias into a weasel 
nr cat {ya\v). Hecate, however, took pity upon 
her, and made her her attendant, and Hercules 
afterwards erected a sanctuary to her. At Thebes 
it was customary at the festival of Hercules first to 
(>;lVr sacrifices to Galinthias. 

Galla. 1. Wife of Constantius, son of the emperor 
Cunstantius Chlorus. She was the mother of Gallus 
Caesar. [G^LLUS.]— 2. Daughter of the emperor 
Valentinian I., and 2nd wife of Theodosius the 
Great. — 3. Galla Placidia or simply Placidia. 
daughter of Theodosius the Great by No. 2. She fell 
into the hands of Alaric, when he took Rome, a. d. 
410; and Ataulphus, the Gothic king, married her in 
414. Afterthe death of Ataulphus, she was restored 
to Honorius ; and in 4 1 7 she was married to Constan- 
tius, to whom she bore the emperor Valentinian III. 
During the minority of the latter she governed the 
Western empire. She died about 450. 

Gallaecia, the country of the Gallaeci (KaA- 
Aci'/col), in the N. of Spain, between the Astures 
and the Durius, was in eai'lier times included in 
Lusitania. Gallaecia was sometimes used in a 
wider sense to include the country of the Astures 
and the Cantabri. It produced tin, gold, and a 
precious stone called gemma Gallaica. Its inha- 
bitants were some of the most uncivilised in Spain. 
They were defeated with great slaughter by D. 
Brutus, consul b. c. 1 38, who obtained in conse- 
quence the surname of Gallaecus. 

Gallia (ji K^Xtlkt], TaXaTia), was used before 
the time of Julius Caesar, to indicate all the land 
inhabited by the Galli or Celtae, and consequently 
included not only the later Gaul and the N. of 
Italy, but a part of Spain, the greater part of Ger- 
many, the British isles, and other countries. The 
early history of the Celtic race, and their various 
settlements in different parts of Europe, are related 
under Celtae. — 1. Gallia, also called Gallia 
Transalpina or Gallia Ulterior, to distinguish it 
from Gallia Cisalpina. or the N. of Italy. Gallia 
Braccata and Gallia Comata are also used in 
contradistinction to Gallia Togata or the N. of 
Italy, but these names are not identical with the 
whole of Gallia Transalpina. Gallia Braccata was 
the part of the countn,' first subdued by the Romans, 
the later Provincia, and was so called, because the 
inhabitants wore hraccae or trowsers. Gallia Co- 
mata was the remainder of the country, excluding 
Gallia Braccata, and derived its name from the in- 
habitants wearing their hair long. The Romans 
were acquainted with onh* a small portion of Trans- 
alpine Gaul till the time of Caesar. In the time of 
Augustus it was bounded on the S. by the P^-renees 
and the Mediterranean ; on the E. by the river Varus 
and the Alps, which separated it from Italy, and 
by the river Rhine, which separated it from Ger- 
many ; on the N. by the German Ocean and the 
English Channel ; and on the W. by the Atlantic ; 
thus including not only the whole of France and 
Belgium, but a part of Holland, a great part of Swit- 
zerland, and all the provinces of Germany W. of 
tlie Rhine. The greater pai-t of this country is a 
plain, well watered by numerous rivers. ' The 
principal mountains were Mens Cebexna or Ge- 
lenna in the S.; the lofty range of Mons Jura in 
the E., separating the Sequam and the Helvetii ; 
and Mons Vosegus or Vogesus, a continuation 



GALLIA. 

of the Jura. The cliief forest was the Silva Ar- 
DUENNA, extending from the Rhine and the Tre- 
viri aa I'ar as the Scheldt. The principal rivers 
were, in the E. and N., the Rhenus {Rhine), 
with its tributaries the MosA {Maas) and Mo- 
SELLA (Moselle) ; the Skquaxa (Seine), with its 
tributary the Matrona : in the centre the Lige- 
Ris (Loire) ; in the W. the Garumna (Garonne) • 
and in the S. the Rhodanus (Rhone). The 
country was celebrated for its fertility in ancient 
times, and possessed a numerous and warlike po- 
j pulation. — The Greeks, at a very early period, be- 
i came acquainted with the S. coast of Gaul, where 
I the}- founded, in B, c. 600, the important to-mi of 
Massilia, Avhich in its turn founded several co- 
j lonies, and exercised a kind of supremacy over the 
neighbouring districts. The Romans did not attempt 
1 to make any conquests in Transalpine Gaul till 
I they had finally conquered not only Africa, but 
[ Greece and a great part of Western Asia. In B. c. 
125 the consul IM. Fuh-ius Flaccus commenced the 
subjugation of the Salluvii in the S. of Gaul. In 
I the next 3 years (124 — 122) the Salluvii were 
I completely subdued by Sextius Calvinus, and the 
' colony of Aquae Sextiae (Aix) Avas founded in 
their country. In 121 the Allobroges were de- 
feated by the proconsul Domitius Ahenobarbus ; 
and in the same year Q. Fabius Maximus gained a 
great victory over the united forces of the Allobroges 
and Arvemi, at the confluence of the Isara and the 
Rhone, The S. of Gaul was now made a Roman 
province ; and in 118 was founded the colony of 
Narbo Martins (Narhonne), which was the chief 
town of the province. In Caesar's Commentaries 
the Roman province is called simply Provincia, in 
contradistinction to the rest of the country : hence 
comes the modem name oi Provence. The rest of the 
country was subdued by Caesar after a struggle of 
several years (58 — 50). At this time Gaul was di- 
vided into 3 parts, Aquitania, Celtica, and Belgica, 
according to the 3 different races by which it was in- 
habited. The Aquitani dwelt in the S.W. between 
the Pyrenees and the Garumna ; the Celtae, or Galli 
proper, in the centre and W., between the Ga- 
rumna and the Sequana and the Matrona ; and the 
Belgae in the N.E. between the two last mentioned 
rivers and the Rhine. The different tribes inha- 
biting Aquitania and Belgica are given elsewhere. 
[Aquitania: Belgae.] The most important 
tribes of the Celtae or Galli were : 1. Between the 
Sequa?ia and the Liger : the Armorici, the name 
of all the tribes dwelling on the coast between the 
mouths of these 2 rivers ; the Aulerci, dwelling 
inland close to the Armorici ; the Namxetes, 
Andecavi or Andes on the banks of the Liger ; 
E. of them the Carxutes ; and on the Sequana, 
the Parish, Sexoxes, and Tricasses. — 2. Ba- 
tiveen the Liger and tlie Garumna : on the coast 
the Pictoxes and Saxtoxes ; inland the Tu- 
ROXES, probably on both sides of the Liger, the 
BiTL'RiGEs CuBi, Lemovices, Petrocorii, and 
Capurci ; E. of these, in the mountains of Ge- 
henna, the powerful Arverxi (in the modern 
Auvergne) ; and S. of them the Rutenl — 3. On 
the Rhone and in the surrounding country , betv/een 
the Rhone and the Pyrenees, the Volcae ; be- 
tween the Rhone and the Alps, the Saltes or 
Salluvii ; N. of them the Cavares ; between 
the Rhone, the Isara, and the Alps, the Allo- 
broges ; and further N. the Aedui, Sequaxi, 
and Helvetii, 3 of the most povv-erful people in 



GALLIA. 



GALLONIUS. 



275 



all Gaul. — Augustus divided Gaul into 4 provinces. 
1, Gallia Narhonensis, the same as the old Pro- 
vincia. 2. G. Aquitanica, which extended from 
the Pyrenees to the Liger. 3. G. Lugdiinensis, 
the country between the Liger, the Sequana, and 
the Arar, so called from the colony of Lugdunum 
{Lyon)^ founded by Munatius Plancus. 4. G. Bel- 
ffica^ the country between the Sequana, the Arar, 
and the Rhine. Shortly afterwards the portion of 
Belgica bordering on the Pvhine, and inhabited by 
German tribes, was subdivided into 2 new pro- 
vinces, called Germania Prima and Secunda^ or 
Germania Superior and Inferior. At a later time 
the provinces of Gaul were still further subdivided, 
till at length, under the emperor Gratian, they 
reached the number of 17. — Gallia Narbonensis 
belonged to the senate, and was governed by a 
proconsul ; the other provinces belonged to the 
emperor, and were governed by imperial legati. 
After the time of Claudius, when a formidable in- 
surrection of the Gauls was suppressed, the countrj^ 
became more and more Romanized. The Latin 
language gradually became the language of the in- 
habitants, and Roman civilisation took deep root 
in all parts of the countrj^ The rhetoricians and 
poets of Gaul occupy a distinguished place in the 
later history of Roman literature ; and Burdigala, 
Narbo, Lugdunum, and other towns, possessed 
schools, in which literature and philosophy were 
cultivated with success. On the dissolution of the 
Roman empire, Gaul, like the other Roman pro- 
vinces, was overrun by barbarians, and the greater 
part of it finally became subject to the Franci or 
Franks, under their king Clovis, about A. d. 496. 
—2. Gallia Cisalpina, also called G. Citerior 
and G. Togata, a Roman province in the N. of 
Italy, was bounded on the W. by Liguria and 
Gallia Narbonensis (from which it was separated 
by the Alps), on the N. by Rhaetia and Noricum, 
on the E. by the Adriatic and Venetia (from which 
it was separated by the Athesis), and on the S. by 
Etruria and Umbria (from which it was separated 
by the river Rubico). It was divided by the Po 
into Gallia Transpadana, also called Italia Trans- 
padana, in the N., and Gallia Cispadana in the 
S. The greater part of the country is a vast plain, 
drained by the Padus {Po) and its affluents, and 
has always been one of the most fertile countries of 
Europe. It was originally inhabited by Ligurians, 
Umbrians, Etruscans, and other races ; but its fer- 
tility attracted the Gauls, who at different periods 
crossed the Alps, and settled in the country, after 
expelling the original inhabitants. We have men- 
tion of 5 distinct immigrations of Gauls into the 
N. of Italy. The 1st was in the reign of Tar- 
quinius Priscus, and is said to have been led by 
Bellovesus, who settled with his followers in the 
country of the Insubres, and built Milan, The 
2nd consisted of the Cenomani, who settled in the 
neighbourhood of Brixia and Verona. The 3rd of 
the Salluvii, who pressed forward as far as the Ti- 
cinus. The 4th of the Boii and Lingones, who 
crossed the Po, and took possession of the country 
as far as the Apennines, driving out the Etruscans 
and Umbrians. The 5th immigration was the most 
important, consisting of the warlike race of the 
Senones, who invaded Italy in immense numbers, 
under the command of Brennus, and took Rome in 
B. c. 390. Part of them subsequently recrossed the 
Alps and returned home ; but a great number of 
them remained in the N. of Italy, and Avere for 



more than a century a source of terror to the Ro^ 
mans. After the "ist Punic Avar the Romans re- 
solved to make a vigorous effort to subdue their 
dangerous neighbours. In the course of 4 years 
(225 — 222) the whole country Avas conquered, and 
upon the conclusion of the Avar (222) Avas reduced 
to the form of a Roman province. The inhabitants, 
however, did not bear the yoke patiently, and it 
Avas not till after the final defeat of the Boii in 19i 
that the country became submissive to the Romans. 

— The most important tribes Avere : In Gallia 
Transpadana, in the direction of W. to E., the 
Taurini, Salassi, Libici, Insubres, Ceno- 
mani : in G. Cispadana, in the same direction, the 
Boil, Lingones, Senones. 

Gallienus, Avith his full name, P. Licinius 
Valerianus Egnatius Gallienus, Roman em- 
peror A. D. 260 — 268. He succeeded his father 
Valerian, Avhen the latter Avas taken prisoner by 
the Persians in 260; but he had previously reigned 
in conjunction with his father from his accession in 
253. Gallienus Avas indolent, profligate, and in- 
different to the public Avelfare; and his reign Avas 
one of the most ignoble and disastrous in the history 
of Rome. The barbarians ravaged the fairest 
portion of the empire, and the inhabitants Avere 
swept aAvay by one of the most frightful plagues 
recorded in history. This pestilence folloAved a 
long protracted famine. When it Avas at its greatest 
height, 5000 sick are said to have perished daily 
at Rome; and, after the scourge had passed away, 
it Avas found that the inhabitants of Alexandria 
Avere diminished by nearly tAvo thirds. The com- 
plete dissolution of the empire was averted mainly 
by a series of internal rebellions. In every district 
able officers sprang up, Avho asserted and strove to 
maintain the dignity of independent princes. The 
armies levied by these usurpers, Avho are commonly 
distinguished as The Thirty Tyrants^ in many cases 
arrested the progress of the invaders, and restored 
order in the provinces which they governed. Gal- 
lienus Avas at length slain by his OAvn soldiers in 
268, Avhile besieging Milan, in Avhich the usurper 
Aureolus had taken refuge. 

Gallinaria. 1. {Galinara), an island off the 
coast of Liguria, celebrated for its number of hens ; 
Avhence its name. — 2. Silva, a forest of pine-trees 
near Cumae in Campania. 

GaUio, Junins. 1. A Roman rhetorician, and a 
friend of M. Annaeus Seneca, the rhetorician, whose 
son he adopted. He was put to death by Nero. 
In early life he had been a friend of Ovid {Ex Pont. 
iv. 11). -—2. Son of the rhetorician M. Annaeus 
Seneca, and an elder brother of the philosopher 
Seneca, Avas adopted by No. 1. 

Q. GalllUS, Avas a candidate for the praetorship 
in B. c. 64, and was accused of ambitus or bribery 
by M. Calidius. He Avas defended on that occasion 
by Cicero in an oration of which a few fragments 
have come down to us. He was praetor urbanus 
B. c. 63, and presided at the trial of C. Cornelius. 

— He left tAvo sons, Q. Gallius, Avho Avas praetor 
in 43, and Avas put to death by the triumvirs ; and 
M. Gallius, Avho is mentioned as one of Antony's 
partizans in 43. 

Gallograecia. [Gaiatia.] 

Gallonius, a public crier at Rome, probably 
contemporary Avith the j^oungerScipio, whose wealth 
and gluttony passed into the proverb " to live like 
Gallonius." He Avas satirised by Horace {Sat. ii. 
2. 46). 

T 2 



^j/'i GAT-LUS. 

Galius, Asliv.s. 1. A jurist, contemporary with 
Cicero and Varro, though probably rather older 
than cither. He was the author of a treatise, De 
Verbonun^ quae, ad Jus Civile ■jieiiincnt, Sicjnifica- 
tvm<\ which is frequently cited by the grammarians. 
— 2. An intimate friend of the geographer Strabo, 
was praefect of Egypt in the reign of Augustus. 
In B. c. 24 he invaded Arabia, and after his army 
had suffered dreadfully from the heat and want of 
water, he was obliged to retreat with great loss. 

Gallus, L. Anicius, praetor b.c. 1G8, conducted 
the war against Gentius, king of tlie Illyrians, 
whom lie compelled to submit to the R,omans. 

Gallus, C. Aquillius, a distinguished Roman 
jnrist, was a pupil of Q. Mucius Scaevola, and the 
instructor of Serv. Sulpicius. He was praetor 
along with Cicero, B.C. G6. He is often cited bj' the 
jurists in the Digest, but there is no direct extract 
from his own works in the Digest. 

Gallus Saloninus, L. Asinius, son of C. Asi- 
nius PoUio, was consul b. c. 8. He was hated by 
Tiberius, because he had married Vipsania, the 
former wife of Tiberius. In A. D. 30, Tiberius got 
the senate to sentence him to death, and kept him 
imprisoned for 3 years, on the most scanty supply 
of food. He died in prison of starvation, but 
whether his death was compulsory or voluntary is 
unknown. Gallus wrote a work, entitled De, Com- 
pca-atione putris ac Ciceronis, which was unfavour- 
able to the latter, and against which the emperor 
Claudius wrote his defence of Cicero. 

Gallus, L. Caninius, was tribune of the plebs, 
B. c. 56, when he supported the views of Pompey. 
During the civil war he appears to have remained 
neutral. He died in 44. 

Gallus, Cestius, governor of Syria (legaius, a.d. 
64, 65), under Avhom the Jews broke out into the 
rebellion which ended in the destruction of their 
city and temple by Titus. 

Gallus, Constantius, son of Julias Constantius 
and Galla, grandson of Constantius Chlorus, nephew 
of Constantine the Great, and elder brother by a 
different mother, of Julian the Apostate. In a. d. 
351 he was named Caesar by Constantius II., and 
was left in the command of the E., where he con- 
ducted himself with the greatest haughtiness and 
cruelty. In 354 he went to the W. to meet Con- 
stantius at Milan, but was arrested at Petovio in 
Pannonia, and sent to Pola in Istria, where he was 
beheaded in a prison. 

Gallus, C. Cornelius, Avas born at Forum Julii 
(Frejus) in Gaul, of poor parents, about b. c. 66. 
He went to Italy at an early age, and began his 
career as a poet when he was about 20. He had 
already attained considerable distinction at the 
time of Caesar's death, 44 ; and upon the arrival 
of Octavian in Italy after that event, Gallus era- 
braced his party, and soon acquired great influence 
with him. In 41 he was one of the triumviri ap- 
pointed by Octavian to distribute lands in the N. 
of Italy among his veterans, and on that occasion 
he affi>rded protection to the inhabitants of Mantua 
and to Virgil. He afterwards accompanied Octa- 
vian to the battle of Actium, 31, and commanded a 
detachment of the army. After the battle, Gallus 
Avas sent with the army to Egypt, in pursuit of 
Antony ; and when Egypt was made a Roman 
province, Octavian appointed Gallus the first pre- 
fect of the province. He remained in Egypt for 
nearly 4 years ; but he incurred at length the en- 
mity of Octavian, though the exact nature of his 



GANDARAE. 

offence is uncertain. According to some accounts 
he spoke of the emperor in an offensive and insult- 
ing manner ; he erected numerous statues of him- 
self in Egypt, and had his own exploits inscribed 
on the pyramids. The senate deprived him of his 
estates, and sent him into exile ; whereupon he put an 
end to his life by throwing himself upon his own 
sword, B.C. 26. The intimate friendship existing be- 
tween Gallus and the most eminent men of the time, 
as Asiuius Pollio, Virgil, Varus, and Ovid, and the 
high praise they bestow upon him, prove that he was 
a man of great intellectual powers and acquirements. 
Ovid {TrisL iv. 1 0. 5) assigns to him the first place 
among the Roman elegiac poets ; and we know 
that he wrote a collection of elegies in 4 books, 
the principal subject of which was his love of Ly- 
coris. But all his productions have perished ; for 
the 4 epigrams in the Latin Anthology attributed 
to Gallus could not have been written by a con- 
temporary of Augustus. Gallus translated into 
Latin the poems of Euphorion of Chalcis, but this 
translation is also lost. Some critics attribute to 
him the poem Ciris, usually printed among the 
works of Virgil, but the arguments do not appear 
satisfactory. 

Gallus, Sulpicius, a distinguished orator, was 
praetor b. c. 169, and consul 166, when he fought 
against the Ligurians. In 1 68 he served as tri- 
bune of the soldiers under Aemilius Paulus in 
Macedonia, and during this campaign predicted an 
eclipse of the moon. 

Gallus, Trebonianus, Roman emperor, a. d. 251 
-254. His full name was C. Vibius Trebonianus 
Gallus. He served under Decius in the campaign 
against the Goths, 251, and he is said to have 
contributed by his treachery to the disastrous issue 
of the battle, which proved fatal to Decius and his 
son Herennius. Gallus was thereupon elected em- 
peror, and Hostilianus, the surviving son of Decius, 
was nominated his colleague. He purchased a 
peace of the Goths by allowing them to retain 
their plunder, and promising them a fixed annual 
tribute. In 253 the Goths again invaded the 
Roman dominions, but they were driven back by 
Aemiliaims, whose troops proclaimed him emperor 
in Moesia. Aemilianus thereupon marched into 
Italy; and Gallus was put to death by his own sol- 
diers, together with his son Volusianus, before any 
collision had taken place between the opposing 
armies. The name of Gallus is associated with 
nothing but cowardice and dishonour. In addition 
to the misery produced by the inroads of the bar- 
barians during this reign, a deadly pestilence broke 
out in 252, and continued its ravages over every 
part of the empire for 15 years. 

Gallus. 1. A river in Bithynia, rising near 
Modra, on the borders of Phrygia, and falling into 
the Sangarius near Leucae (Le/keh). — 2. A river 
in Galatia, which also fell into the Sangarius, near 
Pessinus. From it the priests of Cybele are said 
to have obtained their name of Galli. 

Gamelii (ya/j.r]\Loi i&eot), that is, the divinities 
protecting and presiding over marriage. These 
divinities are usually regarded as the protectors of 
marriage. Respecting the festival of the Gamelia 
see Did, of Antiq. s. v. 

Gandarae {Vav^cipai), an Indian people in the 
Paropamisus, on the N.W. of the Punjab, between 
the rivers Indus and Suastus. Under Xerxes they 
were subjects of the Persian empire. Their country 
was called Gandaritis {Tav^aptTis). 



GANDARIDAE. 



GAZA. 



277 



Gandaridae or Gandarltae (TavZaoiBai, Tav- 
Saplrai), an Indian people, in the middle of the 
Punjab, between the rivers Acesines (Chenah) and 
Hydraotes (Bavee), whose king, at the time of 
Alexander's invasion, was a cousin and namesake 
of the celebrated Porus. Whether they were dif- 
ferent from the Gandarae is uncertain. Sanskrit 
writers mention the Ghanddra in the centre of the 
Punjab. 

Gangaridae (TayyapiSaL), an Indian people 
about the mouths of the Ganges. 

Ganges {rdyy7]s : Ganges or Ganga), the greatest 
river of India, Avhich it divided into the 2 parts 
named by the ancients India intra Gangem (Hin- 
dustan) and India Extra Gangem (Burmah, Cochin 
China, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula). It rises 
in the highest part of the Emodi Montes {Hima- 
laya), and flows in a general S. E. direction till it 
falls by several mouths into the head of the Gan- 
geticus Sinus {Bay of Bengal). Like the Nile, it 
overflows its banks periodically, and these inun- 
dations render its valley the most fertile part of 
India. The knowledge of the ancients respecting 
it was very imperfect, and they give very various 
accounts of its source, its size, and the number of 
its mouths. The breadth, which Diodorus Siculus 
assigns to it in the lower part of its course, 32 
stadia, or about 3 miles, is perfectly correct. The 
following rivers are mentioned as its tributaries : 
Cainas, Jomanes or Diamunas, Sarabus, Condochates, 
Oedanes, Cosoagus or Cossoanus, Erannoboas, Sonus 
or Soas, Sittocestis, Solomatis, Sambus, Magon, 
Agoranis, Omalis, Commenases, Cacuthis, Ando- 
matis, Amystis, Oxymagis, and Errhenysis. — The 
name is also applied to a city in the interior of 
India, on the Ganges, where it makes its great 
bend to the E., perhaps Allahabad. 

Gangra {Tdyypa : Kankari)^ a city of Paphla- 
gonia, near the confines of Galatia, Avas originally 
a fortress ; in the time of king Deiotarus, a royal 
residence; and under the later emperors, the capital 
of Paphlagonia. 

Ganos {Tdvos), a fortress in Thrace, on the 
Propontis. 

Ganymedes {Tc.vvfi.T]Zii]s), son of Tros and 
Callirrhoe, and brother of Ilus and Assaracus, Avas 
the most beautiful of all mortals, and was carried off 
by the gods that he might fill the cup of Zeus, and 
live among the eternal gods. This is the Homeric 
account ; but other traditions give different details. 
Some call him son of Laomedon, others son of 
Ilus, and others again of Erichthonius or Assara- 
cus. The manner in which he was carried away 
from the earth is likewise differently described ; 
for while Homer mentions the gods in general, 
later writers state that Zeus himself carried him 
off, either in his natural shape, or in the form of 
an eagle, or by means of his eagle. There is, fur- 
ther, no agreement as to the place where the event 
occurred ; though later writers usually represent 
him as carried off from Mount Ida {captus ah Ida, 
Hor. Carm. iv. 4). The early legend simply states 
that Ganymedes was carried off that he might be 
the cup-bearer of Zeus, in which office he was con- 
ceived to have succeeded Hebe ; but later writers 
describe him as the beloved and favourite of Zeus, 
without allusion to his office. Zeus compensated 
the father for his loss by a pair of divine horses. 
Astronomers have placed Ganymedes among the 
stars under the name of Aquarius. The Romans 
called him by a corrupt form of his name, Gatamitus. | 



Garama. [Garamantes.] 

Garamantes {Vapafxams), the S.most people 
known to the ancients in N. Africa, dwelt far S. 
of the Great Syrtis in the region called Phazania 
{Fezzan), where they had a capital city, Garama 
{Tdpam: Mourzouk, Lit. 25° 53' N., long. 14° 10' 
E.). They are mentioned by Herodotus as a weak 
un warlike people; he places them 19 days' journey 
from Aethiopia and the shores of the Indian Ocean, 
15 days' journey from Ammonium, and 30 days' 
journej^ from Egypt. The Romans obtained fresh 
knowledge of them by the expedition of Cornelius 
Balbus into their country, in B. c. 43. 

Garganus Mons {Monte Gargano), a mountain 
and promontory in Apulia, on which were oak 
forests {querceta Gargani, Hor. Carm. ii. 9. 7.) 

Gargara, -on, or -us {Tdpyapa, ov, os : Tap- 
yapevs). 1. {Kaz-Dagh) the S. summit of M. Ida, 
in the Troad. — 2. A city at the foot of M. Ida, on 
the shore of the Gulf of Adramyttium, between 
Assus and Antandrus ; said to have been founded 
originally on the summit of the mountain by the 
Leleges ; afterwards colonised from. Miletus ; and 
removed to the lower site on account of the incle- 
mency of its situation on the mountain. Its neigh- 
bourhood was rich in corn. 

Gargettus {Tapyrirrds : Vapyi]TTLos), a demus 
in Attica, belonging to the tribe Aegeis, on the 
N.W. slope of Mt. Hymettus ; the birthplace of 
the philosopher Epicurus. 

Garites, a people in Aquitania, neighbours of 
the Ausci, in the modern Comte de Gauve. 

Garoceli, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, near 
Mt. Cenis, in the neighbourhood of St. Jean de 
Maurienne. 

Garsauna, or -itis {Tapaaovpia, or •'ins), a 
praefectura in Cappadocia, on the borders of L3'ca- 
onia and Tyanitis. Its chief town was called 
Tapadovpa. 

Gariili, a people of Liguria in the Apennines. 

Garumna {Garonne), one of the chief rivers of 
Gaul, rises in the Pyrenees, flows N.W. through 
Aquitania, and becomes a bay of the sea below 
Burdigala {Bordeaux). 

Gariimm, a people in Aquitania on the Garumna. 

Gatiieae {TaOiai), a town in Arcadia on the 
Gatheatas, a river which flows into the Alpheus, 
W.S.W. of Megal-opolis. 

Gaugamela {rd Tavydfj.7\Ka: Karmelis), a village 
in the dis*-,rict of Aturia in Assyria, the scene of the 
last and decisive battle between Alexander and 
Darius Codomannus, B.C. 331, commonly called 
the battle of Arbela. 

Gaulanitis {TavXa- ov-ov7ris: Jatdan), a dis- 
trict in the N. of Palestine, on the E. side of the 
Lake of Tiberias, as far S. as the river Hieromax, 
named from the town of Golan {TavXava). 

Gaulos {TavXos : TavX'n-ns : Gozzo), an island 
in the Sicilian sea near Melite {Malta). 

Gaureleon, Gaurion. [Andros.] 

Gaurus Mons, Gauranus or -ni M. {Monte 
Gauro), a volcanic range of mountains in Cam- 
pania, between Cumae and Neapolis, in the neigh- 
bourhood of Puteoli, which produced good wine, 
and was memorable for the defeat of the Samnites 
by M. Valerius Corvus, B. c. 343. 

Gaza {rdCa). 1. {Ghuzzeh), the last city on the 
S. W. frontier of Palestine, and the key of the 
country on the side of Egypt, stood on an eminence 
about 2 miles from the sea, and was, from the yery 
earliest times of which we have any record, very 

T a 



278 GAZACA. 
strongly foriificd. It was one of the 5 cities of 
the Philistines; and, though taken from them more 
than once by the Jews, was each time recovered. 
It was taken by Cyrus the Great, and remained 
in the hands of the Persians till the time of Alex- 
ander, who only gained possession of it after an 
obstinate defence of several months. In B. c. 315, 
it fell into the power of Ptolemy the son of Lagus, 
as the result of his victory over Demetrius before 
the city, and was destro3^ed by him. But it again 
recovered, and was possessed alternately by the 
kings of Syria and Egypt, during tlieir prolonged 
wars, and afterwards by tlic Asmonaean princes of 
Judaea, one of whom, Alexander Jaimaeus, again 
destroyed it, B. c. 96. It was rebuilt by Gabinius; 
given by Augustus to Herod the Great ; and, after 
Herod's death, united to tlie Roman province of Syria. 
In A. D. 65, it was again destroj-ed in an insurrec- 
tion of its Jewish inliabitants; but it recovered once 
more, and remained a flourishing city till it fell 
into the hands of the Arabs in a. d, 634. In ad- 
dition to its importance as a military post, it pos- 
sessed an extensive commerce, carried on through 
its port, Majuma, or Constantia. 2. (Gl/az), a 
city in the Persian province of Sogdiana, between 
Alexandria and Cyropolis; one of the 7 cities which 
rebelled against Alexander in b. c. 328. 

Gazaca {Vd^aKa: Tahreez), a city in the N. of 
Media Atropatene, equidistant from Artaxata and 
Ecbatana, was a summer residence of the kings of 
Media. 

Gaziura (TaCiovpa), a city in Pontus Galaticus, 
on the river Iris, below Amasia, was the ancient 
residence of the kings of Pontus ; but in Strabo's 
time it had fallen to decay. 

Gebalene {TeSaX-nvr]), the district of Arabia 
Petraea around the city of Petra. 

Gebenna Mons. [Cebenna.] 

Gedrosia (Tedpuaia, and Fadpuaia : S.E. part of 
BeloocMslan), the furthest province of the Persian 
empire on the S. E., and one of the subdivisions of 
Ariana, was bounded on the W. by Carmania, on 
the N. bj^ Drangiana and Arachosia, on the E. by 
India (or, as the country about the lower course of 
the Indus Avas called, Indo-Scythia), and on the S. 
by the Mare Erythraeum, or Indian Ocean. It is 
formed by a succession of sandy steppes, rising from 
the sea-coast towards the table land of Ariana, and 
produced little besides aromatic shrubs. The slip 
of land between the coast and the lowest mountain 
range is watered by several rivers, the chief of 
which Avas called Arabis {Doosee ?); but even this 
district is for the most part only a series of salt 
marshes. Gedrosia is known in history chiefly 
through the distress suiTered for want of water, in 
passing through , it, by the armies of Cj-rus and of 
Alexander. The inhabitants were divided by the 
Greek writers into 2 races, the Ichthyophagi on the 
sea coast, and the Gedrosi in the interior. The 
latter were a wild nomade people, whom even 
Alexander was only able to reduce to a temporary 
subjection. The whole country was divided into 8 
districts. Its chief cities were Rhambacia and 
Pura, or Parsis. 

Gegania Gens, traced its origin to the mythical 
Gyas, one of the companions of Aeneas. It was 
one of the most distinguished Alban houses, trans- 
planted to Rome on the destruction of Alba by 
Tullus Hostilius, and enrolled among the Roman 
patricians. There appears to have been only one 
fiunily in this gens, that of Macerimis, many mem- 



GELON. 

bers of which filled the highest offices in the state 
in the early times of the republic. 

Gela (77 TeAa, Ion. TeA?] : TeAqSos, Gelensis : 
nr. l^crm Nuova Ru.), a city on the S. coast of 
Sicily, on a river of the same name (Fhime di Terra 
Nicova), founded by Rhodians from Lindos, and 
by Cretans, b. c, 690. It soon obtained great 
power and wealth ; and, in 582, it founded Agri- 
gentum, which, however, became more powerful 
than the mother city. Like the other cities of 
Sicily, it was subject to tyrants, of whom the most 
important were Hippocrates, Gelon, and Hie- 
RON. Gelon transported half of its inhabitants to 
Syracuse ; the place gradually fell into decay, and 
in the time of Augustus was no longer inhabited. 
The poet Aeschylus died here. — N. of Gela were 
the celebrated Campi Geloi, ■which produced rich 
crojis of wheat. 

Gelas. [Cadusii.] 

Gelanor (reAdi'a;/3),king of Argos, was expelled 
by Danaus. 

Geldiiba (Gelb, below Cologne), a fortified place 
of the Ubii on the Rhine in Lower Germany. 

Gellia Gens, plebeian, Avas of Samnite origin, 
and afterwards settled at Rome. There Avere 2 
generals of this name in the Samnite Avars, Gellius 
Statins in the 2nd Samnite Avar, Avho Avas defeated 
and taken prisoner, B. c. 305, and Gellius Egnatius 
in the 3rd Samnite Avar. [Egnatius.] The chief 
family of the Gellii at Rome bore the name of 

PlTBLICOLA. 

Gellius. 1. Cn., a contemporary of the Gracchi, 
the author of a history of Rome from the earliest 
epoch doAvn to B. c. 145 at least. The Avork is 
lost, but it is frequently quoted by later Avriters. 
■=2. Atdns, a Latin grammarian of good family, 
Avas probably a native of Rome. He studied rhe- 
toric under T. Castricius and Sulpicius Apollinaris, 
philosophy under Calvisius Taurus and Peregrhms 
Proteus, and enjoyed also the friendship and in- 
structions of Favorinus, Herodes Atticus, and Cor- 
nelius Fronto. While 5-et a youth he Avas ap- 
pointed by the praetor to act as an umpire in civil 
causes. The precise date of his bfrth and death is 
unknoAA-^n ; but he must have lived under Hadrian, 
Antoninus Pius, and M. Aurelius, A. d. 117 — 180. 
He Avrote a work entitled Nodes Atticae, because 
it AA-as composed in a comitry house near Athens, 
during the long nights of winter. It is a sort of 
miscellauA', containing numerous extracts from 
Greek and Roman Avriters, on a variet}' of topics 
connected with historj', antiquities, philosophy, and 
philology, interspersed Avith original remarks, the 
Avhole thrown together into 20 books, Avithout any 
attempt at order or arrangement. The 8th book 
is entirely lost Avith the exception of the index. — 
The best editions are by Jac. Gronovius, Lug. Bat. 
1706 (reprinted by Conradi, Lips. 1762), and by 
Lion, Getting. 1824. — 3. Publicius, a jurist, one 
of the disciples of Ser. Sulpicius. 

Gelon (Tekwv). 1. Son of Dinomenes, tyrant j 
of Gela, and afterwards of Syracuse, was descended | 
from one of the most illustrious families in Gela. I 
He held the chief command of the cavalry in the j 
service of Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela ; shortly after f 
Avhose death he obtained the supreme power, B. c. 
491. In 485 he availed himself of the internal |: 
dissensions of Sj'racuse to make himself master of 
this city also. From this time he neglected Gela, r 
and bent all his efforts to the aggrandisement of 
Syracuse, to Avhich place he removed many of the 



GELONT. 



GENIUS. 



27P 



inhabitants of the other cities of Sicily. In 480 
he gained a brilliant victory at Himera over the 
Carthaginians, who had invaded Sicily with an 
army, amounting, it is said, to the incredible 
number of 300,000 men. Scarcely any of this 
vast host survived to carry the news to Carthage. 
The victory is said to have been gained on the very 
same day as that of Salamis. He died in 4/8 of 
a dropsy, after reigning 7 years at Syracuse. He 
was succeeded by his brother Hieron. He is re- 
presented as a man of singular leniency and mo- 
deration, and as seeking in every way to promote 
the welfare of his subjects ; and his name even 
appears to have become almost proverbial as an in- 
stance of a good monarch. A splendid tomb was 
erected to him by the Syracusans at the public ex- 
pense, and heroic honours w^ere decreed to his me- 
mory— 2. Son of Hieron II., king of Syracuse, 
who died before his father, at the age of more than 
50 years. He received the title of king in the 
lifetime of his father. 

Creloni (TeXoopoi), a Scythian people, who dwelt 
in Sarmatia Asiatica, to the E. of the river Tanais 
{Don). They were said to have been of Greek 
origin, and to have migrated from the shores of the 
Euxine; but they intermixed with the Scythians so 
as to lose all traces of their Hellenic race. Their 
chief city was called Gelonus (TeX(av6s). 

Geminus (T^i^vos), an astronomer, was a native 
of Rhodes, and flourished about B. c. 77. He is 
the author of an extant work, entitled 'EAcraycayr] 
els ra ^aLuSfMeva, which is a descriptive treatise on 
elementary astronomy, with a great deal of histo- 
rical allusion. It is printed in the Uranologion of 
Petavius, Paris, 1630, and in Halma's edition of 
Ptolemy, Paris, 1819. 

Grenunus, Servilius. 1. P., twice consul with 
C. Aurelius Cotta in the 1st Punic war, namely, in 
B. c. 252 and 248. In both years he carried on 
war against the Carthaginians. — 2. Cn., son of 
No. 1, was consul 217 with C. Flaminius, in the 
2nd Punic war, and ravaged the coast of Africa. 
He fell in the battle of Cannae, 216. — 3. M., also 
surnamed Pulex, consul 202 with Tib. Claudius 
Nero, obtained Etruria for his province. He is 
mentioned on several occasions subsequently. 

Gemoniae (scalae) or Gemonii (gradus), a 
flight of steps cut out of the Aventine, down which 
the bodies of criminals strangled in the prison Avere 
dragged, and afterwards thrown into the Tiber. 

Genabum or Cenabum {Orleans), a town in 
Gallia Lugdunensis, on the N. bank of the Ligeris, 
was the chief town of the Carnutes : it was plun- 
dered and burnt by Caesar, but subsequently re- 
built. In later times it w^as called Civitas Aure- 
lianorum or Aurelianensis Urbs, whence its modern 
name. 

Genauni, a people in Vindelicia, the inhabitants 
of the Alpine valley, now called Valle di Non, 
were subdued by Drusus. (Hor. Carm. iv. 14. 10.) 

Genesius, Josephus, lived about a. d. 940, and 
Avrote in 4 books a history of the Byzantine em- 
perors from A. D. 813 to 886, consequently of the 
reigns of Leo V., Michael II., Theophilus, Michael 
III., and Basil I. Edited by Lachmann, Bonn, 
1834. 

Genetaeus {reu-nraios), a surname of Zeus, 
from Cape Genetas on the Euxine, where he was 
worshipped as ev^eii'os. i.e. "the hospitable." 

Genetyllis (re^eryAAts), the protectress of 
births, occurs both as a surname of Aphrodite, 



and as a distinct divinity and a companion of 
Aphrodite. We also find the plural, TevervWides, 
or Tevva'tdes, as a class of divinities presiding over 
generation and birth, and as companions of Aphro- 
dite Colias. 

Geneva or Genava (Genevensis : Geneva), the 
last town of the Allobroges, on the frontiers of the 
Helvetii, was situated on the S. bank of the Rhone, 
at the spot where the river flowed out of the Lacus 
Lemannus. There was a bridge here over the 
Rhone. 

Genitrix, that is, " the mother," is used by 
Ovid {Met. xiv. 536) as a surname of Cybele, in 
the place of maier, or magna mater ; but it is 
better known as a surname of Venus, to Avhom 
Caesar dedicated a temple at Rome, as the mother 
of the Julia Gens. 

Genius, a protecting spirit, analogous to the 
guardian angels invoked by the Church of Rome. 
The belief in such spirits existed both in Greece 
and at Rome. The Greeks called them Saifxaues, 
Daemons, and appear to have believed in them 
from the earliest times, though Homer does not 
mention them. Hesiod says that the Daemons 
were 30,000 in number, and that they dwelled on 
earth unseen by mortals, as the ministers of Zeus, 
and as the guardians of men and of justice. He 
further conceives them to be the souls of the righ- 
teous men who lived in the golden age of the 
world. The Greek philosophers took up this idea, 
and developed a complete theory of daemons. Thus 
we read in Plato, that daemons are assigned to 
men at the moment of their birth, that they ac- 
company men through life, and after death conduct 
their souls to Hades. Pindar, in several passages, 
speaks of yevedAios daiixwu, that is, the spirit 
watching over the fate of man from the hour of his 
birth. The daemons are further described as the 
ministers and companions of the gods, who carry 
the prayers of men to the gods, and the gifts of 
the gods to men, and accordingly float in immense 
numbers in the space between heaven and earth. 
There was also a distinct class of daemons, who 
were exclusively the ministers of the gods. — The 
Romans seem to have received their notions re- 
specting the genii from the Etruscans, though the 
name Genius itself is Latin (it is connected with 
gi-gn-o, gen-zii, and equivalent in meaning to gene- 
rator or father). The genii of the Romans are 
the powers which produce life {dii genitales), and 
accompany man through it as his second or spiritual 
self. They were further not confined to man, but 
every living being, animal as well as man, and 
every place had its genius. Every human being at 
his birth obtained {soriitur) a genius, whom he 
worshipped as sanctus et sanctissimus deus, especially 
on his birthday, with libations of wine, incense, and 
garlands of flowers. The bridal bed was sacred 
to the genius, on account of his connection Avith 
generation, and the bed itself was called lectus ge- 
nialis. On other merry occasions, also, sacrifices 
Avere oifered to the genius, and to indulge in merri- 
ment Avas not unfrequently expressed by genio in- 
didyere, genium curare^ or placare. The Avhole 
body of the Roman people had its oAvn genius, Avho 
is often seen represented on coins of Hadrian and 
Trajan. He Avas worshipped on sad as Avell as 
joA'ous occasions ; thus, sacrifices AA'-ere offered to 
him at the beginning of the 2nd year of the Avar 
Avith Hannibal. The genii are usually represented 
in Avorks of art as Avinged beings. The genius of 

T 4 



2R0 GEXSERIC. 

a place appears in the form of a serpent eating 

fruit placed before him. 

Genseric, king of the Vandals, and the most 
terrible of all the barbarian invaders of the em- 
pire. In A. D. 429 be crossed over from Spain to 
Africa, and ravaged the countrv with frightful se- 
veritv. Hippo was taken by him in 431, but Car- 
thage did not fall into his hands till 439. Having 
thus become master of the whole of the N.W. of 
Africa, he attacked Italy itself. In 455 he took 
Rome and plundered it for 14 days, and in the same 
year he destroyed Capua, Nola,and Neapolis. Twice 
the em.pire endeavoured to revenge itself, and twice 
it failed : the first was the attempt of the "Western 
emperor Majorian (457), whose fleet was destroyed 
in the bay of Carthagena. The ■2nd was . the ex- 
pedition sent by the Eastern emperor Leo (468), 
which was also baffled by the burning of the fleet 
off" Bona. Genseric died in 477, at a great age. 
He was an Arian ; and in the cruelties exercised 
under his orders against his Catholic subjects he 
exhibited the first instance of persecution carried 
on upon a large scale by one body of Christians 
again-t another. 

Grentius, son of Plenratus, a king of the Illy- 
rians. As early as B. c. 180, he had given off'ence 
to the Romans on account of the piracies of his 
subjects ; and in 168 he entered into an alliance 
v\-ith Perseus, king of Macedonia. In the follow- 
ing year the praetor L. Anicius Gallus was sent 
aaaiust him. The war was finished v.-ithin 30 
days. Gentius was defeated in battle, and then 
s'lrrendered himself to Anicius, who carried him to 
Kome to adorn his triumph. He was afterwards 
kept as a prisoner at Spoletium. 

Genua (Genuas, -atis, Genuensis : Genoa), an 
important commercial to^sTi in Liguria, situated at 
the extremity of the Ligiman gulf (Gtdf of Genoa), 
was in the possession of the Romans at the be- 
ginning of the Gnd Punic war, but towards the end 
of the war was held for some time by the Car- 
thaginian Maffo. It was a Roman municipiura. 
but it did not become of political importance till the 
middle ages, when it was commonly called Janua . 

Genucia Gens, patrician, of which the principal 
families bore the names of Aventinexsis and 

AUGl'RINfS. 

Gentisus {TsL-umi), a river in Greek lUyria, N. 
of the Apsus. 

Gephyraei (re(pvpa7oi), an Athenian family, to 
which Harmodius and Aristogiton belonged. They 
said that they came oriainally from Eretria in Euboea. 
Herodotus believed them to be of Phoenician de- 
scent, to have followed Cadmus into Boeotia, and 
from thence to have emigrated to Athens. They 
dwelt on the banks of the Cephisus, which sepa- 
rated the territory of Athens from that of Eletisis, 
and their name was said to have been derived from 
the bridrje (yecpvpa). which was built over the river 
at this point Such a notion, however, is quite 
untenable, since " bridge " appears to have been a 
comparative recent meaning of yecpvpa. "We find 
that there were temples at Athens, belonging 
peculiarly to the Geph}-raei, to the exclusion of the 
rest of the Athenians, especially one to Demeter 
Achaea, whose worship they seem to have brought 
with them from Boeotia. 

Gepidae, a Gothic people, who came from Scan- 
dinavia, and first settled in the country between 
the Oder and the Vistula, from which they ex- 
pelled the Burgundiones. Subsequently they joined 



GERMANIA. 
the numerous hosts of Attila ; and after his death 
they settled in Dacia, on the banks of the Danube. 
As they were dangerous neighbours to the Eastern 
empire, Justinian invoked the aid of the Lango- 
bardi or Lombards, who conquered the Gepidae 
and destroyed their kingdom. 

Ger or Gir (Teip : G/dr or Mansolig), a river of 
Gaetulia in Africa, S. of Mauretania Caesariensis ; 
flowing S. E. from the S. slope of M. Atlas, till it 
is lost in the desert. It first became known to the 
Romans through the expedition of Suetonius Pauli- 
nus in the reign of Nero. 

GeraestQS {VepouaTSs -. Tepat trrtos), a promon- 
tory and harbour at the S. extremity of Euboea, 
with a celebrated temple of Poseidon, in whose 
honour the festival of the Geraestia {Tepaiaria) 
was here celebrated. 

Geranea (tj repai/em), a range of mountains, 
beginning at the S.W. slope of Cithaeron, and run- 
ning along the W. coast of Megaris, till it termi- 
nated in the promontory Olmiae in the Corinthian 
territory ; but the name is sometimes confined to 
the mountain in the Corinthian territory. 

Gerenia (Tcp-nvla), an ancient town in Messe- 
nia, the birthplace of Nestor, who is hence called 
Gerenian (Teprjvios). It was resarded by some as 
the same place as the Homeric Enope. 

Gergis, or Ger^tha, or -es, or -ns, (Fepyis, 
Tep^/Lda, or -es. or -os : TepyiOios), a town in the 
Troad, N. of the Scamander, inhabited by Teu- 
crians. Attains removed the inhabitants to the 
sources of the Caicus, where mention is made of a 
place called Gergetha or Gergithion, in the territory 
of Cyme. 

G^rgovia. 1. A fortified town of the Arvemi 
in Gaul, situated on a high and inaccessible hill, 
^y. or S.W. of the Elaver (AUier). Its site is 
uncertain ; but it was probably in the neiffhbour- 
hood of the modem Clermont. — 2. A town of the 
Boii in Gaul, of uncertain site, 

Germa (repuTj), the name of 3 cities in Asia 
Minor. 1. {Germaslu, Ru.) in Mysia Minor, near 
Cyzicus.— 2. ( Yermatepe) in Mysia, between Per- 
gamus and Thyatira.— 3. (Yerma), in Galatia, be- 
tween Pessinus and Ancyra; a colonia. 

Germania, was bounded by the Rhine on the 
W., by the Vistula and the Carpathian mountains 
on the E., by the Danube on the S., and by the 
German Ocean and the Baltic on the N. It thus 
included much more than modem Germany on the 
N. and E., but much less in the W. and S. The 
N. and N.E, of GaUia Belgica were likewise called 
Germania Prima and Secunda under the Roman 
emperors [see p. 275, a,] ; and it was in contradis- 
tinction to these provinces that Germania proper 
was also called Germania Magna or G. Trans- 
rhenana or G. Barbara. It was not till Caesar's 
campaigns in Gaul (b. c. 58 — 50) that the Ro- 
mans obtained any accurate knowledge of the 
country. The Roman writers represent Germany 
as a dismal land, covered for the most part with 
forests and swamps, producing little com. and 
subject to intense frosts and almost eternal winter. 
Although these accounts are probably exaggerated, 
yet there can be no doubt that, before the immense 
woods were cleared and the morasses drained, the 
climate of Germany was much colder than it is at 
present. — The N. of Germany is a vast plain, but 
in the S. there are many mountains, which were 
covered in antiquity with vast forests, and thus 
were frequently called Silvae. Of these the most 



GERMANIA. 



GERMANIA. 



281 



important was the Hercynia Silva. — The chief 
rivers Avere the Rhenus {Rhine)^ Danubius {Da- 
Vistula, Amisia (Ems), Visurgis ( Wesei-), 
Albis (Elbe), ViAnus (Oder). — The inhabitants 
were called Germani by the Romans. Tacitus 
says (Germ. 2) that Germani was the name of the 
Tung?i, who were the first German people that 
crossed the Rhine. It would seem that this 
name properly belonged only to those tribes who 
were settled in Gaul ; and as these were the first 
German tribes with which the Romans came into 
contact, they extended the name to the whole 
nation. The etymology of the name is uncertain. 
Some modern writers derive it from the German 
(7cr, (/ti-er, i7ee?-, Welir., so that the word would be 
equivalent to ^yellrman., Welmii'dmier, that is, 
warriors. The Germans themselves do not appear 
to have used any one name to indicate the whole 
nation ; for there is no reason to believe, as some 
have done, that the name Teutones (i. e. Teuien, 
Deutsche)., was the general name of the nation in 
the time of the Romans. The Germans regarded 
themselves as indigenous in the country ; but there 
can be no doubt that they were a branch of the 
great Indo-Germanic race, who, along with the 
Celts, migrated into Europe from the Caucasus and 
the countries around the Black and Caspian seas, 
at a period long anterior to historical records. 
They are described as a people of high stature and 
of great bodily strength, with fair complexions, 
blue eyes, and yellow or red hair. Notwithstand- 
ing the severity of their climate, they wore little 
clothing, and their children went entirely naked. 
They had scarcely any defensive armour: their 
chief offensive weapon was the framea, a long 
spear with a narrov/ iron point, which they either 
darted from a distance or pushed in close combat. 
Their houses were only low huts, made of rough 
timber, and thatched with straw. A number of 
these were of course often built near each other ; 
but they could not be said to have any towns pro- 
perly so called. Many of their tribes were nomad, 
and every year clianged their place of abode. — The 
men found their chief delight in the perils and ex- 
citement of war. In peace they passed their lives 
in listless indolence, only varied by deep gaming 
and excessive drinking. Their chief drink was 
beer ; and their carouses frequently ended in 
bloody brawls. The women were held in high 
honour. Their chastity was without reproach. 
They accompanied their husbands to battle, and 
cheered them on by their presence, and frequently 
by their example as well. Both sexes were equally 
distinguished for their unconquerable love of li- 
berty ; and the women frequently destroyed both 
themselves and their children, rather than fall into 
the power of their husbands' conquerors. — In each 
tribe we find the people divided into 4 classes : the 
nobles ; the freemen ; the freedmen or vassals ; and 
the slaves. All questions relating to peace and 
war, and the general interests of the tribe, were 
decided in the popular assembly, in which each 
freeman had a right to take part. In these as- 
semblies a king was elected from among the nobles ; 
but his power was very limited, and he only acted 
as the supreme magistrate in time of peace ; for 
when a war broke out, the people elected a dis- 
tinguished warrior as their leader, upon Avhom the 
prerogatives of the king devolved. — The religion 
of the Germans is known to us only from the 
Greek and Roman writers, who have confused the 



subject by seeking to identify the gods of the 
Germans with their own divinities. We know 
that they worshipped the Svm, the Moon, and 
the Stars. They are also said to have paid espe- 
cial honour to Mercury, who was probably the 
German Wodan or Odin. Their other chief di- 
vinities were Isis (probably Freia, the wife of 
Odin) ; Mars (Tyr or Zio., the German god of 
war) ; the mother of the gods, called Nerthus (less 
correctly Herthus or Hertlid) ; and Jupiter (Thor^ 
or the god of thunder). The worship of the gods 
v/as simple. They had both priests and priestesses 
to attend to their service ; and some of the 
priestesses, such as Veleda among the Bructeri, 
were celebrated throughout Germany for their pro- 
phetic powers. — The Germani first appear in his- 
tory in the campaigns of the Cimbri and Teutones 
(B.C. 113), the latter of whom were imdoubtedly 
a Germanic people. [Teutones.] About 50 
years afterwards Ariovistus, a German chief, crossed 
the Rhine, with a vast host of Germans, and sub- 
dued a great part of Gaul ; but he was defeated 
by Caesar with great slaughter (58), and driven 
beyond the Rhine. Caesar twice crossed this river 
(55, 53), but made no permanent conquest on the 
E. bank. In the reign of Augustus, his step-son 
Drusus carried on war in Germany with great 
success for 4 years (12 — 9), and penetrated as far 
as the Elbe. On his death (9), his brother Ti- 
berius succeeded to the command ; and under him 
the country between the Rhine and the Visurgis 
( Weser) was entirely subjugated, and bid fair to 
become a Roman province. But in A. p. 9, the im- 
politic and tyrannical conduct of the Roman go- 
vernor Quintilius Varus, provoked a general insur- 
rection of the various Grerman tribes, headed by 
Arminius, the Cheruscan. Varus and his legions 
were defeated and destroyed, and the Romans lost 
all their conquests E. of the Rhine. [Varus.] 
The defeat of Varus was avenged by the successful 
campaigns of Germanicus, who would probably 
have recovered the Roman dominions E. of the 
river, had not the jealousy of Tiberius recalled 
him to Rome, A. D. 16. From this time the Ro- 
mans abandoned all further attempts to conquer 
Germany ; but in consequence of the civil dissen- 
sions which broke out in Germany soon after the 
departure of Tiberius, they were enabled to ob- 
tain peaceable possession of a large portion of the 
S. W. of Germany between the Rhine and the Da- 
nube, to vvhich they gave the name of the Agri 
Decumates. [See p. 27, b.] On the death of 
Nero, several of the tribes in W. Germany joined 
the Batavi in their insurrection against the Ro- 
mans (a. d. 69 — 71). Domitian and Trajan had 
to repel the attacks of some German tribes ; but 
in the reign of Antoninus Pius, the Marcomanni, 
joined by various other tribes, made a more for- 
midable attack upon the Roman dominions, and 
threatened the empire with destruction. From 
this time the Romans were often called upon to 
defend the left bank of the Rhine against their 
dangerous neighbours, especially against the 2 
powerful confederacies of the Alemanni and Franks 
[Alemanni ; Franci] ; and in the 4th and 5th 
centuries the Germans obtained possession of some 
of the fairest provinces of the empire. — The Ger- 
mans are divided by Tacitus into 3 great tribes : 
1. Ingaevones, on the Ocean. 2. Hermiones, in- 
habiting the central parts. 3. Istaevones, in the 
remainder of Germany, conseqiifcntly in the E. and 



282 



GERMAN ICUS. 



GIGANTES. 



S. parts. These 3 names were said to be derived 
from the 3 sons of Mannus, the son of Tuisco. 
Pliny makes 5 divisions: 1. Vimlili, including 
Burgundiones, Varini, Carini, and Guttones. 2. 
In(/aevo7ies, including Cimbri,Teutones, and Chauci. 
3. /stocrowes, including the midland Cimbri. 4. Her- 
miones, including the Suevi, Hermunduri, Chatti, 
and Cherusci. 5. Petieini and Bastarnae, border- 
ing on the Dacians. But whether wc adopt the 
division of Tacitus or Pliny, we ought to add the 
inhabitants of the Scandinavian peninsula, the Hil- 
leviones, divided into the Sinones and Sitoiies. It 
is difficult to fix with accuracy the position of the 
various tribes, as they frequently migrated from 
one spot to another. An account of each is given 
under the name of the tribe. See Chauci, Che- 
rusci, Ci.MBRi, Suevi, &c. 

Germanicus Caesar, son of Nero Claudius Dru- 
sus and Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir An- 
tony, was bom b. c. 15. He was adopted by his 
uncle Tiberius in the lifetime of Augustus, and 
was raised at an early age to the honours of the 
state. He assisted Tiberius in the war against the 
Pannonians and Dalmatians (a. d. 7 — 10), and also 
fought along with Tiberius against the Germans 
in the 2 following years (11, 12). He had the 
command of the legions in Germany, when the 
alarming mutiny broke out among the troops in 
Germany and Illyricum, upon the death of Au- 
gustus (14). Germanicus was a favourite with 
the soldiers, and they offered to place him at the 
head of the empire; but he rejected their pro- 
posal, and exerted all his influence to quell the 
mutiny, and reconcile them to their new sove- 
reign. After restoring order among the troops, 
he crossed the Rhine, and laid waste the country 
of the Marsi with fire and sword. In the follow- 
ing year (15), he again crossed the Rhine, and 
marched into the interior of the country. He pe- 
netrated as far as the Saltus Teutoburgiensis, N. of 
the Lippe, in which forest the army of Quintilius- 
Varus had been destroyed by the Germans. Here 
his troops gathered up the bones of their ill-fated 
comrades, and paid the last honours to their me- 
mory. But meantime Arminius had collected a 
formidable army, with which he attacked the Ro- 
mans ; and it was not without considerable loss 
that Germanicus made good his retreat to the 
Rhine. It was in this campaign that Thusnelda, 
the wife of Arminius, fell into the hands of Ger- 
manicus. [Arminius.] Next year (16) Ger- 
manicus placed his troops on board a fleet of 
1000 vessels, and sailed through the canal of his 
father, Drusus [see p. 233, b.], and the Zuydersee 
to the ocean, and from thence to the mouth of the 
Amisia {Ems), where he landed his forces. After 
crossing the Ems and the Weser, he fought 2 bat- 
tles with Arminius, in both of which the Germans 
were completely defeated. The Germans could no 
longer offer him any effectual resistance, and Ger- 
manicus needed only another year to reduce com- 
pletely the whole country between the Rhine and 
the Elbe. But the jealousy of Tiberius saved 
Germany. ^ Upon pretence of the dangerous state 
of affairs in the E., the emperor recalled Germani- 
cus to Rome, which he entered in triumph on the 
26th of May, 17. In the same year all the Eastern 
provinces were assigned to Germanicus ; but Ti- 
berius placed Cn. Piso in command of Syria, with 
secret instructions to check and thwart Germanicus. 
Piso soon showed his hostility to Germanicus ; and 



his wife Plancina, in like manner, did every thing 
in her power to annoy Agrippina, the wife of Ger- 
manicus. In 18, Germanicus proceeded to Arme- 
nia, where he placed Zeno on the throne, and in 
the following year (19) he visited Egypt, and on 
his return he was seized with a dangerous illness, 
of which he died. He believed that he had been 
poisoned by Piso, and shortly before he died, he 
summoned his friends, and called upon them to 
avenge his murder. He was deeply and sincerely 
lamented by the Roman people ; and Tiberius was 
obliged to sacrifice Piso to the public indignation. 
[Piso.] By Agrippina he had 9 children, of 
whom 6 survived him. Of these the most noto- 
rious v\-ere the emperor Caligula, and Agrippina, 
the mother of Nero. Germanicus was an author 
of some repute. He wrote several poetical works. 
We still possess the remains of his Latin transla- 
tion of the Phaenomena of Aratus. The latest 
edition of this work is by Orelli at the end of his 
Phaedrns, Zurich, 1831. 

Germanicia or Caesarea Germanica (Tipfxa. 
vLiceia, KaLcrdpeLa TepfxauiKT]), a tov.-n in the Syrian 
province of Commagene, near the borders of Cap- 
padocia ; the birthplace of the heretic Nestorius. 

G-erra {Teppa : near El-Katif), one of the chief 
cities of Arabia, and a great emporium for the trade 
of Arabia and India, stood on the N. E. coast of 
Arabia Felix, 200 stadia (20 geog. miles) from the 
shore of the Sinus Gerraeus or Gerraicus [Ehcah 
Bajj?), a bay on the W. side of the Persian Gulf, 
2400 stadia (240 geog. miles=4° of lat.) from the 
mouth of the Tigris. The city was 5 Roman miles 
in circuit. The inhabitants, called Gerraei (reppaToi) 
were said to have been originally Chaldaeans, who 
Avere driven out of Babylon. There was a small 
place of the same name on the N. E. frontier of 
Egypt, between Pelusium and M. Casius, 50 stadia 
or 8 Roman miles from the former. 

Gerrhns (Teppos), a river of Scythia, flowing 
through a country of the same name, was a branch 
of the Borysthenes, and flowed into the Hypacyris, 
dividing the country of the Nomad Scythians from 
that of the Royal Scythians. 

Gerunda (Gerona), a town of the Ausetani in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Tarraco 
to Narbo in Gaul. 

Geryon or Geryones {Tripvour]^), son of Chry- 
saor and Callirrhoe, a monster Avith 3 heads, or, 
according to others, with 3 bodies united together, 
was a king in Spain, and possessed magnificent 
oxen, which Hercules carried away. For details 
see Hercules, 

Gesoriacum {BouJogjie), a port of the Morini 
in Gallia Belgica, at which persons usually era- 
barked to cross over to Britain : it was subse- 
quently called Bonoma, Avhence its modern name, 

Gessms F15rus. [Florus.] 

Geta, Septimius, brother of Caracalla, by Avhom 
he was assassinated, A. D. 212, For details see 
Caracalla. 

Getae, a Thracian people, called Daci by the 
Romans. Herodotus and Thucydides place them 
S. of the Ister (Danube) near its mouths ; but in 
the time of Alexander the Great they dwelt be- 
yond this river and N. of the Triballi. They were 
driven by the Sarmatians further W. towards Ger- 
man}". For their later history see Dacia. 

Gigantes {riyduTes), the giants. According to 
Homer, they were a gigantic and savage race of 
men, dwelling in the distant W. in the island of 



GIGONUS. 



GLAUCUS. 



283 



Trinacia, and were destroyed on account of their 
insolence towards the gods, — Hesiod considers 
them as divine beings, who sprang from the blood 
that fell from Uranus upon the earth, so that Ge 
(the earth) Avas their mother. Neither Homer nor 
Hesiod know any thing about their contest with 
the gods. — Later poets and mythographers fre- 
quently confound them with the Titans, and repre- 
sent them as enemies of Zeus and the gods, whose 
abode on Olympus they attempt to take by storm. 
Their battle with the gods seems to be only an imi- 
tation of the revolt of the Titans against Uranus. 
Ge, it is said, indignant at the fate of her former 
children, the Titans, gave birth to the Gigantes, 
who Avere beings of a monstrous size, with fearful 
countenances and the tails of dragons. They were 
born, according to some, in the Phlegraean plains 
in Sicily, Caropania, or Arcadia, and, according to 
others, in the Thracian Pallene. In their native 
land they made an attack upon heaven, being 
armed with huge rocks and trunks of trees. The 
gods Avere told that they could not conquer the 
giants Avithout the assistance of a mortal ; AA'here- 
upon they summoned Hercules to their aid. The 
giants Alcyoneus and Porphyrion distinguished 
themseh'es above their brethren. Alcyoneus Avas 
immortal so long as he fought in his native land ; 
but Hercules dragged him away to a foreign land, 
and thus killed him. Porphyrion AA^as killed by 
the lightning of Zeus and the arrows of Hercules. 
The other giants, whose number is said to have 
been 24, Avere then killed one after another by the 
gods and Hercules, and some of them Avere buried 
by their conquerors under (volcanic) islands. — It 
is Avorthy of remark, that most Avriters place the 
giants in volcanic districts ; and it is probable that 
the story of their contest Avith the gods took its 
origin from volcanic convulsions. 

Gigoniis (Tiywuos : riywvios), a toAvn and pro- 
montory of Macedonia on the Thermaic gulf. 

Gildo, or Gildon, a Moorish chieftain, governed 
Africa for some years as a subject of the Western 
empire ; but in a. d. 397, he transferred his alle- 
giance to the Eastern empire, and the emperor Ar- 
cadius accepted him as a subject. Stilicho, guardian 
of Honorius, sent an army against him. Gildo 
Avas defeated ; and being taken prisoner, he put an 
end to his own life by hanging himself (398). 
The history of this AA^ar forms the subject of one of 
Claudian's poems {De Bello Gildonico). 

Gindarus {Viv^apos : Gindaries), a very strong 
fortress in the district of Cyrrhestice in Syria, 
N. E. of Antioch. 

Girba, a city on the island of Meninx {JerbaJi), 
at the S. extremity of the Lesser Syrtis, in N. 
Africa : celebrated for its manufactures of purple. 

Gisco or Gisgo (rto-Kwi/ or TioKosv). 1. Son of 
Hamilcar Avho was defeated and killed in the battle 
of Himera, b. c. 480. In consequence of this 
calamity, Gisgo was banished from Carthage. He 
died at Selinus in Sicily. — 2. Son of Hanno, 
was in exile Avhen the Carthaginians were defeated 
at the river Crimissus by Timoleon, 339. He AA-as 
then recalled from exile, and sent to oppose Timo- 
leon, but was unable to accomplish any thing of 
importance. -—3. Commander of the Carthaginian 
garrison at Lilybaeum, at the end of the first Punic 
war. After the conclusion of peace, 241, he Avas 
deputed by the government to treat Avith the mer- 
cenaries Avho had risen in revolt, but he was seized 
by them and put to death. 



Gitiadas (FiTiaSas), a Lacedaemonian architect 
statuarj^ and poet. He completed the temple of 
Athena Poliouchos at Sparta, and ornamented it 
Avith works in bronze, from AA-hich it Avas called 
the Brazen House, and hence the goddess receiA^ed 
the surname of XaXKOolKos. He composed a h}Tnn 
to the goddess, besides other poems. He flourished 
about B.C. 516, and is the last Spartan artist of 
any distinction. 

Glabrio, Aciiius, plebeians. 1. C, quaestor 
B. c. 203, and tribune of the plebs 197. He acted 
as interpreter to the Athenian embassA^ in 155, 
Avhen the 3 philosophers, Carneades, Diogenes, and 
Critolaus came as envoys to Rome. He Avrote in 
Greek a history of Rome from the earliest period 
to his oAvn times. It Avas translated into Latin by 
one Claudius, and his version is cited by Livy, 
under the titles of Annahs Aciliani (xxv. 39) and 
Lihri Acilia7ii (xxxv. 14). —-2. M'., tribmie of the 
plebs 201, praetor 196, and consul 191. In his 
consulship he defeated Antiochus at Thermopylae, 
and subsequently the Aetolians likewise. ■= 3. M'., 
married a daughter of M. Aemilius Scaurus, consul 
115, Avhom Sulla, in 82, compelled him to divorce. 
Glabrio Avns praetor urbanus in 70, Avhen he presided 
at the impeachment of Verres. He Avas consul in 
67, and in the folloAving year proconsul of Cilicia. 
He succeeded L. LucuUus in the command of the 
Avar against Mithridates, but remained inactive in 
Bithynia. He Avas superseded by Cn. Pompey.--™ 
4. M'., son of No. 3, Avas born in the house of 
Cn. Pompey, B.C. 8J, Avho married his mother 
after her compulsory divorce from the elder Gla- 
brio. Aemilia died in giving birth to him. In 
the civil Avar, Glabrio Avas one of Caesar's lieu- 
tenants ; commanded the garrison of Oricum in 
Epirus in 48, and Avas stationed in Sicily in 46. 
He Avas tAvice defended on capital charges by 
Cicero, and acquitted. 

Glanis, more usually written Clanis. 

Glanum LMi (nr. St. Remy Ru.), a town of the 
Salyes in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Glaphyra. [Archelaus, No. 6.] 

Glauce (rAau/cTj). 1. One of the Nereides, the 
name Glauce being only a personification of the 
colour of the sea.-=2. Daughter of Creon of Co- 
rinth, also called Creusa. For details see Creon. 

Glaucia, C. Servilius, praetor b. c. 100, the 
chief supporter of Saturninus, with Avhom he Avas 
put to death in this year. [Saturninus.] 

Glaucias (rAau/cias), 1. King of the Taulan- 
tians, one of the lUyrian tribes, fought against 
Alexander the Great, b. c. 335, In 316 he afforded 
an asylum to the infant Pyrrhus, and refused to 
surrender him to Cassander, In 307 he invaded 
Epu'us, and placed Pyrrhus, then 12 years old, 
upon the throne. — 2. A Greek physician, Avho 
probably lived in the 3rd or 2nd century b. c. 
3. A statuary of Aegina, Avho made the bronze 
chariot and statue of Gelon, flourished b. c. 488. 

Glaucon {YKavK(£v'). 1. Son of Critias, brother 
of Callaeschrus, and father of Charmides and of 
Plato's mother, Perictione. 2. Brother of Plato, 
who makes him one of the speakers in the Republic. 

Glaucus (rAay/cos). 1. Grandson of Aeolus, son 
of Sisyphus and Merope, and father of Bellero- 
phontes. He lived at Potniae, despised the power 
of Aphrodite, and did not allow his mares to breed, 
that they might be the stronger for the horse race^ 
According to others he fed them Avith human flesh. 
This excited the anger of Aphrodite, Avho destroyed 



284 GLAUCUS. 
him. According to some accounts his liorses be- 
came frightened and threw him out of his chariot, 
as he was contending in the funeral games cele- 
brated by Acnstus in honour of his father Pelias. 
According to others, his horses tore him to pieces, 
having drunk from the water of a sacred well in 
Boeotia, in consequence of which they were seized 
with madness. Glaucus of Potniae {FKavKos TIot- 
tnevs) was the title of one of the lost tragedies of 
Aeschylus. — 2. Son of Hippolochus, and grand- 
son of Bellerophontes, was a Lycian prince, and 
assisted Priam in the Trojan war. He was con- 
nected with Diomedes b}' tics of hospitality ; and 
when they recognised one another in the battle, 
they abstained from fighting, and exchanged arms 
with one another. Glaucus was slain by Ajax. — 
3. Son of the Messenian king Aepytus, whom he 
succeeded on the throne. — 4. One of the sons of 
the Cretan king Minos by Pasiphati or Crete. 
"When a boy, he fell into a cask full of honey, 
and was smothered. Minos searched for his son 
in vain, and was at length informed by Apollo or 
the Curetes that the person who should devise 
the most appropriate comparison between a cow, 
which could assume 3 different colours, and any 
-other object, would find the boy. The soothsayer 
Polyidus of Argos solved the problem by likening 
the cow to a mulberry, which is at first white, 
then red, and in the end black. By his prophetic 
powers he then discovered the boy. Minos now 
required Polyidus to restore his son to life ; but as 
he could not accomplish this, Minos ordered him to 
be entombed alive with the body of Glaucus. 
When Polyidus was thus shut up in the vault, he 
saw a serpent approaching the dead body, and 
killed the reptile. Presently another serpent came, 
and placed a herb upon the dead serpent, which 
was thereby restored to life. Thereupon Polyidus 
covered the body of Glaucus with the same herb, 
and the boy at once rose into life again. The 
«tory of Glaucus and Polyidus was a favourite sub- 
ject with the ancient poets and artists. — 5. Of 
Anthedon in Boeotia, a fisherman, who became 
immortal by eating a part of the divine herb which 
Cronos had sown. His parentage is differently 
stated : some called his father Copeus, others Po- 
lybus, the husband of Euboea, and others again 
Anthedon or Poseidon. He was further said to 
have been a clever diver, to have built the ship 
Argo, and to have accompanied the Argonauts as 
their steersman. In the sea-fight of Jason against 
the Tyrrhenians, Glaucus alone remained unhurt ; 
he sank to the bottom of the sea, where he was 
visible to none save Jason. From this moment he 
became a marine deity, and was of service to the 
Argonauts. The story of his sinking or leaping 
into the sea was variously modified in the different 
traditions. There was a belief in Greece that once 
in every year Glaucus visited all the coasts and 
islands, accompanied by marine monsters, and gave 
his prophecies. Fishermen and sailors paid particular 
reverence to him, and watched his oracles, which 
■were believed to be very trustworthy. He is said 
to have even instructed Apollo in' the prophetic 
art. Some writers stated that he dwelt in Delos, 
where he prophesied in conjunction with the 
nymphs ; but the place of his abode varied in dif- 
ferent traditions. The stories about his various 
loves were favourite subjects -n-ith the ancient poets. 
— 6. Of Chios, a statuary in metal, distinguished 
as the inventor of the art of soldering metals (/coA- 



GONNI. 

\7i(Tis\ flourished b. c. 490. His most noted work 
was an iron base (wroKpTjTripldioi'), which, with 
the silver bowl it supported, was presented to the 
temple at Delphi by Alyattes, king of Lydia. 

Glaucus {r\avKos). i. A small river of Phrygia, 
falling into the Maeander near Eumenia. — 2. A 
small river of Lycia, on the borders of Caria, flow- 
ing into the Sinus Glaucus {Gulf of Makri). 

Glaucus Sinus. [Glavcus.] 

Glessaria {Ameland), an island off the coast of 
the Frisii, so called from "glessum " or amber which 
was found there ; its proper name was Austeravia. 

Glisas (rXtVay : VKiadvTios)^ an ancient town 
in Boeotia. on Mt. Hypaton. It was in ruins in 
the time of Pausanias. 

Glycas, Michael, a Byzantine historian, the 
author of a work entitled ^w/m/s (jSi'SAos xpovifc??), 
containing the histor}' of the world from the 
creation to the death of Alexis I. Comnenus, A. D. 
1118. ^Edited by Bekker, Bonn, 1836. 

Glycera (TXvKepa), "the sweet one," a fa- 
vourite name of hetairae. The most celebrated 
hetairae of this name are, 1. The daughter of Tha- 
lassis, and the mistress of Harpalus. — 2. Of Sicyon, 
and the mistress of Pausias. — 3. A favourite of 
Horace. 

Glycerius, became emperor of the W. a. d. 
473, after the death of Olybrius, by the assistance 
of Gundobald the Burgundian. But the Byzantine 
court did not acknowledge Glycerius, and pro- 
claimed Julius Nepos emperor, by whom Glycerius 
was dethroned (474), and compelled to become a 
priest. He was appointed bishop of Salona in 
Dalraatia. 

Glycon (FAvkccv), an Athenian sculptor, knoASTi 
to us by bis magnificent colossal marble statue of 
Hercules, commonly called the " Famese Her- 
cules." It was foimd in the baths of Caracalla, 
and, after adorning the Famese palace for some 
time, was removed to the royal museum at Naples. 
It represents the hero resting on his club, after one 
of his labours. The swollen muscles admirably 
express repose after severe exertion. Glycon pro- 
bably lived under the early Roman emperors. 

Gnipho, M. Antonius, a Roman rhetorician, 
was bom B.C. 114, in Gaul, but studied at Alex- 
andria. He afterwards established a school at 
Rome, which was attended by many distinguished 
men, and among others by Cicero, when he was 
praetor. 

Gnosus, Gnossus. [Cnosus.] 

Gobryas {VwSpvas\ a noble Persian, one of the 
7 conspirators against Smerdis the Magian. He 
accompanied Darius into Scythia. He was doubly 
related to Darius by marriage : Darius married the 
daughter of Gobryas, and Gobryas married the 
sister of Darius. 

Gol^ (roA.7o: : ToXyios), a town in Cyprus, of 
uncertain site, was a Sicyonian colony, and one of the 
chief seats of the worship of Aphrodite (Venus). 

Gomphi (T6ij.(poi : TofKpevs), a town in Hestiae- 
otis in Thessaly, was a strong fortress on the confines 
of Epiras, and' commanded the chief pass between 
Thessaly and Epims : it was taken and destroyed 
by Caesar (b. c. 48), but was afterwards rebuilt. 

Gonni, Gonnus {Tovvoi, Tovpos : Towlos), a 
strongly fortified town of the Perrhaebi in Thessaly, 
on the river Peneus and at the entrance of the vale 
of Tempe, was, from its position, of great military 
importance ; but it is not mentioned after the time 
of the wars between the Macedonians and Romans. 



GORDIANUS. 



GOllGIAS. 



285 



Gordianus, M. Antomus, the name of 3 Ro- 
man emperors, father, son, and grandson. 1. Snr- 
naraed Africanus, son of Melius MaruUus and 
Ulpia Gordiana, possessed a princely fortune, and 
was distinguished alike by moral and intellectual 
excellence. In his 1st consulship, A. d. 213, he 
was the colleague of Caracalla ; in his 2nd of Alex- 
ander Severus ; and soon afterwards was nominated 
proconsul of Africa, After governing Africa for 
several years with justice and integritj^, a rebellion 
broke out in the province in consequence of the 
tyranny of the procurator of Maximinus. The 
ringleaders of the conspiracy compelled Gordian, 
who was now in his 80th year, to assume the im- 
perial title. He entered on his new duties at Car- 
thage in the month of February, associated his son 
with him in the empire, and despatched letters to 
Rome, announcing his elevation, Gordianus and 
his son were at once proclaimed August! by the 
senate, and preparations were made in Italy to 
resist Maximinus, But meantime a certain Capel- 
lianus, procurator of Numidia, refused to acknow- 
ledge the authority of the Gordiani and marched 
against them. The younger Gordianus was de- 
feated by him, and slain in the battle ; and his 
aged father thereupon put an end to his own life, 
after reigning less than 2 months. — 2. Son of the 
preceding and of Fabia Orestilia, was born A, D. 
192, was associated with his father in the purple, 
and fell in battle, as recorded above. — 3. Grand- 
son of the elder Gordianus, either by a daughter or 
by the younger Gordianus. The soldiers pro- 
claimed him emperor in July, A. D, 238, after the 
murder of Balbinus and Pupienus, although he was 
a mere boy, probably not more than 12 years old. 
He reigned 6 years, from 238 to 244. In 241 he 
married the daughter of Misitheus, and in the same 
year set out for the E. to cai-ry on the war against 
the Persians, With the assistance of Misitheus, 
he defeated the Persians in 242. Misitheus died in 
the following year ; and Philippus, whom Gordian 
had taken into his confidence, excited discontent 
among the soldiers, who at length rose in open 
mutiny, and assassinated Gordian in Mesopotamia, 
244. He was succeeded by Philippus. 

Gordium (TdpSiov, ropSiov Kw^utj), the ancient 
capital of Phrygia, the royal residence of the kings 
of the dynasty of Gordius, and the scene of Alex- 
ander's celebrated exploit of " cutting the Gordian 
knot," [Gordius], It was situated in the W. 
of that part of Phrygia which was afterwards called 
Galatia, N. of Pessinus, on the N. bank of the 
Sangarius. In the reign of Augustus it received 
the name of Juliopolis {'lovXioviroXis). 

Gordius (TopBios), an ancient king of Phrygia, 
and father of Midas, was originally a poor peasant. 
Internal disturbances having broken out in Phrygia, 
an oracle informed the inhabitants that a waggon 
would bring them a king, who should at the same 
time put an end to the disturbances. When the 
people were deliberating on these points, Gordius, 
with his wife and son, suddenly appeared riding in 
his waggon in the assembly of the people, who at 
once acknowledged him as king, Gordius, out of 
gratitude, dedicated his chariot to Zeus, in the 
acropolis of Gordium. The pole was fastened to 
the yoke by a knot of bark ; and an oracle de- 
clared that whosoever should untie the knot 
should reign over all Asia. Alexander, on his 
arrival at Gordium, cut the knot with his sword, 
and applied the oracle to himself. 



Gordiutichos {Top^iov reTxos), a town in Caria, 
near the borders of Phrygia, between Antiochia ad 
Maeandrum and Tabae. 

Gordyaei, [Gordyene.] 

Gordyaei Montes (ra TopSuaia op-n Mountains 
of Kunlistan), the name given by Strabo to the N. 
part of the broad belt of mountains, which separates 
the Tigris valley from the great table land of Iran, 
and which divided Mesopotamia and Assyria from 
Armenia and Media. They are connected with the 
mountains of Armenia at Ararat, whence they run 
S. E, between the Arsissa Palus (Lake Van) and 
the sources of the Tigris and its upper confluents 
as far as the confines of Media, where the chain 
turns more to the S, and was called Zagros, 

Gordyene or Corduene (Top5vr]v}}, Kopdovwv), 
a mountainous district in the S, of Armenia Major, 
between the Arsissa Palus (Lake Van) and the 
Gordyaei Montes, After the Mithridatic War, 
it was assigned by Pompey to Tigranes, with whom 
its possession had been disputed by the Parthian 
king Phraates. Trajan added it to the Roman 
empire; and it formed afterwards a constant object 
of contention between the Romans and the Parthian 
and Persian kings, but was for the most part 
virtually independent. Its warlike inhabitants, 
called TopSva7oL or Cordueni, were no doubt the 
same people as the Carduchi of the earlier Greek 
geographers, and the Kurds of modern times. 

Gorge (TSpjT]), daughter of Oeneus and Althea. 
She and her sister Deianira alone retained their 
original forms, when their other sisters were meta- 
morphosed by Artemis into birds. 

Gorgias {Fopyias). 1. Of Leontini, in Sicily, 
a celebrated rhetorician and orator, sophist and 
philosopher, was born about B. c, 480, and is said 
to have lived 105, or even 109 years. Of his 
early life we have no particulars ; but when he 
was of advanced age (b. c. 427) he was sent by 
his fellow-citizens as ambassador to Athens, for 
the purpose of soliciting its protection against Sy- 
racuse. He seems to have returned to Leontini 
only for a short time, and to have spent the re- 
maining years of his vigorous old age in the towns 
of Greece Proper, especially at Athens and the 
Thessalian Larissa, enjoying honour everywhere 
as an orator and teacher of rhetoric. The common 
statement that Pericles and the historian Thucy- 
dides were among his disciples, cannot be true, as 
he did not go to Athens till after the death of Pe- 
ricles ; but Alcibiades, Alcidamas, Aeschines, and 
Antisthenes, are called either pupils or imitators of 
Gorgias, and his oratory must have had great in- 
fluence upon the rhetorician Isocrates. The high 
estimation in which he was held at Athens appears 
from the way in which he is introduced in the dia- 
logue of Plato, which bears his name. The elo- 
quence of Gorgias was chiefly calculated to tickle 
the ear by antitheses, alliterations, the symmetry of 
its parts, and similar artifices. Two declamations 
have come down to us under the name of Gorgias, 
viz. the Apology of Palamedes, and the Encomium 
on Helena, the genuineness of which is doubtfal. 
Besides his orations, which Avere mostly what the 
Greeks called Epideitic or speeches for display, 
such as his oration addressed to the assembled 
Greeks at Olympia, Gorgias also wrote loci com- 
munes^ probably as rhetorical exercises ; a work on 
dissimilar and homogeneous words, and another on 
rlietoric. The works of Gorgias did not even 
contain the elements of a scientific theory of ora- 



286 



GORGO. 



GRACCHUS. 



tory, any more than his oral instructions. He con- 
fined himself to teaching his pupils a variety of 
rhetorical artifices, and made them learn by heart 
certain formulas relative to them. —2. Of Athens, 
gave instruction in rhetoric to young M. Cicero, 
when he -was at Athens. He vrrote a rhetorical 
work, a Latin abridgment of which by Rutilius 
Lupus is still extant, imder the title De Figuris 
Serdentiarum et Eloeutiotiis. 

Gorgo and Gorgones {Vopyu> and V6pryoves). 
Homer mentions only one Gorgo, who appears in 
the Odyssey (xi. 633) as one of the frightful phan- 
toms in Hades : in the Iliad the Aegis of Athena 
contains the head of Gorgo, the terror of her 
enemies. Hesiod mentions 3 Gorgones, Stheno, 
Euryale, and Medusa, daughters of Phorcys and 
Ceto, whence they are sometimes called Phorcydes. 
Hesiod placed them in the far W. in the Ocean, in 
the neighbourhood of Night and the Hesperides ; 
but later traditions transferred them to Libya. They 
were frightful beings ; instead of hair, their heads 
were covered with hissing serpents ; and they had 
wings, brazen claws, and enormous teeth. Medusa, 
who alone of her sisters was mortal, was, according 
to some legends, at first a beautiful maiden, but 
her hair was changed into serpents by Athena, in 
consequence of her having become by Poseidon 
the mother of Chrysaor and Pegasus, in one of 
Athena's temples. Her head now became so fear- 
ful that every one who looked at it was changed 
into stone. Hence the great difficulty which Per- 
seus had in killing her. [Perseus.] Athena af- 
terwards placed the head in the centre of her 
shield or breastplate. 

Gortyn, Gortyna (roprw, ro/jrum: Voprvvios). 
1. (Xr. Hagios Dkeka Ru., 6 miles from the foot of 
Z\It. Ida), one of the most ancient cities in Crete, 
on the river Lethaeus, 90 stadia from its harbour 
Leben, and 130 stadia from its other harbour Ma- 
talia. It Avas one of the chief seats of the worship 
of Europa, whence it waa called Hellotis ; and it 
was subsequently peopled by Minyans and Tyrr- 
hene-Pelasgians, whence it also bore the name of 
Larissa. It was the 2nd city in Crete, being only 
inferior to Cnossus ; and on the decline of the latter 
place under the Romans, it became the metropolis 
of the island.— 2. Also Gortys (Sr.Atzikolo Ru.), 
a town in Arcadia on the river Gortj-nius, a tributary 
of the Alpheus. 

Gortynia (Toprvvia), a town in Emathia in 
Macedonia, of uncertain site. 

Gotarzes. [Arsaces XX. XXL] 

GotM, GotJiones, Guttones, a powerful German 
people, who played an important part in the over- 
throw of the Roman empire. They originally dwelt 
on the Prussian coast of the Baltic at the mouth of 
the Vistula, where they are placed by Tacitus ; but 
they afterv,-ards migrated S., and at the beginning 
of the 3rd century, they appear on the coasts of the 
Black Sea, where Caracalla encountered them on 
his march to the E. In the reign of the emperor 
Philippus (a. d. 244 — 249), they obtained pos- 
session of a great part of the Roman province of 
Dacia; and in consequence of their settling in the 
countries formerly inhabited by the Getae and 
Scythians, they are frequently called both Getae 
and Scythians by later writers' From the time of 
Philippus the attacks of the Goths against the 
Roman empire became more frequent and more 
destructive. In a. b. 272 the emperor Am-elian 
surrendered to them the whole of Dacia. It is about 



this time that we find them separated into 2 great 
divisions, the Ostrogoths or E. Goths, and the 
Visigoths or W. Goths. The Ostrogoths settled in 
Moesia and Pannonia, while the Visigoths remained 
N. of the Danube. — The Visigoths under their king 
Alaric invaded Italy, and took and plundered Rome 
(410). A few years afterwards they settled per- 
manently in the S. W. of Gaul, and established a 
kingdom of which Tolosa was the capital From 
thence they invaded Spain, where they also founded 
a kingdom, whicli lasted for more than 2 centuries, 
tin it was overthrov.Ti by the Arabs. — The Ostro- 
goths meantime had extended their dominions 
almost up to the gates of Constantinople ; and the 
emperor Zeno was glad to get rid of them by giving 
them permission to invade and conquer Italy. 
Under their king Theodoric the Great they obtained 
possession of the whole of Italy ( 493). Theodoric 
took the title of king of Italy, and an Ostrogothic 
dynasty reigned in the country, till it was destroyed 
by Narses, the general of Justinian, a. d. 553. — 
The Ostrogoths embraced Christianity at an early 
period ; and it was for their use that Ulphila3 
translated the sacred Scriptures into Gothic, about 
the middle of the 4th century. 

Gothim, a Celtic people in the S. E. of Germany, 
subject to the Quadi. 

Gracchanus, M. Junius, assumed his cognomen 
on account of his friendship with C. Gracchus. He 
wrote a v/ork, De Potesiatibus, which gave an 
account of the Roman constitution and magistracies 
from the time of the kings. It was addressed to 
T, Pomponius Atticus, the father of Cicero's friend. 
This work, which appears to have been one of 
great value, is lost, but some parts of it are cited 
by Joannes Lydus. [Lvdus.] 

Gracchus, Sempronius, plebeians. — L Tib., a 
distinguished general in the 2nd Punic war. In 
B.C. 216 he was magister equitum to the dictator, M. 
Junius Pera ; in 215 consul for the first tune ; and 
in 213 consul for the 2nd time. In 212 he fell in 
battle against Mago, at Campi Veteres, in Lucania. 
His body was sent to Hannibal, who honoured it 
vv'ith a magnificent burial.- 2, Tib., was tribune of 
the plebs in 187 ; and although personally hostile 
to P. Scipio Africanus, he defended him against 
the attacks of the other tribunes, for which he re- 
ceived the thanks of the aristocraticed party. Soon 
after this occurrence Gracchus was rewarded with 
the hand of Cornelia, the youngest daughter of P. 
Scipio Africanus, In 181 he was praetor, and re- 
ceived Hispania Citerior as his province, where he 
carried on the war vnth. great success against the 
Celtiberians. After defeating them in battle, he 
gained their confidence by his justice and kindness. 
He returned to Rome in 178 ; and was consul in 
177, when he v^'as sent against the Sardinians, who 
revolted. He reduced them to complete submission 
in 176, and returned to Rome in 175. He brought 
v\-ith him so large a number of captives, that they 
were sold for a mere trifle, which gave rise to 
the proverb Sardi venales. In 169 he v/as censor 
v.-ith C. Claudius Pulcher, and was consul a 2nd 
time in 163. — He had 12 children by Cornelia, ail 
of v.'hom died at an early age, except the 2 tribimes, 
Tiberius and Caius, and a daughter, Cornelia, who 
was married to P. Scipio Africanus the yotmger. — 3. 
Tib., elder son of Xo, 2, lost his father at an early 
age. He was educated together with his brother 
Caius by his illustrious mother, Cornelia, who made 
it the object of her life to render her sons worthy 



GRACCHUS. 



GRACCHUS. 



of their father and of her own ancestors. She was 
assisted in the education of her children by eminent 
Greeks, Avho exercised great influence upon the 
minds of the two brothers, and among whom we 
have especial mention of Diophanes of Mytilene, 
Menelaus of Marathon, and Blossius of Cumae. 
Tiberius was 9 years older than his brother Caius ; 
and although they grew up under the same influence, 
and their characters resembled each other in the 
main outlines, yet they differed from each other in 
several important particulars. Tiberius was inferior 
to his brother in talent, but surpassed him in the 
amiable traits of his gentle nature : the simplicity 
of his demeanour, and his calm dignity, won for 
him the hearts of the people. His eloquence, too, 
formed a strong contrast with the passionate and 
impetuous harangues of Caius ; for it was temperate, 
graceful, persuasive, and, proceeding as it did from 
the fulness of his own heart, it found a ready en- 
trance into the hearts of his hearers. Tiberius 
served in Africa under P. Scipio Africanus the 
younger, who had married his sister, and Avas pre- 
sent at the destruction of Carthage (146), In 
137 he was quaestor, and in that capacity he 
accompanied the consul, Hostilius Mancinus, to 
Hispania Citerior, where he gained both the affec- 
tion of the Roman soldiers, and the esteem and 
confidence of the victorious enemy. The distressed 
condition of the Roman people had deeply excited 
the sympathies of Tiberius. As he travelled through 
Etruria on his journey to Spain, he observed with 
grief and indignation the deserted state of that 
fertile country; thousands of foreign slaves in chains 
were employed in cultivating the land and tending 
the flocks upon the immense estates of the wealthy, 
while the poorer classes of Roman citizens, who 
were thus thrown out of employment, had scarcely 
their daily bread or a clod of earth to call their 
own. He resolved to use every effort to remedy 
this state of things by endeavouring to create an 
industrious middle class of agriculturists, and to 
put a check upon the unbounded avarice of the 
ruling party, Avhose covetousness, combined with 
the disasters of the 2nd Punic war, had completely 
destroyed the middle class of small landowners. 
With this view, he offered himself as a candidate 
for the tribuneship, and obtained it for the year 1 33. 
The agrarian law of Licinius, which enacted that 
no one should possess more than 500 jugera of 
public land, had never been repealed, but had for 
a long series of years been totally disregarded. The 
first measure, therefore, of Tiberius was to propose 
a bill to the people, renewing and enforcing the 
Licinian law, but with the modification, that be- 
sides the 500 jugera allowed by that law, any one 
might possess 250 jugera of the public land for each 
of his sons. This clause, however, seems to have 
been limited to 2 ; so that a father of 2 sons might 
occupy 1000 jugera of public land. The surplus 
was to be taken from them and distributed in small 
farms among the poor citizens. The business of 
measuring and distributing the land was to be 
entrusted to triumvirs, who were to be elected as 
a permanent magistracy. This measure encountered 
the most vehement opposition from the senate and 
the aristocracy, and they got one of the trilmnes 
M. Octavius, to put his intercessio or veto upon the 
bill. When neither persuasions nor threats would 
induce Octavius to withdraw his opposition, the 
people, upon the proposition of Tiberius, deposed 
Octavius from his office. The law was then passed; 



i and the triumvirs appointed to carry it into execu- 
j tion were Tib. Gracchus, App. Claudius, his father- 
i in-law, and his brother C. Gracchus, who was then 
little more than 20 years old, and was serving in 
the camp of P. Scipio at Numantia. About this 
time Attalus died, bequeathing his kingdom and 
his property to the Roman people. Gracchus there- 
upon proposed that this property should be distri- 
buted among the people, to enable the poor, who 
were to receive lands, to purchase the necessary 
implements, cattle and the like. When the time 
came for the election of the tribunes for the follow- 
ing year, Tiberius again offered himself as a candi- 
date. The senate declared that it was illegal for 
any one to hold this ofiice for 2 consecutive years ; 
but Tiberius paid no attention to the objection. 
While the tribes were voting, a band of senators, 
headed by P. Scipio Nasica, rushed from the senate 
house into the /omm and attacked the people. 
Tiberius was killed as he was attempting to escape. 
He was probably about 35 years of age at the time 
of his death. Whatever were the errors of Tiberius 
in legislation, his motives were pure ; and he died 
the death of a martyr in the protection of the poor 
and oppressed. All the odium that has for many 
centuries been thrown upon Tiberius and his brother 
Caius arose from party prejudice, and more espe- 
cially from a misunderstanding of the nature of a 
Roman agrarian law, which did not deal Avith 
private property, but only with the public land of 
the state, (See Did. of Aniiq. art. Agrariae Leges.') 
«="4. C, brother of No, 3, was in Spain at the time 
of his brother's murder, as has been already stated. 
He returned to Rome in the following year (132), 
but kept aloof from public affairs for some years. 
In 126 he Avas quaestor, and went to Sardinia, 
under the consul L. Aurelius Orestes ; and there 
gained the approbation of his superiors and the 
attachment of the soldiers. The senate attempted 
to keep him in Sardinia, dreading his popularity in 
Rome ; but after he had remained there 2 years, he 
left the province Avithout leave, and returned to the 
city in 124. Urged on by the popular wish, and 
by the desire of avenging the cause of his murdered 
brother, he became a candidate for the tribuneship 
of the plebs, and Avas elected for the year 123. His 
reforms were far more extensive than his brother's, 
and such Avas his influence with the people that he 
carried all he proposed; and the senate Avere deprived 
of some of their most important privileges. His 
first measure Avas the renewal of the agrarian law 
of his brother. He next carried several lav/s for 
the amelioration of the condition of the poor, en- 
acting, that the soldiers should be equipped at the 
expense of the republic ; that no person under the 
age of 17 should be drafted for the army ; and 
that every month corn should be sold at a low 
fixed price to the poor. In order to Aveaken the 
poAver of the senate, he enacted, that the judices in 
the judicia publica, Avho had hitherto been elected 
from the senate, should in future be chosen from 
the equites ; and that in every year, before the 
consuls were elected, the senate should determine 
the 2 provinces Avhich the consuls should have. No 
branch of the public administration appears to have 
escaped his notice. He gave a regular organisation 
to the province of Asia, which had for many years 
been left unsettled. In order to facilitate inter- 
course betAveen the several parts of Italy, and at 
the same time to give employment to the poor, he 
made ncAv roads in all directions, repaired the old 



2X8 GKADIVUS. 
ones, and set up milestones along them. — Caius 
was elected tribune again for the following year, 
122. The senate, finding it impossible to resist the 
measures of Caius, resolved if possible to destroy 
his influence with the people, that they might 
retain the government in their outi hands. For 
this purpose they persuaded M. Livius Drusus, 
one of the colleagues of Cains, to propose measures 
still more popular than those of Caius. The people 
allowed themselves to be duped by the treacherous 
agent of the senate, and the popularity of Caius 
gradually waned. During his absence in Africa, 
whither he had gone as one of the triumvirs to 
establish a colony at Carthage, in accordance with 
one of his own laws, his party had been considerably 
weakened by the influence of Drusus and the aris- 
tocracy, and many of his friends had deserted his 
cause. He failed in obtaining the tribuneship for 
the following year (121 ) ; and when his year of office 
expired, his enemies began to repeal several of his 
enactments. Caius appeared in the forum to oppose 
these proceedings. One of the attendants of the 
consul Opiraius was slain b}' the friends of Caius. 
Opimius gladly availed himself of this pretext to 
persuade the senate to confer upon him unlimited 
power to act as he thought best for the good of the 
republic. Fulvius Flaccus, and the other friends 
of Caius, called upon him to repel force by force ; 
but he refused to arm, and while his friends fought 
in his defence, he fled to the grove of the Furies, 
where he fell by the hands of his slave, whom he 
had commanded to put him to death. The bodies 
of the slain, whose number is said to have amounted 
to 3000, were thrown into the Tiber, their property 
was confiscated, and their houses demolished. All 
the other friends of Gracchus who fell into the 
hands of their enemies were thro"vn into prison, 
and there strangled. 

Gradivus, i. e. the marching (probably from 
gradior), a surname of Mars, who is hence called 
gradivus pater and rex gradivus. Mars Gradivus 
had a temple outside the porta Capena on the 
Appian road, and it is said that king Numa ap- 
pointed 12 Salii as priests of this god. 

Graeae (rpatat), that is, " the old women," 
daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, were 3 in number, 
Pephredo, Eniio, and Dino, and were also called 
Fhorcydes. The}- had grey hair from their birth ; 
and had only one tooth and one eye in common, 
which they borrowed from each other when they 
wanted them. They were perhaps marine dei- 
ties, like the other children of Phorcys. 

Graecia or Kellas (t) 'EA.Aas), a country in 
Europe, the inhabitants of which were called Graeci 
or Hellenes CY.KX-^v&s). Among the Greeks Hellas 
did not signify any particular country', bounded by 
certain geographical limits, but was used in general 
to signify the abode of the Hellenes, v.-herever they 
might happen to be settled. Thus the Greek co- 
lonies of C^Tene in Africa, of Syracuse in Sicily, of 
Tarentum in Italy, and of Smyrna in Asia, are said 
to be in Hellas. In the most ancient times Hellas 
was a small district of Phthiotis in Thessaly, in 
which was situated a town of the same name. As 
the inhabitants of this district, the Hellenes, gra- 
dually spread over the surrounding country, their 
name was adopted by other tribes, who became 
assimilated in language, manners and customs to 
the original Hellenes ; till at length the whole of 
the N. of Greece from the Ceraunian and Cam- 
bunian moimtains to the Corinthian isthmus was 



GRArX'IA. 

I designated by the name of Hellas.* Peloponnesus 
was generallj' spoken of during the flourishing times 
of Greek independence, as distinct from Hellas 
proper ; but subsequently Peloponnesus and the 
Greek islands were also included under the general 
name of Hellas, in opposition to the land of the 
barbarians. Still later even Macedonia, and the S. 
part of Illyria were sometimes reckoned part of 
Hellas. The Romans called the land of the Hellenes 
Graecia, whence we have derived the name of 
Greece. They probably gave this name to the 
country from their first becoming acquainted with 
the tribe of the Graeci, who were said to be de- 
scended from Graecus, a son of Thessalus, and who 
appear at an early period to have dwelt on the "W. 
coast of Epirus. — Hellas or Greece proper, including 
Peloponnesus, lies between the 3Gth and 46th de- 
! grees of N. latitude, and between the 21st and 26th 
j degrees of E. longitude. Its greatest length from 
\ Mt. Oh'mpus to Cape Taenarus is about 250 English 
miles : its greatest breadth from the "W. coast of 
Acamania to Marathon in Attica is about 180 
miles. Its area is somewhat less than that of Por- 
tugal. On the N. it was separated by the Cambu- 
nian and Ceraunian mountains from Macedonia and 
Illyria ; and on the other 3 sides it is boimded by 
the sea, namely, by the Ionian sea on the W., and 
by the Aegaean on the E. and S. It is one of the 
most mountainous countries of Europe, and possesses 
few extensive plains and few continuous valleys. 
The inhabitants were thus separated from one 
another by barriers which it was not easy to sur- 
motmt, and were natiu^Uy led to form separate poli- 
tical communities. At a later time the N. of Greece 
was generally divided mto 10 districts: Epirus, 
; Thessalia, Acarxaxia, Aetolia, Doris, Lo- 
CRis, Phocis, Boeotia, Attica and Megaris. 
The S. of Greece or Peloponnesus was usually 
divided into 10 districts likewise : Corinthia, 
SiCYoxiA, Phliasia, Achaia, Elis, Messexia, 
Lacoxica, Cyxuria, Argolis and Arcadia. 
An account of the geography, early inhabitants, 
and history of each of these districts is given in 
separate articles. It is only necessarj' to remark 
here that before the Hellenes had spread over the 
coimtry, it was inhabited by various tribes, whom 
the Greeks call by the general name of barbarians. 
Of these the most celeljrated were the Pelasgians, 
who had settled in most parts of Greece, and from 
whom a considerable part of the Greek population 
was undoubtedly descended. These Pelasgians 
were a branch of the great Indo-Germanic race, 
and spoke a language akin to that of the Hellenes, 
whence the amalgamation of the 2 races v,-as ren- 
dered much easier. [Pelasgi.] The Hellenes 
traced their origin to a mythical ancestor Hellen, 
from whose sons and grandsons they were divided 
into the 4 great tribes of Dorians, Aeolians, 
Achaeans and lonians. [Hellex.] 

Graecia Magna orG. Major (77 ^e7d\7} 'EAAas), 
a name given to the districts in the S. of Italy, 
j inhabited by the Greeks. This name was never 
t used simply to indicate the S. of Italy ; it was 
j always confined to the Greek cities and their terri- 
tories, and did not include the surrounding districts, 
inhabited by the Italian tribes. It appears to have 
been applied chiefly to the cities on the Tarentine 

* Epirus is. for the sake of convenience, usually in- 
cluded in Hellas bv modern geographers, but was 
excluded by the Greeks themselves, as the Epirots were 
not regarded as geniuDe Hellenes. 



aANYMEDES. GORGON. HADES (PLUTO). 




GIIAMPIUS. 



GREGORIUS. 



289 



gulf, Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, Caulonia, Siris 
(Heraclea), ]\Ietapontum, Locri and Rhegium; but 
it also included tlie Greek cities on the W. coast, 
such as Cumae and Neapolis. Strabo extends the 
appellation even to the Greek cities of Sicily, The 
origin of the name is doubtful; whether it was given 
to the Greek cities by the Italian tribes from their 
admiring the magnificence of these cities, or whether 
it was assumed by the inhabitants themselves out 
of vanity and ostentation, to show their superiority 
to the mother country. 

Grampius Hons {Grampian Hills), a range of 
mountains in Britannia Barbara or Caledonia, se- 
parating the Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland. 
Agricola penetrated as far as those mountains and 
defeated Galgacus at their foot. 

Granicus {TpaviKos : Koja-Chai), a river of 
Mysia Minor, rising in M. Cotylus, the N. summit 
of Ida, flowing N.E. through the plain of Adrastea, 
and falling into the Propontis {Sea of Marmara) 
E. of Priapus : memorable as the scene of the first 
of the 3 great victories by which Alexander the 
-Great overthrew the Persian empire (b. c. 334), 
and, in a less degree, for a victory gained upon its 
banks by Lucnllus over Mithridates, b. c. 73. 

Granis {Tpdvis : Khisht), a river of Persis, with 
a royal palace on its banks. It fell into the Persian 
Gulf near Taoce. 

Q. Granius, a clerk employed by the auc- 
tioneers at Rome to collect the money at sales, 
lived about B.C. 110. Although his occupation 
was humble, his wit and caustic humour rendered 
him famous among his contemporaries, and have 
transmitted his name to posterity. 

Granua {Tpavova : Graan), a river in the land 
of the Quadi and the S. E. of Germany, and a 
tributary of the Danube, on the banks of which M. 
Aurelius wrote the 1st book of his Meditations. 

Gratiae. [Charites.] 

Gratianus. 1. Emperor of the Western Em- 
pire, A. D. 367 — 383, son of Valentinian I., was 
raised by his father to the rank of Augustus in 367, 
when he was only 8 years old. On the death of 
Valentinian in 375, Gratian did not succeed to the 
sole sovereignty ; as Valentinian II., the half bro- 
ther of Augustus, was proclaimed Augustus by the 
troops. By the death of his uncle, Valens (378), 
the Eastern empire devolved upon him ; but the 
danger to which the E. was exposed from the Goths 
led Gratian to send for Theodosius, and appoint 
him emperor of the E. (379). Gratian v/as fond 
of quiet and repose, and was greatly under the 
influence of ecclesiastics, especially of Ambrose of 
Milan. He became unpopular with the ^xvcij. 
Maximus was declared emperor in Britain, and 
crossed over to Gaul, where he defeated Gratian, 
who was overtaken and slain in his flight after 
the battle.— 2. A usurper, who assumed the purple 
in Britain, and was murdered by his troops about 
4 months after his elevation (407). He was suc- 
ceeded by Constantino. [Constantinus, No. 3.] 

Gratianopolis. [Cularo.] 

Gratiarum Collis {Xapnuu Xo^os, Herod, iv. 
175 : Hills of Tarhou7iah), a range of wooded hills 
running parallel to the coast of N. Africa between 
the Syrtes, and containing the soiirce of the Cinyps 
and the other small rivers of that coast. 

Gratius Faliscus. [Faliscus.] 

Gratus, Valerius, procurator of Judaea from 
A.D, 15 to 27, and the immediate predecessor of 
Pontius Pilate. 



Graviscae, an ancient city of Etruiia, subject 
to Tarquinii, was colonised by the Romans b. c. 183, 
and received new colonists under Augustus. It 
was situated in the Maremma, and its air was un- 
healthy {iidempestae Graviscae, Virg. Aen. x. 184); 
whence the ancients ridiculously derived its name 
from a'cr gravis. Its ruins are on the right bank of 
the river Marta, about 2 miles from the sea, where 
are the remains of a magnificent arch. 

Gregoras, Nicephorus, one of the most im- 
portant Byzantine historians, was born about A. D. 
1295, and died about 1359. His principal work 
is entitled Historia Bi/zantina. It is in 38 books, 
of which only 24 have been printed. It begins 
with the capture of Constantinople by the Latins 
in 1204, and goes down to 1359 ; the 24 printed 
books contain the period from 1204 to 1351. 
Edited by Schopen, Bonn, 1829. 

Gregorius {Tpy]y6pLos). 1. Surnamed IJasian- 
zeuus, and usually called Gregory Hazianzen, 
was bom in a village near Nazianzus in Cappa- 
docia about A. D. 329. His father took the great- 
est pains Avith his education, and he afterwards 
prosecuted his studies at Athens, where he earned 
the greatest reputation for his knowledge of rhetoric, 
philosophy, and mathematics. Among his fellow 
students v/as Julian, the future emperor, and Basil, 
with the latter of whom he formed a most intimate 
friendship. Gregory appears to have remained at 
Athens about 6 years (350 — 356), and then re- 
turned home. Having received ordination, he con- 
tinued to reside at Nazianzus, where he discharged 
his duties as a presbyter, and assisted his aged 
father, who was bishop of the town. In 372 he 
was associated with his father in the bishopric ; 
but after the death of the latter in 374, he refused 
to continue bishop of Nazianzus, as he was averse 
from public life, and fond of solitary meditation. 
After living some years in retirement, he was sum- 
moned to Constantinople in 379, in order to defend 
the orthodox faith against the Arians and other 
heretics. In 380 he was made bishop of Con- 
stantinople by the emperor Theodosius ; but he 
resigned the office in the following year (381), and 
withdrew altogether from public life. He lived in so- 
litude at his paternal estate at Nazianzus, and there 
he died in 389 or 390. His extant works are, 1. 
Orations or Sermons ; 2. Letters ; 3. Poems. His 
discourses, though sometimes really eloquent, are 
generally nothing more than favourable specimens 
of the rhetoric of the schools. He is more earnest 
than Chrysostom, but not so ornamental. He is 
more artificial, but also more attractive, than Basil. 
Edited by Morell, Paris, 2 vols. foL, 1609—1611, 
reprinted 1630. Of the Benedictine edition, only 
the first volume containing the discourses, Avas 
published, Paris, 1778. — 2. liyssenus, bishop of 
Nyssa in Cappadocia, was the younger brother of 
Basil, and was born at Caesarea in Cappadocia, 
about 331. He was made bishop of Nyssa about 
372, and, like his brother Basil and their friend 
Gregory Nazianzen, was one of the pillars of 
orthodoxy. He died soon after 394. Like his 
brother, he was an eminent rhetorician, but his 
oratory often off'ends by its extravagance. His 
works are edited by Morell and Gretser, 2 vols, 
fol. Paris, 1615—1618.-3. Surnamed Tkauma- 
tu.rgus, from his miraclee, was born at Neocae- 
sarea in Cappadocia, of heathen parents. He was 
converted to Christianity by Origen, about 234, 
and subsequently became the bislicp of his native 

\7 



290 GRUDII. 
town. He died soon after 265. His works are 
not numerous. The best edition is the one pub- 
lished at Paris, 1622. 

Grudii, a people in Gallia Belgica, subject to the 
Nervii, N. of the Scheldt. 

Grumentum (Grumentinus : II Palazzo), a 
town in the interior of Lucania on the road from 
Bene ven turn to Heraclea, frequently mentioned in 
the 2nd Punic war, 

Gryllus {TpvWos). elder son of Xenophon, fell 
at the battle of Mantinea, B. c. 362, after he had, 
according to some accounts, given Epaminondas his 
mortal wound. 

Grynia or -lum (Fpui'em, Vpvviov), a very ancient 
fortified city on the coast of the Sinus Elaiticus, in 
the S. of iVIysia, between Elaea and Myrina, 70 
stadia from the former and 40 from the latter; 
celebrated for its temple and oracle of Apollo, who 
is hence called Grynaeus Apollo (Virg. Aen.^ iv. 
iU5). It possessed also a good harbour. Parmenion, 
the general of Alexander, destroyed the city and 
sold the inliabitants as slaves. It was never again 
restored. 

Gryps or Gryplius (rpuif/), a grifRn, a fabulous 
animaC dwelling in the Rhipaean mountains, be- 
tween the Hyperboreans and the one-eyed Ari- 
maspians, and guarding the gold of the north. The 
Ariraaspians mounted on horseback, and attempted 
to steal the gold, and hence arose the hostility be- 
tween the horse and the griffin. The body of the 
griffin vwis that of a lion, while the head and wings 
were those of an eagle. It is probable that the 
origin of the belief in griffins must be looked for 
in the East, where it seems to have been very an- 
cient. They are also mentioned among the fabulous 
animals which guarded the gold of India. 

Gugemi or Guberni, a people of Germany, pro- 
bably of the same race as the Sigambri, crossed the 
Rhine, and settled on its left bank, between the 
Ubii and Batavi. 

Gulussa, a Numidian, 2nd son of Masinissa, 
and brother to Micipsa and ]\Iastanabal. On the 
death of Masinissa, in B. c. 149, he succeeded 
along Avith bis brothers to the dominions of their 
father. He jeft a son, named Ma.ssiv.4. 

Giiraeus (Vovpaios, Tappoias), a river of India, 
flowing through the country of the Guraei (in the 
N.W. of the Funjab), into the Cophen. 

Guttones. [Gothl] 

Gyarus or Gyara (tj Tvapos, ra Tvapa: Tvapevs: 
CIdura or Jura), one of the Cyclades, a small island 
S. W. of Andros, poor and unproductive, and in- 
habited only by fishermen. Under the Roman em- 
perors it was a place of banishment, {Aude aliquid 
hrevihus Gyaris et carccre dignuin, Juv, i, 73.) 

Gyes or Gyges (Tu'rjs, Vvyns), son of Uranus 
(Heaven) and Ge (Earth), one of the giants with 
100 hands, who made Avar upon the gods, 

Gygaeus Lacus (7/ YvyaiT) Xl/xuti : LaUofMar- 
viora), a small lake in Lydia, between the rivers 
Hermus and Hyllus, N. of Sardis, the necropolis of 
Avhich city was on its banks. It was afterwards 
called Coloe. 

Gyges (ru777s), the first king of Lydia of the 
dynasty of the Memmadae, dethroned Candaules, 
and succeeded to the kingdom, as related under 
Candaules, He reigned b. c, 716 — 678. He 
sent magnificent presents to Delphi, and carried on 
various wars with the cities of Asia jNIinor, such 
as Miletus, Smj-ma, Colophon, and Magnesia, 
" The riches of Gyges" became a proverb. 



HADES. 

Gylippus (ruAtTTTTos), a Spartan, son of Cleaii- 
dridas, was sent as the Spartan commander to 
Syracuse, to oppose the Athenians, B, c. 414. 
Under his command the Syracusans annihilated 
the great Athenian armament, and took Demos- 
thenes and Nicias prisoners, 413. In 404 he was 
commissioned by Lysander, after the capture of 
Athens, to carry home the treasure ; but by open- 
ing the seams of the sacks underneath, he ab- 
stracted a considerable portion. The theft was 
discovered, and Gylippus Avent at once into exile. 
— The syllable TuA- in the name of Gylippus is 
probably identical with the Latin Gilviis. 

Gymnesiae. [Baleares,] 

Gynaecopolis {TwaiKotroMs, or YwaiKoov roAts), 
a city in the Delta of Egypt, on the W. bank of the 
Canopic branch of the Nile, between Hermopolis 
and ]\Iomemphis. It was the capital of the Nomos 
Gynaecopolites. 

GjTides (Tvvh-]s), a river of Assyria, rising in 
the country of the Matieni (in the mountains of 
Kurdistan), and flowing into the Tigris, celebrated 
through the story that Cynis the Great drew off its 
v,-:;tc^rs by 360 channels. (Herod, i. 189.) It is 
very difficult to identify this river : perhaps it is 
the same as the Delas or Silla (Diala), which falls 
into the Tigris just above Ctesiphon and Seleucia. 
It is also doubtful whether the Sindes of Tacitus 
(Aim. xi, 10.) is the same river. 

Gyrton, Gcjvtona, (TvpTuu, TvpTwvq: rvprwyios'. 
nr, Tatari Ru.), an ancient town in Pelasgictis in 
Thessaly, on the Peneus. 

Gytheum, GytMum (to VvQ^iov, TvBiou: Tvded- 
T-r) s : Palueopolis nr, Marathunisi), an ancient town on 
the coast of Laconia, founded by the Achaeans, lay 
near the head of the Laconian bay, S, W. of the 
mouth of the river Eurotas. It served as the harbour 
of Sparta, and was important in a military point of 
view. In the Persian war the Lacedaemonian fleet 
was stationed at Gytheum, and here the Athenians 
under Tolmides bm-nt the Lacedaemonian arsenal, 
B. c, 455. After the battle of Leuctra (370) it 
was taken by Epaminondas, In 195 it was taken 
by Flamininus, and made independent of Nabis, 
tyrant of Sparta; whereupon it joined the Achaean 
league, 

Gyzantes (TvCavr^s), a people in the W. part of 
Libya (N. Afi-ica), Avhose country was rich in 
honey and wax. They seem to have dwelt in 
Byzacium. 

H. 

Hades or Pluto ("A^Stjs, TiKovrcav, or poetically 

'AiSrjs, AlSwveus, TIAoureus), the God of the Ne- 
ther World, Plato observes that people preferred 
calling him Pluto (the giver of Avealth) to pronoun- 
cing the dreaded name of Hades or Aides. Hence 
Ave find that iu ordinary life and in the mysteries 
tlie name Pluto became generally established, Avhile 
the poets preferred the ancient name Aides or the 
form Pluteus, The Roman poets use the names 
Dis, Oreus, and Tartarus, as synonymous with 
Pluto, for the god of the Nether World. Hades 
AA'as son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother of 
Zeus and Poseidon. His AA'ife Avas Persephone or 
Proserpina, the daughter of Demeter, whom he 
carried off from the upper world, as is related else- 
AA'^here. [See p. 212. J In the diA-ision of the 
Avorld among the 3 brothers, Hades obtained the 



HADRANUM. 
Nether World, the abode of the shades, over which 
he ruled. Hence he is called the infernal Zeus 
(Zeus KaTax^ovi-os), or the king of the shades {ava'S^ 
ivepcDv). He possessed a helmet which rendered 
the wearer invisible, and later traditions stated 
that this helmet was given him as a present by 
the Cyclopes after their delivery from Tartarus. 
Ancient story mentions both gods and men who 
were honoured by Hades with the temporary use 
of this helmet. His character is described as fierce 
and inexorable, whence of all the gods he was most 
hated by mortals. He kept the gates of the 
lower world closed (and is therefore called Hu- 
XdpTris), that no shades might be able to escape 
or return to the region of light. When mortals 
invoked him, they struck the earth with their 
hands ; the sacrifices which were offered to him and 
Persephone consisted of black sheep ; and the 
person who offered the sacrifice had to turn away 
his face. The ensign of his power was a staff, 
with which, like Hermes, he drove the shades 
into the lower world. There he sat iipon a throne 
with his consort Persephone. Like the other gods, 
he was not a faithful husband ; the Furies are called 
his daughters ; the njnuph Mintho, whom he loved, 
was metamorphosed by Persephone into the plant 
called mint ; and the nj-mph Leuce, with whom he 
was likewise in love, was changed by him after 
her death into a white poplar, and transferred to 
Elysium. Being the king of the lower world, 
Pluto is the giver of all the blessings that come 
from the earth : he is the possessor and giver of all 
the metals contained in the earth, and hence his 
name Pluto. He bears several surnames referring 
to his ultimately assembling all mortals in his 
kingdom, and bringing them to rest and peace ; 
such as Polydegmon, Polydedes^ Ciymenus, &c. 
He was worshipped throughout Greece and Italy. 
We possess few representations of this divinity, 
but in those which still exist, he resembles his 
brother Zeus and Poseidon, except that his hair 
falls down his forehead, and that his appearance is 
dark and gloomy. His ordinary attributes are the 
key of Hades and Cerberus. In Homer Aides is 
invariably the name of the god ; but in later times 
it was transferred to his house, his abode or king- 
dom, so that it became a name for the nether world. 

Hadranum. [Adranum.] 

Hadria. [Adria.] 

Hadrianopolis {'ASpiavoivoXis : 'AdpiavoiroXi- 
r7}s: Adrianople), a town in Thrace on the right 
bank of -the Hebrus, in an extensive plain, founded 
by the emperor Hadrian. It was strongly for- 
tified ; possessed an extensive commerce ; and in 
the middle ages was the most important town in 
the country after Constantinople. 

Hadrianotliera or -ae {'ASpLavove-fjpa), a city in 
Mysia, between Pergamus and Miletopolis, founded 
by the emperor Hadrian. 

Hadrianus, P. Aelius, usually called Hadrian, 
Roman emperor, a. d. 117 — 138, Avas born at 
Rome, a. d. 76. He lost his father at the age of 
10, and was brought up by his kinsman Ulpius 
Trajanus (afterwards emperor) and by Caelius At- 
tianus. From an early age he studied with zeal the 
Greek language and literature. At the age of 15 he 
went to Spain, where he entered upon his military 
career ; and he subsequently served as military trib ime 
in Lower M'oesia. After the elevation of Trajan to 
the throne (98), he married Julia Sabina, a grand- 
daughter of Trajan's sister Marciana. This mar- 



HADRIANUS. 2.91 
riage was brought about through the influence of 
Plotina, the wife of Trajan ; and from this time 
Hadrian rose rapidly in the emperor's favour. He 
was raised successively to the quaestoiship (101), 
praetorship (107), and consulship (109). He ac- 
companied Trajan in most of his expeditions, and 
distinguished himself in the second war against 
the Dacians, 104 — 106 ; was made governor of 
Pannonia in 108 ; and subsequently fought under 
Trajan against the Parthians. When Trajan's 
serious illness obliged him to leave the E., he placed 
Hadi'ian at the head of the army. Trajan died at 
Cilicia on his journey to Rome (117). Hadrian, 
Avho pretended that he had been adopted by 
Trajan, was proclaimed emperor by the legions in 
Syria, and the senate ratified the election. Ha- 
drian's first care was to make peace with the Par- 
thians, which he obtained by relinquishing the 
conquests of Trajan, E. of the Euphrates. He 
returned to Rome in 118 ; but almost immediately 
afterwards set out for Moesia, in consequence of the 
invasion of this province by the Sarmatians. After 
making peace with the Sarmatians, and suppressing 
a formidable conspiracy which had been formed 
against his life by some of the most distinguished 
Roman nobles, all of whom he put to death, he 
returned to Rome in the course of the same year. 
He sought to gain the goodwill of the senate by 
gladiatorial exhibitions and liberal largesses, and he 
also cancelled all arrears of taxes due to the state 
for the last 15 years. The remainder of Hadrian's 
reign was disturbed by few wars. He spent the 
greater part of his reign in travelling through the 
various provinces of the empire, in order that he 
might inspect personally the state of affairs in the 
provinces, and apply the necessary remedies wher- 
ever mismanagement was discovered. He com- 
menced these travels in 119, visiting first Gaul, 
Germany, and Britain, in the latter of which coun- 
tries he caused a wall to be built from the Solway 
to the mouth of the river Tyne. He afterwards 
visited Spain, Africa, and the E., and took up his 
residence at Athens for 3 years (123 — 126). 
Athens Avas his favourite city, and he conferred 
upon its inhabitants many privileges. The most 
important war during his reign Avas that against 
the JeAvs, Avhich broke out in 131. The Jeivs had 
revolted in consequence of the establishment of a 
colony under the name of Aelia Capitolina on the 
site of Jerusalem, and of their having been forbid- 
den to practise the rite of circumcision. The Avar Avas 
carried on by the JeAvs as a national struggle Avith 
the most desperate fury, and Avas not brought to an 
end till 136, after the country had been nearly re- 
duced to a Avilderness. During the last feAV years of 
Hadrian's life, his health failed. He became sus- 
picious and cruel, and put to death several persons of 
distinction. As he had no children, he adopted L. 
Aelius Verus, and gave him the title of Caesar in 1 36. 
Verus died on the 1st of Januaiy, 138, Avhereupon 
Hadrian adopted Antoninus, afterwards siu-named 
Pius, and conferred upon him likewise the title of 
Caesar. In July in the same year, Hadrian him- 
self died in his 62nd year, and Avas succeeded by 
Antoninus. — The reign of Hadrian may be re- 
garded as one of the happiest periods in Roman his- 
toTj. His policy Avas to preserve peace Avith foreign 
nations, and not to extend the boundaries of the 
empire, but to secure the old provinces, and promote 
their Avelfare. He paid particular attention to the 
administration of justice in the provinces as Avell as 

u 2 



292 IIADRIAXUS. 
in Italy. His reign forms an epoch in the historj- of 
Roman jurisprudence. It was at Hadrian's com- 
mand that the jurist Salvius Julianus drew up the 
edidum perpctiinni, which fonned a fixed code of 
laws. Some of the laws promulgated by Hadrian 
are of a truly humane character, and aimed at im- 
proving the public morality of the time. The va- 
rious cities which he visited received marks of his 
favour or liberality ; in many places he built aquae- 
ducts, and in others harbours or other public build- 
ings, either for use or ornament. But what has 
rendered his name more illustrious than any thing 
else are the numerous and magnificent architectural 
works which he planned and commenced during 
his travels, especially at Athens, in the S. part of 
which he built an entirely new city, Adrianopolis. 
We cannot here enter into an account of the nume- 
rous buildings he erected ; it is sufficient to direct 
attention to his villa at Tibur, which has been a 
real mine of treasures of art, and his mausoleum at 
Rome, which forms the groundwork of the present 
castle of St. Angelo. Hadrian was a patron of learn- 
ing and literature, as well as of the arts, and he 
cultivated the society of poets, scholars, rhetoricians, 
and philosophers. He founded at Rome a scientific 
institution under the name of Athenaeum, which 
continued to flourish for a long time after him. He 
was himself an author, and wTote numerous works 
both in prose and in verse, all of which are lost, 
with the exception of a few epigrams in the Greek 
and Latin Anthologies. 

Hadrianus, the rhetorician. [Adriaxus.] 
Hadrumetnim or Adrumetum (^Ahpvixr] : Ham- 
ineim), a flourishing city founded by the Phoenicians 
in N. Africa, on the E. coast of Bycazena, of which 
district it was the capital under the Romans. Trajan 
made it a colony ; and it was afterwards called 
Justinianopolis. 

Haemon (Atuwi/). 1. Son of Pelasgus and fa- 
ther of Thessalus, from whom the ancient name of 
Thessaly, Haemonia or Aemonia, was believed 
to be derived. The Roman poets frequently use 
the adjective Haemonius as equivalent to Thes- 
salian. — 2. Son of Lycaon, and the reputed 
founder of Haemonia in Arcadia. — 3. Son of 
Creon of Thebes, was destroyed, according to some 
accounts, by the sphinx. But, according to other 
traditions, he was in love with Antigone, and killed 
himself on hearing that she was condemned by his 
father to be entombed alive. 

Haemonia {Alp.ov'ia). [Haemox, No. 1.] 
Haemus (Al/^os), son of Boreas and Orithyia, 
wife of Rhodope, and father of Hebrus. As he 
and his wife presumed to assume the names of 
Zeus and Hera, both were metamorphosed into 
mountains. 

Haemus (o Af^os, rh AT/j-ou : Balkan), a lofty 
range of mountains, separating Thrace and Moesia, 
extended from M. Scomius, or, according to Hero- 
dotus, from M. Rhodope on the "\V. to the Black 
Sea on the E. The name is probably connected 
with the Sanscrit Jii7na (whence comes the word 
Himalaya), the Greek x^^H-^^i ^^i^d Latin 
hiems ; and the mountains were so called on account 
of their cold and snowy climate. The height of 
these mountains was greatly exaggerated by the an- 
cients : the mean height does not exceed 3000 or 
4000 feet above the sea. There are several passes 
over them ; but the one most used in antiquity was 
in the AV. part of the range, called " Succi " or 
** Succonim angustiae," also " Porta Trajani " 



HALICARNASSUS. 

(&ulu Derlend), between Philippopolis and Sor- 
dica. The later province of " Haemimontus " in 
Thrace derived its name from this mountain. 

Hagnus {^hyvoZs, -ovvtos : 'Ayvovaios : nr. 
Markopulo)^ a demus in Attica, "W. of Paeania, 
belonging to the tribe Acamantis. 

Halae ('AXat. "KKai. 'AKa( : 'AAateus). 1. H. 
Araphenides {'Apa<p7]v'i5es), a demus in Attica, 
belonging to the tribe Aegeis, was situated on the 
E. coast of Attica, and served as the harbour of 
Brauron : it possessed a temple of Artemis.— 2. H. 
Aex5nides (Al^wviS^s), a demus in Attica, belong- 
ing to the tribe Cecropis, situated on the W. coast. 
— 3. A town, formerly of the Opuntii Locri, after- 
wards of Boeotia, situated on the Opuntian gulf. 

Hales ("AAtjs). 1. A river of Ionia in Asia 
Minor, near Colophon, celebrated for the coldness 
of its water. — 2. A river in the island of Cos. 

Halesa (^AXuLO-a : Halesinus : Torre di Pitti- 
?2eo), a town on the X. coast of Sicily, on the 
river Halesus (Pittineo), was founded by the 
Greek mercenaries of Archonides, a chief of the 
Siculi, and was originally called Archonidion. It 
became a place of considerable importance, and was 
in later times a municipium, exempt from taxes. 

Halesus, a chief of the Auruncans and Oscans, 
the son of a soothsayer, and an ally of Turnus, was 
slain by Evander. He came to Italy from Argos 
in Greece, whence lie is called Agamemnonius, 
Atridcs, or Argolicus. He is said to have founded 
the town of Falerii. 

Halex. [Alex.] 

Haliacmon (AAidKixav : Visiriza), an impor- 
tant river in ^Macedonia, rises in the Tymphaean 
mountains, flows first S.E. through Eliraaea, then 
N.E. forming the boundans' between Eordaea and 
Pieria, and falls into the Thermaic gulf in Bot- 
tiaeis. Caesar (B. C. iii. 36) incorrectly makes it 
the boundary between Macedonia and Thessaly. 

Haliartus ('AAtapros ; 'AXidpTios ; j\Iazi). an 
ancient town in Boeotia on the S. of the lake Co- 
pais. It was destroyed by Xerxes in his invasion 
of Greece (b. c. 480), but was rebuilt, and appears 
as an important place in the Peloponnesian war. 
Under its walls Lysander lost his life (395). It 
was destroyed by the Romans (171), because it 
supported Perseus, king of ^Macedonia, and its ter- 
ritory was given to the Athenians. 

Halias ['AXias -. 'AAjei's), a district on the coast 
of Argolis between Asine and Hermione, so called 
because fishing was the chief occupation of its in- 
habitants. Their to\vn was called Haliae (^AXiai) 
or Halies ('AAieis). 

Halicaniassus('A\iKapva(ra'ds,Ion.'A\iKaDi'77o'- 
(Tos : 'AXiKapvaaaevs, Halicamassensis, Halicamas- 
sius : B>id)-um, Ru.), a celebrated city of Asia Minor, 
stood in the S.W. part of Caria, on the N. coast of 
the Sinus Ceramicus, opposite to the island of Cos. 
It was said to have been founded by Dorians from 
Troezene, and was at first called Zephyra. It was 
one of the 6 cities that originally formed the Dorian 
Hexapolis, but it was early excluded from the confe- 
deracy, as a pimishment for the violation, by one of 
its citizens, of a law connected with the common 
worship of the Triopian Apollo. (Herod, i. 144.) 
"With the rest of the coast of Asia IMinor, it fell 
I under the dominion of the Persians, at an early period 
[ of whose rule Lygdamis made himself tyrant of the 
I city, and founded a dynasty which lasted for some 
j generations. His daughter Artemisia assisted Xerxes 
j in his expedition against Greece [Artemisia, No. 



HALICYAE. 

1]. Her grandson Lj-gdamis was overthrown by 
a revolution, in which Herodotus is said to have 
taken part [Herodotus]. In the Peloponnesian 
War, we find Halicarnassus, with the other Dorian 
cities of Caria, on the side of the Athenians ; but we 
do not know what was its form of government, until 
the f eestablishment, by Hecatomnus, of a dynasty 
ruling over all Caria, with its capital first at 
Mylasa, and afterwards at Halicarnassus, and vir- 
tually independent of Persia ; before B. c. 380. It 
seems not unlikely that both this and the older 
dynasty of tyrants of Halicarnassus, were a race of 
native Carian princes, whose ascendancy at Hali- 
carnassus may be accounted for by the prevalence 
of the Carian element in its population at an early 
period. Hecatomnus left 3 sons and 2 daughters, 
who all succeeded to his throne in the following 
order, Mausolus, Artemisia, Idrieus, Ada, Pixodarus, 
and Ada again. In b. c. 334, Alexander took the 
city, after an obstinate defence by the Persian general 
Memnon, and destroyed it. From this blow it never 
recovered, althougli it continued to be celebrated 
for the Mausoleum, a magnificent edifice which 
Artemisia II. built as a tomb for Mausolus, and 
which was adorned with the works of the most 
eminent Greek sculptors of the age. Fragments of 
these sculptures, which were discovered built into 
the walls of the citadel of Budrum, are now in the 
British Museum. With the rest of Caria, Hali- 
carnassus was assigned by the Romans, after their 
victory over Antiochus the Great, to the government 
of Rhodes, and was afterwards imited to the pro- 
vince of Asia. The city was very strongly fortified, 
and had a fine harbour, which was protected by 
the island of Arconnesus : its citadel was called 
Salmacis (SaA^ua/fi's) from the name of a spring 
which rose from the hill on which it stood. Hali- 
carnassus was the birthplace of the historians He- 
rodotus and DiONYSius. 

Halicyae ('AhLKvaL : Halicyensis), a town in the 
N.W. of Sicily, between Entella and Lilybaeum, 
was ]oi;g in the possession of the Carthaginians, 
and in Cicero's time was a municipium, exempt 
from taxes. 

Halimus ('AXi/xovs -ovvtos : 'AXtfxovaios), a 
demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Leontis, on 
the W. coast, a little S. of Athens. 

Halipedon ('AA/TreSov), a plain near the Pi- 
raeus, probably between the Piraeus and the 
Academy. 

HalirrhotMus ('AXtpp6eios\ son of Poseidon 
and Euryte, attempted to violate Alcippe, daughter 
of Ares and Agraulos, but was slain by Ares. 
Ares was brought to trial by Poseidon for this 
murder, on the hill at Athens, which was hence 
called Areopagus, or the Hill of Ares. 

Haliiisa {'AXiovcra ? Karavi)^ an island in the 
Argolic gulf. 

Halizdnes ('AAi'^oives, and -ot), a people of 
Bithynia, with a capital city Alybe ('AAuStj), men- 
tioned by Homer as allies of the Trojans. 

Halmydessus. [Salmydessus.] 

Halmyris ('AA/xypis, sc. Xifx-qv), a bay of the 
sea in Moesia formed by tlie S. mouth of the Da- 
nube, with a town of the same name upon it. 

Halonesus ('AAoVtjctos, 'AXownaos : 'AKovri- 
(Tios, 'A\ovr}aiTr]s : Khiliodromia), an island of the 
Aegean sea, off the coast of Thessaly, and E. of 
Sciathos and Peparethos, with a town of the 
same name upon it. The possession of this island 
occasioned great disputes between Philip and the 



HAMILCAR. 293 

Athenians : there is a speech on this subject 
among the extant orations of Demosthenes, but it 
was probably written by Hegesippus. 

Halosydne ('AAoo-l'Si/t?), " the Sea-born," a 
surname of Amphitrite and Thetys. 

Haluntium. [Aluntium.] 

Halus. [ALUS.] 

Halycus ("AXvkos : Platani), a river in the S- 
of Sicily, which flows into the sea near Heraclea 
Minoa. 

Halys ("AXvs : Kizil-lrmah, i. e. the Red River), 
the greatest river of Asia Minor, rises in that part 
of the Anti-Taurus range called Paryadres, on the 
borders of Armenia Minor and Pontus, and after 
flowing W. by S. through Cappadocia, turns to the 
N. and flows through Galatia to the borders of 
Paphlagonia, where it takes a N. E. direction, 
dividing Paphlagonia from Pontus, and at last falls 
into the Euxine (Black Sea) between Sinope and 
Amisus. In early times it was a most important 
boundary, ethnographical as well as political. It 
divided the Indo-European races which peopled the 
W. part of Asia Minor from the Semitic (Syro- 
Arabian) races of the rest of S. W. Asia ; and it 
separated the Lydian empire from the Medo-Persian, 
until, by marching over it to meet Cyrus, Croesus 
began the contest which at once ended in the over- 
throw of the former and the extension of the latter 
to the Aegean Sea. 

Hamadryades. [Nymphae.] 

Hamaxitus {'Ajxa^iTos), a small town on the 
coast of the Troad, near the promontory Lectum; 
said to have been the first settlement of the Teucrian 
immigrants from Crete. The surrounding district 
was called 'Afxa^nla.. Lysimachus removed the 
inhabitants to Alexandria Troas. 

Hamaxobii ('A/ia^ogtoi), a people in European 
Sarmatia, in the neighbourhood of the Palus 
Maeotis, were a nomad race, as their name signifies. 

Hamilcar ('AjUi'Akcss). The 2 last syllables of 
this name are the same as Melcaiih, the tutelary 
deity of the Tyrians, called by the Greeks Her- 
cules, and the name probably signifies " the gift of 
Melcarth." 1. Son of Hanno, or Mago, com- 
mander of the great Carthaginian expedition to 
Sicily, B. c. 480, which was defeated and almost 
destroyed by Gelon at Himera. [Gelon.] Ha- 
milcar fell in the battle. — 2. Surnamed Rhodanus, 
was sent by the Carthaginians to Alexander after 
the fall of Tyre, B. c. 332. On his return home 
he was put to death by the Carthaginians for hav- 
ing betrayed their interests. — 3. Carthaginian, 
governor in Sicily at the time that Agathocles was 
rising into power. At first he supported the party 
at Syracuse, which had driven Agathocles into 
exile, but he afterwards espoused the cause of 
Agathocles, who was thus enabled to make himself 
master of Syracuse, 317. — 4. Son of Gisco, suc- 
ceeded the preceding as Carthaginian commander in 
Sicily, 311. He carried on war against Agatho- 
cles, whom he defeated with great slaughter, and 
then obtained possession of the greater part of 
Sicily ; but he was taken prisoner while besieging 
Syracuse, and was put to death by Agathocles. — 
5. A Carthaginian general in the 1st Punic war, 
must be carefully distinguished from the great 
Hamilcar Barca [No. 6.]. In the 3d year of the 
war (262) he succeeded Hanno in the command 
in Sicily, and carried on the operations by land 
with success. He made himself master of Enna 
and Camarina, and fortified Drepanum. In 257 

V 8 



294 



HANNIBAL. 



HANNIBAL. 



he commanded the Carthaginian fleet on the N. 
coast of Sicil}', and fought a naval action with the 
Roman consul C. Atilius Ren[ulus. In the follow- 
ing year (256), he and Hanno commanded the 
great Carthaginian fleet, which was defeated by 
the 2 consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L, Manliiis 
Vulso, oft' Ecnomus, on the S. coast of Sicily. He 
was afterwards one of the commanders of the land 
forces in Africa opposed to Regulus. — 6. Sur- 
named Barca, an epithet supposed to be related 
to the Hebrew Barak^ and to signify " lightning." 
It was merely a personal appellation, and is not to 
be regarded as a family name, though from the 
great distinction that he obtained, we often find 
the name of Barcine applied either to his family or 
his part_y in the state. He was appointed to the 
command of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily, in 
the 18th year of the 1st Punic War, 247.'^ At 
this time the Romans were masters of the whole 
of Sicily, with the exception of Drepanum and 
Lilybaeum, both of which were blockaded by them 
on the land side. Hamilcar established himself 
with his Avhole army on a mountain named Hercte 
{Monte Pcllegrino)^ in the midst of the enemy's 
country, and in the immediate neighbourhood of 
Panormus, one of their most important cities. 
Here he succeeded in maintaining his ground, 
to the astonishment alike of friends and foes, 
for nearly 3 years. In 244 he abruptly quitted 
Hercte, and took up a still stronger position on Mt, 
Eryx, after seizing the town of that name. Here 
he also maintained himself in spite of all the efforts 
of the Romans to dislodge him. After the great 
naval defeat of the Carthaginians by Lutatius Ca- 
tulus (241), Hamilcar, who was still at Eryx, was 
entrusted by the Carthaginian government with 
the conclusion of the peace with the Romans. — 
On his return home, he had to carry on war in 
Africa with the Carthaginian mercenaries, whom 
he succeeded in subduing after an arduous struggle 
of 3 years (240 — 238). Hamilcar now formed 
the project of establishing in Spain a new empire, 
which should not only be a source of strength 
and wealth to Carthage, but should be the 
point from whence he might at a subsequent pe- 
riod renew hostilities against Rome. He crossed 
over into Spain soon after the termination of the 
war with the mercenaries ; but we know nothing 
of his operations in the countrj'-, save that he ob- 
tained possession of a considerable portion of Spain, 
parth" by force of arras, and partly by negotiation. 
After remaining in Spain nearly 9 years, he fell in 
battle (229) against the Vettones. He was suc- 
ceeded in the command by his son-in-law Has- 
drubai. He left 3 sons, the celebrated Hannibal, 
Hasdrubal, and Mago. — - 7. Son of Gisco, Car- 
thaginian governor of Melite {Malta), which sur- 
rendered to the Romans, 218.— 8. Son of Bomilcar, 
one of the generals in Spain, 215, with Has- 
drubal and Mago, the 2 sons of Barca. The 
3 generals were defeated by the 2 Scipios, while 
besieging Illiturgi. — 9. A Carthaginian, who ex- 
cited a general revolt of the Gauls in Upper Italy, 
about 200, and took the Roman colony of Placen- 
tia. On the defeat of the Gauls by the consiil 
Cethegus in 1 97, he was taken prisoner. 

Hannibal QAwlSas). The name signifies " the 
grace or favour of Baal ; " the final syllable bal, of 
such common occurrence in Punic names, always 
having reference to this tutelary deity of the 
Phoenicians. — 1. Son of Gisco, and grandson of 



Hamilcar [No. 1]. In 409 he was sent to Sicily, 
at the head of a Carthaginian army to assist the 
Segestans against the Selinuntines. He took Se- 
linus, and subsequently Himera also. In 406 he 
again commanded a Carthaginian army in Sicily 
along with Himilco, but died of a pestilence while 
besieging Agrigentum. — 2. Son of Gisco, was 
the Carthaginian commander at Agrigentum, when 
it was besieged by the Romans, 262. After stand- 
ing a siege of 7 months, he broke through the 
enemj-'s lines, leaving the town to its fate. After 
this he carried on the contest by sea, and for the 
next year or two ravaged the coast of Italy; but in 
260 he was defeated by the consul Duilius. In 
259 he was sent to the defence of Sardinia. Here 
he was again unfortunate, and was seized by his 
o-wn mutinous troops, and put to death. — 3. Son 
of Hamilcar (perhaps Hamilcar, No. 5), succeeded 
in carrying succours of men and provisions to Lily- 
baeum, when it was besieged by the Romans, 250. 
— 4. A general in the war of the Carthaginians 
against the mercenaries (240 — 238), was taken 
prisoner by the insurgents, and crucified. — 5. Son 
of Harnilcar Barca, and one of the most illustrioiis 
generals of antiquity, was born b. c. 247. He was 
only 9 years old when his father took him with 
him into Spain, and it was on this occasion that 
Hamilcar made him swear upon the altar eternal 
hostility to Rome. Child as he then was, Hannibal 
never forgot his vow, and his whole life was one 
continual struggle against the power and domination 
of Rome. He was early trained in arms under the 
eje of his father, and was present with him in the 
battle in which Hamilcar perished (229). Though 
only 18 years old at this time, he had already dis- 
played so much couMge and capacity for war, that 
he was entrusted by Hasdrubal (the son-in-law and 
successor of Hamilcar) with the chief command of 
most of the military enterprises planned by that 
general. He secured to himself the devoted at- 
tachment of the army under his command ; and, 
accordingly, on the assassination of Hasdrubal (221), 
the soldiers uiianimously proclaimed their youthful 
leader commander-in-chief, which the government 
at Carthage forthwith ratified. Hannibal was at 
this time in the 26th year of his age. There can 
be no doubt that he already looked forward to the 
invasion and conquest of Italy as the goal of his 
ambition ; but it was necessary for him first to 
complete the work which had been so ably begun 
by his 2 predecessors, and to establish the Cartha- 
ginian power as firmly as possible in Spain. In 
2 campaigns he subdued all the country S. of the 
Iberus, with the exception of the wealthy town of 
Saguntum. In the spring of 219 he proceeded to 
lay siege to Saguntum, which he took after a des- 
perate resistance, which lasted nearly 8 months. 
Saguntum lay S. of the Iberus, and was therefore 
not included under the protection of the treaty 
which had been made between Hasdrubal and the 
Romans ; but as it had concluded an alliance Avith 
the Romans, the latter regarded its attack as a 
violation of the treaty between the 2 nations. On 
the fall of Saguntum, the Romans demanded the 
surrender of Plannibal; and when this demand was 
refused, war was declared, and thus began the long 
and arduous struggle called the 2nd Punic War. 
In the spring of 218 Hamiibal quitted his winter- 
quarters at New Carthage and commenced his 
march for Italy. He crossed the Pyrenees, and 
marched along the S. coast of Gaul. The Romans 



HANNIBAL. 



HANNIBAL. 



295 



sent the consul P. Scipio to oppose him in Gaul ; 
but -when Scipio arrived in Gaul, he found that 
Hannibal had already reached the Rhone, and that 
it was impossible to overtake him. After Hannibal 
had crossed the Rhone, he continued his march up 
the left bank of the river as far as its confluence with 
the Isere. Here he struck away to the right and 
commenced his passage across the Alps. He pro- 
bably crossed the Alps by the pass of the Little 
St. Bernard, called in antiquity the Graian Alps. 
His army suffered much from the attacks of the 
Gaulish mountaineers, and from the natural diffi- 
culties of the road, which were enhanced by the 
lateness of the season (the beginning of October, 
at which time the snows have already commenced 
in the high Alps). So heavy were his losses, that 
when he at length emerged from the valley of 
Aosta into the plains of the Po, he had with him 
no more than 20,000 foot and GOOO horse. During 
Hannibal's march over the Alps, P. Scipio had sent 
on his own army into Spain, under the command of 
his brother Cneius, and had himself returned to 
Italy. He forthwith hastened into Cisalpine Gaul, 
took the command of the praetor's army, which he 
found there, and led it against Hannibal. In the 
first action, which took place near the Ticinus, the 
cavalry and light-armed troops of the two armies 
were alone engaged ; the Romans were completely 
routed, and Scipio himself severely wounded. Scipio 
then crossed the Po and withdrew to the hills on the 
left bank of the Trebia, where he was soon after 
joined by the other consul, Ti. Sempronius Longus. 
Here a second and more decisive battle was fought. 
The Romans were completely defeated, with heavy 
loss, and the remains of their army took refuge 
within the walls of Placentia. This battle was 
fought towards the end of 218. Hannibal was now 
joined by all the Gaulish tribes, and he was able 
to take up his winter-quarters in security. Early 
in 217 he descended by the valley of the Macra 
into the marshes on the banks of the Arno. In 
struggling through these marshes great numbers of 
his horses and beasts of burthen perished, and he 
himself lost the sight of one eye by a violent attack 
of ophthalmia. The consul Flaminius hastened to 
meet him, and a battle was fought on the lake 
Trasimenus, in which the Roman army was de- 
stroyed; thousands fell by the sword, among whom 
was the consul himself; thousands more perished in 
the lake, and no less than 15,000 prisoners fell into 
the hands of Hannibal. Hannibal now marched 
through the Apennines into Picenum, and thence 
into Apulia, where he spent a great part of the 
summer. The Romans had collected a fresh army, 
and placed it under the command of the dictator 
Fabius Maximus, who had prudently avoided a 
general action, and only attempted to harass and 
annoy the Carthaginian armj. Meanwhile the 
Romans had made great preparations for the cam- 
paign of the following year (216). The 2 new 
consuls, L. Aemilius Paulus and C. Terentius Varro, 
marched into Apulia, at the head of an army of 
little less than 90,000 men. To this mighty host 
Hannibal gave battle in the plains on the right 
hank of the Aufidus, just below the town of Cannae. 
The Roman army was again annihilated : between 
40 and 50 thousand men are said to have fallen in 
the field, among whom was the consul Aemilius 
Paulus, both the consuls of the preceding j^ear, 
above 80 senators, and a multitude of the Avealthy 
knights who composed the Roman cavalry. The I 



other consul, Varro, escaped with a few horsemen 
to Venusia, and a small band of resolute men forced 
their way from the Roman camp to Canusium ; all 
the rest were killed, dispersed, or taken prisoners. 
This victory was followed by the revolt from Rome 
of most of the nations in the S. of Italy. Hannibal 
established his army in winter-quarters in Capua, 
which had espoused his side. Capua was celebrated 
for its wealth and luxury, and the enervating effect 
which these produced upon the army of Hannibal 
became a favourite theme of rhetorical exaggeration 
in later ages. The futility of such declamations is 
sufficiently shown by the simple fact that the su- 
periority of that army in the field remained as 
decided as ever. Still it may be truly said that the 
winter spent at Capua, 216 — 215, was in great 
measure the turning point of Hannibal's fortune, 
and from this time the war assumed an altered 
character. The experiment of what he could effect 
with his single army had now been fully tried, and, 
notwithstanding all his victories, it had decidedly 
failed ; for Rome was still unsubdued, and still 
provided Avith the means of maintaining a protracted 
contest. From this time the Romans in great 
measure changed their plan of operations, and, in- 
stead of opposing to Hannibal one great army in 
the field, they hemmed in his movements on all 
sides, and kept up an army in every province of 
Ital_7, to thwart the operations of his lieutenants, 
and check the rising disposition to revolt. It is 
impossible here to follow the complicated movements 
of the subsequent campaigns, during which Hannibal 
himself frequently traversed Italy in all directions. 
In 215 Hannibal entered into negotiations with 
Philip, king of Macedonia, and Hieronymus of 
Syracuse, and thus sowed the seeds of 2 fresh wars. 
From 214 to 212 the Romans Avere busily engaged 
with the siege of Syracuse, which was at length 
taken by Marcellus in the latter of these years. 
In 212 Hannibal obtained possession of Tarentum; 
but in the following year he lost the important city 
of Capua, Avhich Avas recovered by the Romans 
after a long siege. In 209 the Romans also reco- 
vered Tarentum. Hannibal's forces gradually be- 
came more and more weakened; and his only object 
noAv Avas to maintain his ground in the S. until his 
brother Hasdrubal should appear in the N. of Italy, 
an event to which he had long looked forward Avith 
anxious expectation. In 207 Hasdrubal at length 
crossed the Alps, and descended into Italy ; but 
he was defeated and slain on the Metaurus. [Has- 
drubal, No. 3.] The defeat and death of Has- 
drubal Avas decisive of the fate of the Avar in Italy. 
From this time Hannibal abandoned all thoughts 
of offensive operations, and collected together his 
forces Avithin the peninsula of Bruttium. In the 
fastnesses of that Avild and mountainous region he 
maintained his ground for nearly 4 years (207 — 
203). He crossed over to Africa toAvards the end 
of 203 in order to oppose P. Scipio, In the foUoAV- 
ing year (202) th?; decisive battle was fought near 
Zama. Hannibal Avas completely defeated Avith 
great loss. All hopes of resistance were now at an 
end, and he Avas one of the first to urge the neces- 
sity of an immediate peace. The treaty between 
Rome and Carthage was not finally concluded imtil 
the next year (201). By this treaty Hannibal saw 
the object of his Avhole life frustrated, and Carthage 
effectually humbled before her imperious rival. But 
his enmity to Rome was unabated ; and though 
now more than 45 years old, he set himself to work 

u 4 



296 HANNIBALLIANUS. 



HARMODIUS. 



to prepare the means for renewing the contest at no 
distant period. He introduced the most beneficial 
refonns into the state, and restored the ruined 
finances; but having provoked the enmity of a pow- 
erful party at Carthage, they denounced him to the 
Romans as urging on Antiochus III. king of Syria, 
to take up arms against Rome. Hannibal was 
obliged to flee from Carthage, and took refuge at 
the court of Antiochus, who was at this time 
(193) on the eve of war with Rome. Hannibal in 
vain urged the necessity of carrying the war at 
once into Italy, instead of awaiting the Romans in 
Greece. On the defeat of Antiochus (190), the 
surrender of Hannibal was one of the conditions of 
the peace granted to the king. Hannibal, however, 
foresaw his danger, and took refuge at the court of 
Prusias, king of Bithj-nia. Here he found for some 
3'ears a secure asylum ; but the Romans could not 
be at ease so long as he lived ; and T. Quintius 
Flamininus was at length despatched to the court 
of Prusias to demand the surrender of the fugitive. 
The Bithynian king was unable to resist ; and 
Hannibal, perceiving that flight was impossible, 
took poison, to avoid falling into the hands of his 
enemies, about the year 183. Of Haimibal's abilities 
as a general it is unnecessary to speak : all the great 
masters of the art of war, from Scipio to the em- 
peror Napoleon, have concurred in their homage to 
his genius. But in comparing Hannibal with any 
other of the great leaders of antiquity, we must 
ever bear in mind the peculiar circumstances in 
"which he was placed. Feebly and grudgingly sup- 
ported by the government at home, he stood alone, 
at the head of an army composed of mercenaries of 
many nations. Yet not only did he retain the at- 
tachment of these men, unshaken by any change of 
fortune, for a period of more than 15 years, but he 
trained up army after army ; and long after the 
veterans that had followed him over the Alps had 
dwindled to an inconsiderable remnant, his new 
levies were still as invincible as their predecessors.- 
HannibaUianus. 1. Son of Constantius Chlorus 
and his second wife Theodora, and half-brother of 
Constantine the Great. He was put to death in 
337 on the death of Constantine. — 2. Son of the 
elder, brother of the younger Delmatius, was also 
put to death on the death of Constantine. 
Hannibalis Castra. [C.astra, No. 2.] 
Hanno ["Auvwu)^ one of the most common names 
at Carthage. Only the most important persons of 
the name can be mentioned. —1. One of the Car- 
thaginian generals who fought against Agathocles 
in Africa, B.C. 310. — 2. Commander of the Car- 
thaginian garrison at IMessana, at the beginning of 
the 1st Punic war, 264. In consequence of his 
sirrrendering the citadel of this city to the Romans, 
he was crucified on his return home. — 3. Son of 
Mannibal, was sent to Sicily by the Carthaginians 
•with a large force immediately after the capture of 
Messana, 364, where he carried on the war against 
the Roman consul Ap. Claudius. In 262 he again 
commanded in Sicily, but failed in relieving Agri- 
gentum, where Hannibal was kept besieged by the 
Romans. [Ha nnibal, No. 2.] In 256 he com- 
manded the Carthaginian fleet, along with Hamilcar, 
at the great battle of Ecnomus.— 4. Commander of 
the Carthaginian fleet, which was defeated by ' 
Lutatius Catulus oif the Aegates, 241. On his 
return home, he was crucified. — 5. Sumamed the 
Great, apparently for his successes in Afiica. We 
do not, however, know against what nations of 



Africa his arms were directed, nor what was ihe 
occasion of the war. He was one of the commaiiders 
in the war against the mercenaries in Africa after 
the end of the 1st Punic war (240—238). From 
this time forward he appears to have taken no active 
part in any of the foreign wars or enterprises of 
Carthage. But his influence in her councils at 
home was great; he was the leader of the aristocratic 
party, and, as such, the chief adversary of Ham.ilcar 
Barca and his family. On all occasions, from the 
landing of Barca in Spain till the return of Hanni- 
bal from Italy, a period of above 35 years, Hanno 
is represented as thwarting the measures of that 
able and powerful family, and taking the lead in 
opposition to the war with Rome, the great object 
to which all their efforts were directed. He sur- 
vived the battle of Zama, 202.— 6. A Carthaginian 
officer left in Spain by Hannibal when that general 
crossed the Pyrenees, 218. He was shortly after- 
wards defeated by Cn. Scipio, and taken prisoner. 
—7. Son of Bomilcar, one of the most distinguished 
of Hannibal's officers. He commanded the right 
wing at the battle of Cannae (216), and is fre- 
quently mentioned during the succeeding years of 
the war. In 203 he took the command of the 
Carthaginian forces in Africa, which he held till 
the arrival of Hannibal.— 8. A Carthaginian general, 
who carried on the war in Sicily after the fall of 
Syracuse, 211. He left Sicily in the following year, 
when Agrigentum was betrayed to the Romans. 
— 9. The last commander of the Carthaginian gar- 
rison at Capua, when it was besieged by the Roman* 
(212 — 211 ).— 10. A Carthaginian navigator, under 
whose name we possess a Periplus (TrepiTrAous), 
which was originall}' written in the Punic language, 
and afterwards translated into Greek. The author 
had held the office of sufietes, or supreme magistrate 
at Carthage, and he is said by Pliny to have un- 
dertaken the voyage when Carthage was in a most 
flourishing condition. Hence it has been conjectured 
that he was the same as the Hanno, the father or 
son of Hamilcar, who was killed at Himera, b. c. 
480; but this is quite uncertain. In the Periplus 
itself Hanno says that he was sent out by his 
coimtr}-men to undertake a voyage beyond the 
Pillars of Hercules, and to found Lib}'phoenician 
towns, and that he sailed with a body of colonists 
to the number of 30,000. On his return from his 
voyage, he dedicated an account of it, inscribed on 
a tablet, in the temple of Cronos. It is therefore 
presumed that our periplus is a Greek version of 
the contents of that Punic tablet. Edited by Fal- 
coner, Lond. 1797, with an English translation. 

Harma (rh "Apfia : 'Apfxarevs). 1, A small 
place in Boeotia near Tanagra, said to have been 
so called from the Jiarma or chariot of Adrastus, 
which broke down here, or from the chariot of 
Amphiaraus, who was here swallowed up by the 
earth along with his chariot. — 2. A small place 
in Attica, near Phyle. 

Harmatus (Ap^aroCy), a city and promontory 
on the coast of Aeolis in Asia Minor, on the N, 
side of the Sinus Ela'iticus. 

Harmodius and Aristogiton ('ApfioBios, 'Apc- 
(TToyeiTuu), Athenians, of the blood of the Ge- 
PHYRAEi, were the murderers of Hipparchus, 
brother of the tyrant Hippias, in B. c. 514. Ari- 
stogiton was strongly attached to the young and 
beautiful Harmodius, who returned his affection 
with equal warmth. Hipparchus endeavoured to 
withdraw the youth's love to himself, and, failing 



HARMONIA. 

in this, resolved to avenge the slight by putting 
upon him a public insult. Accordingly, he took 
care that the sister of Harmodius should be sum- 
moned to bear one of the sacred baskets in some 
religious procession, and when she presented her- 
self for the purpose, he caused her to be dismissed 
and declared unworthy of the honour. This fresh 
insult determined the 2 friends to slay both Hip- 
parchus and his brother Hippias as well. Thej- 
communicated their plot to a few friends ; and se- 
lected for their enterprise the day of the festival of 
the great Panathenaea, the only day on which they 
could appear in arms without exciting suspicion. 
When the appointed time arrived, the 2 chief con- 
spirators observed one of their accomplices in con- 
versation with Hippias. Believing, therefore, that 
they were betrayed, they slew Hipparchus. Har- 
modius was immediately cut do\™ by the guards. 
Aristogiton at first escaped, but was afterwards 
taken, and was put to the torture ; but he died 
without revealing any of the names of the conspi- 
rators. Four years after this Hippias was expelled, 
and thenceforth Harmodius and Aristogiton ob- 
tained among the Athenians of all succeeding ge- 
nerations the character of patriots, deliverers, and 
martyrs, — names often abused indeed, but seldom 
more grossly than in the present case. Their deed 
of murderous vengeance formed a favourite subject 
of drinking songs. To be born of their blood was 
esteemed among the highest of honours, and their 
descendants enjoj^ed an immunity from public bur- 
dens. Their statues, made of bronze by Antenor, 
were set up in the Agora. "When Xerxes took the 
city, he carried these statues away, and new ones, 
the work of Critias, were erected in 477. The 
original statues were afterwards sent back to Athens 
by Alexander the Great. 

Harmoma {'hpfxovia), daughter of Ares and 
Aphrodite, or, accordmg to others, of Zeus and 
Electra, the daughter of Atlas, in Samothrace. 
When Athena assigned to Cadmus the government 
of Thebes, Zeus gave him Harmonia for his Avife, 
and all the gods of Olympus were present at the 
marriage. On the wedding-day Cadmus received 
a present of a necklace, which afterwards became 
fatal to all who possessed it. Harmonia accom- 
panied Cadmus when he was obliged to quit 
Thebes, and shared his fate. [Cadmus.] Poly- 
nices, Avho inherited the fatal necklace, gave it to 
Eriphyle, that she might persuade her husband, 
Araphiaraus, to undertake the expedition against 
Thebes. Through Alcmaeon, the son of Eriphyle, 
the necklace came into the hands of Arsinoe, next 
into those of the sons of Phegeus, Pronous and 
Agenor, and lastly into those of the sons of Alc- 
maeon, Amphoterus and Acarnan, Avho dedicated 
it in the temple of Athena Pronoea at Delphi. 

Karpagia, or -ium (Ap7ra7eta, or -dyiou)^ a 
small town in Mysia, between Cyzicus and Priapus, 
the scene of the rape of Ganymedes, according to 
some legends. 

Harpagus ("ApKayos). 1, A noble Median, 
wliose preservation of the mfant Cyrus, with the 
events consequent upon it, are related under Cyrus. 
He became one of the generals of Cyrus, and con- 
quered the Greek cities of Asia Minor. — 2. A 
Persian general, under Darius I., took Histiaeus 
prisoner. 

Harpalus ("ApTroAos). 1. A Macedonian of 
noble birth, accompanied Alexander the Great to 
Asia, as superintendent of the treasury. After the 



HARPYIAE. 297 

conquest of Darius, he was left by Alexander in 
charge of the royal treasury, and with the admi- 
nistration of the wealthy satrapy of Babylon. Here, 
during Alexander's absence in India, he gave him- 
self up to the most extravagant luxury and profu- 
sion, and squandered the treasures entrusted to him. 
When he heard that Alexander, contrary to his 
expectations, was returning from India, he fled 
from Babylon w^ith about 5000 talents and a body 
of 6000 mercenaries, and crossed over to Greece^ 
B. c. 324. Pie took refuge at Athens, where he 
emplo)'ed his treasures to gain over the orators, 
and induce the people to support him against Alex- 
ander and his vicegerent, Antipater. Among those 
whom he thus corrupted are said to have been De- 
mades, Charicles, the son-in-law of Phocion, and 
even Demosthenes himself. [Demosthenes.] But 
he failed in his general object, for Antipater, hav- 
ing demanded his surrender from the Athenians, 
it was resolved to place him in confinement until 
the Macedonians should send for him. He suc- 
ceeded in making his escape from prison, and fled 
to Crete, where he was assassinated soon after his 
arrival, by Thimbron, one of his own officers. — 2. 
A Greek astronomer, introduced some improve- 
ments into the cycle of Cleostratus. Harpalus 
lived before Meton. 

Harpalyce ('ApiraAvKT]). 1. Daughter of Har- 
palj'cus, king in Thrace. As she lost her mother 
in infancy, she was brought up by her father 
with the milk of cows and mares, and was trained 
in all manly exercises. After the death of her 
father, she lived in the forests as a robber, being so 
swift in running that horses were unable to over- 
take her. At length she was caught in a snare by 
shepherds, who killed her. — 2. Daughter of Cly- 
menus and Epicaste, was seduced by her own fa- 
ther. To revenge herself she slew her younger 
brother, and served him up as food before her father. 
The gods changed her into a bird. 

Harpasa ("Apiraaa : Arepas), a citj'' of Caria, on 
the river Harpasus. 

Harpasus ("ApTrao-os). 1. (Arpa-Su), a river of 
Caria, flowing N. into the Maeander, into which it 
falls opposite to Nysa. — 2. (Harpa-Su), a river of 
Armenia Major, flowing S. into the Araxes, Xe- 
nophon, who crossed it with the 10,000 Greeks, 
states its width as 4 plethra (about 400 feet). 

Harpina or Harpinna ("Apiriva, "Ap-Kiwa)^ a 
town in Elis Pisatis, near Olympia, said to have 
been called after a daughter of Asopus. 

Harpocration, Valerius, a Greek grammarian 
of Alexandria, of uncertain date, the author of 
an extant dictionary to the works of the 10 Attic 
orators, entitled HepX rwv Ae|ea)z/ twv 5e/ca prjTo- 
poov, or Ae^LKhu ruv deKa prjropoou. It contains not 
only explanations of legal and political terms, but 
also accounts of persons and things mentioned in the 
Attic orators, and is a work of great value. The 
best editions are the one published at Leipzig, 
1824, and the one byBekker, Berlin, 1833. 

Harpyiae {"ApTrviai), the Harpies^ that is, the 
Robbers or Spoilers, are in Homer nothing but per- 
sonified storm winds, who are said to carry off any 
one who had suddenly disappeared from the earth. 
Thus they carried off the daughters of king Pan- 
dareus, and gave them as servants to the Erinnyes. 
— Hesiod describes them as daughters of Thaumas 
by the Oceanid Electra, fair-locked and winged 
maidens, who surpassed winds and birds in the ra- 
pidity of their flight. But even in Aeschylus they 



298 HARUDES. 
appear as ugly creatures with wings ; and later 
writers represent them as most disgusting monsters, 
being birds with the heads of maidens, with long 
claws and with faces pale with hunger. They were 
sent by the Gods to torment the blind Phineus, 
and whenever a meal was placed before him, they 
darted down from the air and carried it off ; later 
*vritcrs add, that they either devoured the food 
themselves, or rendered it unfit to be eaten. Phi- 
neus was delivered from them by Zetes and Calais, 
sons of Boreas, and 2 of the Argonauts. [See p. 
76, a.] Hesiod mentions 2 Harpies, Ocj-pete and 
Acllo : later writers 3 ; but their names are not 
the same in all accounts. Besides the 2 already 
mentioned, we find Aellopos, Nicothoe, Ocythoe, 
Ocypode, Celaeno, Acholoe. Virgil places them 
in the islands called Strophades, in the Ionian sea 
(Acn. iii. 210), where they took up their abode 
after they had been driven away from Phineus. — 
In the famous Harpy monument recently brought 
from Lycia to this country, the Harpies are repre- 
sented in the act of carrying off the daughters of 
Pandareus. 

Harudes, a people in the array of Ariovistus 
(b. c. 58), supposed to be the same as the Ch.aru- 
des mentioned by Ptolemy, and placed by him in 
the Chersonesus Cimbrica. 

Hasdrubal {'Aadpov§as), a Carthaginian name, 
probably signifies one whose help is Baal. 1. 
Son of Hanno, a Carthaginian general in the 
.1st Punic war. He was one of the 2 generals 
defeated by Regulus B. c. 256. In 254 he 
was sent into Sicily, with a large army, and re- 
mained in the island 4 years. In 250, he was to- 
tally defeated by Metellus, and was put to death 
on his return to Carthage. ■= 2. A Carthaginian, 
son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca, on whose death in 
229, he succeeded to the command in Spain. He 
ably carried out the plans of his father-in-law for 
extending the Carthaginian dominions in Spain, and 
entrusted the conduct of most of his militarj- enter- 
prises to the young Hannibal. He founded New 
Carthage, and concluded with the Romans the ce- 
lebrated treaty which fixed the Iberus as the 
boundary between the Carthaginian and Roman 
dominions. He was assassinated by a slave, whose 
master he had put to death (221), and was suc- 
ceeded in the command by Hannibal. — 3. Son 
of Hamilcar Barca, and brother of Hannibal. When 
Hannibal set out for Italy (218), Hasdrubal was 
left in the command in Spain, and there fought for 
some years against the 2 Scipios. In 207 he 
crossed the Alps and marched into Italy, in order 
to assist Hannibal ; but he was defeated on 
the Metaurus, by the consuls C. Claudius Nero 
and M. Livius Salinator, his army was destroyed, 
and he himself fell in the battle. His head was 
cut off and thrown into Hannibal's camp. — 4. One 
of Hannibal's chief officers, commanded the left 
wing of the Carthaginian army at the battle of 
Cannae (216). — 5. Sumamed the Bald (Cahiis), 
commander of the Carthaginian expedition to Sar- 
dinia in the 2nd Punic war, 215. He was de- 
feated by the Roman praetor, T. Manlius, taken 
prisoner, and carried to Rome. — 6. Son of Gisco, 
one of the Carthaginian generals in Spain during 
the 2nd Punic war. He fought in Spain from 214 
to 206. After he and Mago had been defeated by 
Scipio in the latter of these years, he crossed over 
to Africa, where he succeeded in obtaining the 
alliance of Syphax by giving hun his daughter So- 



HECATAEUS. 

phonisba in marriage. In conjunction with Syphax, 
Hasdrubal carried on war against Masinissa, but 
he was defeated by Scipio, who landed in Africa 
in 204. He was condemned to death for his ill 
success by the Carthaginian government, but he 
still continued in arms against the Romans. On 
the arrival of Hannibal from Ital}' his sentence was 
reversed ; but the popular feeling against him had 
not subsided, and in order to escape death from his 
enemies, he put an end to his life by poison. — 
7. Commander of the Carthaginian fleet in Africa 
in 203, must be distinguished from the preceding. 
— 8. Surnamed the Kid (Ilaedus), one of the 
leaders of the party at Carthage favourable to peace 
towards the end of the 2nd Punic war. — 9. Ge- 
neral of the Carthaginians in the 3rd Punic war. 
When the city was taken, he surrendered to Scipio, 
who spared his life. After adorning Scipio's 
triumph, he spent the rest of his life in Italy. 

Haterius, Q., a senator and rhetorician in the 
age of Augustus and Tiberius, died a. d. 26, in 
the 8,9th year of his age. 

Hebe ("HgTj), called Juventas by the Romans, 
the goddess of youth, was a daughter of Zeus and 
Hera. She waited upon the gods, and filled their 
cups with nectar, before Ganymedes obtained this 
office ; and she is further represented as assisting 
her mother Hera in puttmg the horses to her cha- 
riot, and in bathing and dressing her brother Ares. 
She married Hercules after he was received among 
the gods, and bore to him 2 sons, Alexiares and 
Anticetus. Later traditions represent her as a 
divinity who had it in her power to make aged 
persons young again. At Rome there were several 
temples of Juventas. She is even said to have had 
a chapel on the Capitol before the temple of Jupiter 
was built there. 

Hebromagus. [Eburomagus.] 

Hebron {'E€pa>v, Xeipiiv 'E€fju>vios: El-KhulU\ 
a city in the S. of Judaea, as old as the times of the 
patriarchs, and the first capital of the kingdom of 
David, who reigned there 7^ years, as king of 
Judah only. 

Hebrus ("E§pos: Mantea), the principal river 
in Thrace, rises in the mountains of Scomius and 
Rhodope, flows first S.E. and then S.W., becomes 
navigable for smaller vessels at Philippopolis, and 
for larger ones at Hadrianopolis, and falls into the 
Aegean sea near Aenos, after forming by another 
branch an estuary called Stentoris Lacus. — The 
Hebrus Avas celebrated in Greek legends. On its 
banis Orpheus was torn to pieces by the Thracian 
women ; and it is frequently mentioned in con- 
nexion with the worship of Dionysus. 

Hecaerge ('EKaepyr]). 1. Daughter of Boreas, 
and one of the H}'perborean maidens, who were 
believed to have introduced the worship of Artemis 
in Delos. — 2. A surname of Artemis, signifying 
the goddess who hits at a distance. 

Hecale ('E/caATj), a poor old woman, who hos- 
pitably received Theseus, when he had gone out 
for the purpose of killing the Marathonian bull. 
She vowed to offer to Zeus a sacrifice for the safe 
return of the hero ; but as she died before his 
return, Theseus ordained that the inhabitants of 
the Attic tetrapolis should offer a sacrifice to her 
and Zeus Hecalus, or Hecaleius. 

Hecataeus ('EKaralos). 1. Of Miletus, one of 
the earliest and most distinguished Greek histo- 
rians and geographers. He was the son of Hege- 
sander, and belonged to a very ancient and illus- 



HECATE. 



HECTOR. 



299 



trious family. We have only a few particulars of his 
life. In B. c. 500 he endeavoured to dissuade his 
countrymen from revolting from the Persians ; and 
when this advice was disregarded, he gave t)iem 
some sensible counsel respecting the conduct of the 
war, which was also neglected. Previous to this, 
Hecataeus had visited Egypt and many other 
countries. He survived the Persian wars, and ap- 
pears to have died about 476. He wrote 2 works: 

— 1. JJepiodos yvs, or Hepirjyqais, divided into 2 
parts, one of which contained a description of Eu- 
rope, and the other of Asia, Egj^t, and Libya. 
Both parts were subdivided into smaller sections, 
which are sometimes quoted under their respective 
names, such as Hellespontus, &c. — 2. TeuiaKoy'iai 
or 'larop'iai, in 4 books, contained an accoiint of 
the poetical fables and traditions of the Greeks. 
His work on geography was the more important, 
as it embodied the results of his numerous travels. 
He also corrected and improved the map of the 
earth drawn up by Anaximander. Herodotus 
knew the works of Hecataeus well, and frequently 
controverts his opinions. Hecataeus wrote in the 
Ionic dialect in a pure and simple style. The frag- 
ments of his works are collected by Klausen, Heea- 
taei Milesii Fragmenta, Berlin, 1831, and by C. 
and Th. Muller, Frag. Hist. Grace. Paris, 1841. 

— 2. Of Abdera, a conteraporar)' of Alexander 
the Great and Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, ap- 
pears to have accompanied the former on his Asiatic 
expedition. He was a pupil of the Sceptic Pyrrho, 
and is himself called a philosopher, critic, and 
grammarian. In the reign of the first Ptolemy he 
travelled up the Nile as far as Thebes. He was 
the author of several works, of which the most 
important were: — • 1. A History of Egypt. — 2. 
A work on the Hyperboreans. — 3. A History of 
the Jews, frequently referred to by Josephus and 
other ancient writers. This work was declared 
spurious by Origen : modern critics are divided in 
their opinions, 

Hecate ('E/f ar?;) a mysterious divinity , com- 
monly represented as a daughter of Persaeus or 
Perses and Asteria, and hence called Perseis. She 
is also described as a daughter of Zeus and Deme- 
ter, or of Zeus and Pheraea or Hera, or of Leto or 
Tartarus. Homer does not mention her. According 
to the most genuine traditions, she appears to have 
been an ancient Thracian divinity, and a Titan, who 
ruled in heaven, on the earth, and in the sea, bestow- 
ing on mortals wealth, victory, wisdom, good luck 
to sailors and hunters, and prosperity to youth and 
to the flocks of cattle. She was the only one 
among the Titans who retained this power under 
the rule of Zeus, and she was honoured by all the 
immortal gods. The extensive power possessed by 
Hecate was probably the reason that she was sub- 
sequently identified with several other divinities, 
and at length became a mystic goddess, to whom 
mysteries were celebrated in Samothrace and in 
Aegina. In the Homeric hymn to Demeter, she 
is represented as taking an active part in the search 
after Proserpina, and when the latter was found as 
remaining with her as her attendant and com- 
panion. [See p. 212, a.] She thus became a 
deity of the lower world, and is described in this 
capacity as a mighty and formidable divinity. In 
consequence of her being identified with other di- 
vinities, she is said to have been Selene or Luna 
in heaven, Artemis or Diana in earth, and Perse- 
phone or Proserpina in the lower world. Being 



thus as it were a 3-fold goddess, she is described 
with 3 bodies or 3 heads, the one of a horse, the 
2nd of a dog, and the 3rd of a lion. Hence her- 
epithets Tergeminus, Triformis^ Triceps, &c. From 
her being an infernal divinity, she came to be re- 
garded as a spectral being, who sent at night all 
kinds of demons and terrible phantoms from the 
lower world, who taught sorcery and witchcraft, and 
dwelt at places where 2 roads crossed, on tombs, and 
near the blood of murdered persons. She herself wan- 
dered about with the souls of the dead, and her ap- 
proach was announced by the whining and howling 
of dogs. — At Athens there were verj'- many small 
statues or symbolical representations of Hecate (e/ca- 
raia), placed before or in houses, and on spots where 
2 roads crossed : it would seem that people consulted 
such Hecataea as oracles. At the close of every 
month dishes with food were set out for her and other 
averters of evil at the points where 2 roads crossed ; 
and this food was consumed by poor people. The 
sacrifices offered to her consisted of dogs, honey, 
and black female lambs. 

Hecatonmtis ('E/caroV^'cos), king or dynast of 
Caria, in the reign of Artaxerxes III. He left 3 
sons, Maussolus, Idrieus, and Pixodarus, all of 
whom, in their turn, succeeded him in the sove- 
reignty ; and 2 daughters, Artemisia and Ada. 

Hecatompylos ('E/fctToVTrwAos, i. e. laving 100 
■gates). 1. An epithet of Thebes in Egypt [Thebae]. 
-=■2. A city in the middle of Parthia, 1260 stadia or 
133 Roman miles from the Caspiae Pylae; enlarged 
by Seleucus ; and afterwards used by the Parthian 
kings as a royal residence. 

Hecaton ('E/caTw?'), a Stoic philosopher, a na- 
tive of Rhodes, studied under Panaetius, and wrote 
numerous works, all of which are lost. 

Hecatonnesi ('E/caroVj/yjcrot : Moslco-nisi), a 
group of small islands, between Lesbos and the 
coast of Aeolis, on the S. side of the mouth of the 
Gulf of Adramyttium. The name, 100 islands, was 
indefinite ; the real number was reckoned by some 
at 20, by others at 40. Strabo derives the name, 
not from 'iKarov, 1 00, but from "'E^koltos, a surname 
of Apollo. 

Hector ("E/cTwp), the chief hero of the Trojans 
in their war with the Greeks, was the eldest son of 
Priam and Hecuba, the husband of Andromache, 
and father of Scamandrius. He fought Avith the 
bravest of the Greeks, and at length slew Patro- 
clus, the friend of Achilles. The death of his 
friend roused Achilles to the fight. The other 
Trojans fled before him into the city. Hector alone 
remained without the walls, though his parents 
implored him to return ; but when he saw Achilles, 
his heart failed him, and he took to flight. Thrice 
did he race round the city, pursued by the swift- 
footed Achilles, and then fell pierced by Achilles' 
spear. Achilles tied Hector's body to his chariot, 
and thus dragged him into the camp of the Greeks ; 
but later traditions relate that he first dragged the 
body thrice aroimd the walls of Ilium. At the 
command of Zeus, Achilles sxirrendered the body 
to the prayers of Priam, who buried it at Troy 
Avith great pomp. Hector is one of the noblest 
conceptions of the poet of the Iliad. He is the great 
bulwark of Troy, and even Achilles trembles when 
he approaches him. He has a presentiment of the 
fall of his country, but he perseveres in his heroic 
resistance, preferring death to slavery and disgrace. 
Besides these virtues of a warrior, he is distin- 
guished also by those of a man : his heart is open 



300 



HECUBA- 



HELEX-A. 



to the gentle feelings of a son, a husband, and a 
father. 

Hecuba ('EKaSri), daughter of Dymas in Phry- 
gia, or of Cisseus. king of Thrace. She "w-as the 
wife of Priam, king of Troy, to whom she bore 
Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenas, Cassandra, and 
many other children. On the capture of Troy, she 
was carried away as a slave by the Greeks. Ac- 
cording to the tragedy of Euripides, which bears 
her name, she was carried by the Greeks to Cher- 
sonesus, and there saw her daughter Polyxena sacri- 
ficed. On the same day the wares of the sea washed 
on the coast the body of her last son Polydorus, who 
had been murdered by Polymestor, king of the 
Thracian Chersonesus, to whose care he had been 
entrusted by Priam. Hecuba thereupon killed 
the children of Polymestor, and tore out the eyes 
of their father. Agamemnon pardoned her the 
crime, and Polymestor prophesied that she should 
be metamorphosed into a she-do?, and should leap 
into the sea at a place called Cynossema. It was 
added that the inhabitants of Thrace endeavoured 
to stone her, but that she was metamorphosed into 
a dog, and in this form howled through the country 
for a long time. — According to other accounts she 
was given as a slave to Ulysses, and in despair 
leaped into the Hellespont ; or being anxious to 
die, she uttered such invectives against the Greeks, 
that the warriors put her to death, and called the 
place where she was buried Cynossema, vnih. re- 
ference to her impudent invectives. 

Hedyltis (^H5u\os), son of Melicertus, was a 
native of Samos or of Athens, and an epigrammatic 
poet. 11 of his epigrams are in the Greek Antho- 
logy. He was a contemporary and rival of Calli- 
machus, and lived therefore about the middle of 
the 3rd century b. c. 

Hedylixis Mons {'USv\siov), a range of moun- 
tains in Boeotia, W. of the Cephissus. 

Hegemon. {'Uyfificcy), of Thasos, a poet of the 
old comedy at Athens, but more celebrated for his 
parodies, of which kind of poetry he was the in- | 
ventor. He was nicknamed ^aicfj, on account of 
his fondness for that kind of pulse. He lived in 
the time of the Peloponnesian war ; and his parodv 
of the Gigantomacrda was the piece to which the 
Athenians were listening, when the nev.s was 
brought to them in the theatre of the destruction 
of the expedition to Sicily. 

Hegemone ('H76,uon7>, the leader or ruler, is 
the name of one of the Athenian Charites or Graces. 
Hegemone was also a surname of Artemis at Sparta, 
and in Arcadia, 

Hegesianax ('H-^Tjo-iavo^). an historian of Alex- 
andria, is said to hare been the real author of the 
work caLed Troica, which went under the name of 
Cephalon. or Cephalion. He appears to be the same 
as the Hegesianax, who was sent by Antiochus 
the Great as one of his envovs to the Romans in 
B.c.l96andl93. 

Hegesias ('HTTjcri'as). L Of Magnesia, a rhe- 
torician and historian, lived about B.C. 290, and 
wrote the history of Alexander the Great. He was 
regarded by some as the founder of that degenerate 
style of composition which bore the name of the 
Asiatic. His owni style was destitute of all vigour 
and dignity, and was marked chiefly by childish 
conceits and minute prettin esses. — 2. Of Salamis, 
supposed by some to have been the author of the 
Cyprian poem, which, on better authority, is ascribed 
to btasinus. — 3. A Cyrenaic philosopher, who lived 



\ at Alexandria in the time of the Ptolemies, perhaps 
about B. c. 260. He wTote a work containing such 
gloomy descriptions of human misery, that it drove 
many persons to commit suicide ; hence he was 
sumamed PtisitJianatos {TleiaiBdvaTos). He was, 
in consequence, forbidden to teach by Ptolemy. 

Hegesias ('H77jc7-i'as) and Hegias ('H7i'ay), 2 
Greek statuaries, whom many scholars identify with 
one another. They lived at the period immediately 
preceding that of Phidias. The chief work of He- 
gesias was the statues of Castor and Pollux, which 
are supposed to be the same as those which now 
stand on the stairs leading to the Capitol. 

Hegesinus ('Httjo-iVous), of Pergamum, the 
successor of Evander and the immediate predecessor 
of Cameades in the chair of the Academy, flourished 
about B.C. lo5. 

HegSfilpptis ('Kr/jo-imros). L An Athenian 
orator, and a contemporary of Demosthenes, to 
whose political party he belonged. The grammarians 
1 ascribe to him the oration on Halonesus, which has 
I come down to us under the name of Demosthenes. 
— 2. A poet of the New Comedy, flourished about 
B. c. 300. — 3. A Greek historian of Mecybema, 
\\Tote an account of the peninsula of Pallene. 

Hegesipyla ('HyTjo-iTrvATj), daughter of Olorus, 
king of Thiace, and wife of Miltiades. 
Hegias. [Hegesias.] 

Helena ('EAevrj), daughter of Zeus and Leda. 
and sister of Castor and Pollux (the Dioscuri). She 
was of surpassing beauty. In her youth she was 
carried off by Theseus and Pirithous to Attica. 
When Theseus was absent in Hades, Castor and 
Pollux undertook an expedition to Attica, to liberate 
their sister. Athens was taken, Helen delivered, 
and A ethra, the mother of Theseus, made prisoner, 
and carried as a slave of Helen, to Sparta- Ac- 
cording to some accounts she bore to Theseus a 
daughter Iphigenia. On her return hwne, she was 
sought in marriage by the noblest chiefs from all 
parts of Greece. She chose Menelaus for her hus- 
j band, and became by him the mother of Hermione. 
She was subsequently seduced and carried off by 
Paris to Troy. [For details, see Paris and Me- 
nelaus.] The Greek chiefs who had been her 
suitors, resolved to revenge her abduction, and ac- 
cordingly sailed against Troy. Hence arose the 
celebrated Trojan war, which lasted 10 years. 
During the course of the war she is represented as 
showing great sympathy with the Greeks. After 
the death of Paris towards the end of the war, she 
married his brother Deiphobus. On the capture of 
Troy, which she is said to have favoured, she be- 
trayed Deiphobus to the Greeks, and became recon- 
ciled to Menelaus, whom she accompanied to Sparta. 
Here she lived with him for some years in peace 
and happiness ; and here, according to Homer, Te- 
lemachus fcund her solemnising the marriage of 
her daughter Hermione with Xeoptoleraus. The 
accounts of Helen's death differ. According to the 
prophecy of Proteus ia the Odyssey, Menelaus and 
Helen were not to die, but the gods were to conduct 
them to Elysium. Others relate that she and Me- 
nelaus were buried at Therapne in Laconia, where 
their tomb was seen by Pausanias. Others again 
relate, that after the death of Menelaus she was 
driven out of Peloponnesus by the sons of the latter 
and fled to Rhodes, where she was tied to a tree 
and strangled by Polyxo : the Rhodians expiated 
the crime by dedicating a temple to her under the 
name of Helena Dendritis. According to another 



HELENA. 



HELIOPOLIS. 



301 



tradition she married Achilles in the island of Leuce, 
and bore him a son Euphorion. — The Egyptian 
priests told Herodotus that Helen never went to 
Troy, but that when Paris reached Egypt with 
Helen on his way to Troy, she was detained by 
Proteus, king of Egypt ; and that she was restored 
to Menelaus when he visited Egypt in search of 
her after the Trojan war, finding that she had never 
been at Troy. 

Helena, Flavia Julia. 1. The mother of Con- 
stantine the Great. When her husband Constantius 
was raised to the dignity of Caesar by Diocletian, 

A, D. 292, he was compelled to repudiate his wife, 
to make way for Theodora, the step-child of Maxi- 
mianus Herculius. Subsequently, when her son 
succeeded to the purple, Helena was treated with 
marked distinction and received the title of Au- 
gusta. She died about 328. She was a Christian, 
and is said to have discovered at Jerusalem the 
sepulchre of our Lord, together with the Avood of 
the true cross. — 2. Daughter of Constantine the 
Great and Fausta, married her cousin Julian the 
Apostate, 355, and died 360. 

Helena ('EAeVT?). 1. (Mah-onisi), a small and 
rocky island, between the S. of Attica and Ceos, 
formerly called Cranae. — 2. The later name of 
IXLIBERRIS in Gaul. 

Helenus {"EXevos). 1. Son ofPriam and Hecuba, 
was celebrated for his prophetic powers, and also 
fought against the Greeks in the Trojan war. In 
Homer we have no further particulars about He- 
lenus ; but in later traditions he is said to have 
deserted his countrymen and joined the Greeks. 
There are likewise various accounts respecting his 
desertion of the Trojans. According to some he 
did it of his own accord ; according to others, he 
was ensnared by Ulysses, who was anxious to 
obtain his prophecy respecting the fall of Troy. 
Others, again, relate that, on the death of Paris, 
Helenus andDeiphobus contended for the possession 
of Helena, and that Helenus bemg conquered, fled 
to Mt. Ida, where he was taken prisoner by the 
Greeks. After the fall of Troy, he fell to the share 
of Pyrrhus. He foretold Pyrrhus the sufferings 
which awaited the Greeks who returned home by 
sea, and prevailed upon him to return by land to 
Epirus. After the death of Pyrrhus he received a 
portion of the country, and married Andromache, 
hj whom he became the father of Cestrinus. When 
Aeneas in his wanderings arrived in Epirus, he 
was hospitably received by Helenus, who also fore- 
told him the future event-s of his life. — 2. Son of 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, hj Lanassa, daughter of 
Agathocles. He accompanied his father to Italy 

B. c. 280, and was with him when Pyrrhus perished 
at Argos, 272. He then fell into the hands of 
Antigonus Gonatas, who however sent him back in 
safety to Epirus. 

Heliadae and Heiiades ('HAtaSai and 'HAt«5es), 
the sons and daughters of Helios (the Sun). The 
name Heiiades is given especially to Pha'tth/sa, 
Lampetie and Phoche, the daughters of Helios and 
the nymph Clymene, and the sisters of Phaeton. 
They bewailed the death of their brother Phaeton 
so bitterly on the banks of the Eridanus, that the 
gods in compassion changed them into poplar-trees 
and their tears into amber. [See Eridanus.] 

Heiice ('EAi fcrj), daughter of Lycaon, was beloved 
by Zeus, but Hera, out of jealousy, metamorphosed 
her mio a she-bear, whereupon Zeus placed her 
among the stars, under the name of the Great Bear. 



HellCe ('EXfKT] : 'EXikwulos, 'EXikevs). 1. The 

ancient capital of Achaia, said to have been founded 
by Ion, possessed a celebrated temple of Poseidon, 
which was regarded as the great sanctuary of the 
Achaean race, Heiice was swallowed up by an 
earthquake together with Bura, B. c. 373. The 
earth sunk deep into the ground, and the place on 
which the cities stood was ever afterwards covered 
by the sea. — 2. An ancient town in Thessaly, 
which disappeared in early times. 

Helicon {'E\lkwu), son of Acesas, a celebrated 
artist. [Acesas.] 

Helicon (EXlkwv : Helicon, Palaeo-Buni, Turk. 
Zagora)^ a celebrated range of mountains in Boeotia, 
between the lake Copais and the Corinthian gulf, 
was covered with snow the greater part of the 
year, and possessed many romantic ravines and 
lovely vallies. Helicon was sacred to Apollo and 
the Muses, the latter of whom are hence called 
'EXiKcJoviai -napdivoL and 'EXiKOiVLad^s uvfxcpai by 
the Greek poets, and Heliconiades and Helico7iides 
by the Roman poets. Here sprung the celebrated 
fountains of the Muses, Aganippe and Hippo- 
CRENE. At the fountain of Hippocrene was a 
grove sacred to the Muses, which was adorned with 
some of the finest works of art. On the slopes and 
in the valleys of the mountains grew many medi- 
cinal plants, which may have given occasion to the 
worship of Apollo, as the healing god. 

Heli6d5rus ('HAioScypos). 1. An Athenian, sur- 
named Periegetes (ll^pir^yrjTTjs), probably lived 
about B. c. 164, and wrote a description of the 
works of art in the Acropolis at Athens. This work 
was one of the authorities for Pliny's account of 
the Greek artists. — 2. A rhetorician at Rome in 
the time of Augustus, whom Horace mentions as 
the companion of his journey to Brundisium {Sat. i. 
5. 2, 3.) — 3. A Stoic philosopher at Rome, who 
became a delator in the reign of Nero. ( Juv. Sat. i. 
33.) — 4. A rhetorician, and private secretary to 
the emperor Hadrian.— 5. Of Emesa in Syria, lived 
about the end of the 4th century of our era, and 
was bishop of Tricca in Thessaly. Before he was 
made bishop, he wrote a romance in 10 books, en- 
titled Aethiopica, because the scene of the beginning 
and the end of the story is laid in Aethiopia. This 
work has come down to us, and is far superior to the 
other Greek romances. It relates the loves of 
Theagenes and Chariclea. Though deficient in 
those characteristics of modem fiction which appeal 
to the universal sympathies of our nature, the ro- 
mance of Heliodorus is interesting on account of 
the rapid succession of strange and not altogether 
improbable adventures, the many and various 
characters introduced, and the beautiful scenes de- 
scribed. The language is simple and elegant. The 
best editions are by Mitscherlich in his Scrip- 
tores Graeci Erotici, Argentorat. 1798, and by 
Coraes, Paris, 1804. — 6. Of Larissa, the author of 
a short work on optics, still extant, chiefly taken 
from Euclid's Optics: editedby Matani,Pistor.l758. 

Heliogabalus. [Elagabalus.] 

Heliopolis ('HAtouTroAis or 'HAiouTroAis, i. e. tlie 
City of the Sun). 1. (Heb. Baalath : Baalbek, Ru.), 
a celebrated city of Syria, a chief seat of the 
worship of Baal, one of whose symbols was the 
Sun, and Avhom the Greeks identified with Apollo, 
as well as -with Zeus : hence the Greek name of the 
city. With the worship of Baal, here as elsewhere, 
was associated that of Astarte, Avhora the Greeks 
identified Avith Aphrodite. It was situated in the 



302 HELIOS, 
middle of Coele-Sj-ria, at the W. foot of Anti- 
Libanua, on a rising ground at the N. E. extremity 
of a large plain which reaches almost to the sea, 
and winch is well watered by the river Leontes 
(N'ahr-€l-Kas{mii/ek),-ne&r whose sources Heliopolis 
was built : the sources of the Orontes also are not 
far N. of the city. The situation of Heliopolis 
necessarily made it a place of great commercial 
importance, as it was on the direct road from Egypt 
and the Red Sea and also from Tyre to Syria, 
Asia Minor, and Europe; and hence, probablj-, tlie 
wealth of the city, to which its ruins still bear 
witness. We know, however, very little of its 
history. It was made a Roman colony by the name 
of Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Heliopolitana, and 
colonised by veterans of the 5th and 8th legions, 
under Augustus. Antoninus Pius built the great 
temple of Jupiter (i. e. Baal), of which the ruins 
Btill exist ; and there are medals which shew, in 
addition to other testimony, that it was favoured 
by several of the later emperors. All the existing 
ruins are of the Roman period, and most of them 
probably of later date than the great temple just 
mentioned ; but it is impossible to determine their 
exact times. They consist of a large quadrangular 
court in front of the great temple, another hexagonal 
court outside of this, and, in front of all, a portico, 
or propylaea, approached by a flight of steps. 
Attached to one comer of the quadrangular court 
is a smaller, but more perfect, temple; and, at some 
distance from all these buildings, there is a circular 
edifice, of a unique and \ery interesting archi- 
tectural form. There is also a single Doric column 
on a rising ground, and traces of the city walls, 
2. (0. T. On, or Bethshemesh: MatarieJi, Ru. N.E. 
of Cairo), a celebrated city of Lower Egypt, capital 
of the Nomos Heliopolites, stood on the E. side of the 
Pelusiac branch of the Nile, a little below the apex 
of the Delta,'and near the canal of Trajan, and was, 
in the earliest period of which we have any record, 
a chief seat of the Egyptian worship of the Sun.- 
Here also was established the worship of jMnevis, 
a sacred bull similar to Apis, The priests of 
Heliopolis were renowTied for their learning. It 
suffered much during the invasion of Cambyses ; 
and by the time of Strabo it was entirely ruined. 

Heiios ("U\ios or 'H4\ws), called Sol by the 
Romans, the god of the sun. He was th^ son of 
Hyperion and Thea, and a brother of Selene and 
Eos. From his father, he is frequently called 
Hjrperionides, or Hyperion, the latter of which is 
an abridged form of the patronj-mic, Hyperionion, 
In the Homeric hymn on Helios, he is called a son 
of Hyperion and Euryphaessa, Homer describes 
Helios as giving light both to gods and men : he rises 
in the E, from Oceanus, traverses the heaven, and 
descends in the evening into the darkness of the W. 
and Oceanus, Later poets have marvellously embel- 
lished this simple notion. They tell of a most mag- 
nificent palace of Helios in the E., containmg a 
throne occupied by the god, and siurounded by per- 
sonifications of the different divisions of time. They 
also assign him a second palace in the "\Y., and 
describe his horses as feeding upon herbs growing 
in the islands of the Blessed. The manner iu 
which Helios during the night passes from the 
western into the eastern ocean is not mentioned 
either by Homer or Hesiod, but later poets make 
him aail in a golden boat, the work of Hephaestus, 
round one-half of the earth, and thus arrive in the 
E- at the point from which he has to rise again. 



HELLE. 

Others represent hira as making his nightly voyage 
while slumbering in a golden bed. The horses 
and chariot with which Helios traverses the hea- 
vens are not mentioned in the Iliad and Odyssey, 
but first occur in the Homeric hymn on Helios, and 
both are described minutely by later poets. — Helios 
is described as the god who sees and hears ever/ 
thing, and was thus able to reveal to Hephaestus 
the faithlessness of Aphrodite, and to Demeter the 
abduction of her daughter. At a later time Helios 
became identified with Apollo, though the 2 gods 
were originally quite distinct; but the identification 
was never carried out completely, for no Greek 
poet ever made Apollo ride in the chariot of Helios 
through the heavens, and among the Romans we 
find this idea only after the time of Virgil. The 
representations of Apollo with rays around his 
head, to characterise him as identical with the sun, 
belong to the time of the Roman empire, — The 
island of Thrinacia (Sicily) was sacred to Helios, 
and there he had flocks of sheep and oxen, which 
were tended by his daughters Phaetusa and Lam- 
petia. Later traditions ascribe to him flocks also 
in the island of Erythia ; and it may be re- 
marked in general, that sacred flocks, especially of 
oxen, occur in most places where the worship of 
Helios was established. — His descendants are very 
numerous ; and the surnames and epithets given 
him by the poets are mostly descriptive of his 
character as the sun. Temples of Helios (^AieTa) 



j existed in Greece at a very early time; and in later 
times we find his worship established in various 
places, and especially in the island of Rhodes, 
where the famous colossus was a representation of 
the god. The sacrifices offered to him consisted 
of white rams, boars, bulls, goats, lambs, especially 
white horses, and honey. Among the animals sacred 
to him, the cock is especially mentioned. The Ro- 
man poets, when speaking of the god of the sun 
( Sol), usually adopt the notions of the Greeks. The 
Avorship of Sol was introduced at Rome, especially 
after the Romans had become acquainted with the 
East, though traces of the worship of the sun and 
moon occur at an early period, 

Helisson {'EXicra-wy or 'EXicraovs), a small town 
in Arcadia, on a river of the same name, which falls 
into the Alpheus. 

Hellanicus (EWduiKos). 1. Of Mytilene in 
Lesbos, the most eminent of the Greek logographerg, 
or early Greek historians, was in all probability bom 
about B.C. 496, and died 411. "VVe have no par- 
ticulars of his life, but we maypresumethathe visited 
many of the countries, of whose history he gave an 
account. He wrote a great number of genealogical, 
chronological and historical works, which are cited 
under the titles of Troica, Aeolica, Persica, &c. One 
of his most popular works was entitled 'UpeiaL ttjs 
"Epas : it contained a chronological list of the 
priestesses of Hera at Argos, compiled from the 
records preserved in the temple of the goddess of 
this place. This work was one of the earliest attempts 
to regulate chronology, and was made use of by 

I Thucydides, Timaeus and others. The fragments 
of Hellanicus are collected by Sturz, Hellanici LesUi 
Fragmenia, Lips. 1826 ; and by C. and Th. Miiller, 
Fragm. Histor. Graec. Paris, 1841.— 2. A Greek 
grammarian, a disciple of Agathocles, and appa- 
rently a contemporary of Aristarchus, v.Tote on the 
Homeric poems, 
Hellas, Hellenes. [Graecia.] 
Helle ("EAAt?), daughter of Athamas and Ne- 



HELLEN. 

phele, and sister of Phrixus. "When Phrixus was 
to be sacrificed [Phrixus], Nephele rescued her 
2 children, who rode away through the air upon 
the ram with the golden fleece, the gift of Hermes ; 
but, between Sigeum and the Chersonesus, Helle 
fell into the sea, which was thence called the sea 
of Helle {Hellespontus). Her tomb was shown near 
Pactya, on the Hellespont, 

Hellen ("EAAtjj^), son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, 
or of Zeus and Dorippe, husband of Orseis, and 
father of Aeolus, Dorus, and Xuthus. He was 
king of Phthia in Thessaly, and was succeeded 
by his son Aeolus. He is the mythical ancestor of 
all the Hellenes; from his 2 sons Aeolus and Dorus 
Avere descended the Acolians and Dorians ; and 
from his 2 grandsons Achaeus and Ion, the sons of 
Xuthus, the Achaeans and lonians. 

Hellespontus {'EW-qa-n-ovTos : Straits of the 
Dardanelles, or o/G'allipoli, Turk. StambulDenciJiiz\ 
the long narrow strait connecting the Propontis 
(Sea of Marmara) with the Aegean Sea, and 
through Avhich the waters of the Black Sea dis- 
charge themselves into the Mediterranean in a 
constant current. The length of the strait is about 
.50 miles, and the widtli varies from 6 miles at the 
iipper end to 2 at the lower, and in some places it 
is only 1 mile wide, or even less. The narrowest 
part is between the ancient cities of Sestus and 
Abydus, where Xerxes made his bridge of boats, 
[Xerxes] and where the legend related that 
Leander swam across to visit Hero. [Leander.] 
The name of the Hellespont (i. e. the Sea of Helle) 
was derived from the story of Helle's being drowned 
in it [Helle]. The Hellespont was the boundary 
of Europe and Asia, dividing the Thracian Cher- 
sonese in the former from the Troad and the terri- 
tories of Abydus and Lampsacus in the latter. The 
district just mentioned, on the S. side of the Hel- 
lespont, was also called 'EW-fjairovTos, its inha- 
bitants 'EA\rj(nr6uTioi, and the cities on its coast 
'EWTjaiTovTiaL irSXsis. — 2. Under the Roman 
empire, Hellespontus was the name of a proconsular 
province, composed of the Troad and the N. part of 
Mysia, and having Cyzicus for its capital. 

Hellomenum {'EWo/xevov), a seaport town of 
the Acarnanians on the island Leucas. 

Hellopia. [Ellopia.] 

Helorus or Helorum (7?"EA&)pos: 'EAwptTTjs), 
a town on the E. coast of Sicilj^, S. of Syracuse, at 
the mouth of the river Helorus. There was a road 
from Helorus to Syracuse {65hs 'EAwpii/r], Time, 
vi. 70, vii. 80). 

Helos {rh "EXos : 'EAeTos, 'EXedrrjs). 1. A 
town in Laconia, on the coast, in a marshy situa- 
tion, whence its name {'eKos=zmarsh). The town 
was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. It was 
commonly said that the Spartan slaves, called He- 
lotes (EtAcores), were originally the Achaean in- 
habitants of this town, who were reduced by the 
Dorian conquerors to slaverj-- ; but this account of 
the origin of the Helotes seems to have been merely 
an invention, in consequence of the similarity of 
their name to that of the town of Helos. (See Did. 
of Antiq. art. Helotes.)'— 2, A town or district of 
Elis on the AlphGus. 

Helveconae, a people in Germany, between the 
Viadus and the Vistula, S. of the Rugii, and N. of 
the Burgundioiies, reckoned by Tacitus among the 
Ligii. 

Helvetii, a brave and powerful Celtic people, 
who dwelt between M. Jurassus (Jiura), the Lacus 



PIEPHAESTIA. 303 

Lemannus (Lake of Geneva)^ the Rhone, and the 
Rhine as far as the Lacus Brigantinus (Lake of 
Constance). They were thus bounded by the Se- 
quani on the W., by the Nantuates and Lepontii 
in Cisalpine Gaul on the S., by the Rhaeti on the 
E., and by the German nations on the N. beyond 
the Rhine. Their country, called Ager Ilelve- 
tiorum (but never Helvetia)^ thus corresponded to 
the W. part of Switzerland. Their chief town Avas 
AvENTicuM. They were divided into 4 pagi oi 
cantons, of which the Pagus Tigurinus was the 
most celebrated. We only know the name of one 
of the 3 othei's, namely the Vicus VerhigeJius, or, 
more correctly, Urbigenus. — The Helvetii are first 
mentioned in the war with the Cimbri. In b. c. 
107 the Tigurini defeated and killed the Roman 
consul L. Cassius Longinus, on the lake of Geneva, 
while another division of the Helvetii accompanied 
the Cimbri and Teutones in their invasion of Gaul. 
Subsequently the Helvetii invaded Italy along with 
the Cimbri ; and they returned home in safety, 
after the defeat of the Cimbri by Marius and Ca- 
tulus in iOl. About 40 years afterwards, they 
resolved, upon the advice of Orgetorix, one of their 
chiefs, to migrate from their country with their 
wives and children, and seek a new home in the 
more fertile plains of Gaul. In 58 they endea- 
•voured to carry their plan into execution, but they 
were defeated by Caesar, and driven back into 
their own territories. The Romans now planted 
colonies and built fortresses in their country (No- 
viodunum, Vindonissa, Aventicum), and the Hel- 
vetii gradually adopted the customs and language 
of their conquerors. They were severely punished 
by the generals of Vitellius (a. d. 70), whom they 
refused to recognise as emperor ; and after that 
time they are rarely mentioned as a separate, 
people. — The E[elvetii were included in Gallia 
Lugdunensis, according to Strabo, but in Gallia 
Belgica, according to Pliny : most modern writers 
adopt Plinj'-'s statement. When Gaul Avas sub- 
divided into a greater number of provinces under 
the later emperors, the country of the Helvetii 
formed, Avith that of the Sequani and the Rauraci, 
the province of Maxima Sequanorum. 

Helvia, mother of the philosopher Seneca. 

Helvidius Priscus. [Priscus.] 

Helvii, a people in Gaul, between the Rhone 
and Mt. Cebenna, Avhich separated them from the 
Arverni, Avere for a long time subject to Massilia, 
but afterAvards belonged to the province of Gallia 
Narbonensis. Their country produced good wine. 

Helvms. 1. Blasio. [Blasio.] 2. Cinna. 
[Cinna.]— 3. Maacia. [Mancia.] 4. Perti- 
nax. [Pertinax.] 

Hemeresia ('H/iepTjo-i'a), the soothing goddess, 
a surname of Artemis, under Avhich she Avas wor- 
shipped at the fountain Lusi (Aoucroi'), in Arcadia. 

Hemeroscopion. [Dianium, No. 2.] 

Hemina, Cassius. [Cassius, No. 14.] 

Heneti ('Ej^eroi'), an ancient people in Paphla- 
gonia, dwelling on the river Parthenius, fought on 
the side of Priam against the Greeks, but had dis- 
appeared before the historical times. They were 
regarded by many ancient Avriters as the ancestors 
of the Veneti in Italy. [Venetl] 

HeniocM ('Hz^ioxo/), a people in Colchis, N. 
of the Phasis, notorious as pirates. 

Henna. [Enna.] 

Hephaestia ('H<|)ajo-Ti'a). 1. ('H^ato-TieiJs), a 
tOAvn in the N.W. of the island of Lemnos.— 2. 



304 HEPHAESTIADES. 



HERA. 



{'Ucpaia-TiSris -Tei'Srjs), a demus in Attica, belong- 
ing to the tribe Acamantis. 
Hephaestiades InsiUae. [Aeoliae.] 
Hephaestion ("H'paicrT'iuv). 1. Sonof'Amyn- 
tor, a Macedonian of Pella, celebrated as the 
friend of Alexander the Great, with whom he 
liad been brought up. Alexander called Hephaes- 
tion his own private friend, but Craterus the 
friend of the king. Hephaestion accompanied 
Alexander to Asia, and was employed by the king 
in many important commands. He died at Ecba- 
tana, after an illness of only 7 days, B. c. 325. 
Alexander's grief for his loss was passionate and 
violent. A general mourning was ordered through- 
out the empire, and a funeral pile and monument 
erected to him at Babylon, at a cost of 10,000 ta- 
lents. —2. A Greek grammarian, who instructed 
the emperor Verus in Greek, and accordingly lived 
about A. B. 150. He was perhaps the author of a 
Manual OJi Metres ('E7xeIp^5lO^' ic^pi /ueTpwv), 
which has come down to us under the name of 
Hephaestion. This work is a tolerably complete 
manual of Greek metres, and forms the basis of all 
our kn6wledge on that subject. Edited by Gais- 
ford, Oxon. 1810. 

Hephaestus ('Vi.(pai(TTos), called Vulcanus by 
the Romans, the god of fire. He was, according 
to Homer, the son of Zeus and Hera. Later 
traditions state that he had no father, and that 
Hera gave birth to him independent of Zeus, as 
she was jealous of Zeus having given birth to 
Athena independent of her. He was born lame 
and weak, and was in consequence so much dis- 
liked by his mother, that she threw him down 
from Olympus. The marine divinities, Thetis and 
Eurjmome, received him, and he dwelt with them 
for 9 years in a grotto, beneath Oceanus, making 
for them a variety of ornaments. He afterwards 
returned to Olympus, though we are not told through 
what means, and he appears in Homer as the 
great artist of the gods of Olj^mpus. Although be 
had been cruelly treated by his mother, he always 
showed her respect and kindness ; and on one 
occasion took her part, when she was quarrelling 
with Zeus, which so much enraged the father of 
the gods, that he seized Hephaestus by the leg, and 
hurled him down from heaven. Hephaestus was 
?. whole day falling, but in the evening he alighted 
in the island of Lemnos, where he was kindly re- 
ceived by the Sintians. Later writers describe his 
lameness as the consequence of this fall, while 
Homer makes him lame from his birth. He again 
returned to Olympus, and subsequently acted the 
part of mediator between his parents. On that 
occasion he offered a cup of nectar to his mother 
and the other gods, who burst out into immo- 
derate laughter on seeing him busily hobbling 
from one god to another. — Hephaestus appears 
to have been originally the god of fire simply ; 
but as fire is indispensable in working metals, he 
was afterwards regarded as an artist. His palace 
in Olympus was imperishable and shining like 
stars. It contained his workshop, with the anvil 
and 20 bellows, which worked spontaneously at 
his bidding. It was there that he made all his 
beautiful and marvellous works, both for gods and 
men. The ancient poets abound in descriptions of 
exquisite workmanship which had been manufac- 
tured by the god. All the palaces in Olympus 
^vere his workmanship. He made the armour of 
Achilles ; the fatal necklace of Harmonia ; the 



fire-breathing bulls of Aeetes, king of Colchis, 
&c. In later accounts, the Cyclops are his work- 
men and servants, and his workshop is no longer 
in Olympus, but in some volcanic island. In the 
Iliad the wife of Hephaestus is Charis : in Hesiod 
Aglaia, the youngest of the Charites ; but in the 
Odyssey, as well as in later accounts. Aphrodite 
appears as his wife. Aphrodite proved faithless to 
her husband, and was in love with Arcs ; but 
Helios disclosed their amours to Hephaestus, who 
caught the guilty pair in an invisible net, and ex- 
posed them to the laughter of the assembled gods. 
— The favourite abode of Hephaestus on earth was 
the island of Lemnos ; but other volcanic islands 
also, such as Lipara, Hiera, Imbros, and Sicily, are 
called his abodes or workshops. — Hephaestus, like 
Athena, gave skill to mortal artists, and, conjointly 
with her, he was believed to have taught men the 
arts which embellish and adorn life. Hence at 
Athens they had temples and festivals in common. 
The epithets and surnames, by which Hephaestus 
is designated by the poets, generally allude to his 
skill in the plastic arts or to his lameness. The 
Greeks frequently placed small dwarf-like statues 
of the god near the hearth. During the best period 
of Grecian art, he was represented as a vigorous 
man with a beard, and is characterised by his ham- 
mer or some other instrument, his oval cap, and 
the chiton, which leaves the right shoulder and arm 
uncovered. — The Roman Vulcanus was an old 
Italian divinity. [Vulcanus.] 

Heptanomis. [Aegyptus.] 

Hera ("Hpa or "HpT?), called Juno by the Ro- 
mans. The Greek Hera, that is. Mistress, was a 
daughter of Cronos and Rhea, and sister and wife 
of Zeus. Some call her the eldest daughter of 
Cronos, but others give this title to Hestia. Ac- 
cording to Homer she was brought up by Oceanus 
and Tethys, and afterwards became the wife of 
Zeus, without the knowledge of her parents. This 
simple account is variously modified in other tra- 
ditions. Being a daughter of Cronos, she, like his 
other children, was swallowed by her father, but 
afterwards released ; and, according to an Arcadian 
tradition, she was brought up by Temenus, the son 
of Pelasgus. The Argives, on the other hand, re- 
lated that she had been brought up by Euboea, 
Prosymna, and Acraea, the 3 daughters of the river 
Asterion. Several parts of Greece claimed the 
honour of being her birthplace, and more espe- 
cially Argos and Samos, which were the principal 
seats of her worship. Her marriage with Zeus 
offered ample scope for poetical invention, and se- 
veral places in Greece also claimed the honour of 
having been the scene of the marriage, such as 
Euboea, Samos, Cnossus in Crete, and Mount 
Thornax, in the S. of Argolis. Her marriage, 
called the Sacred Marriage (tephs ydjios), was 
represented in many places where she was wor- 
shipped. At her nuptials all the gods honoured 
her with presents, and Ge presented to her a 
tree with golden apples, which was watched by 
the Hesperides, at the foot of the Hyperborean 
Atlas. — In the Iliad Hera is treated by the 
Olympian gods with the same reverence as her 
husband. Zeus himself listens to her counsels, and 
communicates his secrets to her. She is, notwith- 
standing, far inferior to him in power, and must 
obey him unconditionally. She is not, like Zeus, 
the queen of gods and men, but simply the wife of 
the supreme god. The idea of her being the queen 



FLORA. OAXYMEDES. WI^'E GEXIUS. HEBE. HELIOS (THE SUX.) 




Gauyiaedes. (Zannoiii, Gal. di Fireuze, serie i, vol. 2, Helios (the Sun X'oin of Rliodes, in tbe 
pi. 101.) Page 277. See illustrations opposite p. 2SS. British iluseum.; Page 302. 




"Wine Genius. (A Mosaic, from Pompeii.} Page 279. 




' To face P- o04. 



COINS OF PERSONS. 



GALEA — HELENA. 




Ser. Sulpicius Galba, Roman Emperor, a.d. G8— C9. 
Page 273. 




Galla Placidia, daughter of Theotlosius the Great, ob. a.d. 
.450. Page 274. 




Gallieiuis, Roman Emperor, a.d. 230— 2u8. Page 275. 





Gelou II., King of Syracuse. Page 279. No. 2. 




Gcrmaiiicus Caesar, ob. a.d. 19. Page 282. 




Geta, Roman Emperor, a.d. 212. Page 282. 
To /ace p. 305.] 




Gordianus I., Roman Emperor, a.d. 238. Page 285. 




Gordianus II., Roman Emperor, a.d. 238. Page 285. 



Gordianus III., Roman Emperor, a.d. 238—244. Page 23j 





Gratianus, Roman Emperor, a.d. 337 — 383. Page 289. 




Iladriauus, Roman Emperor, a.d. 117 — 138. Page 291. 




Helena, wife of Constantius Chlorus, and mother of Cj 
stautiue the Great. Page 301. 



HERACLEA. 



liERACLEUM. 



305 



of heaven, witli regal wealth and power, is of much 
later date. Her character, as described by Homer, 
is not of a very amiable kind ; and her jealousy, 
obstinac}', and quarrelsome disposition, sometimes 
make he'r husband tremble. Hence arise frequent 
disputes between Hera and Zeus ; and on one oc- 
casion Hera, in conjunction Avith Poseidon and 
Athena, contemplated putting Zeus into chains. 
Zeus, in such cases, not only threatens, but beats 
her. Once he even hung her up in the clouds, 
with her hands chained, and with two anvils sus- 
pended from her feet ; and on another occasion, 
Avhen Hephaestus attempted to help her, Zeus 
hurled him down from Olympus. — By Zeus she 
was the mother of Ares, Hebe, and Hephaestus. — 
Hera was, properly speaking, the only really married 
goddess among the Olmpians, for the marriage of 
Aphrodite with Hephaestus can scarcely be taken 
into consideration. Hence, she is the goddess of 
marriage and of the birth of children. Several 
epithets and surnames, such as El\e(duia, Taix-qXia, 
Zvy'ia, TeAeia, &c., contain allusions to this cha- 
racter of the goddess, and the Hithyiae are de- 
scribed as her daughters. — She is represented in 
the Hiad riding in a chariot drawn by 2 horses, in 
the harnessing and unharnessing of which she is 
assisted by Hebe and the Horae. Owing to the 
judgment of Paris [Paris], she was hostile to the 
Trojans, and in the Trojan war she accordingly 
sided with the Greeks. She persecuted all the 
children of Zeus by mortal mothers, and hence 
appears as the enemy of Dionysus, Hercules, and 
others. In the Argonautic expedition she assisted 
Jason. It is impossible here to enumerate all the 
events of mythical story in which Hera acts a part ; 
and the reader must refer to the particular deities 
or heroes with whose story she is connected. — 
Hera was worshipped in many parts of Greece, but 
more especially at Argos, in the neighbourhood of 
which she had a splendid temple, on the road to 
Mycenae. Her great festival at Argos is described 
in the Bid. of Ant. art. Ileraea. She also had a 
splendid temple in Samos. — The ancients gave 
several interpretations respecting the real signifi- 
cance of Hera ; but we must in all probability re- 
gard her as the great goddess of nature, who was 
worshipped every where from the earliest times. 
The worship of the Roman Juno is spoken of in 
a separate article. [Juno.] Hera was usually re- 
presented as a majestic woman of mature age, with 
a beautiful forehead, large and widely opened eyes, 
and with a grave expression commanding reverence. 
Her hair was adorned with a crown or a diadem. 
A veil frequently hangs down the back of her head, 
to characterise her as the bride of Zeus, and the 
diadem, veil, sceptre, and peacock, are her ordinary 
attributes. 

Heraclea ('UpaKXeia : 'HpaKh^coTris : Hera- 
cleotes). I. in Europe. 1. H., in Lucania, on 
the river Siris, founded by the Tarentines. During 
the independency of the Greek states in the S. of 
Italy, congresses were held in this town under the 
presidency of the Tarentines. It sunk into insig- 
nificance under the Romans. — 2. In Acarnania on 
the Ambracian gulf. — 3. In Pisatis Elis, in ruins 
in the time of Strabo. —4. The later name of Pe- 
rinthus in Thrace. [Perinthus.] — 6. H. Cac- 
cabaria Porbaria, in Gallia Narbonensis on the 
coast, a sea-port of the Massilians. — 6. H. Lyn- 
Cestis (Avyicrjaris)^ also called Pelagonia (Bitoglia 
or Bitolia\ in INIacedonia, on the Via Egnatia, W. | 



1 of the Erigon, the capital of one of the 4 districts 
into which Macedonia was divided by the Romans. 
—7. H. Minoa {TAivwa : nr. Torre di Capo 
Bianco Ru.), on the S. coast of Sicily, at the 
mouth of the river Plalycus, between Agrigentum 
and Selinus. According to tradition it was founded 
by Minos, when he pursued Daedalus to Sicily, 
and it may have been an ancient colonj'- of the 
Cretans. We know, however, that it was after- 
wards colonised by the inhabitants of Selinus, and 
that its original name was Minoa., which it con- 
tinued to bear till about b. c. 500, when the town 
was taken by the Lacedaemonians imder Euryleon, 
who changed its name into that of Heraclea ; but 
it continued to bear its ancient appellation as a 
surname to distinguish it from other places of the 
same name. It fell at an early period into the 
hands of the Carthaginians, and remained in their 
power till the conquest of Sicilj' by the Romans, 
who planted a colony there. — 8. H. Sintica 
(:ZiuTiKri), in Macedonia, a town of the Sinti, on 
the left bank of the Strj-mon, founded by Amyn- 
tas, brother of Philip. -—9. H. Trachiniae, in 
Thessaly. See Trachis.—- II. /re J s^'a 1. H. Pon- 
tica ('H. 7? TlovTiKi], or HovTou, or eV TIovtw : Ha- 
raUi or Eregli), a city on the S. shore of the Pontus 
Euxinus, on the coast of Bithynia, in the territory 
of the Mariandyni, ^yas situated 20 stadia N. of the 
river Lycus, upon a little river called Acheron or 
Soonautes, and near the base of a peninsula called 
Acherusia, and had a fine harbour. It was founded 
about B. c. 550_, by colonists from Megara and from 
Tanagra m Boeotia (not, as Strabo says, from Mi- 
letus). After various political struggles, it settled 
down under a monarchical form of government. 
It reached the height of its prosperity in the reign 
of Darius Codomannus, when it had an extensive 
commerce, and a territory reaching from the Par- 
thenius to the Sangarms. It began to decline in 
c««8equence of the rise of the kingdom of Bithynia 
and the foundation of Nicomedia, and the invasion 
of Asia Minor by the Gauls ; and its ruin was 
completed in the Mithridatic war, when the city 
was taken and plundered, and partly destroyed, by 
the Romans under Cotta. It was the native city 
of Heraclides Ponticus, and perhaps of the 
painter Zeuxis. ■— 2. H. ad Latmum ('H. Aar- 
yuou, or rj vTTo Adrficv : Ru. near the Lake o/Baffi,), 
a town of Ionia, S.E. of Miletus, at the foot of Mt. 
Latmus and upon the Sinus Latmicus ; formerly 
called Latmus. Near it was a cave, with the 
tomb of Endymion. — There was another city of 
the same name in Caria, one in Lydia, 2 in Syria, 
one in Media, and one in India, none of which 
require special notice here. 

Heracleopolis {'HpaKXeoijiroKis). 1. Parva (77 
/jLiKpd), also called Sethron, a city of Lower Egypt, 
in the Noraos Sethroites, 22 Roman miles W. of 
Pelusium.— 2. Magna (77 /aeydXT], also 77 'dvcv), 
the capital of the fertile Nomos Heracleopolites or 
Heracleotes, in the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt ; 
a chief seat of the worship of the ichneumon. 

Heracleum ('UpdK\€ioy), the name of several 
promontories and towns, of Avhich none require 
special notice except : 1. A town in Macedonia at 
the mouth of the Apilas, near the frontiers of Thes- 
saly. — 2. The harbour of Cnossus in Crete. — 3. A 
town on the coast of the Delta of Egypt, a little 
W. of Canopus ; from which the Canopic mouth 
of the Nile was often called also the Heracleotic 
mouth. ~ 4. A place near Gindarus in the Sji"ian 

X 



zoo IIERACLIANUS. 

province of Cyrrhestice, where Ventidius, the legate 
of M. Antony, gained his great victory over the 
Parthians imder Pacorus, in B. c. 38. 

Heraclianus ('}ipaK\fiav6s), one of the officers 
of llonnrius, put Stilicho to death (a. d. 408), and 
received, as the reward of that service, the govern- 
ment of Africa. He rendered good service to Ho- 
norius during the invasion of Italy by Alaric, and 
the usurpation of Attalus. In 413 he revolted 
against Honorius, and invaded Italy ; but his en- 
terprize failed, and on his return to Africa he was 
put to death at Carthage. 

Heraclidae ('Hpa/cAeTSai), the descendants of 
Hercules, who, in conjunction with the Dorians, 
conquered Peloponnesus. It had been the will of 
Zeus, so ran the legend, that Hercules should rule 
over the country of the Perseids, at Mycenae and 
Tiryns. But through Hera's cunning, Eurystheus 
had' been put into the place of Hercules, who had 
become the servant of the former. After the death 
of Hercules, his claims devolved upon his sons and 
descendants. At the time of his death, Hvllus, 
the eldest of his 4 sons by Deianira, was residing 
with his brothers at the court of Ceyx at Trachis. 
As Eurj-stheus demanded their surrender, and 
Ceyx was unable to protect them, they fled to 
various parts of Greece, until they were received 
as suppliants at Athens, at the altar of Eleos 
(Mercy). Accci'ding to the Heraclidae of Euripides, 
the sons of Hercules were first staying at Argos, 
thence went to Trachis in Thessaly, and at length 
came to Athens. Demophon, the son of Theseus, 
received them, and they settled in the Attic tetra- 
polis, Eurystheus, to whom the Athenians refused 
to surrender the fugitives, now marched against 
the Athenians with a large army, but was defeated 
by the Athenians under lolaus, Theseus, and 
Hyllus, and was slain with his sons. The battle 
itself was celebrated in Attic story as the battle of 
the Scironian rock, on the coast of the Saronic gulf, 
though Pindar places it in the neighboiurhood of 
Thebes. After the battle, the Heraclidae entered 
Peloponnesus, and maintained themselves there for 
one year. This was their 1st invasion of Pelo- 
ponnesus. But a plague, which spread over the 
whole peninsula, compelled them to return to Attica, 
where, for a time, they again settled in the Attic 
tetrapolis. From thence they proceeded to Aegi- 
mius, king of the Dorians, whom Hercules had 
assisted in his war against the Lapithae, and who 
had promised to preserve a 3rd of his territor}^ for 
the children of Hercules. [Aegimius.] The Hera- 
clidae were hospitablj^ received by Aegimius, and 
Hyllus was adopted by the latter. After remain- 
ing in Doris 3 years, Hyllus, with a band of Do- 
rians, undertook an expedition against Atreus, who 
had married a daughter of Eurystheus, and had 
become king of Mycenae and Tirjus. Hyllus 
marched across the Corinthian isthmus, and first 
met Echemus of Tegea, who fought for the Pelo- 
pidae, the principal opponents of the Heraclidae. 
Hyllus fell in single combat with Echemus, and, 
according to an agreement which had been made 
before the battle, the Heraclidae were not to make 
any further attempt upon Peloponnesus for the next 
50 years._ Thus ended their 2nd invasion. They 
now retired to Tricorythus, where they were 
allowed by the Athenians to take up their abode. 
During the period which followed (10 years after 
the death of Hyllus), the Trojan war took place ; 
and 30 years after the Trojan war Cleodaeus, son 



HEPvACLIDES. 

of Hyllus, again invaded Peloponnesus, which was 
the 3rd invasion. About 20 years later Aristoma- 
chus, the son of Cleodaeus, undertook the 4th ex- 
pedition ; but both heroes fell. Not quite 30 years 
after Aristomachus (that is, about 80 years after 
the destruction of Troy), the Heraclidae prepared 
for their 5th and final attack. Temenus, Cres- 
phontes, and Aristodemus, the sons of Aristoma- 
chus, upon the advice of an oracle, built a fleet on 
the Corinthian gulf ; but this fleet was destroyed, 
because Hippotes, one of the Heraclidae, had killed 
Camus, an Acarnanian soothsayer ; and Aristode- 
mus was killed by a flash of lightning. An oracle 
now ordered them to take a 3-eyed man for their 
commander. He was found in the person of Ox}-lus, 
the son of Andraemon, an Aetolian, but descended 
from a family in Elis. The expedition now suc- 
cessfully sailed from Naupactus towards Rhium in 
Peloponnesus. Oxylus, keeping the invaders away 
from Elis, led them through Arcadia. The Hera- 
clidae and Dorians conquered Tisamenus, the son 
of Orestes, who ruled over Argos, Mycenae, and 
Sparta. After this they became masters of the 
greater part of Peloponnesus, and then distributed 
by lot the newly acquired possessions. Temenus 
obtained Argos ; Procles and Eurystheus, the twin 
sons of Aristodemus, Lacedaemon ; and Cresphontes, 
Messenia. — Such are the traditions about the He- 
raclidae and their conquest of Pelopomiesus. They 
are not purely mythical, but contain a genuine 
historical substance, notwithstanding the various 
contradictions in the accounts. They represent the 
conquest of the Achaean population by Dorian in- 
vaders, who henceforward appear as the ruling race 
in the Peloponnesus. The conquered Achaeans be- 
came partly the slaves and partly the subjects of 
the Dorians. (See Diet, of Ant. art. Perioeei.) 

Heraclides ("UpaKXelS-ns). 1. A Syracusan, son 
of Lysimachus, one of the generals when Syracuse 
was attacked by the Athenians, b. c. 415. — 2. A 
Syracusan, who held the chief command of the 
mercenary forces under the younger Dionysius. 
Being suspected by Dionysius, he fled from Syra- 
cuse, and afterwards took part with Dion in ex- 
pelling Dionysius from Syracuse. After the ex- 
pulsion of the t3-rant, a powerful party at Syracuse 
looked up to Heraclides as their leader, in conse- 
quence of which Dion caused him to be assassi- 
nated, 354.-3. Son of Agathocles, accompanied 
his father to Africa, where he was put to death by 
the soldiers, when they were deserted by Agatho- 
cles, 307. — 4. Of Tarentum, one of the chief 
counsellors of Philip V. king of Macedonia. — 5. Of 
Bvzantium. sent as ambassador bv Antioehus the 
Great to the 2 Scipios, 190.-6. One of the 3 
ambassadors sent by Antioehus Epiphanes to the 
Romans, 169. Heraclides was banished by De- 
metrius Soter, the successor of Antioehus (10'2), 
and in revenge gave his support to the imposture 
of Alexander Balas. — 7. Sm-named Ponticus, be- 
cause he was bom at Heraclea in Pontus. He was 
a person of considerable wealth, and migrated to 
Athens, where he became a pupil of Plato. He 
paid attention also to the Pythagorean system, and 
afterwards attended the instractions of Speusippus, 
and finally of Aristotle. He wrote a great number 
of works upon philosophy, mathematics, music, his- 
tory, politics, grammar, and poetry ; but almost all 
these works are lost. There has come down to us 
a small work, under the name of Heraclides, en- 
titled irefH UoXireiuv, of which the best editions 



HERACLITUS. 



HERCULES. 



307 



are by Kiiler, Halle, 1804, and by Coraes, m nis 
edition of Aelian, Paris, 1805. Another extant 
work, 'AWvyopio-L 'OixTjpiKa'i, which also bears the 
name of Heraclides, was certainly not written by 
bim. Diogenes Laertius, in his life of Heraclides, 
says that " Heraclides made tragedies, and put 
the name of Thespis to them." This sentence has 
given occasion to a learned disquisition by Bentley 
(Phalaris, p. 239), to prove that the fragments at- 
tributed to Thespis are really cited from these 
counterfeit tragedies of Heraclides. Some childish 
stories are told about Heraclides keeping a pet 
serpent, and ordering one of his friends to conceal 
his body after his death, and place the serpent on 
the bed^, that it might be supposed that he had 
been taken to the company of the gods. It is also 
said that he killed a man who had usurped the 
tyranny in Heraclea, and there are other traditions 
about him scarcely- worth relating. — 8. An his- 
torian, who lived in the reign, of Ptolemy Philo- 
pator (222 — 205), and wrote several works, quoted 
by the grammai-ians. — 9. A physician of Taren- 
tum, lived in the 3rd or 2nd century B. c, and 
wrote some works on Materia ^Medica, and a coni- 
mentarj- on all the works in the Hippocratic Col- 
lection."— 10. A physician of Erythrae in Ionia, 
was a pupil of Chrysermus, and a contemporary of 
Strabo in the 1st century b. c. 

Heraclitus ('HpdKXeLTos.) 1. Of Ephesus, a 
philosopher generally considered as belonging to 
the Ionian school, though he differed from their 
principles in many respects. In liis youth he tra- 
velled extensively, and after his return to Ephesus 
the chief magistracy was offered him, which, how- 
ever, he transferred to his brother. He appears 
afterwards to have become a complete recluse, re- 
jecting even the kindnesses offered by Darius, and 
at last retreatmg to the mountains, where he lived 
on pot-herbs ; but, after some time, he was com- 
pelled by the sickness consequent on such meagre 
diet to return to Ephesus, where he died. He died 
at the age of 60, and flourished about B, c. 513. — 
Heraclitus wrote a work On Nature (Trepl ^ucews), 
which contained his philosophical views. From 
the obscurity of his style, he gained the title of the 
Obscure (cTKOTeLvos). He considered fire to be the 
primary form of all matter ; but by fire he meant 
only to describe a clear light fluid, " self-kindled 
and self-extinguished," and therefore not differing 
materially from the air of Anaximenes. — 2. An 
Academic philosopher of Tyre, a friend of Antio- 
chus, and a pupil of Clitomachus and Philo. — 3. 
The reputed author of a work, Ilepi 'AttiVtcoi/, pub- 
lished by Westermann, in his MytliograpJii, Bruns- 
vig. 1843. 

Heraea ('Hpata : '^panis : nr. St. Joannes, 
Ru.), a town in Arcadia, on the right bank of the 
Alpheus, near the borders of Elis. Its territory 
was called Heraeatis (WpaiaTis). 

Heraei Montes (ra "Hpaia opi) : Monti Sori\ 
a raniro of mountains in Sicily, running from the 
centr ; of the island S.E., and ending in the pro- 
men; ry Pachynum. 

Heraetun. [Argos, p. 77, a.] 

Herbessus. [Erbessus.] 

Ecrbita ("E^gira : 'EpgiTctoy, Herbitensis), a 
town in Sicily, N. of Agyrium, in the mountains, 
Avas a powerful place in early times under the ty- 
rant Archonides, but afterwards declined in im- 
portance. 

Hercuianeum, a town in Samnium, conquered. 



by the consul Carvilius, B. c. 293 (Liv. x. 45), 

must not be confounded with the more celebrated 
town of this name mentioned below. 

Hercuianeum, Kerculamum, Herciilanum, 
Herculense Oppidum, Herculea TJrbs ('Hpd- 
KXeiov), an ancient city in Campania, near the 
coast, between Neapolis and Pompeii, was ori- 
ginally founded by the Oscans, was next in the 
possession of the Tyrrhenians, and subsequently 
was chiefly inhabited by Greeks, who appear to 
have settled in the place from other cities of 
Magna Graecia, and to have given it its name. It 
was taken by the Romans in the Social war (b. c. 
89, 88), and was colonised by them. In A. D. 63 
a great part of it was destroyed by an earthquake ; 
and in 79 it was overwhelmed, along with Pom- 
peii and Stabiae, by the great eruption of Mt. Ve- 
suvius. It was buried under showers of ashes and 
streams of lava, from 70 to 100 feet under the 
present surface of the ground. On its site stand 
the modem Portiei and part of the village of Re- 
sina : the Italian name of Ercolano does not indi- 
cate any modern place, but only the part of Her- 
culaneimi that has been disinterred. The ancient 
city was accidentally discovered by the sinking of 
a well in 1 720, since which time the excavations 
have been carried on at different periods ; and 
many works of art have been discovered, which 
are deposited in the Royal Museum at Portiei. It 
has been found necessarj^ to fill up again the exca- 
vations which were made, in order to render Por- 
tiei and Resina secure, and therefore very little of 
the ancient city is to be seen. The buildings that 
have been discovered are a theatre capable of ac- 
commodating about 10,000 spectators, the remains 
of 2 temples, a large building, commonly designated 
as a forum civile, 228 feet long and 132 broad, and 
some private houses, the walls of which were 
adorned with paintings, many of which, when dis- 
covered, were in a state of admirable preservation. 
There have been also found at Hercuianeum many 
MSS., Avritten on rolls of papyrus ; but the diffi- 
culty of unrolling and deciphering them was very 
great ; and the few which have been deciphered 
are of little value, consisting of a treatise of Philo- 
demus on music, and fragments of unimportant 
works on philosophy. 

HerciUes ('Hpa/cATjs), the most celebrated of all 
the heroes of antiquit3^ His exploits were cele- 
brated not only in all the countries round the 
Mediterranean, but even in the most distant lands 
of the ancient world. I. Greek Legends. The 
Greek traditions about Hercules appear in their 
national purity down to the time of Herodotus. 
But the poets of the time of Herodotus and of the 
subsequent periods introduced considerable alter- 
ations, which were probably derived from the East 
or Egypt, for every nation possesses some tradi- 
tions respecting heroes of superhuman strength 
and power. Now while in the earliest Greek 
legends Hercules is a purely human hero, a con- 
queror of men and cities, he afterwards appears 
as the subduer of monstrous animals, and is con- 
nected in a variety of ways Avith astronomical 
phaenomena. According to Homer, Hercules was 
the son of Zeus by Alcmene of TheTses in Boeotia. 
His stepfather was Amphitryon. Amphitryon was 
tlie son of Alcaeus, the son of Perseus ; and Alc- 
mene was a grand- daughter of Perseus. Hence 
' Hercules belonged to the family of Perseus. Zeus 
vi.^ited Alcmene in the form of Amphitryon, whale 



308 HERCULES, 
the latter was absent warring against the Taphians; 
and he, pretending to be her hnsljand, became hy 
her the father of Hercules. [For details, see Aix- 
MEXE, Amimiitryon.] On the day on which 
Hercules was to be born, Zeus boasted of his be- 
coming the father of a hero who was to rule over 
the race of Perseus. Hera prevailed upon him to 
swear that the descendant of Perseus born that 
day should be the ruler. Thereupon she hastened 
to Argos, and there caused the wife of Sthenelus 
to give birth to Eurj^stheus ; whereas, by keeping 
away the Hithyiae, she delayed the birth of 
Hercules, and thus robbed him of the empire 
which Zeus had destined for him. Zeus was en- 
raged at the imposition practised upon him, but 
could not violate his oath. Alcmene brought into 
the world 2 boys, Hercules, the son of Zeus, and 
Iphicles, the son of Amphitryon, who was one night 
younger than Hercules. Nearly all the stories 
about the childhood and youth of Hercules, down 
to the time when he entered the service of Eury- 
stheus, seem to be inventions of a later age. At 
least in Homer and Hesiod we are only told that 
he grew strong in body and mind, that confiding 
in his own powers he defied even the immortal 
gods, and wounded Hera and Ares, and that under 
the protection of Zeus and Athena he escaped the 
dangers which Hera prepared for him. To these 
simple accounts, various particulars are added in 
later writers. As he lay in his cradle, Hera sent 
2 serpents to destroy him, but the infant hero 
strangled them with his own hands. As he grew 
up, he was instructed by Amphitryon in driving a 
chariot, by Autolycus in wrestling, by Eurytus in 
archery, by Castor in fighting Avith heavy armour, 
and by Linus in singing and playing the lyre. 
Linus was killed by his pupil with the lyre, because 
he had censured him; and Amphitryon, to prevent 
similar occurrences, sent him to feed his cattle. In 
this manner he spent his life till his 18th year. 
His first great adventure happened while he was 
still watching the oxen of his father. A huge lion, 
Avhich haunted Mt. Cithaeron, made great havoc 
among the flocks of Amphitryon and Thespius (or 
Thestius), king of Thespiae. Hercules promised 
to deliver the country of the monster; and Thespius, 
who had 50 daughters, rewarded Hercules by 
making him his guest so long as the chase lasted, 
and by giving up his daughters to him, each for one 
night. Hercules slew the lion, and henceforth 
wore its skin as his ordinary garment, and its 
mouth and head as his helmet. Others related that 
the lion's skin of Hercules was taken from the 
Nemean lion. On his return to Thebes, he met 
the envoj^s of king Erginus of Orchomenos, who 
Avere going to fetch the annual tribute of 100 
oxen, which they had compelled the Thebans to 
pay. Hercules cut off the noses and ears of the 
envoys, and thus sent them back to Erginus. The 
latter thereupon marched against Thebes; but 
Hercules defeated and killed Erginus, and com- 
pelled the Orchomenians to pay double the tribute 
which they had formerly received from the Thebans. 
In this battle against Erginus Hercules lost his 
father Amphitryon, though the tragedians make 
him survive the campaign. Creon rewarded Her- 
cules with the hand of his daughter, Megara, by 
whom he became the father of several children. 
The gods, on the other hand, made him presents 
of arms : Hermes gave him a sword, Apollo a bow 
and arrows, Hephaestus a golden coat of mail, and 



IIi:UCULES. 

Athena a peplus. He cut for himself a club in 
the neighbourhood of Nemea, while, according to 
others, the club was of brass, and the gift of He- 
phaestus. Soon afterwards Hercules was driven 
mad by Hera, and in this state he killed his own 
children by Megara and "2 of Iphicles. In his grief 
he sentenced himself to exile, and went to Thespius, 
who purified him. Other traditions place this mad- 
ness at a later time, and relate the circumstances 
diflferently. He then consulted the oracle of Delphi 
as to where he should settle. The Pythia first 
called him by the name of Hercules — for hitherto 
his name had been Alcides or Alcaeus, — and or- 
dered him to live at Tiryns, and to serve Eurystheus 
for the space of 12 years, after which he should 
become immortal. Hercules accordingly went to 
Tiryns, and did as he was bid by Eurystheus. — 
The accounts of the 12 labours which Hercules 
performed at the bidding of Eurystheus, are found 
only in the later writers. The only one of the 12 
labours mentioned by Homer is his descent into 
the lower world to carry olf Cerberus. We alsa 
find in Homer the fight of Hercules with a sea- 
monster; his expedition to Troy, to fetch the horses 
which Laomedon had refused him ; and his war 
against the Pj-lians, when he destroyed the whole 
family of their king Neleus, with the exception of 
Nestor. Hesiod mentions several of the feats of 
Hercules distinctly, but knows nothing of their 
number 12. The selection of these 12 from the 
great number of feats ascribed to Hercules is pro- 
bably the work of the Alexandrines. They are 
usually arranged in the following order. 1. The 
fight with the Nemean lion. The valley of Nemea, 
between Cleonae and Phlius, was inhabited by a 
monstrous lion, the offspring of Typhon and 
Echidna. Eurystheus ordered Hercules to bring 
him the skin of this monster. After using in vain 
his club and arrows against the lion, he strangled 
the animal with his o\vn hands. He returned car- 
rying the dead lion on his shoulders; but Eurystheus 
was so frightened at the gigantic strength of the 
hero, that he ordered him in future to deliver the 
account of his exploits outside the town.— 2. Fight 
against the Lernean hydra. This monster, like the 
lion, was the offspring of Tj'phon and Echidna, 
and was brought up by Hera. It ravaged the 
country of Lernae near Argos, and dwelt in a 
swamp near the well of Amymone. It had 9 heads, 
of which the middle one was immortal. Hercules 
struck off its heads with his club ; but in the place 
of the head he cut off, 2 new ones grew forth each 
time. A gigantic crab also came to the assistance of 
the hydra, and wounded Hercules. However, with 
the assistance of his faithful servant lolaus, he- 
burned away the heads of the hydra, and buried the 
rinth or immortal one under a huge rock. Having- 
thus conquered the monster, he poisoned his arrows- 
with its bile, whence the wounds inflicted by thenar 
became incurable. Eurystheus declared the victory 
unlawful, as Hercules had won it with the aid of 
lolaus. — 3. Capture of the Arcadian stag. This- 
animal had golden antlers and brazen feet. It had 
been dedicated to Artemis by the nymph Taygete, 
because the goddess had saved her from the pursuit 
of Zeus. Hercules was ordered to bring the animal 
alive to Mycenae. He pursued it in vain for a 
whole year : at length he wounded it with an arrow, 
caught it, and carried it away on his shodders. 
while in Arcadia, he was met by Artemis, who 
was angry with him for having outraged the animai 



THE TWELYE LABOUES OF HEECULES. 

See pp. 308— 310. ' 





I. Hercules and Nemeau Lion. 
(From a Eoman Lamp.) 



II. Hercules and Hydra. 
(From a Marble at Naples.) 




v. Hercules cleaning the Stables of Augeas. 
(From a Relief at Rome.) 



VI. Hercules and the Stymphalian Birds. 
(From a Gem at Florence.) 

IToface:. 



THE TWELVE LABOURS OF HERCULES. 

See pp. 30S — 310. 




VII. Hercules and Bull. 
(From a Bas-relief in the Vatican.) 



VIII. Hercules and Horses of Diomedes. 
(From the Museo Borbonico.) 




XI. Hercules and the Hesperides. 
(From a Bas-relief at Rome.) 



Tn face p. 



XII. Hercules and Cerberus. 
(Millin, Tombeaux de Canosa.) 



HERCULES 



HERCULES. 



309 



sacred to her ; but lie succeeded in soothing her 
anger, and carried his prey to Mycenae. According 
to some statements, he killed the stag. — 4. TJe- 
strnction of the Ery inantldan hoar. This animal, 
which Hercules was ordered to bring alive to Eu- 
rystheus, had descended from mount Erj'manthus 
into Psophis. Hercules chased him through the 
deep snow, and having thus worn him out, he 
caught him in a net, and carried him to Mycenae. 
Other traditions place the hunt of the Erymanthian 
boar in Thessaly, and some even in Phrygia. It 
must be observed that this and the subsequent 
Jabours of Hercules are connected with certain sub- 
ordinate labours, called Parerga {Uapspya). The 
first of these parerga is the fight of Hercules with 
the Centaurs. In his pursuit of the boar he came to 
the centaur Pholus, who had received from Dio- 
nysus a cask of excellent wine. Hercules opened 
it, contrary to the wish of his host, and the delicious 
fragrance attracted the other centaurs, who besieged 
the grotto of Pholus. Hercules drove them away ; 
they fled to the house of Chiron ; and Hercules, 
•eager in his pursuit, Avounded Chiron, his old friend, 
with one of his poisoned arrows ; in consequence of 
which Chiron died. [Chiron.] Pholus likewise 
was wounded by one of the arrows, Avhich by ac- 
cident fell on his foot and killed him. This fight 
with the centaurs gave rise to the establishment of 
mysteries, by which Demeter intended to purify 
the hero from the blood he had shed against his 
own will. — 5. Cleansing of the stables of Augeas. 
Eurystheus imposed upon Hercules the task of 
cleansing in one day the stalls of Augeas, king of 
Elis. Augeas had a herd of 3000 oxen, whose 
stalls had not been cleansed for 30 years. Hercules, 
without mentioning the command of Eurystheus, 
went to Augeas, and offered to cleanse his stalls in 
•one day, if he would give him the 10th part of his 
cattle. Augeas agreed to the terms ; and Hercules 
after taking Phyleus, the son of Augeas, as his 
Avitness, led the rivers Alpheus and Peneus 
through the stalls, which were thus cleansed in a 
single day. But Augeas, who learned that Hercules 
had undertaken the work by the command of Eu- 
r3'stheus, refused to give him the reward. His son 
Phyleus then bore witness against his father, who 
exiled him from Elis. Eurystheus however declared 
the exploit null and void, because Hercules had 
stipulated with Augeas for a reward for performing 
it. At a later time Hercules invaded Elis, and 
killed Augeas and his sons. After this he is said to 
Jiave founded the Olympic games. — 6. Destruction 
of the Stymphalian birds. These voracious birds 
had been brought up by Ares. They had brazen 
claws, wings, and beaks, used their feathers as 
arrows, and ate human flesh. They dwelt on a 
lake near Stymphalus in Arcadia, from which 
Hercules was ordered by Eurystheus to expel them. 
When Hercules imdertook the task, Athena pro- 
vided him with a brazen rattle, by the noise of 
which he startled the birds ; and, as they attempted 
to Hj away, he killed them Avith his arrows. Ac- 
cording to some accounts, he only drove the birds 
away ; and they appeared again in the island of 
Aretias, where the}^ Avere found by the Argonauts. 
— 7. Capture of the Cretan hill. According to some 
this bull Avas the one Avhich had carried Europa 
across the sea. According to others, the bull had 
been sent out of the sea by Poseidon, that Minos 
might offer it in sacrifice. But Minos Avas so 
charmed Avith the beauty of the animal, that he 



kept it, and sacrificed another in its stead. Poseidon 
punished Minos, by driving the bull mad, and 
causing it to commit great havoc in the island. 
Hercules Avas ordered by Eurystheus to catcli the 
bull, and Minos v/illingly alloAved him to do so. 
Hercules accomplished the task, and brought the 
bull home on his shoulders; but he then set the 
animal free again. The bull noAV roamed through 
Greece, and at last came to Marathon, where Ave 
meet it again in the stories of Theseus. — 8. Capture 
of the mares of the Thracian Diomedes. This Dio- 
medes, king of the Bistones in Thrace, fed his 
horses Avith human flesh. Eurystheus ordered 
Hercules to bring these animals to Mycenae. With 
a leAv companions, he seized the animals, and con- 
ducted them to the sea coast. But here he Avas over- 
taken by the Bistones. During the fight he entrusted 
the mares to his friend Abderus, Avho AA'as devoured 
by them. Hercules defeated the Bistones, killedDio- 
medes Avhose body he threw before the mares, built 
the toAvn of Abdera in honour of his unfortunate 
friend, and then returned to Mycenae, Avith the mares 
Avhich had become tame after eating the flesh of 
their master. The mares Avere afterAvards set free, 
and destroA'ed on Mt. Olympus by Avild beasts. — 
9. Seizure of the girdle of the queen of the Amazons. 
Hippolyte, the queen of the Amazons possessed a 
girdle, Avhich she had received from Ares. Admete, 
the daughter of Eurystheus, Avished to obtain this 
girdle; and Hercules Avas therefore sent to fetch it. 
He Avas accompanied by a number of volunteers, 
and after A'arious adventures in Europe and Asia, 
he at length reached the country of the Amazons. 
Hippolyte at first received him kindly, and pro- 
mised him her girdle ; but Hera haA-ing ex- 
cited the Amazons against him, a contest ensued, 
in Avhich Hercules killed their queen. He then 
took her girdle, and carried it Avith him. In this 
expedition Hercules killed the 2 sons of Boreas, 
Calais and Zetes ; and he also begot 3 sons by 
Echidna, in the country of the Hyperboreans. On 
his Avay home he landed in Troas, Avhere he rescued 
Hesione from the monster sent against her by Posei- 
don ; in return for Avhich service her father Laome- 
don promised him the horses he had received from 
Zeus as a compensation for Ganymedes. But, as 
Laoraedon did not keep his Avord, Hercules on 
leaving threatened to make Avar against Troy. He 
landed in Thrace, Avhere he sleAv Sarpedon, and at 
length returned through Macedonia to Pelopon- 
nesus. —» 10. Capture of the oxen of Geryones in 
Erythia. Geryones, the monster Avith 3 bodies, 
lived in the fabulous island of Erythia (the red- 
dish), so called because it lay under the rays of 
the setting sun in the W. This island was ori- 
ginally placed off the coast of Epirus, but Avas 
afteiAvards identified either Avith Gades or the 
Balearic islands, and Avas at all times believed to 
be in the distant W. The oxen of Geryones Avere 
guarded by the giant Eurj^tion and the tAvo-headed 
dog Orthrus ; and Hercules was commanded by 
Eurystheus to fetch them. After traversing A"iriuus 
countries, he reached at length the frontiers of 
Libya and Europe, where he erected 2 pillars 
(Calpe and Abyla) on the 2 sides of the straits of 
Gibraltar, Avhich Avere hence called the pillars of 
Hercules. Being annoyed by the heat of the sun, 
Hercules shot at Helios, Avho so much admired his 
boldness, that he presented him with a golden cup or 
boat, in Avhich he sailed to Erythia. He there sleAV 
Eury tion and his dog, as well as Gervones, and sailed 

X 3 



;io 



HERCULES. 



with his booty to Tartessus, where he returned the 
golden cnp (boat) to Helios. On his war home he 
passed through Gaul, Italy, lUvricum and Thrace, 
and met ^-ith numerous adventures, wliich are 
variously embellished by the poets. Many attempts 
were made to deprive him of the oxen, but he at 
length brought them in safety to Eurystheus, who 
sacrificed them to Hera. These 10 labours were 
perfonned by Hercules in the space of 8 years and 
1 month ; but as Eurystheus declared 2 of them to 
have been performed unlawfully, he commanded 
him to accomplish 2 more. — « 11. Fetching the golden 
apples of iJte Hesperides. This was panicularly 
difficult, since Hercules did not know where to find 
them. They were the apples which Hera had 
received at her wedding from Ge, and which she 
had entrusted to the keeping of the Hesperides 
and the dragon Ladon, on Mt. Atlas, in the country 
of the Hvperboreans. [For details see Hesper- 
ides.] After various adventures in. Europe, Asia 
and Africa, Hercules at length arrived at Mt. Atlas. 
On the ad-vice of Prometheus, he sent Atlas to 
fetch the apples, and in the meantime bore the 
weight of heaven for him. Atlas returned with the 
apples, but refased to take the burden of heaven on 
his shoulders again. Hercules, however, contrived 
by a stratagem to get the apples, and hastened 
away. On his return Eurystheus made him a 
present of the apples; but Hercules dedicated them 
to Athena, who restored them to their former place. 
Some traditions add that Hercules killed the dragon 
Ladon. =• 12. Bringing Cerberus from the lower 
icorM. This was the most difficult of the 12 labours 
of Herciiles. He descended into Hades, near Tae- 
narum in Laconia, accompanied by Hermes and 
Athena. He delivered Theseus and Ascalaphus 
from their torments. He obtained permission, from 
Pluto to carry Cerberus to the upper world, pro- 
^•ided he could accomplish it without force of arms. 
Hercules succeeded in seizing the monster and car- 
rying it to the upper world ; and after he had shown 
it to Eurystheus, he carried it back again to the 
lower vrorld. Some traditions connect the descent 
of Hercules into the lower world with a contest 
with Hades, as we see even in the Iliad (v. 397), 
and more particularly in the Alcestis of Euripides 
(24, 84o).— Besides these 12 labours, Hercules per- 
formed several other feats without being commanded 
by Eurystheus. These feats were called Parerga 
by the ancients. Several of them were interwoven 
with the 12 labours and have been already de- 
scribed : those which had no connection with the 
12 labours are spoken of below. After Hercules 
had performed the 12 labours, he was released from 
the servitude of Eurystheus, and returned to Thebes. 
He there gave Megara in marriage to lolaus : and 
he wished to eain in marriage for himself lole, the 
daughter of Eurytus, king of Oechalia. Eurytus 
promised his daughter to the man who should con- 
quer him and his sons in shooting with the bow. 
Hercules defeated them ; but Eurytus and his sons, 
with the exception of Iphitus, refused to give lole 
to him, because he had murdered his own children. 
Soon afterwards the oxen of Eurytus were carried 
oif, and it was suspected that Hercules was the 
offender. Iphitus again defended Hercules, and 
requested his assistance in searchin? after the oxen. 
Hercules agreed ; but when the 2 had arrived at 
Tiryns, Hercules, in a fit of madness, threw his 
friend down from the wall, and killed him. Dei- 
phobus of Amyclae purified Hercules from this 



HERCULES. 

' murder, but he was, nevertheless, attacked by a 
severe illness. Hercules then repaired to Delphi 
to obtain a remedy, but the Pythia refused to an- 
swer his questions. A struggle ensued between 
Hercules and Apollo, and the combatants were not 
separated till Zeus sent a flash of lightning between 
them. The oracle now declared that he would be 
restored to health, if he would serve 3 years for 
wages, and surrender his earnings to Eurytus, as 
an atonement for the murder of Iphitus. Thereupon 
he became a servant to Omphale, queen of Lydia, 
and widow of Tmolus. Later writers describe 
Hercules as living effeminately during his resi- 
dence with Omphale : he span wool, it is said, 
and sometimes put on the garments of a woman, 
while Omphale wore his lion's skin. Accord- 
ing to other accounts he nevertheless performed 
several great feats during this time. He undertook 
an expedition to Colchis, which brought him into 
connection with the Argonauts; he took part in the 
Calydonian hunt, and met Theseus on his landin? 
from Troezene on the Corinthian isthmus. An ex- 
pedition to India, which was mentioned in some 
traditions, may likewise be inserted in this place. 
— When the time of his servitude had expired, he 
sailed against Troy, took the city, and killed Lao- 
medon, its king. On his return from Troy, a storm 
drove him on the island of Cos, where he was at- 
tacked by the Meropes ; but he defeated them and 
killed their king, Eurypylus. It was about this 
time that the gods sent for him in order to 
fight against the Gigants. [Gigaxtes]. — Soon 
after his return to Argos, he marched against 
Augeas, as has been related above. He then 
proceeded against Pylos, which he took, and killed 
Periclymenus, a son of Neleus. He next advanced 
against Lacedaemon, to punish the sons of Hippo- 
coon, for having assisted Xeleus and slain Oeonus, 
the son of Licymnius. He took Lacedaemon, and 
assigned the government of it to Tyndareus. On 
his return to Tegea, he became, by Auge, the father 
of Telephus [Auge]; and he then proceeded to 
Calydon, where he obtained Dei'anira, the daughter 
of Oeneus, for his wife, after fighting with Achelous 
for her. [Deiaxira; Achelocs.] After Hercules 
had been married to Deianira nearly 3 years, he 
accidentally killed at a banquet in the house of 
Oeneus, the boy Eunomus. In accordance with 
the law Hercules went into exile, taking with him 
his "v^-ife Deianira. On their road they came to the 
! river Evenus, across which the centaur Xessus 
I carried travellers for a small sum of money. Her- 
I cules himself forded the river, but gave Deianira 
I to Xessus to carry across. X'essus attempted to 
\ outrage her : Hercules heard her screaming, and 
! shot an arrow into the heart of Xessus. The dying 
\ centaur called out to Deianira to take his blood 
j with her, as it was a sure means of preserving the 
! love of her husband. He then conquered the 
I Dryopes, and assisted Aegimius, king of the Dorians, 
against the Lapithae. [Aegimius.] After this he 
I took up his abode at Trachis, whence he marched 
j against Eurytus of Oechalia. He took Oechalia, 
; killed Eurytus and his sons, and carried off his 
I daughter lole as a prisoner. On his return home 
; he landed at Cenaeum, a promontory of Euboea, 
erected an altar to Zeus, and sent his companion, 
I Lichas, to Trachis, ia order to fetch him a white 
! garment, which he intended to use during the 
j sacrifice. Deianira, afraid lest lole should supplant 
I her in the affections of her husband, steeped the 



HERCULES. 



HERCYNIA. 



311 



white garment he had demanded in the blood of 
Nessus. This blood had been poisoned by the 
arrow with which Hercules had shot Nessus ; 
and accordingiy as soon as the garment become 
warm on the body of Hercules, the poison pene- 
trated into all his limbs, and caused him the 
most excruciating agony. He seized Lichas by 
his feet, and threw him into the sea. He 
Avrenched off the garment, but it stuck to his flesh, 
and with it he tore away whole pieces from his 
body. In this state he was conveyed to Trachis. 
Deianira, on seeing what she had unwittingly done, 
hung herself. Hercules commanded Hyllus, his 
eldest son, by Deianira, to marry lole as soon as 
he should arrive at the age of manhood. He then 
ascended Mt. Oeta, raised a pile of wood, on which 
he placed himself, and ordered it to be set on fire. 
No one ventured to obey him, until at length Poeas 
the shepherd, who passed by, was prevailed upon 
to comply with the desire of the suffering hero. 
When the pile was burning, a cloud came down 
from heaven, and amid peals of thunder carried 
him to Olympus, where he was honoured Avith 
immortality, became reconciled to Hera, and mar- 
ried her daughter Hebe, by whom he became the 
father of Alexiares and Anicetus. Immediately 
after his apotheosis, his friends offered sacrifices to 
him as a hero; and he was in course of time wor- 
shipped tibroughout all Greece both as a god and 
as a hero. His worship however prevailed more 
extensively among the Dorians than among any 
other of the Greek races. The sacrifices offered to 
him consisted principally of bulls, boars, rams and 
Iambs. — The works of art in which Hercules was 
represented Avere extremely numerous, and of the 
greatest variety, for he was represented at all the 
various stages of his life, from the cradle to his death. 
But whether he appears as a child, a youth, a strug- 
gling hero, or as the immortal inhabitant of Olympus, 
his character is always one of heroic strength and 
energy. Specimens of every kind are still extant. 
The finest representation of the hero that has come 
down to us is the so-called Farnese Hercules, which 
was executed by Glycon. The hero is resting, 
leaning on his right arm, and his head reclining 
on his left hand : the whole figure is a most 
exquisite combination of peculiar softness with the 
greatest strength. — II. Roman Traditions. The 
worship of Hercules at Rome and in Italy is con- 
nected by Roman writers, with the hero's expedition 
to fetch the oxen of Geryones. They stated that 
Hercules on his return visited Italy, where he 
abolished human sacrifices among the Sabines, es- 
tablished the worship of fire, and slew Cacus, a 
robber, who had stolen his oxen. [Cacus.] The 
aborigines, and especially Evander, honoured Her- 
cules with divine worship ; and Hercules in return 
taught them the way in which he was to be wor- 
shipped, and entrusted the care of his worship to 2 
distinguished families, the Potitii and Pinarii. 
[PiNARiA Gens.] The Fabia gens traced its 
origin to Hercules ; and Fauna andAcca Laurentia 
are called mistresses of Hercules. In this manner 
the Romans connected their earliest legends -with 
Hercules. It should be observed that in the 
Italian traditions the hero bore the name of Reca- 
ranus, and this Recaranus was afterwards identified 
with the Greek Hercules. He had 2 temples at 
Rome. One was a small round temple of Hercules 
Victor, or Hercules Triumphalis, between the river 
and the Circus Maximus ; in front of which was 



the ara maxima, on which, after a triumph, the 
tenth of the booty was deposited for distribution 
among the citizens. The 2nd temple stood near 
the porta trigemina, and contained a bronze statue 
and the altar on which Hercules himself Avas be- 
lieved to have once offered a sacrifice. Here the 
city praetor offered every year a young cow, Avhich 
was consumed by the people within the sanctuary. 
At Rome Hercules was connected with the Muses, 
whence he is called Alusagetes, and was represented 
with a lyre, of which there is no trace in Greece. 
—III. Traditions of other nations. The ancients 
themselves expressly mention several heroes of the 
name of Hercules, who occur among the principal 
nations of the ancient world. 1. The Egyptian 
Hercules^ whose Egyptian name was Som, or Dsora, 
or Chon, or, according to Pausanias, Maceris, was 
a son of Amon or Nilus. He was placed by the 
Egyptians in the 2nd of the series of the evolutions 
of their gods. — 2. The Cretan Hercules^ one of the 
Idaean Dactyls, was believed to have foimded the 
temple of Zeus at Olympia, biit to have come 
originally from Egypt. He was worshipped with 
funeral sacrifices, and Avas regarded as a magician, 
like other ancient daemones of Crete. — 3. The 
Indian Hercules, Avas called by the unintelligible 
name Dorsanes (AopcraVTjs). The later Greeks 
believed that he Avas their OAvn hero, avIio had 
visited India ; and they related that in India he 
became the father of many sons and daughters by 
Pandaea, and the ancestral hero of the Indian kings. 
—4. The Phoenician Hercules, Avhom the Egyptians 
considered to be more ancient than their OAvn, Avas 
worshipped in all the Phoenician colonies, such as 
Carthage and Gades, doAATi to the time of Con- 
Btantine, and it is said that children Avere sacrificed 
to him. — 5. The Celtic and Germanic Hercules is 
said to have founded Alesia and Nemausus, and 
to have become the father of the Celtic race. We 
become acquainted Avith him in the accounts of the 
expedition of the Greek Hercules against Geryones. 
We must either suppose that the Greek Hercules 
AA^as identified Avith native heroes of those northern 
countries, or that the notions about Hercules had 
been introduced there from the E. 

Hercules ('Hpa«:A^s), a son of Alexander the 
Great by Barsine, the Avidow of the Rhodian 
Memnon. In b. c. 310 he Avas brought forward by 
Polysperchon as a pretender to the Macedonian 
throne ; but he Avas murdered by Polysperchon 
himself in the folloAving j^ear, when the latter 
became reconciled to Cassander. 

Herculis Columnae. [Abyla ; Calpe.] 

Herculis Monoeci Portus. [Monoecus.] 

Herculis Portus. [Cosa.] 

Herculis Promontorium (C. Spartivento), the 
most S.ly point of Italy in Bruttium. 

Herculis Silva, a forest in Germany, sacred to 
Hercules, E. of the Visurgis. 

Hercynia Silva, Hercynius Saltus, Hercy- 
nium Jugum, an extensive range of mountains in 
Germany, covered Avith forests, is described by 
Caesar {B. G. vi. 24) as 9 days' journey in breadth, 
and more than 60 days' journey in length, extend- 
ing E. from the territories of the Helvetii, Nemetes, 
and Rauraci, parallel to the Danube, to the fron- 
tiers of the Dacians. Under this general name 
Caesar appears to haA^e included all the mountains 
and forests in the S. and centre of Germany, the 
Black Forest, Odenwald, Thuringerivald, the Harz, 
the Erzgehirge, the Riesengehirge, &c. As the Ro- 

X 4 



S12 



HERDONIA. 



HEKMES. 



mans became better acquainted with Germany, the 
name was confined to narrower limits. Pliny and 
Tacitus use it to indicate the range of mountains 
between the Thiiringerwald and the Carpathian 
mountains The name is still preserved in the 
modern JJarz and Erz. 

HerdSnia (ilerdoniensis : Ordona)^ a town in 
Apulia, was destroyed by Plannibal, who removed 
its inhabitants to Thurii and Metapontura ; it was 
rebuilt by the Romans, but remained a place of no 
importance. 

Herd5iuus. 1. Turnus, of Aricia in Latium, 
endeavoured to rouse the Latins against Tarquinius 
Superbus, and was in consequence falsely accused 
by Tarquinius, and put to death. —2, Appius, 
a Sabine chieftain, Avho, in B. c. 460, with a band 
of outlaws and slaves, made himself master of the 
capitol. On the 4th day from his entry the capitol 
was re-taken, and Herdonius and nearly all his 
followers Avere slain. 

Herennia Gens, originally Samnite, and by the 
Samnite invasion established in Campania, became 
at a later period a plebeian house at Rome. The 
Herennii were a family of rank in Itah', and are 
frequently mentioned in the time of the Samnite 
and Punic wars. They were the hereditary patrons 
of the Marii. 

Herennius 1. Modestlnus. [Modestixus.] 
— 2. Pontius. [Pontius.] — 3. Senecio. 
[Senecio.] 

Herillus ("HpiAAos). of Carthage, a Stoic phi- 
losopher, was the disciple of Zeno of Cittium. He 
•did not, however, confine himself to the opinions of 
iis master, but held some doctrines directly opposed 
to them. He held that the chief good consisted in 
knowledge (eVitrT^^/xTj). This notion is often at- 
tacked by Cicero. 

Hermkenm, or, in Latin, Mercurii Promonto- 
rium ('Epftai'a aKpa). 1. {Cape Bon, Arab. Has 
Addar), the headland which forms the E. ex- 
tremity of the Sinus Carthaginiensis, and the ex- 
treme N.E. point of the Carthaginian territory (aft. 
the province of Africa) opposite to Lilybaeum, the 
space between the 2 being the shortest distance 
between Sicily and Africa. —2. (Ras el Ashan), a 
prom.ontory on the coast of the Greater Syrtis, 50 
stadia 'W. of Leptis. — There were other promon- 
tories of the name on the coast of Africa. 

Hermagoras {'Epuayopas). 1. Of Temnos, a 
distinguished Greek rhetorician of the time of Ci- 
cero. He belonged to the Rhodian school of 
oratory, but is known chiefly as a teacher of rhe- 
toric. He devoted particular attention to what is 
called the invention^ and made a peculiar division 
of the parts of an oration, which differed from that 
adopted by other rhetoricians. — 2. Sumamed Ca- 
rion, a Greek rhetorician, taught rhetoric at Rome 
in the time of Augustus. He was a disciple of 
Theodoras of Gadara. 

Hermapliroditus {"Epixa<pp6^nos)^ son of Her- 
mes and Aphrodite, and consequently great-grand- 
son of Atlas, whence he is called Atlantiades or 
Allantius. (Ov. Met. iv. 368). He had inherited 
the beauty of both his parents, and was brought 
up by the nj-mphs of Mount Ida. In his loth 
year he Avent to Caria. In the neighbourhood of 
Halicarnassus he laid down by the fountain of Sal- 
macis. The nymph of the fountain fell in love 
with him, and tried in vain to win his affections. 
Once when he was bathing in the fountain, she 
embraced him, and prayed to the gods that she 



might be united with him for ever. The gods 
granted the request, and the bodies of the youth 
and the nymph became united together, but re- 
tained the characteristics of each sex. Herraaphro- 
ditus, on becoming aware of the change, prayed 
that in future every one who bathed in the well 
might be metamorphosed in the same manner. 

Hermarclius {"Epixapxos). of jMytilene, a rhe- 
torician, became afterwards a disciple of Epicurus, 
who left to him his garden, and appointed hira 
his successor in his school, about B. c. 270. He 
wrote several works, all of which are lost. 

Hennas ('Ep/^Ss), a disciple of the Apostle 
Paul, and one of the apostolic fathers. He is sup- 
posed to be the same person as the Hermas who 
is mentioned in St. Paul's epistle to the Romans 
(xvi. 14). He wrote in Greek a work entitled 
The Shepherd of Hermas^ of which a Latin trans- 
lation is still extant. Its object is to instruct per- 
sons in the duties of the Christian life. Edited 
by Cot'jlier in his Paires Apostol. Paris, 1672. 

Hermes ('Ep^^r, 'Ep^^etas, Dor. 'Ep^Ss), called 
Mercurius by the Romans. The Greek Hermes was 
a son of Zeus and Maia, the daughter of Atlas, and 
born in a cave of Mt. Cyllene in Arcadia, whence he 
is cdiWeA. Atlayitiades or Cyllenius-. A few hours after 
his birth, he escaped from his cradle, went to Pieria, 
and carried off some of the oxen of Apollo. In the 
Iliad and Odj-ssey this tradition is not mentioned, 
though Hermes is characterised as a cunning thief. 
That he might not be discovered by the traces of 
his footsteps, he put on sandals, and drove the oxen 
to Pylos, where he killed 2, and concealed the rest 
in a cave. The skins of the slaughtered animals 
were nailed to a rock ; and part of their flesh was 
cooked and eaten, and the rest burnt. Thereupon 
he returned to Cyllene, where he found a tortoise 
at the entrance of his native cave. He took th-e ani- 
mal's shell, drew strings across it, and thus in- 
vented the Ij-re, on w^hich he immediately played. 
Apollo, by his prophetic power, had meantime dis- 
covered the thief, and went to Cyllene to charge 
Hermes with the crime before his mother Maia. 
She showed to the god the child in its cradle ; but 
Apollo carried the boy before Zeus, and demanded 
back his oxen. Zeus commanded him to comply 
with the demand of Apollo, but Hermes denied 
that he had stolen the cattle. As, however, he 
saw that his assertions were not believed, he con- 
ducted Apollo to Pylos, and restored to him his 
oxen ; but when Apollo heard the sounds of the 
lyre, he was so charmed that he allowed Hermes 
to keep the animals. Hermes now invented the 
syrinx, and after disclosing his inventions to Apollo, 
the 2 gods concluded an intimate friendship with 
each other. Apollo presented his young friend with 
his owTi golden shepherd's staff, and taught him the 
art of prophesying by means of dice. Zeus made 
him his OAvn herald, and likewise the herald of the 
gods of the lower world. — The principal feature in 
the traditions about Hermes consists in his being the 
herald of the gods, and in this capacity he appears 
even in the Homeric poems. His original charac- 
ter of an ancient Pelasgian, or Arcadian dirinity of 
nature, gradually disappeared in the legends. As 
the herald of the gods, he is the god of eloquence, 
for the heralds are the public speakers in the as- 
semblies and on other occasions. The gods espec- 
ially employed him as messenger, when eloquence 
was required to attain the desired object. Hence 
the tongues of sacrificial animals were offered to 



j HERMES. 

' him. As heralds and messengers ore usually men 
of prudence and circumspection, Hermes was also 
the god of prudence and skill in all the relations 
of social intercourse. These qualities were com- 
bined with similar ones, such as cunning, both in 
words and actions, and even fraud, perjury, and the 
inclination to steal ; but acts of this kind were com- 
mitted by Hermes always with a certain skill, 
dexterity, and even gracefulness. — Being endowed 
with this shrewdness and sagacit}-, he was regarded 
as the author of a variety of inventions, and, besides 
the Ijre and syrinx, he is said to have invented the 
alphabet, numbers, astronomy, music, the art of 
fighting, gymnastics, the cultivation of the olive 
tree, measures, weights, and many other things. 
The powers which he possessed himself he con- 
ferred upon those mortals and heroes who enjoyed 

I his favour ; and all who possessed them were 

i under his especial protection, or are called his sons. 

' He was employed by the gods, and more espe- 
cially by Zeus, on a variety of occasions which are 
recorded in ancient story. Thus he led Priam to 
Achilles to fetch the body of Hector ; tied Ixion 
to the wheel ; conducted Hera, Aphrodite, and 

, Athena to Paris ; fastened Prometheus to Mt. 

\ Caucasus ; rescued Dionysus after his birth from 
the flames, or received him from the hands of 
Zeus to carry him to Athamas ; sold Hercules to 
Oraphale ; and was ordered by Zeus to carry off 
lo, who Avas metamorphosed into a cow, and guarded 
by Argus, whom he slew. [Argus.] From this 
murder he is very commonly called 'ApyeKpdvTi^s. 
• — In the Trojan war Hermes was on the side of the 
Greeks, His ministry to Zeus was not confined 
to the offices of herald and messenger, but he was 
also his charioteer and cupbearer. As dreams are 
sent by Zeus, Hermes conducts them to man, and 

I hence he is also described as the god who had it 
in his power to send refreshing sleep, or take it 
away. Another important function of Hermes was 
to conduct the shades of the dead from the upper 
into the lower world, whence lie is called ^vxo- 
iroixTTos, ueKpoTTOfiiros, xl/vxayooyos, &c. — The idea 

j of his being the herald and messenger of the gods, 

1 of his travelling from place to place and concluding 

' treaties, necessarily implied the notion that he was 
the promoter of social intercourse and of commerce 
among men. In this capacity he was regarded as 
the maintainer of peace, and as the god of roads, 
who protected travellers, and punished those who 

I refused to assist travellers who had mistaken their 

! way. Hence the Athenian generals, on setting out 
on an expedition, offered sacrifices to Hermes, sur- 
named Hegemonius, or Agetor ; and numerous 
statues of the god were erected on roads, at doors 
and gates, from which circumstance he derived a 
variety of surnames and epithets. As the god of 
commerce he was called Sie/jLiropos, e/jLiroXaios, ttu- 

\ XiyKdirrjXos, KepZi/j-iropos, ayopaTos, &c. As com- 
merce is the source of wealth, he was also the god 
of gain and riches, especially of sudden and unex- 
pected riches, such as are acquired by commerce. 
As the giver of wealth and good luck (ttAovtoBo- 
TTjs), he also presided over the game of dice. — 
Hermes was believed to be the inventor of sacri- 
fices. Hence he not onh' acts the part of a herald at 
sacrifices, but is also the protector of sacrificial 
animals, and was believed in particular to increase 
the fertility of sheep. For this reason he was espe- 
cially worshipped hy shepherds, and is mentioned 
in connection with Pan and the Nymphs. This 



HERMIAS. 313 

feature in the character of Hermes is a remnant of 
the ancient Arcadian religion, in which he was the 
fertilising god of the earth, who conferred his bless- 
ings on man. — Hermes was likewise the patron 
of all the gjTTinastic games of the Greeks. This 
idea seems to be of late origin, for in Homer no 
trace of it is found. Athens appears to have been 
the first place in which he was worshipped in this 
capacity. At a later time almost all gymnasia 
were under his protection ; and the Greek artists 
derived their ideal of the god from the gymnasium, 
and represented him as a youth whose limbs were 
beautifully and harmoniously developed by gym- 
nastic exercises. — The most ancient seat of the 
worship of Hermes is Arcadia, the land of his 
birth, where Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus, is said 
to have built to him the first temple. From thence 
his worship was carried to Athens, and ultimately 
spread through all Greece. The festivals cele- 
brated in his honour were called Hermaea. {Diet, 
of Ant. s. V.) His temples and statues (Did. of 
Ant. s. V. Hermae) were extremely numerous in 
Greece. Among the things sacred to him were 
the palm tree, the tortoise, the number 4, and se- 
veral kinds of fish ; and the sacrifices offered to 
him consisted of incense, honey, cakes, pigs, and 
especially lambs and young goats. — The principal 
attributes of Hermes are : 1. A travelling hat with 
a broad brim, which in later times was adorned 
with 2 small wings. 2. The staff (pagSos or ctkti- 
irrpov), which he bore as a herald, and had re- 
ceived from Apollo. In late works of art the white 
ribbons which surrounded the herald's staff were 
changed into 2 serpents. 3. The sandals (TreSiAa). 
They were beautiful and golden, and carried the 
god across land and sea with the rapidity of wind ; 
at the ankles of the god they Avere provided with 
wings, whence he is called TrxTji/oTreSiAos, or alipes. 
— The Roman Mercurius is spoken of separately, 

Hermes Trismegistus ('Ep/^'i^s Tptar/xiyLo-Tos)., 
the reputed author of a variety of works, some of 
which are still extant. The Greek god Hermes 
was identified with the Egyptian Thot, or Theut, 
as early as the time of Plato, The New Plato- 
nists regarded the Egyptian Hermes as the source 
of all knowledge and thought, or the \6yos em- 
bodied, and hence called him Trismegistus. A 
vast number of works on philosophy and religion, 
written by the New Platonists, Avere ascribed to 
this Hermes ; from whom it was pretended that 
Pythagoras and Plato had derived all their know- 
ledge. Most of these Avorks were probably Avritten 
in the 4th century of our era. The most important 
of them is entitled Poemander (from ttolixtju, a 
shepherd, pastor), apparently in imitation of the 
Pastor of Hermas. [Hermas.] This Avork is 
in the form of a dialogue. It treats of nature, the 
creation of the Avorld, the deity, his nature and 
attributes, the human soul, knoAvledge, &c, 

Hermesianax {'Y-pix-qaidva^), of Colophon, a 
distinguished elegiac poet, lived in the time of 
Alexander the Great. His chief Avork was an 
elegiac poem, in 3 books, addressed to his mistress, 
Leontium, Avhose name formed the title of the 
poem. His fragments are edited by Rigler and 
Axt, Colon, 1828, and by Bailey, Lond, 1839. 

Hermias or Hermias ('E/)^ei'as or 'Ep/jLias), 1. 
Tyrant of Atarneus and Assos in Mysia, celebrated 
as the friend and patron of Aristotle. Aristotle 
remained Avith Hermias 3 years, from B, c. 347 to 
344, in the latter of Avhich years Hermias was 



314 



HERMINIA. 



HERMOGENIANUS. 



seized by Mentor, the Greek general of the Persian 
king, and sent as a captive to the Persian court, 
where ho was put to death. Aristotle married 
Pythias, the adopted daughter of Hermias, and ce- 
lebrated the praises of his benefactor in an ode 
addressed to Virtue, which is still extant. — 2. A 
Christian writer, who lived about a. d. 180, Avas 
the author of an extant work, entitled Aiaavpixhs 
rS)v e^o) (pi\ocr6(pa}v, in which the Greek philo- 
sophers are held up to ridicule. Edited with Ta- 
tianus by Worth, Oxon. 1700. 

Herminia Gens, a very ancient patrician house 
at Rome, which appears in the first Etruscan war 
with the republic, b. c. 506, and vanishes from 
history in 448. T. Herminius was one of the 3 
heroes who kept the Subliciun bridge along with 
Horatius Codes against the whole force of Porsena. 

HermmiUS Mons (Sierra de la Estrella), the 
chief mountain in Lusitania, S. of the Durius, from 
7000 to 8000 feet high, called in the middle ages 
Hermeno or Armina. 

Herinione ('Ep.uit^v?]), the beautiful daughter of 
Menelaus and Helena. She had been promised in 
marriage to Orestes before the Trojan war; but 
Menelaus after his return home married her to 
Neoptolemus(Pyrrhus). Thereupon Orestes claimed 
Hermione for himself; but Neoptolemus haughtih' 
refused to give her up. Orestes, in revenge, incited 
the Delphians against him, and Neoptolemus was 
slain. Hermione afterwards married Orestes, whom 
she had always loved, and bore him a son Tisaraenus. 
The history of Hermione is related with various 
modifications. According to some Menelaus be- 
trothed her at Troy to Neoptolemus ; but in the 
meantime her grandfather, Tyndareus, promised 
her to Orestes, and actually gave her in marriage 
to him. Neoptolemus, on his return, took possession 
of her by force, but was slain soon after either at 
Delphi or in his own home at Phthia. 

Hermione ('Ep^joVtj : 'Ep/xzoveus ; Kastri), a 
town of Argolis, but originally independent of 
Argos, was situated on a promontory on the E. 
coast, and on a bay of the sea, which derived its 
name from the town (Hermionicus Sinus). Its 
territory was called Hermionis. It was originally 
inhabited by the Dryopes ; and, in consequence of 
its isolated position, it became a flourishing city at 
an early period. It contained several temples, and 
among them a celebrated one of Demeter Chthonia. 
At a later time it joined the Achaean League. 

Henniones. [Germania.] 

Hermippus C^pfj.nnzos). 1. An Athenian poet 
of the old comed}-, vehemently attacked Pericles 
and Aspasia. — 2. Of Smyrna, a distinguished 
philosopher, was a disciple of Callimachus of Alex- 
andria, and flourished about B. c. 200. He wrote 
a great biographical work (B/oi), which is frequently 
referred to by later writers. — 3. Of Berytus, a 
grammarian, who flourished imder Trajan and 
Hadrian. 

Hemusiiun, a town in the Tauric Chersonesus, 
on the Cimmerian Bosporus. 

Hermocrates {'Epfj.oKpdTT]s), a Syracusan of 
rank, and an able statesman and orator, was chosen 
one of the Syracusan generals, B. c. 414, in order to 
oppose the Athenians. He afterwards served under 
Gylippus, when the latter took the command of 
the Syracusan forces ; and after the destruction of 
the Athenian armament he attempted to save the 
lives of Nicias and Demosthenes. He then em- 
ployed all his influence to induce his countrymen 



to support with vigour the Lacedaemonians in the 
war in Greece itself. He was with two colleagues 
appointed to the command of a small fleet, which 
the Syracusans sent to the assistance of the Lace- 
daemonians. But during his absence from home, 
he was banished by the Sj'racusans (410). Having 
obtained support from the Persian satrap Phama- 
bazus, he returned to Sicily, and endeavoured to 
eff'ect his restoration to his native city by force of 
arms, but was slain in an attack whicli he made 
upon Syracuse in 407. 

Hermodorus {'Epix6dwpos). L Of Ephesu?, a 
person of distinction, was expelled by hi^ fellow- 
citizens, and is said to have gone to Rome, and to 
have explained to the decemvirs the Greek laws, 
and thus assisted them in drawing up the laws of 
the 12 Tables, b. c. 451. — 2. A disciple of Plato, 
is said to have circulated the works of Plato, and 
to have sold them in Sicil)'. He wTote a work on 
Plato. — 3. Of Salamis. the architect of the temple 
of Mars in the Flaminian Circus. 

Herniogenes ('Ep^oyeV?]?). 1. A son of Hippo- 
nicus, and a brother of the wealthy Callias, is 
introduced by Plato as one of the speakers in his 

Cratylus," where he maintains that all the words 
of a language were formed by an agreement of men 
among themselves. — 2. A celebrated Greek rheto- 
rician, was a native of Tarsus, and lived in the 
reign of M. Aurelius, A, D. 161 — 180. At the age 
of 15 his eloquence excited the admiration of M. 
Aurelius. He was shortly afterwards appointed 
public teacher of rhetoric, and at the age of 17 he 
began his career as a writer ; but unfortunately 
when he was 25, his mental powers gave way, and 
he never recovered their full use, although he lived 
to an advanced age. After his death his heart is 
said to have been found covered with hair. His 
works 5 in number, which are still extant, form 
together a complete system of rhetoric, and were 
for a long time used in all the rhetorical schools as 
manuals. They are : 1. Tex^'V pVTopiK)) irepl rcov 
(TTcicrewu. 2. Uepl cupeaeoos (De Inventione). 3. 
TlepL id€£>v (De Formis Oratoriis). 4. Ilepi /jeSJSou 
Z€Lv6Tir]Tos {De apto et solerti genere diccndi ]\Te- 
tliodus). 5. UpGyv/j.udaiJ.aTa, An abridgment of 
the latter work was made by Aphthonius, in con- 
sequence of which the original fell into oblivion. 
The works of Hermogenes are printed in Walz's 
Rlieior. Grace. — Z. An architect of Alabanda, in 
Caria v/ho invented what was called the pseudo- 
dipterus, that is, a form of a temple, with apparently 
two rows of columns. His great object as an archi- 
tect was to increase the taste for the Ionic form of 
temples, in preference to Doric temples, 

Herniogenes, M. Tigellius, a notorious de- 
tractor of Horace, who calls him {Sat. i. 3. 129) 
however optimus cantor et modtdator. He was 
opposed to Satires altogether, was a man without 
talent, but yet had a foolish hncj for trying his 
hand at literature. It is conjectured that, under 
the fictitious name of Pantolabus {Sat. i. 8. 11, ii. 
1. 21.), Horace alludes to Hermogenes, for the 
prosody of the 2 names is the same, so that one 
may be substituted for the other. 

Hermogenianus, the latest Roman jurist from 
whom there is an extract in the Digest, lived in 
the time of Constantino the Great, It is probable 
that he was the compiler of the Codex Hermoge- 
nianus, but so many persons of the same name lived 
nearly at the same time, that this cannot be affirmed 
with certainty. 



• HERMOLAUS. 
Hermolaus ('EpiJ.6\aos), a Macedonian youth, 
and a page of Alexander the Great. During a 
hunting party in Bactria, b. c. 327, he slew a wild 
boar, without waiting to allow Alexander the first 
blow, whereupon the king ordered him to be flogged. 
Incensed at this indignity, Hermolaus formed a 
conspiracy against the king's life ; but the plot 
was discovered, and Hermolaus and his accom- 
plices were stoned to death by the Macedonians. 

Hermonassa. 1. A town of the Sindi at the 
entrance of the Cimmerian Bosporus, founded by 
the Mytilenaeans, called after Hermonassa, the 
wife of the founder, who died during its foundation, 
and left to her the sovereignty. — 2. A town on 
the coast of Pontus, near Trapezus. 

Hermonthis {"Ep/xooveis : Erment, Ru.), the 
chief city of the Nomos Hermonthites, in Upper 
Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, a little above 
Thebes. 

Hermopolis ('Ep/xo7roAts, "Epfxov ttSXis). 1, 
Parva (t? fj.LKpd : Damanhour), a city of Lower 
Egypt, the capital of the Nomos of Alexandria, 
stood upon the canal which connected the Canopic 
branch of the Nile with the Lake Mareotis. — 2. 
Magna (?; fxeydXr] : nr. EsJwiounein, Ru.), the 
capital of the Nomos Hermopolites, in the Hepta- 
nomis, or Middle Egypt, and one of the oldest 
cities in the land, stood on the W. bank of the 
Nile, a little below the confines of Upper Egypt. 
At the boundary line itself was a military station, 
or custom house, called 'EpfioiroXiTiK^ (pvXaKi), for 
collecting a toll on goods entering the Heptanomis. 
Hermopolis was a chief seat of the worship of 
Anubis (Cynocephalus) ; and it Avas the sacred 
burial-place of the Ibis. 

Hermotimus ('E/jftJn^os), 1. A mathematician 
of Colophon, was one of the immediate predecessors 
of Euclid, and the discoverer of several geometrical 
propositions. — 2. Of Clazomenae, an early Greek 
j philosopher of uncertain date, belonged to the Ionic 
j school. Some traditions represent him as a myste- 
! rious person, gifted with supernatural power, by 
which his soul, apart from the body, wandered 
from place to place, bringing tidings of distant 
events in incredibly short spaces of time. At 
! length his enemies burned his body, in the absence 
I of the soul, which put an end to his wanderings. 
I Hermundtiri, one of the most powerful nations 
I of Germany, belonged to the Suevic race, dwelt be- 
J tween the Main and the Danube, and Avere bounded 

!by the Sudeti mountains in the N., the Agri De- 
cimiates of the Romans in the W. and S., the Na- 
risci on the E., the Cherusci on the N.E., and 
the Catti on the N.W. They were for a long 
time the allies of the Romans ; but along with 
the other German tribes they assisted the Mar- 
ij, comanni in the great war against the Romans in 
i|: the reign of M. Aurelius. After this time they are 
I rarely mentioned as a separate people, but are in- 
cluded under the general name of Suevi. 

Hermus (rh "EpiJLos : "Epfieios), a demus in 
Attica, belonging to the tribe Acamantis, on the 
road from Athens to Eleusis. 

Hermus {"Epfxos ; GUediz-Chai), a considerable 
river of Asia Minor, rises in Mt. Dindymene {Mo- 
\ rad-Dagli) in Phrygia ; flows through Lydia, 
watering the plain N. of Sardis, which was hence 
called "Epjxov iveUov ; passes by Magnesia and 
i Temnus ; and falls into the Gulf of Smyrna, be- 
! tween Smyrna and Phocaea. It formed the boun- 
dary between Aeolia and Ionia. Its chief tribu- 



HERODES. 315 

taries were the Hyllus, Cogamus, Pactolus, and 
Phrygnus. 

Hernici, a people in Latium, belonged to the 
Sabine race, and are said to have derived their 
name from the Marsic (Sabine) word Tierna, "rock." 
According to this etymology their name would 
signify " mountaineers." They inhabited the moun- 
tains of the Apennines between the lake Fucinus 
and the river Trerus, and were bounded on the N. 
by the Marsi and Aequi, and on the S. by the 
Volsci. Their chief town was Anagnia. They 
were a brave and warlike people, and long offered 
a formidable resistance to the Romans. The Romans 
formed a league with them on equal terms in the 
3rd consulship of Sp. Cassius, B.C. 486. They 
were finally subdued by the Romans, 306. 

Hero, [Leanper.] 

Hero ("Hpwi/). 1. The Elder, a celebrated ma- 
thematician, Avas a native of Alexandria, and li ved in 
the reigns of the Ptolemies Philadelphus and Ever- 
getes (b. c. 285 — 222.) He is celebrated on ac- 
count of his mechanical inventions, of Avhich one of 
the best known is the common pneumatic experi- 
ment, called Hero's fountain^ in Avhich a jet of 
Avater is maintained by condensed air. We also 
find in his works a description of a sieam engine^ 
and of a double forcing pump used for a fire-engine. 
The following Avorks of Hero are extant, though 
not in a perfect form : — 1. XeipoSaWiaTpas ku- 
racricevTj nai (xvixixerpia^ de ConstructioJie et Mensura 
Manuhalislae. 2. BeAoTrojtfca, on the manufacture 
of darts. 3. UuevfjLaTLKd, or Spiritalia, the most 
celebrated of his Avorks. 4. Ilepi avTO[xaToiroLr]ri- 
iccov^ de Automatorum Fahrica Libri duo. All 
these works are published in the Mathematici 
Veteres, Paris, 1693. -—2. The Younger, a mathe- 
matician, is supposed to have lived under Heraclius 
(a. D. 610 — 641). The principal extant Avorks 
assigned to him are : — I. De Machinis belUcis. 2. 
Geodaesia, on practical geometry. 3. De Ohsidione 
repellenda. Published in the Mathematici Veteres. 

Herodes I. ('HpwSTjs), commonly called Herod. 
1. Surnamed the Great, king of the Jews, Avas the 
second son of Antipater, and consequently of Idu- 
maean origin. [Antipater, No. 3.] When his 
father Avas appointed by Caesar procurator of Ju- 
daea, in B. c. 47, Herod, though only 25 years of 
age, obtained the government of Galilee. In 46 he 
obtained the government of Coele-Syria. After 
the death of Caesar (44), Herod first supported 
Cassius ; but upon the arrival of Antony in Syria, 
in 41, he exerted himself to secure his faA'our, and 
completely succeeded in his object. In 40 he went 
to Rome, and obtained from Antony and Octavian 
a decree of the senate, constituting him king of 
Judaea. He supported Antony in the civil Avar 
against Octavian ; but after the battle of Actium 
(31) he was pardoned by Octavian and confirmed 
in his kingdom. During the remainder of his reign 
he cultivated with assiduity the friendship of Au- 
gustus and his counsellor Agrippa, and enjoyed the 
highest favour both of the one and the other. He 
possessed a jealous temper and ungovernable pas- 
sions. He put to death his beautiful Avife Mari- 
amne, Avhom he suspected without cause of adul- 
tery, and Avith Avhom he was violently in love ; 
and at a later period he also put to death his two 
sons by Mariamne, Alexander and Aristobulus. 
His government, though cruel and tyrannical, was 
vigorous ; and he was both feared and respected by 
his subjects and the surrounding nations. He 



S16 



HERODIANUS. 



HERODOTUS. 



especially loved to display his power and magnifi- 
cence by costly and splendid public works. He 
commenced rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem ; 
he rebuilt the city of Samaria, and bestowed on it 
the name of Sebaste ; wliile he converted a small 
town on the sea coast into a magnificent city, to 
•which he gave the name of Caesarea. He adorned 
these new cities with temples, theatres, g^-mnasia, 
and other buildings in the Greek style; and he even 
ventured to erect a theatre at Jerusalem itself, and 
an amphitheatre without the walls, in which he 
exhibited combats of wild beasts and gladiators. 
In the last year of his reign Jesus Christ was 
born ; and it must have been on his deathbed ihat 
lie ordered that massacre of the children at Bethle- 
hem which is recorded by the Evangelist. (Matth. 
ii. 16.) He died in the 37th year of his reign, 
and the 70th of his age, b.c. 4.* — 2. Herodes 
Antipas, son of Herod the Great, by ^lalthace. a 
Samaritan, obtained the tetrarchy of Galilee and 
Peraea, on his father's death, while the kingdom 
of Judaea devolved on his elder brother Archelaus. 
He married Herodias, the wife of his h;iif-brother, 
Herod Philip, she having, in defiance of the Jewish 
law, civorced her first husband. He had been 
previously married to a daughter of the Arabian 
prince Aretas, who quitted him in disgust at this 
new alliance, Aretas thereupon invaded the domi- 
nions of Antipas, and defeated the army which 
was opposed to him. In a. b. 38, after the death 
of Tiberius, Antipas went to Rome to solicit from 
€aligula the title of king, which had just been be- 
stowed upon his nephew, Herod Agrippa ; but 
through the intrigues of Agrippa, who was high in 
the favour of the Roman emperor, Antipas was 
deprived of his dominions, and sent into exile 
-at Lyons (39); he was subsequently removed to 
Spain, where he died. It was Herod Antipas who 
imprisoned and put to death John the Baptist, who 
had reproached him with his unlawful connexion 
with Herodias. It was before him also that Christ 
■was sent by Pontius Pilate at Jerusalem, as be- 
longing to his jurisdiction, on account of his sup- 
posed Galilean origin. — 3. Herodes Agrippa. 
[Agrippa.] —4. Brother of Herod Agrippa I., 
obtained the kingdom of Chalcis from Claudius at 
the request of Agrippa, 41. After the death of 
Agrippa (44), Claudius bestowed upon him the 
superintendence of the temple at Jerusalem, toge- 
ther with the right of appointing the high priests. 
He died in 48, when his kingdom was bestov.-ed 
by Claudius upon his nephew, Herod Agrippa II. 
— 5. Herodes Atticus, the rhetorician. [Atti- 

■CL'S.] 

Herodianus (Upv^iavos). 1. An historian, who 
WTote in Greek a history of the Roman empire in 
8 books, from the death of M. Aurelius to the 
commencement of the reign of Gordi;tnu3 III. 
(a. d. 180 — 238). He himself informs us that the 
events of this period had occurred in his own life- 
time ; but beyond this we know nothing respecting 
his life. He appears to have had Thucydides be- 
fore him as a model, both for style and for the 
general composition of his work, like him, intro- 
ducing here and there speeches wholly or in part 
imaginary. In spite of occasional inaccuracies in 
chronology and geography, his narrative is in the 

• The death of Herod took place in the same vear 
with the actual birth of Christ, as is mentioned above, 
but it is well known that this is to be placed 4 years 
before the date in general use as the Christian era. 



main truthful and impartial. Edited by Imriisch, 
Lips. 1789 — 1805, .5 vols., and by Bekker, Berlin, 
l8-2f). — 2. Aelius Herodiamis, one of the most 
celebrated grammarians of antiquity, was the son 
of ApoUonius Dyscolus [Apolloxius, No. 4], and 
was born at Alexandria. From that place he re- 
moved to Rom.e, where he gained the favour of the 
emperor ^l. Aurelius, to whom he dedicated his 
work on prosody. This work seems to have em- 
braced not merely prosody, but most of those sub- 
jects now included in the etymological portion of 
grammar. The estimation in which he was held 
by subsequent grammarians wns very great. Pris- 
cian styles him maximus auctor urtis [,rammatieue. 
He was a very voluminous writer ; but none of 
his works have come down to us complete, though 
several extracts from them are preserved by later 
grammarians. 

Herodicus {'Up65iKos). 1. Of Babj-lon, a gram- 
marian, was one of the immediate successors of 
Crates of ^lalliis, and an opponent of the followers 
of Aristarchus, against whom he wrote an epigram, 
which is still extant and included in the Greek 
Anthology. — 2. A celebrated physician of Selym- 
bria in Thrace, lived in the 5th century B.C., and 
was one of the tutors of Hippocrates. 

Herodorns {'UpSSoipos)^ of Heraclea, in Pontus, 
a contemporary of Hecataeus and Pherecydes, about 
B. c. 510, wrote a work on Hercules and his ex- 
ploits. 

Herodotus {'UpoSoros). 1. A Greek historian, 
and the father of history, was bom at Halicar- 
nassus, a Doric colony in Caria, B.C. 484. He be- 
longed to a noble family at Halicamassus. He 
was the son of Lyxes and Dryo ; and the epic poet 
Panyasis was one of his relations. Herodotus left 
his native city at an early age, in order to escape 
from the oppressive government of Lygdamis, the 
tyrant of Halicamassus, who put to death Panyasis. 
He probably settled at Samos for some time, and 
there became acquainted with the Ionic dialect ; 
but he spent many years in his extensive travels 
in Europe, Asia, and Africa, of which we shall 
speak presently. At a later time he returned to 
Halicamassus, and took a prominent part in expel- 
ling Lygdamis from his native city. In the con- 
tentions which followed the expulsion of the tyrant, 
Herodotus was exposed to the hostile attacks of 
one of the political parties, whereupon he again 
left Halicamassus, and settled at Thurii, in Italy, 
where he died. "Whether he accompanied the first 
colonists to Thurii in 443, or foUoAved them a few 
years afterwards, is a disputed point, and cannot 
be determined with certainty; though it appears 
probable from a passage in his work that he was 
at Athens at the commencement of the Peloponne- 
sian war (431). It is also disputed where Hero- 
dotus wrote his history. Lucian relates that Hero- 
dotus read his work to the assembled Greeks at 
Olympia, which was received with such universal 
applause, that the 9 books of the work were in con- 
sequence honoured with the names of the 9 muses. 
The same -^vTiter adds that the young Thucydides 
was present at this recitation and was moved to 
tears. But this celebrated story, which rests upon 
the authority of Lucian alone, must be rejected for 
many reasons. Nor is there sufficient evidence in 
' f:ivour of the tradition that Herodotus read liis 
work at the Panathenaea at Athens in 446 or 44.5, 
and received from the Athenians a reward of 10 
talents. It is far more probable that he wrote his 



HERODOTUS. 



HEROSTRATUS. 317 



work at Thurii, when he was advanced in years ; 
and it appears that he was engaged npon it, at 
least in the way of revision, when he was 77 years 
of age, since he mentions the revolt of the Medes 
against Darius Nothus, and the death of Amyrtaeus, 
events which belong to the years 409 and 408. 
Though the work of Herodotus was probably not 
written till he was advanced in years, yet he was 
collecting materials for it during a great part of his 
life. It was apparently with this view that he 
undertook his extensive travels through Greece and 
foreign countries ; and his work contains on almost 
every page the results of his personal observations 
and inquiries. There was scarcely a town of any 
importance in Greece Proper and on the coasts of 
Asia Minor with which he was not perfectly fa- 
miliar ; and at many places in Greece, such as Sa- 
mos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes, he seems to 
have staid some time. The sites of the great 
battles between the Greeks and barbarians, as 
Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataeae, 
were well known to him ; and on Xerxes' line 
of march from the Ilellespont to Athens, there 
was probably not a place which he had not seen 
with his own eyes. He also visited most of 
the Greek islands, not only in the Aegean, but 
even in the W. of Greece, such as Zacynthus, 
In the N. of Europe he visited Thrace and the 
Scythian tribes on the Black Sea. In Asia he 
travelled through Asia Minor and Syria, and 
visited the cities of Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa. 
He spent some time in Egypt, and travelled as 
far S. as Elephantine. He saw with his own eyes 
all the Avonders of Egypt, and the accuracy of his 
observations and descriptions still excites the asto- 
nishment of travellers in that country. From 
Egypt he appears to have made excursions to the 
E. into Arabia, and to the W. into Libya, at 
least as far as Cyrene, Avhich was well known 
to him. — The object of his work is to give an 
account of the struggles between the Greeks and 
Persians. He traces the enmity between Europe 
and Asia to the mythical times. He passes 
rapidly over the mythical ages to come to Croesus, 
king of Lydia, who was knoAvn to have committed 
acts of hostility against the Greeks. This induces 
him to give a full history of Croesus and of the 
kingdom of Lydia. The conquest of Lydia by the 
Persians under Cyrus then leads him to relate the 
rise of the Persian monarchy, and the subjugation 
of Asia Minor and Babylon. The nations which 
are mentioned in the course of this narrative are 
again discussed more or less minutely. The history 
of Cambyses and his expedition into Egypt induce 
him to enter into the details of Egyptian history. 
The expedition of Darius against the Scythians 
causes him to speak of Scythia and the N. of 
Europe. In the meantime the revolt of the lonians 
breaks out, which eventually brings the contest 
between Persia and Greece to an end. An account 
of this insurrection is followed by the history of the 
invasion of Greece by the Persians ; and the his- 
tory of the Persian war now runs in a regular 
channel until the taking of Sestos by the Greeks, 
B.C. 478, with which event his work concludes. 
It will be seen from the preceding sketch that 
the history is full of digressions and episodes: 
but those do not impair the unity of the work, for 
one thread, as it were, runs through the whole, 
and the episodes are only like branches of the 
same tree. The structure of the work thus bears 



a strong resemblance to a grand epic poem. 
The whole work is pervaded by a deep religious 
sentiment. Herodotus shows the most profoimd 
reverence for everything which he conceives as 
divine, and rarely ventures to express an opinion 
on what he considers a sacred or religious mys- 
tery. — In order to form a fair judgment of the 
historical value of the work of Herodotus, we must 
distinguish between those parts in which he speaks 
from his own observations and those in which he 
merely repeats what he Avas told by priests and 
others. In the latter case he Avas undoubtedly 
often deceived ; but Avhene\'er he speaks from his 
own observations, he is a real model of truthful- 
ness and accuracy; and the more the countries 
Avhich he describes haA^e been explored by modem 
travellers, the more firmly has his authority been 
established. Many things Avhich used to be laughed 
at as impossible or paradoxical are found noAv to be 
strictly in accordance with truth. — The dialect in 
which he Avrote is the Ionic, intermixed Avith epic 
or poetical expressions, and sometimes even with 
Attic and Doric forms. The excellencies of his 
style consist in its antique and epic colouring, its 
transparent clearness, and the lively flow of the 
narrative. But notwithstanding all the merits of 
Herodotus, there Avere certain writers in antiquity 
Avho attacked him, both in regard to the form and 
the substance of his work and there is still extant 
a Avork ascribed to Plutarch, entitled " On the 
Malignity of Herodotus," full of the most futile 
accusations of every kind. The best editions of 
Herodotus are by Schweighauser, Argentor. 1806, 
often reprinted; byGaisford, Oxon. 1824 ; and by 
Bahr, Lips. 1830."— 2. A Greek physician, who 
practised at Rome Avith great reputation, about 

A. D. 100. He Avrote some medical Avorks, Avhich 
are se\-eral times quoted by Galen. — 3. Also a 
Greek physician, a native either of Tarsus or Phi- 
ladelphia, taught Sextus Empiricus. 

Keroopolis or Hero {'Hpwccu ttoXis, 'Upu> : 0. T. 
Raamses or Rameses ? : Ru. nr. Aboti-Keshid?)^ 
the capital of the Nomos Heroopolites or Arsinoites 
in Lower Egypt, stood on the border of the Desert 
E. of the Delta, upon the canal connecting the Nile 
Avith the W. head of the Red Sea, Avhich Avas 
called from it Sinus Herobpoliticus (koXttos 'H- 
pcacov^ 'HpwoTToAtTTjs or -itlxos). The country 
about it is supposed to be the Goshen of Scripture. 

Herophilus {'HpocpiXos), one of the most cele- 
brated physicians of antiquity, Avas born at Chalce- 
don in Bithynia, Avas a pupil of Praxagoras, and 
liA-ed at Alexandria, under the first Ptolemy, who 
reigned B. c. 323 — 285. Here he soon acquired 
a great reputation, and was one of the founders 
of the medical school in that city. He seems to 
have given his chief attention to anatomy and phy- 
siology, Avhich he studied not merely from the dis- 
section of animals, but also from that of human 
bodies. He is even said to have carried his ardour 
in his anatomical pursuits so far as to haA'e dissected 
criminals alive. He was the author of several me- 
dical and anatomical Avorks, of Avhich nothing but 
the titles and a few fragments remain. These have 
been collected and published by Marx, De Hero- 
'pliili Vita, &c. Gotting. 1840. 

Herostratus {'UpSarpaTos), an Ephesian, set 
fire to the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, on the 
same night that Alexander the Great was bom, 

B. c. 356. He Avas put to the torture, and confessed 
1 that he had fired the temple to immortalise hiia- 



318 



HERSE. 



HESPERIDES. 



self. The Epliesians passed a decree condemning 
nis name to oblivion ; but it has been, as might 
have been expected, handed down by history. 

Kerse {"Epcn]), daughter of Cecrops and sister 
of Acranlos, was beloved by Hermes, by whom 
she became the mother of Cephalus. Respecting 
her stori-, see AcRAfLOS. At Athens sacrifices 
were offered to her, and the maidens who carried 
the vessels containing the libation (}p<rr)) were 
called ip()7](p6poi. 

Hersilia, the wife of Romulus, was the only 
married woman carried off .by the Romans in the 
rape of the Sabine maidens. As Romulus after | 
death became Quirinus, so Hersilia his wife be- 
came a goddess, Hora or Horta. Some writers, 
however, made Hersilia the wife of Hostus, grand- 
father of Tullus Hostilius. 

Hertlia (containing probably the same elements 
as the words eatih, erde), the goddess of the earth, 
among the ancient Germans. 

Her-oli or Eruli, a powerful German race, are 
said to have come originally from Scandinavia, but 
they appear on the shores of the Black Sea in the 
reign of Gallienus (a. d. 262), when in conjunction 
with the Goths, they invaded the Roman empire. 
They were conquered by the Ostrogoths, and after- 
wards formed part of the great army of Attila, with 
which he invaded Gaul and Italy. After the death 
of Attila (453) a portion of the Henili united 
with other German tribes ; and under the com- 
mand of Odoacer, who is said to have been an He- 
rulian, they destroyed the "Western Empire, 476. 
Meantime the remainder of the nation formed a 
powerful kingdom on the banks of the Theiss 
and the Danube, which wfis eventually destroyed 
by the Langobardi or Lombards. Some of the 
Heruli were allowed by Anastasius to settle in- 
Pannonia, and they served with, great distinction 
in the armies of Justinian. 

Hesiodus {'Ha-'ioSos), one of the earliest Greek 
poets, of whose personal history we possess little 
authentic information. He is frequently mentioned 
along with Homer ; as Homer represents the Ionic 
school of poetry in Asia Minor, so Hesiod re- 
presents the Boeotian school of poetry, which 
spread over Phocis and Euboea. The only points 
of resemblance between the 2 schools consist in 
their versification and dialect. In other respects 1 
they entirely differ. The Homeric school takes I 
for its subjects the restless activity of the heroic i 
age, while the Hesiodic turns its attention to the 1 
quiet pursuits of ordinary life, to the origin of the ■ 
world, the gods and heroes. Hesiod lived about . 
a century later than Homer, and is placed about ' 
B. c. 735. We learn from his own poem on ; 
Works and Days, that he was bom in the village 
of Ascra in Boeotia, whither his father had emi- 
grated from the Aeolian C}Tne in Asia iMinor. j 
After the death of his father, he was involved in 
a dispute with his brother Perses about his small 
patrimony, which was decided in favour of his 
brother. He then emisrrated to Orchomenos, 
where he spent the remainder of his life. This 
is all that can be said with certainty about the 
life of Hesiod. Many of the stories related about 
him refer to his school of poetry, and not to the 
poet personally. In this light we may regard the 
tradition, that Hesiod had a poetical contest with 
Homer, which is said to have taken place at 
Chalcis during the funeral solemnities of king 
Amphidamas, or, according to others, at Aulis or 



Delos. The story of this contest gave rise to a 
composition still extant under the title of 'Kyiai/ 
'O.uripov Koi 'H(n65ou, the work of a grammarian 
who lived towards the end of the first century of 
our era, in which the 2 poets are represented as 
engaged in the contest, and answering one another. 
The following works were attributed to Hesiod in 
antiquity : — 1. "Epya or "Epya koI 7]ij.epai, Opera 
et Dies, Works and Days. It is written in the most 
homely style, with scarcely any poetical imagery 
or ornament, and must be looked upon as the most 
ancient specimen of didactic poetry. It contains 
ethical, political, and economical precepts, the last 
of which constitute the greater part of the v.-ork, 
consisting of rules about choosing a wife, the edu- 
cation of children, agriculture, commerce, and na- 
vigation. It would further seem that 3 distinct 
poems have been inserted in it ; viz. 1. The fable 
of Prometheus and Pandora (47 — 105) ; 2. On 
the ages of the world, which are designated by the 
names of metals (109 — 201) ; and, 3. A descrip- 
tisn of winter (504 — 558). 2. Q^oyovia, a TJw- 
ogony, was not considered by Hesiod's countrymen 
to be a genuine production of the poet. This work 
gives an account of the origin of the world and the 
birth of the gods, explaining the whole order of 
nature in a series of genealogies, for every part of 
physical as well as moral nature there appears per- 
sonified in the character of a distinct being. The 
whole concludes with an account of some of the 
most illustrious heroes. 3. 'Ho?at or 7)o7ai fieyaKai, 
also called KaroKoyoi ywaiKuv, Catalogue of 
Women. This work is lost. It contained accounts 
of the women who had been beloved by the gods, 
and had thus become the mothers of the heroes in 
the various parts of Greece, from whom the ruling 
families derived their origin. 4. 'ActttIs 'Hpa- 
KXiuvs, Shield of Hercules, which is extant, pro- 
bably formed part of the work last mentioned. It 
contains a description of the shield of Hercules, 
and is an imitation of the Homeric description of 
the shield of Achilles. The best edition of Hesiod 
is by Gbttling, Gotha and Erfurt, 1 843, 2d ed. 

Hesione (HcnSvri), daughter of Laomedon, king 
of Troy, was chained by her father to a rock, in 
order to be devoured by a sea-monster, that he 
might thus appease the anger of Apollo and 
Poseidon. Hercules promised to save her, if 
Laomedon would give him the horses which he 
had received from Zeus as a compensation for 
GanjTnedes. Hercules killed the monster, but 
Laomedon refused to keep his promise. There- 
upon Hercules took Troy, killed Laomedon, and 
gave Hesione to his friend and companion Te- 
lamon, by whom she became the mother of Teucer. 
Her brother Priam sent Antenor to claim her 
back, and the refusal on the part of the Greeks is 
mentioned as one of the causes of the Trojan war. 

Hesperia ('Eo-Trepia), the Western land (firom 
ecTTrepos, vesper), the name given by the Greek 
poets to Italy, because it lay W. of Greece. In 
imitation of them, the Roman poets gave the name 
of Hesperia to Spain, which they sometimes called 
ultima Hesperia (Hor. Carm, i. 36. 4) to distinguish 
it from Italy, which thev'- occasionally called Hes- 
peria Magna (Virg, Aen. i. 569). 

Hesperides ('EtrTrepi'oes), the celebrated guar- 
dians of the golden apples which Ge (Earth) gave to 
Hera at her marriage -n-ith Zeus. Their parentage is 
differently related. They are called the daughters 
either of Night or Erebus, or of Phorcys and Ceto, 



HESPERIDUM. 



HIBERNIA. 



319 



or of Atlas and Hesperis (whence their names 
Atlantides or Hesperides), or of Hesperus, or of 
Zeus and Themis. Some traditions mentioned 3 
Hesperides, viz. Aegle, Arethusa, ani Hespena ; 
others 4, Aec/le, Crytheia, Hestia, and Aretliusa ; 
and others again 7. The poets describe them 
as possessing the power of sweet song. In the 
earliest legends, these nymphs are described as 
living on the river Oceanus, in the extreme W. ; 
but the later attempts to fix the geographical 
position of their gardens led poets and geogra- 
phers to different parts of Libya, as the neigh- 
bourhood of Gyrene, Mount Atlas, or the islands 
on the W. coast of Libya, or even to the N. ex- 
tremity of the earth, beyond the vv'ind Boreas, 
among the Hj^perboreans. They were assisted in 
watching the golden apples by the dragon Ladon. 
It was one of the labours of Hercules to obtain 
possession of these apples. (See p. 310, a.) 
Hesperidum Insulae. [Hesperium.] 
Hesperis. [Berenice, No. 4, p. 120.] 
Hesperium ('Eo-Trepioi^, 'Ea-irepov Kepas : C. 
Verde or C. Roxo), a headland on the ^»Y. coast of 
Africa, was one of the furthest points to which the 
knowledge of the ancients extended along that 
coast. Near it was a bay called Sinus Hesperius ; 
and a day's journey from it a group of islands called 
Hesperidum Insulae, wrongly identified by some 
with the Fortunatae Insulae ; they are either the 
Cape de Verde islands, or, more probably, the Bis- 
sagos, at the mouth of the Rio Grande. 

Hesperus ("EcrTrepos), the evening star, is called 
by Hesiod a son of Astraeus and Eos. He Avas 
also regarded as the same as the morning star, 
whence both Homer and Hesiod call him the 
bringer of light {ko}(T<p6pos). A later account 
makes him a son of Atlas, who was fond of 
astronomy, and who disappeared, after ascending 
Mount Atlas to observe the stars. He was wor- 
shipped with divine honours, and was regarded as 
the fairest star in the heavens. The Romans desig- 
nated him by the names Lucifer and Hesperus, to 
characterise him as the mornmg or evening star. 

Hestia ('Eo-Ti'a, Ion. 'Icrri'T?), called Vesta by 
the Romans, the goddess of the hearth, or rather 
of the fire burning on the hearth, was one of 
the 12 great divinities of the Greeks. She was 
a daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and, accord- 
mg to common tradition, was the first-born of 
Rhea, and consequently the first of the children 
swallowed by Cronus. She was a maiden di- 
vinity, and when Apollo and Poseidon sued for 
her hand, she swore by the head of Zeus to remain 
a virgin for ever. As the hearth was looked upon 
as the centre of domestic life, so Hestia was the 
goddess of domestic life and the giver of all do- 
mestic happiness : as such she was believed to 
dwell in the inner part of every house, and to 
have invented the art of building houses. In this 
respect she often appears together with Hermes, 
who was likewise a deus penetralis. Being the 
goddess of the sacred fire of the altar, Hestia had 
a share in the sacrifices offered to all the gods. 
Hence, when sacrifices were offered, she was in- 
voked first, and the first part of the sacrifice was 
presented to her. Solemn oaths were sworn by the 
goddess of the hearth ; and the hearth itself was 
the sacred asylum where suppliants implored the 
protection of the inhabitants of the house. A town 
or city is only an extended family, and therefore 
had likewise its sacred hearth. This public hearth 



usually existed in the prytaneum of a town, where 
the goddess had her especial sanctuary (i^aAa^os), 
under the name of Pri/tajntis (UpvTav^Tis), with a 
statue and the sacred hearth. There, as at a pri- 
vate hearth, Hestia protected the suppliants. When 
a colony was sent out, the emigrants took the fire 
which was to burn on the hearth of their new 
home from that of the mother town. If ever the 
fire of her hearth became extinct, it was not allowed 
to be lighted again with ordinary fire, but either 
b}^ fire produced by friction, or by burning glasses 
drawing fire from the sun. The mystical specu- 
lations of later times took their origin from the 
simple ideas of the ancients, and assumed a sacred 
hearth not only in the centre of the earth, but even 
in that of the uniA-erse, and confounded Hestia in 
various ways Avith other divinities, such as Cybele, 
Gaea, Demeter, Persephone, and Artemis. There 
were but few special temples of Hestia in Greece, 
since every prj'taneum Avas in reality a sanctuary 
of the goddess, and since a portion of the sacri- 
fices, to whatever divinity they were offered, be- 
longed to her. The worship of the Roman Vesta 
is spoken of under Vesta. 

Hestiaeotis ('EariaiooTLs) 1. The N.W. part of 
Thessaly [Thessalia.] — 2. Or Histiaea, a dis- 
trict in Euboea. [Euboea.] 

Hesychius ("Ha-vxios). 1. An Alexandrine 
grammarian, under Avhose name a large Greek dic- 
tionarj' has come down to us. Respecting his per- 
sonal history nothing is knoAvn, but he probably 
liA-ed about a.d. 380. The Avork is based, as the 
Avriter himself tells us, upon the lexicon of Dioge- 
nianus. Hesychius Avas probably a pagan : the 
Christian glosses and the references to Christian 
Avriters in theAvork are interpolations by a later hand. 
The Avork is one of great importance, not only on 
account of its explaining the Avords of the Greek 
language, but also from its containing much literary 
and archaeological information, deriA'-ed from earlier 
grammarians and commentators, whose AA'orks are 
lost. The arrangement of the Avork hoAvever is 
very defectiA^e. The best edition is by Alberti, 
completed after Alberti's death by Ruhnken, Lugd. 
Bat. 1746—1766, 2 vols, fol. — 2. Of Miletus, 
sumamed Illustris, from some office Avhich he held, 
lived about a.d. 540, and Avrote : 1. An 07iomas- 
ticon., or account of illustrious men, published by 
Orelli, Lips. 1820. 2. A Chronicon or synoptical 
vieAv of imiversal history, in 6 parts, from the reign 
of Belus, the reputed founder of the Assyrian em- 
pire, to the death of the Byzantine emperor, Anas- 
tasius I., A.D. 518. The work itself is lost, but 
an account of it is preserved by Photius. 

Hetriciilum, a toAvn of the Bruttii. 

Hibemia, also called lerne, Ivema or Juvema 
('lepi'Tj, \^pv\s vri(Tos, *lov€pyLa), the island of 
Ireland, appears to have derived its name from the 
inhabitants of its S. coast, called Juvemi (^lovepvoi) 
by Ptolemy, but its original name was probably 
Bergion or Vergion. It is mentioned by Caesar, 
and is frequently spoken of by subsequent Avriters; 
but the Romans never made any attempt to conquer 
the island, though they obtained some knowledge of 
it from the commercial intercourse AA'hich was carried 
on betAA^een it and Britain. We have no account of 
the island except from Ptolemy, Avho must have 
deri\-ed his information from the statements of the 
British merchants, who visited its coasts. Ptolemy 
gives rather a long list of its promontories, rivers, 
tribes and to\A-ns. 



IIICESIA. 

Hicesia, [Aeoliae Insulae.] 

Hicetas ('iKe'ray or 'I/f6T7jy). 1. A Syracusan, 
contemporary with the younger Dionysiiis and Ti- 
moleon. He was at first a friend of Dion, after 
whose death (b. c. 353) his wife Arete, and his 
sister Aristomache placed themselves under tlie 
care of Hicetas; but he was persuaded notwithstand- 
ing to consent to their destruction. A few years later 
he became tj-rant of Leontini. He carried on war 
ac^ainst the younger Dionysius, whom he defeated, 
and had made himself master of the whole cit}', 
except the island citadel, when Timoleon landed in 
bicilv, 344. Hicetas then opposed Timoleon and 
c.'illed in the aid of the Cartliaginians, but he was 
defeated and put to death by Timoleon, 339 or 
333. =-2. Tyrant of Syracuse, during the interval 
between the reign of Agathocles and that of Pyr- 
rhus. He defeated Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, 
and was himself defeated by the Carthaginians. 
After a reign of 9 years (288 — ^279), he was 
'jxpelled from Syracuse. — 3. Of Syracuse, one of 
the earlier Pythagoreans. 

Hiempsal. 1. Son of Micipsa, king of Nu- 
midia, and grandson of Masinissa, was murdered 
by Jugurtha, soon after the death of Micipsa, 
B.C. 11 8. — 2, King .of Numidia, grandson or 
great-grandson of Masinissa, and father of Juba, 
appears to have received the sovereignty of part of 
Numidia after the Jugurthine war. He was ex- 
pelled from his kingdom by Cn. Domitius Aheno- 
barbus, the leader of the Marian party in Africa, 
but was restored by Pompey in 81. Hiempsal 
wrote some works in the Punic language, which 
are cited by Sallust {Jug. 17). 

Hiera. 1. [Aeoliae.]. — 2. [Aegates.] 

Hierapolis ('lepaTroAts). 1. A city of Great 
Phrygia, near the Maeander, celebrated for its hot 
springs and its temple of Cybele. Like the neigh- 
bouring cities of Colossae and Laodicea, it was an 
early seat of Christianity, and it is mentioned in 
St. Paul's Epistle to tJie Colossia7is (iv. 13). — 2. 
Formerly Bambyce {QafxSvKi] : Bambucli^ or Mem- 
bij), a city in the N.E. of Syria, one of the chief 
seats of the worship of Astarte. 

Hierocles ('lepoK\ris). 1. A Greek rhetorician 
of Alabanda in Caria, lived about B.C. 100, and 
was distinguished, like his brother Menecles, by 
the Asiatic style of oratory. — 2. Governor of Bi- 
thynia, and afterwards of Alexandria, is said to 
have been one of the chief instigators of the perse- 
cution of the Christians under Diocletian. He 
wrote a work against the Christians, entitled 
Aoyoi (piXaX-qdeis irphs tovs XpLcrriavuvs, of which 
we may form an idea from the account of Lactantius 
and the refutation which Eusebius wrote against 
it. We see from these writers that Hierocles 
attacked the character of Jesus Christ and his 
apostles, and put him on an equality with Apollo- 
nius of Tyana.— 3. A New Platonist, who lived 
at Alexandria about the middle of the 5th century. 
He wrote : 1. A commentary on the golden verses 
of Pythagoras, in which he endeavours to give an 
intelligible account of the philosophy of Pytha- 
goras. Published by Needham, Cambridge, 1709 ; 
and by Warren, London, 1742. 2. A work on 
Providence, Fate, and the reconciliation of man's 
free will with the divine government of the world, 
in 7 books. The work is lost, but some extracts 
from it preserved in Photius. 3. An ethical work 
on justice, on reverence towards the gods, parents, 
relations, &c,, which bore the title Ta (piXoao^ov- 



HIERON. 

ixcva. This work is also lost, but there are several 
extracts from it in Stobaeus. The extant work, en- 
titled 'AfTTeia, a collection of ludicrous tales, is en"o- 
neously ascribed to Hierocles, the New Platonist, 
The work is of no merit.— 4. A Greek grammarian, 
the author of an extant work, entitled SweKSTj/xos, 
that is, The Travelling Companion, intended as a 
handbook for travellers through the provinces of 
the Eastern empire. It was perliaps written at the 
beginning of the 6th century of our era. It con- 
tains a list of 64 eparchiae or provinces of the East- 
ern empire, and of 935 different towns, with brief 
descriptions. Published by Wesseling, in Vderum 
Romanorum Itineraria^ Amsterdam, 1735. 

Hieron ('lepwi/). 1. Tyrant of Syracuse (b. c. 
478 — 467), was son of Dinomenes and brother of 
Gelon, whom he succeeded in the sovereignty. In 
the early part of his reign he became involved in 
a war with Theron of Agrigentum, who had 
espoused the cause of his brother Polyzelus, with 
whom he had quarrelled. But Hieron afterwards 
concluded a peace with Theron, and became recon- 
ciled to his brother Polyzelus. After the death 
of Theron, in 472, he carried on war against his 
son Thrasydaeus, whom he defeated in a great 
battle, and expelled from Agrigentum. But by far 
the most important event of his reign was the great 
victory which he obtained over the Etruscan fleet 
near Cumae (474), and which appears to have 
effectually broken the naval power of that nation. 
Hieron died at Catana hi the 12th year of his 
reign, 467. His government was much more de- 
spotic than that of his brother Gelon. He main- 
tained a large guard of mercenary troops, and 
employed numerous spies and informers. He was 
however a liberal and enlightened patron of men of 
letters ; and his court became the resort of the 
most distinguished poets and philosophers of the 
day. Aeschylus, Pindar, and Bacchylides took 
up their abode with him, and we find him asso- 
ciating in friendly intercourse with Xenophanes, 
Epicharmus, and Simonides. His intimacy with 
the latter was particularly celebrated, and has been 
made the subject by Xenophon of an imaginary 
dialogue, entitled the Hieron. His love of magnifi- 
cence was especially displayed in the great contests 
of the Grecian games, and his victories at Olympia 
and Delphi have been immortalised by Pindar. — 
2. King of Syracuse (b.c. 270 — 216), was the son 
of Hierocles, a noble Syracusan, descended from 
the great Gelon, but his mother was a female ser- 
vant. When Pyrrhus left Sicily (275), Hieron, 
who had distinguished himself in the wars of that 
monarch, was declared general by the Syracusan 
army. He strengthened his power by marrying 
the daughter of Lep tines, at that time the most 
influential citizen at Syracuse ; and after his defeat 
of the Mamertines, he was saluted by his fellow- 
citizens with the title of king, 270. It was the 
great object of Hieron to expel the Mamertines 
from Sicily ; and accordingly when the Romans, 
in 264, interposed in favour of that people, Hieron 
concluded an alliance with the Carthaginians, and, 
in conjunction with them, carried on war against 
the Romans. But having been defeated by the 
Romans, he concluded a peace with them in the 
following year (263), in virtue of which he re- 
tained possession of the whole S. E. of Sicily, and 
the E. side of the island as far as Tauroraenium. 
From this time till his death, a period of little less 
than half a century, Hieron continued the stedfast 



IIAKPY. HECATE. HEPHAESTUS (VULCANUS). HERA (JUNO). 




Hephaestus (Vulcanus), (From an Hephaestus (Vulcan). (From a Gem in the Koyal 

Altar in the Vatican.) Page 304. Cabinet at Paris.) Page 304. 




Hecate. (Causei, Museum Romanum, vol. 1, Hera (Juno). (Visconti, Mus. Pic 

tav. 21.) Page 299. Clem., vol. 4, tav. 3.) Pages 304, 305. 




Hera (Juno) seated on a Throne, with Mercury behind. A Harpy. (British Museum. From a 

(Museo Borbonico.) Pages 304, 305. Tomb at Xanthus.) Pages 297, 298. 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. GELA— HEEAEA. 





I HIERONYMUS. 

friend and ally of the Romans, a policy of which 
his subjects as well as himself reaped the benefits, 
in the enjoyment of a state of uninterrupted tran- 
I quillity and prosperity. Even the heavy losses 
which the Romans sustained in the first 3 years of 
the 2nd Punic war did not shake his fidelity ; and 
after their great defeats, he sent them large supplies 
of corn and auxiliary troops. He died in 21 6 at the 
age of 92. His government was mild and equitable : 
though he did not refuse the title of king, he 
avoided all external display of the insignia of 
royalty, and appeared in public in the garb of a 
private citizen. The care he bestowed upon the 
financial department of his administration is attested 
by the laws regulating the tithes of corn and other 
agricultural produce, which, under the name oiLeges 
Hieronicae^ were retained by the Romans when 
they reduced Sicily to a province. He adorned the 
city of Syracuse with many public works. His 
power and magnificence were celebrated by Theo- 
critus in his 16th Idyll. Hieron had only one son, 
Gelon, who died shortly before his father. He was 
: succeeded by his grandson, Hieronymus. 

Hieronymus (Upuwixos). 1. Of Cardia, pro- 
bably accompanied Alexander the Great to Asia, 
and after the death of that monarch (b. c. 323) 
served under his countryman Eumenes. In the last 
battle between Eumenes and Antigonus(3i6) Hiero- 
nymus fell into the hands of Antigonus, who 
treated him with kindness, and to whose service he 
henceforth attached himself. After the death of 
Antigonus (301), Hieronymus continued to follow 
the fortunes of his son Demetrius, and was ap- 
pointed by the latter governor of Boeotia, after his 
first conquest of Thebes, 292. He continued un- 
shaken in his attachment to Demetrius and to his 
i son, Antigonus Gonatus, after him. It appears 
that he survived Pyrrhus, and died at the advanced 
age of 104. Hieronymus wrote a history of the 
events from the death of Alexander to that of 
Pyrrhus, if not later. This work has not come 
down to us, but it is frequently cited by iater 
writers as one of the chief authorities for the history 
of Alexander's successors. We are told that Hiero- 
nymus displayed partiality to Antigonus and De- 
metrius, and in consequence treated Pyrrhus and 
Lysimachus with great injustice. — 2. King of 
Syracuse, succeeded his grandfather, Hieron II., 
B.C. 216, at 15 years of age. He was persuaded 
, by the Carthaginian party to renounce the alliance 
i with the Romans, which his grandfather had main- 
1 tained for so many years. He was assassinated 
I after a short reign of only 13 months. — 3. Of 
Rhodes, commonly called a peripatetic, though 
Cicero questions his right to the title, was a disciple 
of Aristotle, and appears to have lived down to the 
time of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He held the highest 
good to consist in freedom from pain and trouble, 
and denied that pleasure was to be sought for its 
own sake.— 4. Commonly known as Saint Jerome, 
one of the most celebrated of the Christian fathers, 
was born at Stridon, a town upon the confines of 
Dalmatia and Pannonia, about A. D. 340. His 
father sent him to Rome for the prosecution of his 
studies, where he devoted himself with great ardour 
and success to the Greek and Latin languages, to 
rhetoric, and to the different branches of philo- 
sophy, enjoying the instructions of the most distin- 
guished preceptors of that era, among whom was 
Aelius Donatus. [Donatus.] After completing 
his studies he went to Gaul, where he remained 



HILARIUS. 

some time, and subsequently travelled through 
various countries in the E. At Antioch he was 
attacked by a dangerous malady, and on his re- 
covery he resolved to withdraw from the world. 
In 374 he retired to the desert of Chalcis, lying 
between Antioch and the Euphrates, where he 
passed 4 years, adhering strictly to the most rigid 
observances of monkish ascetism, but at the same 
time pursuing the study of Hebrew. In 379 he 
was ordained a presbyter at Antioch by Paulinus. 
Soon after he went to Constantinople, where he lived 
for 3 years, enjoying the instructions and friend- 
ship of Gregory of Nazianzus. In 382 he accom- 
panied Paulinus to Rome, where he formed a close 
friendship with the Pope Damasus. He remained 
at Rome 3 years, and there laboured in pro- 
claiming the glory and merit of a contemplative 
life and monastic discipline. He had many enthu- 
siastic disciples among the Roman ladies, but the 
influence which he exercised over them excited the 
hatred of their relations, and exposed him to at- 
tacks against his character. Accordingly he left 
Rome in 385, having lost his patron Damasus in 
the preceding year ; and accompanied by the rich 
widow Paula, her daughter Eustochium, and a 
number of devout maidens, he made a tour of the 
Holy Land, and finally settled at Bethlehem, where 
Paula erected 4 monasteries, 3 for nuns and I for 
monks. Here he passed the remainder of his 
life. He died A. D. 420. — Jerome wrote a great 
number of works, most of which have come down 
to us. Of these the most celebrated are his Com- 
mentaries on the various books of the Scriptures. 
He also translated into Latin the Old and New 
Testaments : his translation is in substance the 
Latin version of the Scriptures, known by the name 
of the Vulgate. The translation of the Old Testa- 
ment was made by Jerome directly from the He- 
brew ; but the translation of the New Testament 
was formed by him out of the old translations care- 
fully corrected from the original Greek. Jerome 
likewise translated from the Greek the Chronicle 
of Eusebius, which he enlarged, chiefly in the de- 
partment of Roman history, and brought down to 
A.D. 378. Jerome was the most learned of the 
Latin fathers. His profound knowledge of the 
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, his familiarity 
with ancient history and philosophy, and his per- 
sonal acquaintance with the manners and scenery 
of the East, enabled him to throw much light upon 
the Scriptures. In his controversial works he is 
vehement and dogmatical. His language is exceed- 
ingly pure, bearing ample testimony to the diligence 
with which he must have studied the choicest 
models. The best editions of the works of Jerome 
are the Benedictine, Par. 5 vols. fol. 1693 — 1706, 
and that by Vallarsi, Veron. 11 vols. fol. 1734 — 
1742; reprinted Venet. 11 vols. 4to. 1766. 

Hierosolyma. [Jerusalem,] 

Hilarius, 1. A Christian writer, was born of 
pagan parents at Poitiers, He afterwards became 
a Christian, and was elected bishop of his native 
place, A.D. 350. From this time he devoted all 
his energies to check the progress of Arianism, 
which was making rapid strides in Gaul. He be- 
came so troublesome to the Arians, that they 
induced the emperor Constantius in 356 to banish 
him to Phrygia, He was allowed to return to Gaul 
about 361, and died in his diocese in 368. Several 
of his works have come down to us. They consist 
chiefly of polemical treatises against the Ari;ms 

T 



322 HILLEVTONES. 
and addresses to the emperor Constantius. The 
best edition of his works is by Coustant, Paris, 
1693, forming one of the Benedictine series, and re- 
printed by Scipio Maffei, Veron,. 1730. — 2. Bishop 
of Aries, 'succeeded his master Honoratus in that 
diocese, a.d. 429, and died in 449. He wrote the 
life of Honoratus and a few other works. 
Hilleviones. [Germama, p. •282, a.] 
Himera {'l/xepa) 1. [Fiume Salso), one of the 
principal rivers in the S. of Sicily, at one time the 
boundary between the territories of the Carthagi- 
nians and Syracusans, receives near Enna the water 
of a salt spring, and hence has salt water as {at as 
its mouth. — 2. A smaller river in the N. of Sicily, 
flows into the sea between the towns of Himera 
and Thermae. — 3. {'Ifxepaios), a celebrated Greek 
city on the N. coast of Sicily, W. of the mouth of 
the river Himera [No. 2.], was founded by the 
Chalcidians of Zancle, b. c. 648, and afterwards 
received Dorian settlers, so that the inhabitants 
spoke a mixed dialect, partly Ionic (Chalcidian) 
and partly Doric. About 560 Himera, being 
threatened by its powerful neighbours, placed itself 
under the protection of Phalaris, tyrant of Agri- 
gentum, in whose power it appears to have re- 
mained till his death. At a later time (500) we find 
Himera governed by a tyrant Terillus, who was 
expelled by Theron of Agrigentum. Terillus there- 
upon applied for assistance to the Carthaginians, 
who, anxious to extend their influence in Sicily, 
sent a powerful army into Sicily under the com- 
mand of Hamilcar. The Carthaginians were de- 
feated with great slaughter at Himera by the united 
forces of Theron and Gelon of Syracuse on the same 
day as the battle of Salamis was fought (480). 
Himera was now governed by Thrasydaeus, the 
son of Theron, in the name of his father ; but the 
inhabitants having attempted to revolt, Theron put 
to death or drove into exile a considerable part of 
the population, and repeopled the city with settlers 
firom all quarters, but especially of Dorian origin. 
After the death of Theron (472), Himera recovered 
its independence, and for the next 60 years was 
one of the most flourishing cities in Sicily. It as- 
sisted Syracuse against the Athenians in 415. In 
409 it was taken by Hannibal, the son of Gisgo, 
who, to revenge the great defeat which the Car- 
thaginians had suffered before this town, levelled 
it to the ground and destroyed almost all the inha- 
bitants. Himera was never rebuilt ; but on the 
opposite bank of the river Himera, the Carthaginians 
founded a new town, which, from a warm medicinal 
spring in its neighbourhood, was called Thermae 
(Qepfxai : Qepfi'irris, Thermitanus : Termini.) Here 
the remains of the unfortunate inhabitants of Hi- 
mera were allowed to settle. The Romans, who 
highly prized the warm springs of Thermae, per- 
mitted the tow-n to retain its own constitution; and 
Augustus made it a colony. — The poet Stesichorus 
was born at the ancient Himera, and the tyrant 
Agathocles at Thermae. 

Himerius ('luepios), a celebrated Greek sophist, 
was bom at Prusa in Bithynia, and studied at 
Athens. He was subsequently appointed professor 
of rhetoric at Athens, where he gave instruction to 
Julian, afterwards emperor, and the celebrated 
Christian writers, Basil and Gregory Nazianzen. 
In 362 the emperor .Julian invited him to his court 
at Antioch, and made him his secretary. He re- 
turned to Athens in 368, and there passed the 
remainder of his life. Himerius was a pagan ; but 



HIPP ARCH US. 
he does not manifest in his writings any animosity 
against the Christians. There were extant in the 
time of Photius 71 orations by Himerius; but of 
these only 24 have come down to us complete. 
Edited by "Wemsdorf, Gbttingen, 1790. 

Himiico {'l/xiKKuv). L A Carthaginian, who 
conducted a voyage of discovery- from Gades to- 
wards the N., along the W. shores of Europe, at 
the same time that Hanno undertook his voyage to 
theS. along the coast of Africa. [Hanno, No. 10,] 
Himiico represented that his further progress was 
prevented by the stagnant nature of the sea, 
loaded with sea weed, and by the absence of wind. 
His voyage is said to have lasted 4 months, but it 
is impossible to judge how far it was extended. 
Perhaps it was intentionally wrapt in obscurity by 
the commercial jealousy of the Carthaginians. — 2. 
Son of Hanno, commanded, together with Hannibal, 
son of Gisco [Hannibal, No. 1.], a Carthaginian 
army in Sicily, and laid siege to Agrigentum, b. c. 
406. Hannibal died before Agrigentum of a pes- 
tilence, which broke out in the camp ; and Himiico, 
now left sole general, succeeded in taking the place, 
after a siege of nearly 8 months. At a later period 
he carried on war against Dionysius of Syracuse. 
In 395 he defeated Dionysius, and laid siege to 
Syracuse ; but, while pressing the siege of the city, 
a pestilence carried off a great number of his men. 
In this weakened condition, Himiico was attacked 
and defeated by Dionysius, and was obliged to 
purchase his safety by an ignominious capitulation. 
Such was his grief and disappointment at this 
termination to the campaign, that, on his return 
to Carthage, he put an end to his life by vo- 
luntary abstinence. — 3. The Carthaginian com- 
mander at Lilybaeum, which he defended with 
skill and bravery, when it was attacked by the 
Romans, 250.— 4. Commander of the Carthaginian 
forces in Sicily during a part of the 2nd Punic 
war, 214 — 212.-6. Sumamed Phamaeas, com- 
mander of the Carthaginian cavalry in the 3rd 
Punic war. He deserted to the Romans, by 
whom he was liberally rewarded. 

Hippana (to "iTTTrova), a town in the N. of 
Sicily near Panormus. 

Hipparcliia ('iTnropx'a), wife of Crates the 
Cynic. [For details, see Crates, No. 3.] 

Hipparchus ("iTTTrapx*). !■ Son of Pisistratus. 
[PisiSTRATiDAE.] — 2. A celebrated Greek astro- 
nomer, was a native of Nicaea in Bithynia, and 
flourished b. c. 160 — 145. He resided' both at 
Rhodes and Alexandria. He was the true father 
of astronomy, which he raised to that rank among 
the applications of arithmetic and geometry which 
it has always since preserved. He was the first 
who gave and demonstrated the means of solving 
all triangles, rectilinear and spherical. He con- 
structed a table of chords, of which he made the 
same sort of use as we make of our sines. He 
made more observations than his predecessors, and 
understood them better. He invented the plani- 
sphere, or the mode of representing the starry 
heavens upon a plane, and of producing the solu- 
tions of problems of spherical astronomy. He is 
also the father of tnie geography, by his happy 
idea of marking the position of spots on the earth, 
as was ^one with the stars, by circles drawn from 
the pole perpendicularly to the equator ; that is, 
by latitudes and longitudes. His method of eclipses 
was the only one by which differences of meridians 
could be determined. The catalogue which Hip- 



HIPPARINUS. 



HIPPOCRATES. 



323 



parchus constructed of the stars is preserved in the 
Almagest of Ptolemy. Hipparchus wrote nume- 
rous works, which are all lost with the exception 
of his commentary on the phenomena of Aratus. 

Hipparinus {'livTrap'tvos). 1. A Syracusan, 
father of Dion and Aristomache, supported the 
elder Dionysius, v/ho married his daughter Aristo- 
mache. —2. Son of Dion, and grandson of the pre- 
ceding, threw himself from the roof of a house, and 
was killed on the spot, when his father attempted, 
by restraint, to cure him of the dissolute habits 
which he had acquired while under the power of 
Dionysius. — 3. Son of the elder Dionysius by 
Aristomache, daughter of No. 1, succeeded Cal- 
lippus in the tyranny of Syracuse, B. c. 352, He 
was assassinated, after reigning only 2 years. 

Hipparis ('linrapLs: Canzarma), a river in the S. 
of Sicily, which flows into the sea near Camarina. 
Hippasus ("iTTTratros), of Metapontum or Croton, 
j in Italy, one of the elder Pythagoreans, held the 
! element of fire to be the cause of all things. In 
i consequence of his making known the sphere, 
consisting of 12 pentagons, which was regarded 
b}' the Pythagoreans as a secret, he is said to 
have perished in the sea as an impious man. 

Hippia and HippiUS {'lirma and "liririos, or 
"Imreios), in Latin JSquester and. Equestris, surnames 
of several divinities, as of Hera and Athena, of 
Poseidon and of Ares ; and at Rome also of Fortuna 
and Venus. 

Hippias ('iTTTTias), 1. Son of Pisistratus. [Pi- 
siSTRATiDAE.] —2. The Sophist, was a native of 
Elis, and the contemporary of Socrates. His fel- 
low-citizens availed themselves of his abilities in 
political matters, and sent him on a diplomatic mission 
to Sparta. But he was in every respect like the 
other sophists of the time. He travelled through 
Greece for the purpose of acquiring wealth and ce- 
lebrity, by teaching and public speaking. His cha- 
racter as a sophist, his vanity, and his boastful ar- 
rogance, are well described in the 2 dialogues of 
Plato, Hippias major and Hippias minor. Though 
his knowledge was superficial, j^et it appears that he 
1 had paid attention not only to rhetorical, philosophi- 
cal, and political studies, but also to poetry, music, 
mathematics, painting and sculpture ; and he must 
even have acquired some practical skill in the me- 
chanical arts, as he used to boast of wearing on his 
body nothing that he had not made with his own 
hands, such as his seal-ring, his cloak, and shoes. 
He possessed great facility in extempore speaking ; 
and once his vanity led him to declare that he 
would travel to Olympia, and there deliver before 
the assembled Greeks an oration on any subject 
that might be proposed to him. 

Hippo (iTTTaiv), in Africa. 1. H. Eegms ('I. 
^acriAiKSs : nr. Bonah, Ru.), a city on the coast of 
Numidia, W. of the mouth of the Rubricatus ; 
once a royal residence, and afterwards celebrated 
as the bishopric of St. Augustine.— 2. H. Diarrhy- 
tus or Zaritus ('I. didppvTos : Bizerta), a city on 
the N. coast of the Carthaginian territory (Zeugi- 
tana), W. of Utica, at the mouth of the Sinus 
Hipponensis. — 3. A town of the Carpetani in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, S. of Toletum. 

Hippocentauri. [Centauri.] 

Hippocoon {'linroKooov), son of Oebalus and 
Batea. After his father's death, he expelled his 
brother Tyndareus, in order to secure the kingdom 
to himself ; but Hercules led Tyndareus back, and 
Ajslew Hippocoon and his sons. Ovid (Met. viii. 



314) mentions the sons of Hippocoon among the 
Calydonian hunters. 

Hippocrates {'iTnroKpdrris). 1. Father of Pi- 
sistratus, the tyrant of Athens. — 2. An Athenian, 
son of Megacles, was brotlier of Clisthenes, the legis- 
lator, and grandfather, through his daughter Aga- 
riste, of the illustrious Pericles. — 3. An Athenian, 
son of Xanthippus and brother of Pericles. He 
had 3 sons who, as well as their father, are alluded 
to by Aristophanes, as men of a mean capacity, and 
devoid of education. —4. An Athenian, son of 
Ariphron, commanded the Athenians, b. c. 424, 
when he was defeated and slain by the Boeo- 
tians at the battle of Delium.— 5. A Lacedae- 
monian, served under Mindarus on the Asiatic 
coast in 410, and after the defeat of Mindarus at 
Cj'zicus, became commander of the fleet. — 6. A 
Sicilian, succeeded his brother Oleander, as tyrant 
ofGela, 498. His reign was prosperous ; and he 
extended his power over several other cities of 
Sicily. He died in 491, while besieging Hybla.— 
7. A Sicilian, brother of Epicydes. 8. The 
most celebrated physician of antiquity. He Avas 
born in the island of Cos about B.C. 460. He be- 
longed to the family of the Asclepiadae, and was 
the son of Heraclides, who was also a physician. 
His mother's name was Phaenarete, who was said 
to be descended from Hercules. He was instructed 
in medical science by his father and by Herodicus, 
and he is said to have been also a pupil of Gorgias 
of Leontini. He wrote, taught, and practised his 
profession at home ; travelled in different parts of 
the continent of Greece ; and died at Larissa in 
Thessal}^, about 357, at the age of 104. He had 
2 sons, Thessalus and Dracon, and a son-in-law, 
Polybus, all of whom followed the same profession, 
and who are supposed to have been the authors of 
some of the works in the Hippocratic collection. 
These are the only certain facts which we know re- 
specting the life of Hippocrates ; but to these later 
writers have added a large collection of stories, 
many of which are clearly fabulous. Thus he is 
said to have stopped the plague at Athens by bm-n- 
ing fires throughout the city, by suspending chaplets 
of flowers, and by the use of an antidote. It is 
also related that Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of 
Persia, invited Hippocrates to come to his as- 
sistance during a time of pestilence, but that Hip- 
pocrates refused his request, on the ground of his 
being the enemy of his country. — The Avritings 
which have come down to us under the name of 
Hippocrates were composed by several different 
persons, and are of very different merit. They are 
more than 60 in number, but of these only a few 
are certainly genuine. They are: — 1. Upoyva- 
(TTiKov, Praenotiones or Prognosticon. 2. 'A^o- 
pia-fxcL, Aphorismi. 3. ''E.inhrifi'ioov BfSAi'a, De Mor- 
bis Popularihus (or Epidemiorum). 4. Ilepl Atai- 
T7JS '0|€wj/, De Ratione Vidus in Morhis Acutis, 
or De Diaeta Acutorum. 5. Hepl 'Aepwu, 'T8d- 
ro}v, TSttwu, De Aiire, Aquis, et Locis. 6. ITepl 
TOiv ev K€(paXfj Tpcojxdrwv^ De Capitis Vulneribus. 
Some of the other Avorks were perhaps written by 
Hippocrates ; but the great majority of them were 
composed by his disciples and followers, many of 
whom bore the name of Hippocrates. The ancient 
physicians wrote numerous commentaries on the 
works in the Hippocratic collection. Of these the 
most valuable are the commentaries of Galen. — Hip- 
pocrates divided the causes of disease into 2 prin- 
cipal classes ; the one comprehending the influence 

Y 2 



324 HIPPOCRENE. 

of seasons, climates, water, situation, &c., and the 
other the influence of food, exercise, &c. He con- 
sidered that while heat and cold, moisture and 
dryness, succeeded one another throughout the 
year, the human body underwent certain analogous 
changes, which influenced the diseases of the period. 
He supposed that the 4 fluids or humours of the 
body (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) 
were the primary seat of disease ; that health was 
the result of the due combination (or crash) of 
these, and that, when this crasis was disturbed, 
disease was the consequence ; that, in the course 
of a disorder that was proceeding favourably, these 
humours imderwent a certain change in quality (or 
coction)^ which was the sign of returning health, as 
preparing the way for the expulsion of the morbid 
matter, or crisis ; and that these crises had a ten- 
dency to occur at certain stated periods, which 
were hence called "critical days." — Hippocrates 
was evidently a person who not only had had 
great experience, but who also knew how to turn 
it to the best account ; and the number of moral 
reflections and apophthegms that we meet with 
in his writings, some of which (as, for example, 
" Life is short, and Art is long ") have acquired a 
sort of proverbial notoriet}', show him to have 
been a profound thinker. His works are written 
in the Ionic dialect, and the style is so concise as 
to be sometimes extremely obscure. — The best 
edition of his works is by Littre, Paris, 1839, seq., 
with a French translation. 

Hippocrene ('iTTTro/cpTji/T;), the " Fountain of 
the Horse," called by Persius Fons Cahallinus, was 
a fountain in Mt. Helicon in Boeotia, sacred to the 
Muses, said to have been produced by the horse 
Pegasus striking the ground with his feet. 

Hippodamia (linr uhaix^ia). 1. Daughter of 
Oenomaus, king of Pisa in Elis. For details see 
Oenomaus and Pzlops. — 2. Wife of Pirithous, 
at whose nuptials took place the celebrated battle 
between the Centaurs and Lapithae. For details 
Bee Pirithous. — 3. See Briseis. 

Hippodamus ('l7r7ro5a,uos), a distinguished 
Greek architect, a native of Miletus, and the son 
of Euryphon or Eurycoon. His fame rests on his 
construction, not of single buildings, but of whole 
cities. His first great work was the tovra of Pi- 
raeus, which he built under the auspices of Pericles. 
When the Athenians founded their colony of 
Thurii (b. c. 443), Hippodamus went out with the 
colonists, and was the architect of the new city. 
Hence he is often called a Thurian. He after- 
wards built Rhodes (408—407). 

Hipp61och.us (^Iit-k6\oxos), son of Bellero- 
phontes and Philonoe or Anticlea, and father of 
Glaucus, the Lycian prince. 

Hippolyte ('IttttoXutt;). 1. Daughter of Ares 
and Otrera, was queen of the Amazons, and sister 
of Antiope and Melanippe. She wore a girdle 
given to her by her father ; and when Hercules 
came to fetch this girdle, she was slain by Hercules. 
[See p. 309, b.] According to another tradition, 
Hippolyte, with an army of Amazons, maiched 
into Attica, to take vengeance on Theseus for hav- 
ing carried otF Antiope ; but being conquered by 
Theseus, she fled to Megara, where she died of 
grief, and was buried. In some accounts Hippolyte, 
and not Antiope, is said to have been married to 
Theseus. — 2. Or Astydamia, wife of Acastus, 
fell in love with Peleus. See Acastus. 

Hippolytiis ('lT5r»AuTos). 1. Son of Theseus 



HIPPONAX. 

by Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, or her sister 
Antiope. Theseus afterwards married Phaedra, 
who fell in love with Hippolytus ; but as her 
offers were rejected by her step-son, she accused 
him to his father of having attempted her dishonour. 
Theseus thereupon cursed his son, and requested 
his father (Aegeus or Poseidon) to destroy him. 
Accordingly, as Hippolytus was riding in hia 
chariot along the sea-coast, Poseidon sent forth a 
bull from the water. The horses were frightened, 
upset the chariot, and dragged Hippolytus along 
the ground till he was dead. Theseus afterwards 
learned the innocence of his son, and Phaedra, in 
despair, made away with herself. Artemis induced 
Aesculapius to restore Hippolytus to life again ; 
and, according to Italian traditions, Artemis (Diana) 
placed him, under the name of Virbius, imder the 
protection of the nymph Egeria, in the grove of 
Aricia, in Latium. where he was honoured with 
divine worship. Horace, following the more an- 
cient tradition, says that Diana could not restore 
Hippolytus to life {Carm. iv. 7. 25). — 2. An early 
ecclesiastical writer of considerable eminence, but 
whose real history is very uncertain. He appears 
to have lived early in the 3rd century ; and is said 
to have sufi"ered martyrdom under Alexander Se- 
verus, being drowned in a ditch or pit full of water. 
Others suppose that he perished in the Decian per- 
secution. He is said to have been a disciple of 
Irenaeus and a teacher of Origen. — His works, 
which are "m-itten in Greek, are edited by Fa- 
bricius, Hamb. 1716 — 1718, 2 vols. fol. 

Hippomedon ('iTTTro^ue'Swz/), son of Aristomachus, 
or, according to Sophocles, of Talaus, was one of 
the Seven against Thebes, where he was slain j 
during the siege by HA-perbius or Israarus. 
i Hippomenes {'lTnrofj.4vr]s). 1. Son of Mega- 
■ reus, and great-grandson of Poseidon, conquered] 
j Atalanta in the foot-race. For details see Ata- 
LANTA, No. 2.-2. A descendant of Codrus, the 
4th and last of the decennial archons. Incensed 
at the barbarous punishment which he inflicted on] 
his daughter, the Attic nobles deposed him. ' 

Hippon ("Imruv), of Rhegium, a philosopher of 
uncertain date, belonging to the Ionian school. He 
was accused of Atheism, and so got the surname of 
the Melian, as agreeing in sentiment with Diago-j 
ras. He held water and fire to be the principles] 
of all things, the latter springing from the former,] 
and developing itself by generating the universe. J 
Hipponax {'linrwva^). Of Ephesus, son ol 
Pytheus and Protis, was, after Archilochus ana 
Simonides, the 3rd of the Iambic poets of Greece^ 
He flourished B. c. 546 — 520. He was distinguished 
for his love of liberty, and having been expelled 
from his native city by the tj^rants, he took up his 
abode at Clazomenae, for which reason he is some- 
times called a Clazomenian. In person, Hipponax 
was little, thin, and ugly, but very strong. The 2 
brothers Bupalus and Athenis, who were sculptors 
of Chios, made statues of Hipponax, in which they 
caricatured his natural ugliness ; and he in return 
directed all the power of his satirical poetry 
against them, and especially against Bupalus. 
(Hor. Epod. vi. 14.) Later writers add that the 
sculptors hanged themselves in despair. Hipponax 
was celebrated in antiquity for the severity of hia 
satires. He severely chastised the effeminate lux- 
ury of his Ionian brethren ; he did not spare his 
own parents ; and he ventured even to ridicule 
the gods. — In his satires he introduced a spondee 



HIPPONICUS. 



HISPANIA. 



325 



or a trochee in the last foot, instead of an iamhus. 
This change made the verse irregular in its rhythm, 
and gave it a sort of halting movement, Avhence it 
was called the Choliambus (xwAia^gos, lame iam- 
bic), or Iambus Scazon ((TKd(wv, limping). He 
also wrote a parody on the Iliad. He may be said 
to occupy a middle place between Archilochus and 
Aristophanes. He is as bitter, but not so earnest, 
as the former, while in lightness and jocoseness he 
more resembles the latter. The fragments of Hip- 
ponax are edited by Welcker, Getting, 1817, 8vo, 
and by Bergk, in the Poetae Lyriei Graeci. 

Hipponicus. [Callias and Hipponicus.] 

Hipponium. [Vibo.] 

Hipponous. [Bkllerophon.] 

Hippotades ('iTTTroTaSrjs), son of Hippotes, that 
is, Aeolus. [Aeolus, No. 2.] Hence the Aeoliae 
Insulae are called Hippotadae regnum. (Ov. Met. 
xiv. 86.) 

Hippotes ('iTrTTOTTjs). 1. Father of Aeolus. 
[Aeolus, No. 2.] — 2. Son of Phylas by a 
daughter of lolaus, great-grandson of Hercules, and 
fatlier of Aletes. When the Heraclidae invaded 
Peloponnesus, Hippotes killed the seer Camus. 
The army in consequence began to suffer very se- 
verely, and Hippotes by the command of an oracle 
was banished for 10 years. 

Hippotliooii (^livKoQSuv), an Attic hero, son of 
Poseidon and Alope, the daughter of Cercyon. 
He had a heroum at Athens ; and one of the Attic 
phylae, or tribes, was called after him Hippothoontis. 

Hippothous {'\ir-K6Qoos). 1. Son of Cercyon, 
and father of Aepytus, succeeded Agapenor as 
king in Arcadia. — 2. Son of Lethus, grandson of 
Teutamus, and brother of Pylaeus, led a band of 
Pelasgians from Larissa to the assistance of the 
Trojans. He was slain by the Telamonian Ajax. 

Hirpini, a Samnite people, whose name is said 
to come from the Sabine word hirpus, " a wolf," 
dwelt in the S. of Samnium between Apulia, 
Lucania and Campania. Their chief town was 
Aeculanum. 

A. Hirtius, belonged to a plebeian femily, which 
came probably from Ferentinum in the territory of 
the Hernici. He was the personal and political 
friend of Caesar the dictator. In b. c. 58 he was 
Caesar's legatus in Gaul, and during the Civil War 
his name constantly appears in Cicero's correspon- 
dence. He was one of the 10 praetors nominated 
by Caesar for 46, and during Caesar's absence in 
Africa he lived principally at his Tusculan estate, 
which was contiguous to Cicero's villa. Though 
politically opposed, they were on friendly terms, and 
Cicero gave Hirtius lessons in oratory. In 44 Hirtius 
received Belgic Gaul for his province, but he go- 
verned it by deputy, and attended Caesar at Rome, 
who nominated him and Vibius Pansa, consuls for 
43. After Caesar's assassination (44) Hirtius first 
joined Antony, but being disgusted by the despotic 
arrogance of the latter, he retired to Puteoli, where 
he renewed his intercourse with Cicero. Later in 
the year he resided at his Tusculan villa, where he 
was attacked by a dangerous illness, from which he 
never perfectly recovered. On the 1st of January, 
43, Hirtius and Pansa entered on their consulship, 
according to Caesar's arrangement. The 2 consuls 
were sent along with Octavian, against Antonj^ 
who was besieging Dec. Brutus at Mutina. Pansa 
was defeated by Antony, and died of a wound which 
he had received in the battle. Hirtius retrieved this 
disaster by defeating Antony, but he also fell on the 



27 th of April, in leading an assault on the besieger's 
camp. Octavian sent the bodies of the slain consuls 
to Rome, where they were reeeived with extraor- 
dinary honours, and publicly buried in the Field of 
Mars. To Octavian their removal from the scene 
was so timely, that he was accused by many of 
murdering them. Hirtius divides Avith Oppius the 
claim to the authorship of the 8th book of the 
Gallic war, as well as that of the Alexandrian, 
African, and Spanish. It is not impossible that he 
wrote the 3 first, but he certainly did not write 
the Spanish war. 

Hirtuleius, a distinguished general of Sertorius 
in Spain. In b. c. 78 he was routed and slain near 
Italica in Baetica by Metellus. 

Hispalis, more rarely Hispal (Seville), a town 
of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica, founded by 
the Phoenicians, was situated on the left bank of 
the Baetis, and was in reality a seaport, for, 
although 500 stadia from the sea, the river is na- 
vigable for the largest vessels up to the town. 
Under the Romans Hispalis was the 3rd town in 
the province, Corduba and Gades being the 2 first. 
It was patronised by Caesar, because Corduba had 
espoused the side of Pompey. He made it a Roman 
colony, under the name of Julia Eomula or Romu- 
lensis, and a conventus juridicus or town of assize. 
Under the Goths and Vandals Hispalis was the 
chief town in the S. of Spain, and under the Arabs 
was the capital of a separate kingdom. 

Hispania or Iberia {'laTravia, 'ISripLa. : Hispa- 
nus, Iberus : Spain), a peninsula in the S. W. of 
Europe, is connected with the land only on the N.E., 
where the Pyrenees form its boundary, and is sur- 
rounded on all other sides by the sea, on the E. and 
S. by the Mediterranean, on the W. by the Atlan- 
tic, and on the N. by the Cantabrian sea. The 
Greeks and Romans had no accurate knowledge of 
the country till the time of the Roman invasion in 
the 2nd Punic war. It was first mentioned by 
Hecataeus (about B. c. 500) under the name of 
Iberia ; but this name originally indicated only the 
E. coast : the W. coast beyond the pillars of Her- 
cules was called Tartessis (TapTriacrLs) ; and the 
interior of the country Celtica (r) KeAri/cT?). At a 
later time the Greeks applied the name of Iberia^ 
which is usually derived from the river Iberus, to 
the whole country. The name Hispania, by which 
the Romans call the country, first occurs at the 
time of the Roman invasion. It is usually derived 
from the Punic word Span, " a rabbit," on account 
of the great number of rabbits which the Carthagi- 
nians found in the Peninsula ; but others suppose 
the name to be of native origin, and to be the same 
as the Basque Ezpana, an edge or border. The 
poets also called it Hesperia, or, to distinguish it 
from Italy, Hesperia Ultima. Spain is a very moun- 
tainous country. The principal mountains are, in 
the N.E. the Pyrenees [Pyrenaeus M.], and in 
the centre of the country the Idubeda, which 
runs parallel with the Pyrenees from the land of 
the Cantabri to the Mediterranean, and the Oros- 
peda or Ortospeda, which begins in the centre 
of the Idubeda, runs S.W. throughout Spain, and 
terminates at Calpe. The rivers of Spain are nu- 
merous. The 6 most important are the Iberus 
(Ebro), Baetis (Guadalquiver), and Anas (Gua- 
diana), in the E. and S. ; and the Tagus, Du- 
rius (Douro), and MiNius ^ Minho), in the W. 
Spain was considered by th^ - ,cients veryfertile, but 
more especially the S. pan of the country, Baetica 

Y 3 



326 HISPANIA. 
and Lusitania, which were also praised for their 
splendid climate. The central and N. parts of the 
country were less productive, and the climate in 
these districts was very cold in winter. In the S. 
there were numerous flocks of excellent sheep, the 
wool of which was very celebrated in foreign 
countries. The Spanish horses and asses were 
also much valued in antiquity ; and on the coast 
there was abundance of fish. The country pro- 
duced a great quantity of com, oil, wine, flax, figs, 
and other fniits. But the principal riches of the 
country consisted in its mineral productions, of 
which the greatest quantity was found in Turde- 
tania. Gold was found in abundance in various 
parts of the country ; and there were many silver 
mines, of which the most celebrated were near 
Carthago Nova, Ilipa, Sisapon, and Castulo. The 
precious stones, copper, lead, tin, and other metals, 
were also found in more or less abundance. — The 
most ancient inhabitants of Spain were the Iberi, 
who, as a separate people, must be distinguished 
from the Iberi, a collective name of all the inha- 
bitant.' of Spain. The Iberi dwelt on both sides 
of the Pyrenees, and were found in the S. of Gaul, 
as far as the Rlione. Celts afterwards crossed the 
Pyrenees, and became mingled with the Iberi, 
whence arose the mixed race of the Celtiberi, who 
dwelt chiefly in the high table land in the centre 
of the country. [Celtiberi.] But besides this 
mixed race of the Celtiberi, there were also several 
tribes, both of Iberians and Celts, who were never 
united vrith one another. The unmixed Iberians, 
from whom the modem Basques are descended, 
dwelt chiefly in the Pyrenees and on the coasts, 
and their most distinguished tribes were the AsTU- 
RES, Caxtabri, Vaccael &;c. The unmixed 
Celts dwelt chiefly on the river Anas, and in the 
N.W. comer of the country or Gallaecia. Besides 
these inhabitants, there were Phoenician and Car- 
thaginian settlements on the coasts, of which the 
most important were Gades and Carthago 
Novo ; there were likewise Greek colonies, such 
as Emporiae and Saguxtum ; and lastly the 
conquest of the country by the Romans introduced 
many Romans among the inhabitants, whose cus- 
toms, civilisation, and language, gradually spread 
over the whole peninsula, and efiaced the national 
characteristics of the ancient population. The 
spread of the Latin language in Spain seems to 
have been facilitated by the schools, established 
by Sertorius, in which both the language and lite- 
rature of Greece and Rome were taught. Under 
the empire some of the most distinguished Latin 
■s^Titers were natives of Spain, such as the 2 Se- 
necas, Lucan, Martial, Quintilian, Silius Italicus, 
Pomponius Mela, Prudentius, and others. The 
ancient inhabitants of Spain were a proud, brave, 
and warlike race ; easily excited and ready to take 
offence ; inveterate robbers ; moderate in the use 
of food and wine ; fond of song and of the dance ; 
lovers of their liberty, and ready at all times to 
sacrifice their lives rather than submit to a foreign 
master. The Cantabri and the inhabitants of the 
mountains in the N. were the fiercest and most 
uncivilised of all the tribes ; the Vaccaei and the 
Turdetani v,-ere the most civilised ; and the latter 
people were not only acquainted vrilh. the alphabet, 
but possessed a literature which contained records of 
their history, poems, and collections of laws com- 
posed in verse. — The history of Spain beains with 
the invasion of the country by the Carthaginians, 



HISPANIA. 

j B. c. 238 ; for up to that time hardly any thing was 
j known of Spain except the existence of 2 powerful 
commercial states in the W., Tartesscs and Ga- 
des. After the 1st Punic war Hamilcar, the son of 
Hannibal, formed the plan of conquering Spain, in 
order to obtain for the Carthaginians possessions 
which might indemnify them for the loss of Sicily 
and Sardinia. Under his command (238 — 229), 
' and that of his son-in-law and successor, Hasdn;- 
I bal (228 — 221), the Carthaginians conquered th 
' greater part of the S.E. of the peninsula as far as 
; the Ibenis ; and Hasdmbal founded the important 
I city of Carthago Nova. These successes of the 
j Carthaginians excited the jealousy of the Romans ; 
I and a treaty was made between the 2 nations about 
j 228, by which the Carthaginians bound them- 
j selves not to cross the Iberus. The town of Sa- 
guntum. although on the W. side of the river, was 
under the protection of the Romans ; and the cap- 
ture of this town by Hannibal in 219, was the 
immediate cause of the 2nd Punic war. In the 
course of this war the Romans drove the Cartha- 
ginians out of the peninsula, and became masters 
of their possessions in the S. of the country. But 
, many tribes in the centre of the country, which 
! had been only nominally subject to (Carthage, 
} still retained their virtual independence ; and 
the tribes in the N. and N. W. of the country 
had been hitherto quite unknown both to the Car- 
thaginians and Romans. There now arose a long 
and bloody struggle between the Romans and the 
various tribes in Spain, and it was nearly 2 cen- 
turies before the Romans succeeded in subduing 
entirely the whole of the peninsula. The Celti- 
berians were conquered by the elder Cato (195), 
and Tib. Gracchus, the father of the 2 tribunes 
(179). The Lusitanians, who long resisted the 
Romans under their brave leader Viriathus, were 
obliged to submit, about the year 137, to D. Bratus, 
who penetrated as far as Gallaecia ; but it was 
not till Numantia was taken by Scipio Africanus 
the younger, in 133, that the Romans obtained 
the undisputed sovereignty over the various tribes 
in the centre of the country, and of the Lusitanians 
to the S. of the Tagus. Julius Caesar, after bis 
praetorship, subdued the Lusitanians N. of the 
Tagus (60). The Cantabri, Astures, and other 
tribes in the mountains of the N., were finally sub- 
jugated by Augustus and his generals. The whole 
peninsula was now subject to the Romans ; and 
Augustus founded in it several colonies, and caused 
excellent roads to be made throughout the country. 
The Romans had, as early as the end of the 
2nd Punic war, divided Spain into 2 provinces, se- 
parated from one another by the Ibems, and called 
Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior^ the former 
being to the E., and the latter to the W. of the 
river. In consequence of there being 2 provinces, we 
frequently find the country called Hispaniae. The 
provinces were governed by 2 proconsuls or 2 pro- 
praetors, the latter of whom also frequently bore 
the title of proconsuls. Augustus made a new di- 
^•i5ion of the country, and formed 3 provinces Tar- 
raconensis, Baetica, and Lusitania. The province 
Tarraconensis, which derived its name from Tar- 
raco, the capital of the province, was by far the 
largest of the 3, and comprehended the whole of 
the N., W.. and centre of the peninsula. The pro- 
vince Baetica, which derived its name from the 
river Baetis, v. as separated n-om Lusitania on the 
N. and W. bv the river Anas, and from TalT^u^o- 



HISPELLUM. 



HOMERUS. 



327 



nensis on the E. by a line drawn from the rhet 
Anas to the promontory Charidemus in the Medi- 
terranean. The province Lusitania, which corre- 
sponded very nearly in extent to the modern Por- 
tugal, was separated from Tarraconensis on the N, 
hy the river Durius, from Baetica on the E. by 
the Anas, and from Tarraconensis on the E. by a 
line dravm from the Durius to the Anas, between 
the territories of the Vettones and Carpetani. Au- 
gustus made Baetica a senatorial province, but re- 
served the government of the 2 others for the 
Caesar ; so that the former was governed by a 
proconsul appointed by the senate, and the latter 
by imperial legati. In Baetica, Corbuda or His- 
palis was the seat of government ; in Tarraconensis 
Tarraco ; and in Lusitania Augusta Emerita. On 
the reorganisation of the empire by Constantine, 
Spain, together with Gaul and Britain, was under 
t the general administration of the Praefectus Prae- 
torio Galliae^ one of whose 3 vicarii had the go- 
[ vemment of Spain, and usually resided at Hispalis. 
At the same time the country was divided into 7 
provinces : Baetica, Lusitania, Gallaecia, Tarra- 
I conensis, Carthaginiensis, Baleares, f.nd Mauritania 
Tinigitana in Africa (which was then reckoned 
part of Spain). The capitals of these 7 provinces 
' were respectively Hispalis, Augusta Emerita, Bra- 
cara, Caesaraugusta, Carthago Nova, Palma, and 
\ Tingis. In A. D. 409 the Vandals and Suevi, to- 
. gether with other barbarians, invaded Spain, and 
i obtained possession of the greater part of the 
i country. In 414 the Visigoths, as allies of the 
i Roman empire, attacked the Vandals, and in the 
I com'se of 4 years (414 — 418) compelled a great 
' part of the peninsula to submit again to the Ro- 
mans. In 429 the Vandals left Spain, and crossed 
over into Africa under their king Genseric ; after 
which time the Suevi established a powerful king- 
; dom in the S. of the peninsula. Soon afterwards 

I the Visigoths again invaded Spain, and after many 
years' struggle, succeeded in conquering the whole 
peninsula, which they kept for themselves, and 
continued the masters of the coimtry for 2 cen- 
turies, till they were in their turn conquered by 
the Arabs, A. D. 712. 

Hispellum (Hispellas, -atis : Hispellensis : Spel- 
lo), a town in Umbria, and a Roman colony, with 
the name of Colonia Julia Hispellum. 
Histiaea. [Hestiaeotis.] 
Histiaeus ('lo-riaros), tyrant of Miletus, was 
left with the other lonians to guard the bridge of 
boats over the Danube, when Darius invaded 
Scythia (b. c. 513). He opposed the proposal of 
Miltiades, the Athenian, to destroy the bridge, and 
leave the Persians to their fate, and was in conse- 
quence rewarded by Darius with the rule of My- 
tilene, and with a district in Thrace, where he built 
a town called Myrcinus, apparently with a view of 
establishing an independent kingdom. This excited 
the suspicions of Darius, who invited Histiaeus to 
Susa, where he treated him kindly, but prohibited 
him from returning. Tired of the restraint in which 
he Avas kept, he induced his kinsman Aristagoras 
to persuade the lonians to revolt, hoping that a re- 
volution in Ionia might lead to his release. His de- 
sign succeeded. Darius allowed Histiaeus to depart 
(49G) on his engaging to reduce Ionia. The revolt 
however was nearly put down when Histiaeus 
reached the coast. Here Histiaeus threw off the 
mask, and after raising a small fleet carried on war 
against the Persians for 2 years, and obtained pos- 



; session of Chios. In 494 he made a descent upon 
the Ionian coast, but was defeated and taken pri- 
soner by Harpagus. Artaphernes, the satrap of 
Ionia, caused him to be put to death by impale- 
ment, and sent his head to the king. 

Histonium (Histcniensis : Vasio d'^Ammone), 
a town of the Frentani on the coast, and subse- 
quently a Roman colony. 

Homeritae (OixT^pirai), a people of Arabia 
Felix, who migrated from the interior to the S. 
part of the W. coast, and established themselves 
in the territory of the Sabaei (in EL Yemen), 
where they founded a kingdom, which lasted more 
than 5 centuries. 

Homerus ("O/xt] pas). 1. The great epic poet of 
Greece. His poems formed the basis of Greek 
literature. Every Greek who had received a liberal 
education was perfectly well acquainted with them 
from his childhood, and had learnt them by heart 
at school ; but nobody could state any thing certain 
about their author. His date and birthplace were 
equally matters of dispute. Seven cities claimed 
Homer as their countryman (Smyrna, Rhodus, Co- 
lophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, Athenae) ; but the 
claims of Smyrna and Chios are the most plausible, 
and between these 2 we have to decide. It is 
supposed by the best modern writers that Homer 
was an Ionian, who settled at Smyrna, at the time 
when the Achaeans and Aeolians formed the chief 
part of the population. We can thus explain how 
Homer became so well acquainted with the tradi- 
tions of the Trojan war, which had been waged by 
Achaeans and Aeolians, but in which the lonians 
had not taken part. We know that the lonians 
were subsequently driven out of Smyrna ; and it 
is further supposed either that Homer himself 
fled to Chios, or his descendants or disciples 
settled there, and formed the famous family of 
Homerids. According to this account the time 
of Homer would be a few generations after the 
Ionian migration. But with the exception of 
the simple fact of his being an Asiatic Greek, all 
other particulars respecting his life are purely fa- 
bulous. The common tradition related that he 
was the son of Maeon (hence called Maeonides 
vates), and that in his old age he was blind and 
poor. Homer was universally regarded by the 
ancients as the author of the 2 great poems of the 
Iliad and the Odysse3^ Other poems were also 
attributed to Homer, the genuineness of which was 
disputed by some ; but the Iliad and Odyssey 
were ascribed to him by the concurrent voice of 
antiqiuty. Such continued to be the prevalent be- 
lief in modern times, till 1795, when F. A. Wolf 
wrote his famous Prolegomena, in which he en- 
deavoured to show that the Iliad and Odyssey were 
not two complete poems, but small, separate, inde- 
pendent epic songs, celebrating single exploits of 
the heroes, and that these lays were for tlie first 
time written down and united, as the Iliad and 
Od3-ssey, by Pisistratus, the tyrant of Athens. This 
opinion gave rise to a long and animated controvers}"- 
respecting the origin of the Homeric poems, which 
is not j-et settled, and which probably never will 
be. The following, however, may be regarded as 
the most probable conclusion. An abundance o£ 
heroic lays preserved the tales of the Trojan war. 
Europe must necessarily have been the country 
where these songs originated, both because the vio* 
torious heroes dwelt in Europe, and because so many 
traces in the poems still point to these regions 

Y 4 



S28 



HOMER US. 



HONORIUS. 



These heroic lays were brought to Asia Minor by 
the Greek colonies, which left the mother-country 
about 3 ages after the Trojan war. These uncon- 
nected songs were, for the first time, united by a 
great genius, called Homer, and he was the one 
individual who conceived in his mind the lofty idea 
of that poetical unity which we must acknowledge 
and admire in the Iliad and Odyssey. But as 
writing was not known, or at least little practised, 
in the age in which Homer lived, it naturally fol- 
lowed that in such long works many interpolations 
were introduced, and that they gradually became 
more and more dismembered, and thus returned 
into their original state of separate independent 
songs. They were preserved by the rhapsodists, 
who were minstrels, and who sung lays at the ban- 
quets of the great and at public festivals. A class 
of rhapsodists at Chios, the Homerids, who called 
themselves the descendants of the poet, made it their 
especial business to sing the lays of the Iliad and 
Odyssey, and to transmit them to their disciples by 
oral teaching, and not by writing. These rhapso- 
dists preserved the knowledge of the unity of the 
Homeric poems ; and this knowledge was never 
entirely lost, although the public recitation of the 
poems became more and more fragmentary, and the 
time at festivals and musical contests formerly oc- 
cupied by epic rhapsodists exclusively, was en- 
croached upon by the rising lyrical performances. 
Solon directed the attention of his countnt'men 
towards the unity of the Homeric poems ; but the 
unanimous voice of antiquity ascribed to Pisistratus 
the merit of having collected the disjointed poems 
of Homer, and of having first committed them to 
writing. From the time of Pisistratus, the Greeks 
had a written Homer, a regular text, which was 
the source and foundation of all subsequent editions. 

— We have already stated that the ancients attri- 
buted many other poems to Homer besides the Iliad 
and the Odyssey ; but the claims of none of these to 
this honour can stand investigation. The hymns, 
which still bear the name of Homer, probably owe 
their origin to the rhapsodists. They exhibit such 
a diversity of language and poetical tone, that in 
all probability they contain fragments from every 
century from the time of Homer to the Persian 
war. The BatrachomyomacMa^ the Battle of the 
Frogs and ]\Iice, an extant poem, and the Margites^ 
a poem which is lost, and which ridiculed a man 
who was said to know many things and who knew 
all badly, were both frequently ascribed by the 
ancients to Homer, but were clearly of later origin. 

— The Odyssey was evidently composed after the 
Iliad ; and many -writers maintain that they are 
the works of 2 different authors. But it has been 
observed in reph' that there is not a greater dif- 
ference in the 2 poems than we often find in the 
productions of the same man in the prime of life 
and in old age ; and the chief cause of difference 
in the 2 poems is owing to the difference of the 
subject. — We must add a few words on the lite- 
rary history of the Iliad and Od^-ssey. From the 
time of Pisistratus to the establishment of the 
Alexandrine school, we read of 2 new editions 
{ZiopQu:(T€Ls) of the text, one made by the poet An- 
timachus, and the other by Aristotle^, which Alex- 
ander the Great used to carry about with him in a 
splendid ca-e (j/apflT?!) on all his expeditions. But 
it was not till the foundation of the Alexandrine 
school, that the Greeks possessed a really critical 
edition of Homer. Zenodotus was the first who 



' directed his attention to the study and criticism of 
Homer. He was followed by Aristophanes and 
Aristarchus ; and the edition of Homer by the 
latter has been the basis of the text to the present 
day. Aristarchus was the prince of grammarians, 
and did more for the text and interpretation of 
Homer than any other critic in modem times. He 
was opposed to Crates of Mallus, the founder of 
the Pergamene school of grammar. [Aristarchus ; 
Crates.] In the time of Augustus the great 
compiler, Didymus, wrote comprehensive commen- 
taries on Homer, copying mostly the works of pre- 
ceding Alexandrine grammarians, which had swollen 
to an enoraious extent Under Tiberius, Apollo- 
nius Sophista lived, whose lexicon Homericura is 
very valuable (ed. Bekker, 1833). The most va- 
luable scholia on the Iliad are those which were 
published by Villoison from a MS. of the 10th cen- 
tury in the library of St. Mark at Venice, 1788, 
fol. These scholia were reprinted with additions, 
edited by 1. Bekker, Berlin, 1825, 2 vols. 4to. 
The most valuable scholia to the Odyssey are 
those published by Buttmann, Berl. 1821. " The 
extensive commentary of Eustathius contains much 
valuable information from sources which are now 
lost. [Eustathius, No. 3.] The best critical 
editions of Homer are by Wolf, Lips. 1804, seq. ; 
by Bothe, Lips. 1832, seq. ; and by Bekker, Ber- 
lin, 1843. There is a very good edition of the 
Iliad by Spitzner, Gotha, 1832, seq. ; and a va- 
luable commentary on the Odyssey by Nitzsch, 
Hannov. 1825, seq.— 2. A grammarian and tragic 
poet of Byzantium, in the time of Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus (about b. c. 280), was the son of the gram- 
marian Andromachus and the poetess M3-ro. He 
was one of the 7 poets who formed the tragic Pleiad. 

Homole ('OjuoAtj). 1. A lofty mountain in 
Thessaly, near Tempe, with a sanctuary of Pan. — 
2. Or Homolium (OixoXiov : 'O^LoKievs : La- 
mina)^ a town in Magnesia in Thessaly, at thei 
foot of Mt. Ossaj near the Peneus. \ 

Honor or Honos, the personification of honour 
at Rome. Marcellus had vowed a temple, which 
was to belong to Honor and Virtus in common ; 
but as the pontiffs refused to consecrate one temple 
to 2 divinities, he built 2 temples, one of Honor 
and the other of Virtus, close together. C. Marius 
also built a temple to Honor, after his victory over 
the Cimbri and Teutones. There was also an altar 
of Honor outside the Colline gate, which v/as more 
ancient than either of the temples. Honor is re- 
presented on coins as a male figure in armour, and 
standing on a globe, or with the corr.ucopia in his 
left and a spear in his right hand. i 

Honoria. [Grata.] \ 

Konorius. Flavius, Roman emperor of the 
West, A. D. 395 — 423, was the 2nd son of Theodo- 
sius the Great, and was bom 384. On the death of 
Theodosius, in 395, Honorius succeeded peaceably 
to the sovereignty of the West, which he had re- 
vived from his father in the preceding year ; while 
his elder brother Arcadius obtained possession of the 
East. During the minority of Honorius, the govern- 
ment was entirely in the hands of the able and 
energetic Stilicho, whose daughter Maria the young 
emperor married. Stilicho for a time defended Italy 
against the attacks of the Visigoths under Alaric 
(402,403), and the ravages of other barbarians 
under Radagaisus ; but after Honorius had put to 
death Stilicho, on a charge of treason (408), Alaric 
again invaded Italy, and took and plundered Rome 



HORAE. 



HORATIUS. 



329 



(410). Honorius meantime lived an inglorious 
life at Ravenna, where he continued to reside till 
his death, in 423. 

Horae (^flpat), originally the goddesses of the 
order of nature and of the seasons, but in later 
times the goddesses of order in general and of 
justice. In Homer, who neither mentions their 
parents nor their number, they are the Olympian 
divinities of the weather and the ministers of 
Zeus. In this capacity they guard the doors of 
Olympus, and promote the fertility of the eartb, 
by the various kinds of weather which they give 
to mortals. As the weather, generally speaking, 
is regulated according to the seasons, they are fur- 
ther described as the goddesses of the seasons. 
The course of the seasons is symbolically described 
as the dance of the Horae. At Athens 2 Horae, 
Thallo (the Hora of spring) and Carpo (the Hora 
of autumn), were worshipped from very early 
times. The Hora of spring accompanied Perse- 
phone every year on her ascent from the lower 
world ; and the expression of " The chamber of 
the Horae opens" is equivalent to " The spring is 
coming." The attributes of spring — flowers, fra- 
gi-ance, and graceful freshness — are accordingly 
transferred to the Horae. Thus they adorned 
Aphrodite as she rose from the sea, and made a 
garland of flowers for Pandora. Hence they bear 
a resemblance to and are mentioned along with 
the Charites, and both are frequently confounded 
or identified. As they were conceived to pro- 
mote the prosperity of everj^ thing that grows, 
they appear also as the protectresses of youth and 
newly-born gods. Even in early times ethical 
notions were attached to the Horae ; and the in- 
fluence which these goddesses originally exercised 
on nature was subsequently transferred to human 
life in particular. Hesiod describes them as giving 
to a state good laws, justice, and peace ; he calls 
them the daughters of Zeus and Themis, and gives 
them the significant names of Eunoinia, Dice, and 
Irene. The number of the Horae is different in 
the different writers, though the most ancient num- 
ber seems to have been 2, as at Athens ; but after- 
wards their common number was 3, like that of 
the Moerae and Charites. In works of art the 
Horae were represented as blooming maidens, 
carrying the diflFerent products of the seasons. 

Horapollo {'rip air 6 AKoov), the name prefixed to 
an extant work on hieroglyphics, which purports to 
be a Greek translation, made by one Philippus 
from the Egyptian. The writer was a native of 
Egypt, and probably lived about the beginning of 
the 5th century. The best edition is by Leemans, 
Amsterdam, 1835. 

Horatia Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
gentes at Rome. 3 brothers of this race fought 
•with the Curiatii, 3 brothers from Alba, to deter- 
mine whether Rome or Alba was to exercise the 
supremacy. The battle was long undecided. 2 
of the Horatii fell ; but the 3 Curiatii, though 
alive, were severely wounded. Seeing this, the 
surviving Horatius, who was still unhurt, pretended 
to fly, and vanquished his wounded opponents, by 
encountering them severally. He returned in tri- 
umph, bearing his threefold spoils. As he ap- 
proached the Capene gate his sister Horatia met 
him, and recognised on his shoulders the mantle 
of one of the Curiatii, her betrothed lover. Her 
importunate grief drew on her the wrath of Hora- 
tias, who stabbed her, exclaiming " so perish exerj 



Roman woman who bewails a foe." For this 
murder he was adjudged by the duumviri to be 
scourged with covered head, and hanged on the 
accursed tree. Horatius appealed to his peers, the 
burghers or populus ; and his father pronounced 
him guiltless, or he would have punished him by 
the paternal power. The populus acquitted Ho- 
ratius, but prescribed a form of punishment. With 
veiled head, led by his father, Horatius passed 
under a yoke or gibbet ~ tigillum sororium, sis- 
ter's gibbet." 

Horatius Codes. [Cocles.] 

Q. Horatius Flaccus, the poet, was born De- 
cember 8th, B. c. 65, at Venusia in Apulia. His 
father was a libertinus or freedman. He had 
received his manumission before the birth of the 
poet, who was of ingenuous birth, but who did not 
altogether escape the taunt, which adhered to 
persons even of remote servile origin. His father's 
occupation was that of collector (coactor), either 
of the indirect taxes farmed by the publicans, 
or at sales by auction. With the profits of 
his office he had purchased a small farm in the 
neighbourhood of Venusia, where the poet was 
born. The father, either in his parental fond- 
ness for his only son, or discerning some hopeful 
promise in the boy, determined to devote his whole 
time and fortune to the education of the future 
poet. Though by no means rich, he declined to 
send the young Horace to the common school, kept 
in Venusia by one Flavins, to which the children 
of the rural aristocracy resorted. Probably about 
his 12th year, his father carried him to Rome, 
to receive the usual education of a knight's or 
senator's son. He frequented the best schools in 
the capital. One of these was kept by Orbilius, 
a retired military man, whose flogging propensities 
have been immortalised by his pupil. {Epist. ii. 
1.71.) The names of his other teachers are not re- 
corded by the poet. He was instructed in the Greek 
and Latin languages : the poets were the usual 
school books, Homer in the Greek, and the old 
tragic writer, Livius Andronicus, in the Latin. In 
his 18th year Horace proceeded to Athens, in 
order to continue his studies at that seat of learn- 
ing. He seems chiefly to have attached himself 
to the opinions which he heard in the Academus, 
though later in life he inclined to those of Epicurus. 
When Brutus came to Athens after the death of 
Caesar, Horace joined his army, and received at 
once the rank of a military tribune, and the com- 
mand of a legion. He was present at the battle of 
Philippi, and shared in the flight of the republican 
army. In one of his poems he playfully alludes to 
his flight, and throwing away his shield. (Carm. ii. 
7. 9.) He now resolved to devote himself to more 
peaceful pursuits, and having obtained his pardon, 
he ventured at once to return to Rome. He had 
lost all his hopes in life ; his paternal estate had 
been swept away in the general forfeiture ; but he 
was enabled, however, to obtain sufficient money 
to purchase a clerkship in the quaestor's office ; 
and on the profits of that place he managed to liv e 
with the utmost frugality. Meantime some of his 
poems attracted the notice of Varius and Virgil,who 
introduced him to Maecenas (b. c. 39). Horace 
soon became the friend of Maecenas, and this 
friendship quickly ripened into intimacy. In a 
year or two after the commencement of their friend- 
ship (37), Horace accompanied his patron on that 
journey to Brundusium, so agreeably described in 



330 



HORATIUS. 



HORTENSIUS. 



the 5tli Satire of the 1st book. About the year 
34 Maecenas bestowed upon the poet a Sabine 
farm, sufficient to maintain him in ease, comfort, 
and even in content (satis beatus imicis Sabi?i{s), 
during the rest of his life. The situation of this 
Sabine farm was iu the valley of Ustica, within 
view of the mountain Lucretilis, and near the Di- 
gentia, about 1 5 miles from Tibur ( Tivoli). A 
site exactly answering to the villa of Horace, 
and on which were found ruins of buildings, has 
been discovered in modem times. Besides this 
estate, his admiration of the beautiful scenery in 
the neighbourhood of Tibur inclined him either 
to hire or to purchase a small cottage in that ro- 
mantic town ; and all the later years of his life 
•were passed between these two countrj- residences 
and Rome. He continued to live on the most 
intimate terms with Maecenas ; aud this intimate 
friendship naturally introduced Horace to the notice 
of the other great men of his period, and at 
length to Augustus himself, who bestowed upon 
the poet substantial marks of his favour. Horace 
died on November 17th, B. c. 8, aged nearly 57. 
His death was so sudden, that he had not time to 
make his will ; but he left the administration 
of his affairs to Augustus, whom he instituted 
as his heir. He w-as buried on the slope of the 
Esquiline Hill, close to his friend and patron 
Maecenas, who had died before him in the same 
year. — Horace has described his own person. 
He was of short stature, with dark eyes and dark 
hair, but early tinged wnth grey. In his youth he 
was tolerably robust, but suffered from a complaint 
in his eyes. In more advanced life he grew fat, 
and Augustus jested about his protuberant belly. 
His health was not always good, and he seems to 
have inclined to be a valetudinarian. When 
young he was irascible in temper, but easily 
placable. In dress he was rather careless. His 
habits, even after he became richer, were generally 
frugal and abstemious ; though on occasions, both 
in youth and maturer age, he seems to have in- 
dulged in conviviality. He liked choice wine, and 
in the society of friends scrupled not to enjoy the 
luxuries of his time. He was never married. — 
The philosophy of Horace was that of a man of 
the world. He playfully alludes to his Epicurean- 
ism, but it was practical rather than speculative 
Epicureanism. His mind, indeed, was not in the 
least speculative. Common life wisdom was his 
study, and to this he brought a quickness of ob- 
servation and a sterling common sense, which have 
made his works the delight of practical men. — 
The Odes of Horace want the higher inspirations 
of lyric verse. His amatory verses are exquisitely 
graceful, but they have no strong ardour, no deep 
tenderness, nor even much of light and joyous 
gaiety. But as works of refined art, of the most 
skilful felicities of language and of measure, of 
translucent expression, and of agreeable images, 
embodied in words which imprint themselves in- 
delibly on the memory, they are unrivalled. Ac- 
cording to Quuitilian, Horace was almost the only 
Roman lyric poet worth reading. — In the Satires 
of Horace there is none of the lofty moral indig- 
nation, the fierce vehemence of invective, which 
characterised the later satirists. It is the folly 
rather than the wickedness of vice, which he 
touches with such playful skill. Nothing can sur- 
pass the keenness of his observation, or his ease of 
expression : it is the finest comedy of manners, in 



a dfficriptive instead of a dramatic form. — In the 
Efcdes there is bitterness provoked, it should 
seem, by some personal hatred, or sense of injury, 
and the ambition of imitating Archilochus ; but in 
these he seems to have exhausted all the ma- 
lignity and violence of his temper. — But the 
Epistles are the most perfect of the Horatian 
poetr}', the poetry of manners and society, the 
beauty of v.-hich consists in a kind of ideality of 
common sense and practical wisdom. The Epistles 
of Horace are with the Poem of Lucretius, the 
Georgics of Virgil, and perhaps the Satires of 
Juvenal, the most perfect and most original form 
of Roman verse. The title of the Art of Poetry 
for the Epistle to the Pisos is as old as Quintilian, 
but it is now agreed that it was not intended for a 
complete theory of the poetic art. It is conjec- 
tured with great probability that it was intended 
to dissuade one of the younger Pisos from devoting 
himself to poetry, for which he had little genius, 
or at least to suggest the difficulties of attaining to 
perfection. — The chronology of the Horatian poems 
is of great importance, as illustrating the life, tha 
times, and the -writings of the poet. There has 
been great dispute upon this subject, but the fol- 
lowing view appears the most probable. The 
1st book of Satires, which was the first publi- 
cation, appeared about b. c. 35, in the 30th year of 
Horace. — The 2nd book of Satires was published 
about 33, in the 32nd year of Horace. — The Epodes 
appeared about 31, in the 34th year of Horace. — 
The 3 first books of the Odes were published about 
24 or 23 in the 41st or 42nd year of Horace. — 
The 1st book of the Epistles was published about 
20 or 19 in the 45th or 46th year of Horace. — 
The Carmen Seculare appeared in 17 in the 48th 
year of Horace. — The 4th book of the Odes was 
published in 14 or 13 in his Slst or 52nd year. — 
The dates of the 2nd book of Epistles, and of the 
Ars Poetica, are admitted to be uncertain, though 
both appeared before the poet's death, b. c. 8. 
One of the best editions of Horace is by Orelli, 
Turici, 1843. 

Horde5nius Flaccns. [Flaccus.] 

Hormisdas. [Sassaxidae.] 

Horta or Hortaiium (Hortanus : Orte), a town 
in Etruria, at the junction of the Nar and the 
Tiber, so called from the Etruscan goddess Horta, 
whose temple at Rome always remained open. 

Hortensius. 1. Q., the orator, was bom in 
B.C. 114, eight years before Cicero. At the early 
age of 19 he spoke with great applause in the 
fomm, and at once rose to eminence as an advocate. 
He served two campaigns in the Social war (90, 
89). In the civil wars he joined Sulla, and was 
afterwards a constant supporter of the aristocratical 
party. His chief professional labours were in de- 
fending men of this party, when accused of mal- 
administration and extortion in their provinces, or 
of bribery and the like in canvassing for public 
honours. He had no rival in the forum, till he 
encountered Cicero, and he long exercised an ua 
disputed sway over the courts of justice. In 81 
he was quaestor ; in 75 aedile ; in 72 praetor ; 
and in 69 consul with Q. Caecilius Metellus. — 
It was in the year before his consulship that the 
prosecution of Verres commenced. Hortensius was 
the advocate of Verres, and attempted to put off 
the trial till the next year, when he w^ould be able 
to exercise all the consular authority in favour of 
his client. But Cicero, who accused Verres, baffled 



HORTENSIUS. 



HYACINTHUS. 331 



all the schemes of Hortensius ; and the issue of 
this contest was to dethrone Hortensius from the 
seat which had been already tottering, and to 
establish his rival, the despised provincial of Arpi- 
num, as the first orator and advocate of the Roman 
forum. After his consulship, Hortensius took a 
leading part in supporting the optimates against the 
rising power of Pompey. He opposed the Gabinian 
law, which invested Pompey with absolute power 
on the Mediterranean, in order to put down the 
pirates of Cilicia (67) ; and the Manilian, by which 
the conduct of the war against Mithridates was 
transferred from Lucullus to Pompey (66). Cicero 
in his consulship (63) deserted the popular party, 
with whom he had hitherto acted, and became one 
of the supporters of the optimates. Thus Hor- 
tensius no longer appears as his rival. We first 
find them pleading together for C. Rabirius, for 
L. Muraena, and for P. Sulla. After the coalition 
of Pompey with Caesar and Crassus in 60, Hor- 
tensius drew back from public life, and confined 
himself to his advocate's duties. He died in 50. 
The eloquence of Hortensius was of the florid or 
(as it Avas termed) " Asiatic " style, fitter for hear- 
ing than for reading. His voice was soft and mu- 
sical, his memory so ready and retentive, that he 
is said to have been able to come out of a sale- 
room and repeat the auction-list backwards. His 
action was very elaborate, so that sneerers called 
him Dionysia — the name of a well-kno\vn dancer 
of the day ; and the pains he bestowed in arranging 
the folds of his toga have been recorded by ancient 
writers. But in all this there must have been a 
real grace and dignity, for we read that Aesopus 
and Roscius, the tragedians, used to follow him 
into the forum to take a lesson in their own art. 
He possessed immense wealth, and was keenly 
alive to all the enjoyments which wealth can give. 
He had several villas, the most splendid of which 
was the one near Lauren tum. Here he laid up 
such a stock of wine, that he left 10,000 casks of 
Chian to his heir. Here he had a park full of all 
sorts of animals ; and it was customary, during his . 
sumptuous dinners, for a slave, dressed like Orpheus, 
to issue from the woods with these creatures fol- 
lowing the sound of his cithara. At his villa at 
Bauli he had immense fish-ponds, into which the 
sea came : the fish were so tame that they would 
feed from his hand ; and he was so fond of them, 
that he is said to have wept for the death of a 
favourite muraena. He was also very curious in 
trees : he is said to have fed them Avith wine, and 
we read that he once begged Cicero to change places 
in speaking, that he might perform this office for 
a favourite plane-tree at the proper time. It is a 
characteristic trait, that he came forward from his 
retirement (55) to oppose the sumptuary law of 
Pompey and Crassus, and spoke so eloquently and 
wittily as to procure its rejection. He was the 
first person at Rome who brought peacocks to 
table. —-2. Q., surnamed Hortalus, son of the 
preceding, by Lutatia, the daughter of Catulus. 
In youth he lived a low and profligate life, and 
appears to have been at last cast oE by his father. 
On the breaking out of the civil war in 49, he 
joined Caesar, and fought on his side in Italy and 
Greece. In 44 he held the province of Macedonia, 
and Brutus was to succeed him. After Caesar's 
assassination, M. Antony gave the province to his 
brother Caius. Brutus, however, had already 
taken possession, with the assistance of Hortensius. 



When the proscription took place, Hortensius was 
in the list ; and in revenge he ordered C. Antonius, 
who had been taken prisoner, to be put to death. 
After the battle of Philippi, he was executed on 
the grave of his victim. 

Horus C^pos), the Egyptian god of the sun, 
whose worship was also established in Greece, and 
afterwards at Rome. He was compared with the 
Greek Apollo, and identified with Harpocrates, the 
last-bom and weakly son of Osiris. Both were 
represented as youths, and with the same attri- 
butes and symbols. He was believed to have been 
born with his finger on his mouth, as indicative of 
secrecy and mystery. In the earlier period of his 
worship at Rome he seems to have been particu- 
larly regarded as the god of quiet life and silence. 

Hostilia (Osiiglia), a small town in Gallia Cis- 
alpina, on the Po, and on the road from Mutina to 
Verona ; the birthplace of Cornelius Nepos. 
Hostilius Mancinus. [Mancinus.] 
Hostilms Tullus, [Tullus Hostilius.] 
Hostius, the author of a poem on the Istrian 
war (B.C. 178), which is quoted by the gram- 
marians. He was probably a contemporary of 
Julius Caesar. 

Hunneric, king of the Vandals in Africa, a. d. 
477 — 484, was the son of Genseric, whom he 
succeeded. His reign was chiefly marked by his 
savage persecution of the Catholics. 

Hunni (Ovuvoi), an Asiatic race, who dwelt 
for some centuries in the plains of Tartary, and 
Avere formidable to the Chinese empire, long be- 
fore they were known to the Romans. It was to 
repel the inroads of the Huns that the Chinese 
built their celebrated wall, 1500 miles in length. 
A portion of the nation afterwards migrated W., 
conquered the Alani, a warlike race between the 
Volga and the Tanais, and then crossed into Eu- 
rope about A. D. 375. The appearance of these 
new barbarians excited the greatest terror, both 
among the Romans and Germans. They are de- 
scribed by the Greek and Roman historians as 
hideous and repulsive beings, resembling apes, with 
broad shoulders, flat noses, and small black eyes 
deeply buried in their head ; while their manners 
and habits were savage to the last degree. They 
destroyed the powerful monarchy of the Ostrogoths, 
who were obliged to retire before them, and were 
allowed by Valens to settle in Thrace, a. d. 376. 
The Huns now frequently ravaged the Roman domi- 
nions. They were joined by many other barbarian 
nations, and under their king Attila (a. d. 434 — 
453), they devastated the fairest portions of the 
empire, both in the E. and the W. [Attila.] 
On the death of Attila, the various nations which 
composed his army, dispersed, and his sons were 
unable to resist the arms of the Ostrogoths. In a 
few years after the death of Attila, the empire 
of the Huns was completely destroyed. The 
remains of the nation became incorporated with, 
other barbarians, and never appear again as a se- 
parate people. 

Hyacinthus (TdKiveos). 1. Son of the Spartan 
king Amyclas and Diomede, or of Pierus and Clio, 
or of Oebalus or Eurotas. He was a youth of ex- 
traordinary beauty, and was beloved by Apollo and 
Zephyrus. He returned the love of Apollo ; and 
as he was once playing at quoit with the god, 
Zephyrus, out of jealousy, drove the quoit of Apollo 
Avith such violence against the head of the youth, 
that he fell doAvn dead. From the blood of Hya- 



332 



HYADES. 



HYDRUNTUM. 



cinthus tliere sprang the flower of the same name 
(hyacinth), on the leaves of which appeared the 
exclamation of woe AI, AI, or the letter T, being 
the initial of 'TaKLvdos. According to other tra- 
ditions, the hyacinth sprang from the blood of 
Ajax. Hyacinthus was worshipped at Amyclae as 
a hero, and a great festival, Hyacinthia, was cele- 
brated in his honour. (Diet, of Anliq. s.v,) — 2. A 
Lacedaemonian, who is said to have gone to Athens, 
and to have sacrificed his daughters for the purpose 
of delivering the city from a famine and plague, 
under which it was suffering during the war with 
Minos. His daughters were known in the Attic 
legends by the name of the HyacintUdes^ which 
the}' derived from their father. Some traditions 
make them the daughters of Erechtheus, and relate 
that they received their name from the village of 
Hyacinthus, where they were sacrificed at the time 
when Athens was attacked by the Eleusinians and 
Thracians, or Thebans. 

Hyades ('Ta5es), that is, the Rainy, the name 
of nymphs, whose parentage, number and names 
are described in various ways by the ancients. 
Their parents were Atlas and Aethra, or Atlas and 
Pleione, or Hyas and Boeotia : others call their 
father Oceanus, Melisseus, Cadmilus, or Erechtheus. 
Their number differs in various legends ; but their 
most common number is 7, as they appear in the 
constellation which bears their name, viz.. Am- 
brosia, Eudora, Pedile, Coronis, Polyxo. Phyto, and 
Thyene or Dione. They were entrusted by Zeus 
with the care of his infant son Dionysus, and were 
afterwards placed by Zeus among the stars. The 
story which made them the daughters of Atlas 
relates that their number was 12 or 15, and that 
at first 5 of them were placed among the stars as 
Hyades, and the 7 (or 10) others afterwards under 
the name of Pleiades, to reward them for the sis^ 
terly love they had evinced after the death of their 
brother Hyas, who had been killed in Libya by a 
wild beast. Their name, Hyades, is derived by 
tbe ancients from their father, Hyas, or from Hyes, 
a mystic surname of Dionysus ; or according to 
others, from their position in the heavens, where 
they formed a figure resembling the Greek letter 
T. The Romans, who derived it from us, a pig, 
translated the name by Suculae. The most natural 
derivation is from ueii/, to rain, as the constellation 
of the Hyades, when rising simultaneously with 
the sun, announced rainy weather. Hence Horace 
speaks of the irisles Hyades (Carm. i. 3. 14). 

Hyampea. [Parxassls.] 

Hyampolis ('Ta^TroAis : 'Ta^7ro\tT7js), a town 
in Phocis, E. of the Cephissus, near Cleonae, was 
founded by the Hyantes, when they were driven 
out of Boeotia by the Cadmeans ; was destroyed 
by Xerxes ; afterwards rebuilt ; and again de- 
stroyed by Philip and the Amphictj-ons. — Cleonae, 
from its \-icinity to Hyampolis, is called by Xeno- 
phon {Hdl. vi. 4. § 2) 'Tafx-KoXirwv tc) irpoouTTeiov. 
— Strabo speaks of 2 towTis of the name of Hyam- 
polis in Phocis ; but it is doubtful whether his 
statement is correct. 

Hyantes ("Tavres), the ancient inhabitants of 
Boeotia, from which country they were expelled 
by the Cadmeans. Part of the Hyantes emigrated 
to Phocis [Hyampolis]. and part to Aetolia. The 
poets use the adjective Hyantius as equivalent to 
Boeotian. 

Hyas ("Tas), the name of the father and the 
brother of the Hyades. The father was married to 



Boeotia, and was looked upon as the ancestor of 
the ancient Hyantes. His son, the brother of the 
Hyades, was killed in Libya by a serpent, a boar, 
or a lion. 

Hybla ("Tex?? : "tiXaios. Hyblensis), 3 towns 
in Sicily. 1. Major jx^Qjiv or /xeydXT]), on the 
S. slope of Mt. Aetna and on the river Symaethus, 
was originally a town of the Siculi. — 2. Minor 
(t) fJ-iKpa), afterwards called Megara. [Megara.] 
— 3. Heraea, in the S. of the island, on the road 
from S}Tacuse to Agrigentum. — It is doubtful 
from which of these 3 places the Hyblaean honey 
came, so frequently mentioned by the poets. 

Hybreas ('Tgpe'as), of Mylasa in Caria, a cele- 
brated orator, contemporary with the triumvir 
Antonius. 

Hyccara (to "tKKapa: 'TKKapevs : Aluro di 
Carini), a town of the Sicani on the N. coast of 
Sicily, W. of Panormus, said to have derived its 
name from the sea fish vKKai. It was taken by the 
Athenians, and plundered, and its inhabitants sold 
as slaves, B.C. 415. Among the captives was the 
beautiful Timandra, the mistress of Alcibiades 
and the mother of Lais. 

Hydames {'tZapv-qs), one of the 7 Persians 
who conspired against the Magi in B. c. 521. 

Hydaspes (tZa<nn)s : Jelum), the N.most of 
the 5 great tributaries of the Indus, which, with 
the Indus itself, water the great plain of N. 
India, which is bounded on the N. by the Hima- 
laya range, and which is now called the Punjab, 
i. e. 5 rivers. The Hydaspes falls into the Ace- 
sines (Chenab), which also receives, from the S., 
first the Hydraotes (Ravee), and then the Hy- 
phasis (Beeas, and lower down, Gharra), which 
has previously received, on the S. side, the Hesi- 
drus or Zaradrus (Sutlej or Hesudru) ; and the 
Acesines itself falls into the Indus. These 5 rivers 
all rise on the S.W. side of the Emodi M. {Himor 
laya), except the Suilej, which, like the Indus, 
rises on the N. E. side of the range. They became 
known to the Greeks by Alexander's campaign 
in India : his great victory over Poms (b. c. 327) 
was gained on the left side of the Hydaspes, near, 
or perhaps upon, the scene of the recent battle of 
Chillianwullah ; and the Hyphasis formed the 
limit of his progress. The epithet " fabulosus," 
which Horace applies to the Hydaspes {Carm. i. 
22. 7) refers to the marvellous stories current among 
the Romans, who knew next to nothing about 
India; and the Medus Hydaspes" of Virgil 
(Georg. iv. 211) is merely an example of the 
vagueness with which the Roman writers, especially 
the poets, refer to the countries beyond the E. 
limit of the empire. 

Hydra. [Hercules, p. 308, b.] 

Hydraotes ('TSpawTTjs, Strab. 'Tdpayris: Ravee), 
a river of India, falling into the Acesines. [Hy- 
daspes.] 

Hydrea {"T5pea : 'rdpedrris : Hydra), a small 
island in the gulf of Hermione off Argolis, of no 
importance in antiquity, but the inhabitants of 
which in modem times played a distinguished pait 
in the war of Greek independence, and are some 
of the best sailors in Greece. 

Hydruntum or Hydi'us ('TSpovs: Hydrunti- 
nus : Otrarito), one of the most ancient towns of 
Calabria, situated on the S. E. coast, with a good 
harbour, and near a mountain Hydrus, was in later 
times a municipium. Persons frequently crossed 
over to Epirus from this port. 



HYETTUS. 



HYPANIS. 



33S 



Hyettus ('TtjttcJs : 'Ttjttjos), a small town in 
Boeotia on the lake Copais, and near the frontiers 
of Locris. 

Hygiea {'Tyieia), also called Hygea or Hygia, 
the goddess of health, and a daughter of Aescu- 
lapius ; though some traditions make her the wife 
of the latter. She was usually worshipped in the 
temples of Aesculapius, as at Argos, where the 2 
divinities had a celebrated sanctuary, at Athens, at 
Corinth, &c. At Rome there was a statue of her 
in the temple of Concordia. In works of art she is 
represented as a virgin dressed in a long robe, and 
feeding a serpent from a cup. — Although she was 
originally the goddess of physical health, she is 
sometimes conceived as the giver or protectress of 
mental health, that is, she appears as vyUia (ppevwv 
(Aeschjl. Eum. 522), and was thus identified with 
Athena, sumamed Hygiea. 

Hyginus. 1. C. Julius, a Roman grammarian, was 
a native of Spain, and lived at Rome in the time of 
Augustus, whose freedman he was. He wrote several 
works, all of which have perished. — 2. Hyginus 
GromatlCUS, so called from gruma, an instrument 
used by the Agrimensores. He lived in the time of 
Trajan, and wrote works on land surveying and 
castrametation, of which considerable fragments are 
extant.— 3. Hyginus, the author of 2 extant works; 
1. Fabularum Liber ^ a series of short mythological 
legends, with an introductory genealogy of divini- 
ties. Although the larger portion of these narratives 
has been copied from obvious sources, they occa- 
gionally present the tales under new forms or with 
new circumstances. 2. Poeticon Astronomicon 
Lihri IV. We know nothing of the author of these 
2 works. He is sometimes identified with C. Julius 
Hyginus, the freedman of Augustus, but he must 
have lived at a much later period. Both works are 
included in the Mythographi Laiini of Muncker, 
Amst. 1681, and of Van Staveren, Lug. Bat. 1742. 

Hylaea ('TAai'77, Herod.), a district in Scythia, 
covered with wood, is the penuisula adjacent to 
Taurica on the N.W., between the rivers Bory- 
sthenes and Hypacyris. 

Hylaeus ('TAatos), that is, the Woodman, the 
name of an Arcadian centaur, who was slain by 
Atalante, when he pursued her. According to 
some legends, Hylaeus fell in the fight against the 
Lapithae, and others again said that he was one 
of the centaurs slain by Hercules. 

Hylas ("TAas), son of Theodamas, king of the 
Dryopes, by the nymph Menodice ; or, according 
to others, son of Hercules, Euphemus, or Ceyx. 
He was beloved by Hercules, whom he accom- 
panied in the expedition of the Argonauts. On 
the coast of Mysia, Hylas went on shore to draw 
water from a fountain ; but his beauty excited the 
love of the Naiads, who drew him down into the 
water, and he was never seen again. Hercules 
endeavoured in vain to find him ; and when he 
shouted out to the youth, the voice of Hylas was 
heard from the bottom of the well only like a faint 
echo, whence some say that he was actually meta- 
morphosed into an echo. While Hercules was 
engaged in seeking his favourite, the Argonauts 
sailed away, leaving him and his companion, Poly- 
phemus, behind. 

Hyle ("TAtj, also^YAai), a small town in Boeo- 
tia, situated on the Hylice, which was called after 
this town, and into which the river Ismenus flows. 

Hylias, a river in Bruttiimi, separating the ter- 
ritories of Sybaris and Croton. 



Hylice {ri 'TXikt) Xiixv-rf), a lake in Boeotia, S. 
of the lake Copais. See Hyle. 

Hylicus {''TAiKos,"T\XiKos), a small river in 
Argolis, near Troezen. 

Hyllus ("TAAos), son of Hercules by Deianlra. 
For details see Heraclidae. 

Hyllus ("TAAos : Demirji), a river of Lydia, 
falling into the Hermus on its N. side. 

Hymen or Hymenaeus {"ffx-f^v or 'Tfieuaios), 
the god of marriage, was conceived as a handsome 
youth, and invoked in the hymeneal or bridal song. 
The names originally designated the bridal song 
itself, which was subsequently personified. He is 
described as the son of Apollo and a Muse, either 
Calliope, Urania, or Terpsichore. Others describe 
him only as the favourite of Apollo or Thamyris, 
and call him a son of Magnes and Calliope, or of 
Dionysus and Aphrodite. The ancient traditions, 
instead of regarding the god as a personification of 
the hymeneal song, speak of him as originally a 
mortal, respecting whom various legends were 
related. The Attic legends described him as a 
youth of such delicate beauty, that he might be 
taken for a girl. He fell in love with a maiden, 
who refused to listen to him ; but in the disguise 
of a girl he followed her to Eleusis to the festival 
of Demeter. The maidens, together with Hyme- 
naeus, were carried off by robbers into a distant 
and desolate country. On their landing, the robbers 
laid down to sleep, and were killed by Hymenaeus, 
who now returned to Athens, requesting the citi- 
zens to give him his beloved in marriage, if he re- 
stored to them the maidens who had been carried 
off by the robbers. His request was granted, and 
his marriage was extremely happy. For this reason 
he was invoked in the hymeneal songs. According 
to others he was a youth, who was killed by the 
fall of his house on his wedding-day, whence he 
was afterwards invoked in bridal songs, in order 
to be propitiated. Some related that at the wedding 
of Dionysus and Ariadne he sang the bridal hymn, 
but lost his voice. He is represented in works of 
art as a youth, but taller and with a more serious 
expression than Eros, and carrying in his hand a 
bridal torch. 

Hymettus ('TyttTjTTos), a mountain in Attica, 
celebrated for its marble {HymeUiae trabes^ Hor. 
Carm, ii. 18. 3), and more especially for its honey\ 
It is about 3 miles S. of Athens, and forms the 
commencement of the range of mountains which 
runs S. through Attica. It is now called Tdovuni, 
and by the Franks Monte Matto : the part of the 
mountain near the promontory Zoster, which was 
called in ancient times Anhydrus (0 "Awd pos, sc. 
'TjutjttJs), or the Dry Hymettus, is now called 
Mavrovuni. 

Hypacyris, Hypacaris, orPacaris (Kanilshak), 
a river in European Sarmatia, which flows through 
the country of the nomad Scythians, and falls into 
the Sinus Carcinites in the Euxine sea. 

Hypaea. [Stoechades.] 

Hypaepa ("TTratTra : Tapaya), a city of Lydia, 
on the S. slope of Mt. Tmolus, near the N. bank 
of the Caister. 

Hypana {'Tirdvr]: ra^Tirava: 'TTraveus), a town 
in Triphylian Elis, belonging to the Pentapolis. 

Hypanis (Bog), a river in European Sarmatia, 
rises, according to Herodotus, in a lake, flows pa- 
rallel to the Borysthenes, has at first sweet, then 
bitter water, and falls into the Euxuie sea W. cf 
the Borj'sthenes. 



334 



HYP AT A. 



HYPHASIS- 



Hypata (to "YTraTC, 7] 'TvrccTTj : 'Tiraralos, 'Tna- 
revs: Neopatra, Turk. Datrajik), a town of the 
Aenianes in Thessal)', S. of the Spercheus, belonged 
in later times to the Aetolian league. The inha- 
bitants of this town were notorious for witchcraft. 

Hypatia ('Tiraria), daughter of Theon, by 
whom she was instructed in philosophy and ma- 
thematics. She soon made such immense progress 
in these branches of knowledge, that she is said 
to have presided over the Neoplatonic school of 
Plotinus at Alexandria, where she expounded the 
principles of his system to a numerous auditory. 
She appears to have been most graceful, modest, 
and beautiful, but nevertheless to have been a 
victim to slander and falsehood. She was accused 
of too much familiarity with Orestes, prefect of 
Alexandria, and the charge spread among the 
clergy, who took up the notion that she interrupted 
the friendship of Orestes with their archbishop, 
Cyril. In consequence of this, a number of them 
seized her in the street, and dragged her into one of 
the churches, where they tore her to pieces, a. d. 415. 

Hypatod5rus ('T7raT<55wpos), a statuary of 
Thebes, flourished b. c. 372. 

Hyperbolus ('TTrepgoAos), an Athenian dema- 
gogue in the Peloponnesian war, was of servile 
origin, and was frequently satirized by Aristophanes 
and the other comic poets. In order to get rid 
either of Nicias or Alcibiades, Hyperbolus called 
for the exercise of the ostracism. But the parties 
endangered combined to defeat him, and the vote 
of exile fell on Hyperbolus himself : an application 
of that dignified punishment by which it was 
thought to have been so debased that the use of it 
was never recurred to. Some years afterwards he 
Avas murdered by the oligarchs atSamos, B.C. 411. 

HyperbSrei or -ei {'Tir^pSopeoi^ "TirtpSdptioi)', 
a fabulous people, the earliest mention of whom 
seems to have been in the sacred legends eonnected 
wath the worship of Apollo, both at Delos and at 
Delphi. In the earliest Greek conception of the 
Hyperboreans, as embodied by the poets, they were 
a blessed people, living beyond the N. wind (vrrep- 
€6peoL, fr. virep and Bop^as), and therefore not ex- 
posed to its cold blasts, in a land of perpetual sun- 
shine, which produced abundant fruits, on which 
the people lived, abstaining from animal food. In 
innocence and peace, free from disease and toil and 
care, ignorant of violence and war, they spent a 
long and happy life, in the due and cheerful ob- 
servance of the Avorship of Apollo, who visited their 
country soon after his birth, and spent a whole 
year among them, dancing and singing, before he 
retiuned to Delphi. The poets related further 
how the sun only rose once a year and set once a 
year, upon the Hyperboreans, whose year was thus 
divided, at the equinoxes, into a 6 months' day and 
a 6 months' night, and they were therefore said to 
sow in the morning, to reap at noon, to gather 
their fruits in the evening, and to store them up 
at night: hov^, too, their natural life lasted 1000 
years, but if any of them Avas satiated with its 
unbroken enjojTnent, he threw himself, crowned 
and anointed, from a sacred rock into the sea. The 
Delian legends told of offerings sent to Apollo by 
the Hyperboreans, first by the hands of virgins 
named Arge and Opis (or Hecaerge), and then by 
Laodice and Hj-peroche, escorted by 5 men called 
Perpherees ; and lastly, as their messengers did 
not return, they sent the offerings packed in wheat- 
straw, and the sacred package was forwarded from 



people to people till it reached Delos. If these 
legends are based on any geographical relations at 
all, the most probable explanation is that which 
regards them as pointing to regions N. of Greece 
(the N. part of Thessaly especially) as the chief 
original seat of the worship of Apollo. Naturally 
enough, as the geographical knowledge of the Greeks 
extended, they moved back the Hyperboreans 
further and further into the unknown parts of the 
earth ; and, of those who sought to fix their pre- 
cise locality, some placed them in the extreme W. 
of Europe, near the Pyrenaean mountains and the 
supposed sources of the Ister, and thus they came 
to be identified with the Celtae ; Avhile others 
placed them in the extreme N. of Europe, on the 
shores of the Hyperboreus Oceanus, beyond the 
fabulous Grypes and Arimaspi, who themselves 
lived beyond the Scythians. The latter opinion at 
length prevailed ; and then, the religious aspect of 
the fable being gradually lost sight of, the term 
Hyperborean came to mean only most nortlmiy, as 
when Virgil and Horace speak of the " Hj'per- 
boreae orae " and " Hj'perborei campi." The 
fable of the Hyperboreans may probably be re- 
garded as one of the forms in which the tradition 
of an original period of innocence, happiness, and 
immortality, existed among the nations of the 
ancient world. 

Hyperborei Montes was originally the mythical 
name of an imaginary range of mountains in the 
N. of the earth [Hyperborei], and was after- 
wards applied by the geographers to various chains, 
as, for example, the Caucasus, the Rhipaei Montes, 
and others. 

Hyperides ('YTrepei'STjs or 'TTrepi'Srys), one of 
the 10 Attic orators, was the son of Glaucippus, 
and belonged to the Attic demus of CoUytus. He 
was a pupil of Plato in philosophy, and of Demos- 
thenes in oratory. He was a friend of Demosthenes, 
and with him and Lycurgus was at the head of 
the anti-Macedonian party. He is first mentioned 
about B. c. 358, when he and his son equipped 2 
triremes at their own expense in order to serve 
against Euboea, and from this time to his death 
he continued a stedfast friend to the patriotic cause. 
After the death of Alexander (323) Hyperides took 
an active part in organising that confederacy of the 
Greeks against Antipater, which produced the 
Lamian war. Upon the defeat of the confederates 
at the battle of Crannon in the following year 
(322), Hyperides fled to Aegina, where he was 
slain by the emissaries of Antipater. The number 
of orations attributed to Hyperides Avas 77 ; but 
none of them have come down to us. His oratory 
Avas graceful and powerful, holding a middle place 
between that of Lysias and Demosthenes. 

Hyperion ('TTreptcoi/), a Titan, son of Uranus 
and Ge, and married to his sister Thia, or Eury- 
phaessa, by Avhom he became the father of Helios, 
Selene, and Eos. Homer uses the name as a pa- 
tronj'^mic of Helios, so that it is equivalent to 
Hyperionion or Hyperionides ; and Homer's example 
is imitated also by other poets. [Helios.] 

Hypermnestra {"tTt^pixviiaTpa). 1. Daughter 
of Thestius and Eurythemis, Avife of Oicles, and 
mother of Amphiaraus. — 2. One of the daughters 
of Danaus, and Avife of Lynceus. [Danaus ; 

LVNCEUS.1 

Hyphasis or Hypasis or Hypanis ("T^ao-tj, 
"TTTacris, "'tiravis : Beeas^ and Gharra), a river of 
India. [Hydaspes.] 



HYPIUS. 



HYSTASPES. 



335 



HypiUS ("TTTios), a river and mountain in Bi- 
thynia. 

Hypsas ("T^as), 2 rivers on the S, coast of 
Sicily, one between Selinus and Thermae Selinuntiae 
! (now Belici) and the other near Agrigentum (now 
Fiume drago). 

Hypseus ( "T-^evs), son of Peneus and Creusa, 
Avas king of the Lapithae, and father of Cyrene. 

Hypsicles ('Ti|/£K;Af/s), of Alexandria, a Greek 
mathematician, who is usually said to have lived 
I about A. D. 160, but who ought not to be placed 
I earlier than a. d. 550. The only work of his 
extant, is entitled Uepl rrjs rwv ^coSioou avacpopas, 
I published with the Optics of Heliodorus at Paris, 
1567. He is supposed however to have added the 
14th and loth books to the Elements of Euclid. 
Hypsipyle ("TrpnrvXT])^ daughter of Thoas, king 
. of Lemnos. When the Lemnian women killed all 
; the men in the island, because they had taken 
! some female Thracian slaves to their beds, Hypsi- 
j pyle saved her father. [Thoas.] She then became 
i queen of Lemnos ; and when the Argonauts landed 
I there shortly afterwards, she bore twin sons to Jason, 
! Euneus and Nebrophonus, also called Deiphilus or 
Thoas. The Lemnian women subsequently dis- 
covered that Thoas Avas alive, whereupon they com- 
pelled Hypsipyle to quit the island. On her flight 
she was taken prisoner by pirates and sold to the 
Nemean king Lycurgus, who entrusted to her care 
his son Archemorus or Opheltes. [Archemorus.] 
Hjrpsiis ('Ti/zoOs, -ovutos), a town in Arcadia, 
on a mountain of the same name. 

Hjrrcama ('TpKavia : "TpKavios, Hyrcanus : Ma- 
zanderaji), a province of the ancient Persian Em- 
pire, on the S. and S.E. shores of the Caspian or 
Hyrcanian Sea, and separated by mountains on the 
W., S., and E., from Media, Parthia, and Mar- 
giana. Its valleys were very fertile ; and it flou- 
rished most under the Parthians, whose kings 
often resided in it during the summer. 
Hyrcanum or -ium Mare. [Caspium Mare.] 
Hyrcanus {'TpKavSs). 1. Joannes, prince and 
high-priest of the Jews, was the son and successor 
of Simon Maccabaeus, the restorer of the inde- 
pendence of Judaea. He succeeded to his father's 
power B.C. 135. He was at first engaged in war 
■with Antiochus VII. Sidetes, who invaded Judaea, 
and laid siege to Jerusalem. In 133 he concluded 
a peace with Antiochus, on the condition of paying 
an annual tribute. Owing to the civil wars in 
Syria between the several claimants to the throne, 
i the power of Hyrcanus steadily increased ; and at 
length he took Samaria, and razed it to the ground 
(109), notwithstanding the army which Antiochus 
IX. Cyzicenus had sent to the assistance of the citj. 
Hyrcanus died in 106. Although he did not 
; assume the title of king, he may be regarded as 
the founder of the monarchy of Judaea, which 
continued in his family till the accession of Herod. 
— 2. High-priest and king of the Jews, was the 
eldest son of Alexander Jannaeus, and his wife, 
Alexandra. On the death of Alexander (78) the 
royal authority devolved upon Alexandra, who ap- 
I pointed Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood. Alex- 
andra reigned 9 years ; and upon her death in 69, 
Hyrcanus succeeded to the sovereignty, but was 
I quickly attacked by his younger brother Aristobu- 
j lus, who possessed more energy and ambition than 
Hyrcanus. In the following year (68) Hyrcanus 
was driven from the throne, and took refuge with 
Aietas, king of Arabia Petraea. That monarch 



assembled an army, with which he invaded Judaea 
in order to restore Hyrcanus. He defeated Aris- 
tobulus, and blockaded him in the temple of Jeru- 
salem. Aristobulus, however, gained over by 
bribes and promises Pompey^'s lieutenant, M. 
Scaurus, who had arrived at Damascus, and who 
now ordered Aretas and Hyrcanus to Avithdraw 
from Judaea (64). The next year Pompey him- 
self arrived in Syria : he reversed the decision of 
Scaurus, carried away Aristobulus as a prisoner to 
Rome, and reinstated Hyrcanus in the high-priest- 
hood, with the authority, though not the name, of 
royalty. Hyrcanus, however, did not long enjoy 
his newly recovered sovereignty in quiet. Alex- 
ander, the son of Aristobulus, and subsequently 
Aristobulus himself, escaped from Rome, and ex- 
cited dangerous revolts, which were only quelled 
by the assistance of the Romans. The real 
government was now in the able hands of Antipater, 
the father of Herod, who rendered such important 
services to Caesar during the Alexandrian war (47), 
that Caesar made him procurator of Judaea, leaving 
to Hyrcanus the title of high-priest. Although 
Antipater was poisoned by the contrivance of 
Hyrcanus (43), the latter was a man of such feeble 
character, that he allowed Herod to take vengeance 
on the murderer of his father, and to succeed to his 
father's power and influence. The Parthians, on 
their invasion of Syria, carried away Hyrcanus as 
prisoner ( 40). He was treated with much liberality 
by the Parthian king, and allowed to live in perfect 
freedom at Babylon. Here he remained for some 
years ; but having at length received an invitation 
from Herod, who had meanwhile established him- 
self on the throne of Judaea, he returned to Jeru- 
salem, with the consent of the Parthian king. He 
was treated with respect by Herod till the battle 
of Actium ; when Herod, fearing lest Augustus 
might place Hyrcanus on the throne, accused him 
of a treasonable correspondence with the king of 
Arabia, and on this pretext put him to death (30). 

Hyria ('Tpi'a : "Tpievs, "TpiaTTjs). 1. A town 
in Boeotia near Tanagra, was in the earliest times 
a place of importance, but afterwards sunk into in- 
significance. — 2. A town in Apulia. [Uria.] 

Hyrieus {'Tpi^vs), son of Poseidon and Alcyone, 
king of Hyria in Boeotia, husband of Clonia, and 
father of Nycteus, Lycus, and Orion. Respecting 
his treasures see Agamedes. 

Hyrmina {'Tpfilvr])^ a town in Elis, mentioned 
by Homer, but of which all trace had disappeared 
in the time of Strabo. Near it was the promon- 
tory Hyrmina or Hormina (C. CUarenza). 

Hyrmine ('Tpfxiuri), daughter of Neleus, or 
Nycteus, wife of Phorbas, and mother of Actor. 

Hyrtacus ("Tprafcos), a Trojan, to whom Priam 
gave his first wife Arisba, when he married He- 
cuba. Homer makes him the father of Asius, 
hence called Hyrtacides. — In Virgil Nisus and 
Hippocoon are also represented as sons of Hyrtacus. 

Hysiae ('To-tat). 1. ('To-iarTjs), a town in Ar- 
golis, S. of Argos, destroyed by the Spartans in the 
Peloponnesian war. — 2. ('Tcrieus), a town in 
Boeotia, E. of Plataeae, called by Herodotus (v. 
74) a demus of Attica, but probably belonging to 
Plataeae. 

Hystaspes ('Tctoo-tti?? ; in Persian, Goshtasp, 
Gustasp, Histasp, or Wistasp). 1. Son of Areames, 
and father of Darius I., was a member of the Per- 
sian royal house of the Achaemenidae. He was 
satrap of Persis under Cambyses, and probably 



330 



lACCHUS. 



under Cyrus also. — 2. Son of Darius I. and 
Atoss.i, commanded the Bactrians and Sacae in 
the army of his brother Xerxes. 



lacchus {"laKxos), the solemn name of Bacchus 
in the Eleusinian mysteries, whose name was de- 
rived from the boisterous song, called lacchus. In 
these mysteries lacchus was regarded as the son of 
Zeus and Demeter, and was distinguished from 
the Theban Bacchus (Dionysus),the son of Zeus and 
Semele. In some traditions lacchus is even called 
a son of Bacchus, but in others the 2 are identified. 
On the 6th day of the Eleusinian festival (the 20th of 
Boedromion) the statue of lacchus was carried from 
the temple of Demeter across the Thriasian plain 
to Eleusis, accompanied by a numerous and riotous 
procession of the initiated, who sang the lacchus, 
carried mystic baskets, and danced to the sound of 
cymbals and trumpets, 

ladera or lader (ladertlnus : Old Zara), a 
town on the coast of Illyricum, with a good harbour, 
and a Roman colony under the name of " Colonia 
Claudia Augusta Felix." 

lalemus ('laAe/ios), a similar personification to 
that of Linus, and hence called a son of Apollo and 
Calliope, and the inventor of the song lalemus, 
w^hich was a kind of dirge, and is only mentioned 
as sung on most melancholy occasions. 

lalmenus ('IaA;uei/o?), son of Ares and Asty- 
oche. and brother of Ascalaphus, was a native of 
the Boeotian Orchomenos. He was one of the Ar- 
gonauts and a suitor of Helena. After the de- 
struction of Troy, he wandered about with the 
Orchomsnians, and founded colonies in Colchis. 

lalysus (laAucros), one of the 3 very ancient 
Dorian cities in the island of Rhodes, and one of 
the 6 original members of the Dorian Hexapolis 
[Doris], stood on the N.W. coast of the island, 
about 60 stadia S.W. of Rhodes. It is said to 
have derived its name from the mythical lalysus, 
son of Cercaphus, and grandson of Helios. 

lambe {'Idfj.§r]), a Thracian woman, daughter 
of Pan and Echo, and a slave of Metanira. When 
Demeter, in search of her daughter, arrived in 
Attica, and visited the house of Metanira, lambe 
cheered the mournful goddess by her jokes. 

lamblichus (ldix€\ixos). 1. A Syrian who 
lived in the time of the emperor Trajan, wrote a 
romance in the Greek language, entitled Babylonica. 
The work itself is lost, but an epitome of it is pre- 
served by Photius. — 2. A celebrated Neo-Pla- 
tonic philosopher, was bom at Chalcis in Coele- 
Syria. He resided in Syria during the greater 
part of his life, and died in the reign of Constantine 
the Great, probably before a. d. 333. He was in- 
ferior in judgment and learning to the earlier Neo- 
Platonists, Plotinus and Porphyry ; and he intro- 
duced into his system many of the superstitions and 
mysteries of the E., by means of which he endea- 
voured to check the progress of Christianity. The 
extant works of lamblichus are : I. Ilepi YlvQayS- 
pov atp4aews, on the philosophy of Pythagoras. It 
was intended as a preparation for "^the study of 
Plato, and consisted originally of 10 books, of 
which 5 only are extant. 1. The 1st book contains 
an a<n-.ount of the life of Pythagoras, and though 
compiled without care, it is yet of value, as the 
otiier works, from wiiich it is taken, are lost. 



lARBAS. 

Edited by Kuster, Amsterd. 1707 ; and by Kiess, 
ling. Lips. 1815. 2. UpoTpeimKol \6yoi ets <pi\o- 
(xo^iav, forms a sort of introduction to the study 
of Plato. Edited by Kiessling, Lips. 1813, ovo. 
3. Uepl Koivris fxa97)pLariKris iiria-Tiifxrjs, contains 
many fragments of the works of early Pythagoreans. 
Edited by Fries, Copenhagen, 1790. 4. riepl ttis 
I ^iKOfx.dxov apLdtxr]TiKrjs ela-aywyTjt. Edited by 
j Tennulius, Deventer and Amheim, 1668. 5. Tct 
I ^eo\oyov/xipa Trjs apiduTjTiKrjs. Edited by Ast, 
Lips. 1817. — II. riepi iJ.v(TTr]p'iuv, written to prove 
the divine origin of the Egyptian and Chaldaean 
theology. Edited by Gale, Oxon. 1678. lambli- 
chus wrote other works which are lost — 3. A 
later Neo-Platonic philosopher of Apamea, a con- 
temporary of the emperor Julian and of Libanius. 
lamidae. [Iamus.] 

lanmia ('Idjuj/eia ; 'lafj.v'ia : 'IajLii/€i'T77S : 0. T. 

Jabneel, Jabneh : Ibneh or Gabneh), a consider- 
able cit}- of Palestine, between Diospolis and 
Azotus, near the coast. w\ih a good harbour, was 
taken by King Uzziah from the Philistines. 
Pompey united it to the province of Syria. After 
the destruction of Jerusalem it became the seat of 
the Sanhedrim, and of a celebrated school of Jewish 
learning. 

Iamus {"lauos), son of Apollo and Evadne, re- 
ceived the art of prophecy from his father, and was 
regarded as the ancestor of the famous family of 
seers, the lamidae at Olympia. 

lanira Cldveipa), one of the Nereids. 

lanthe ('Iov^tj). 1, Daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, and one of the playmates of Persephone. 
— 2. Daughter of Telestes of Crete, beloved by 
Iphis. 

lapetus {'laireros), one of the Titans, son of 
Uranus and Ge, married Asia or Clymene, the 
daughter of his brother Oceanus, and became by 
her the father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, 
and Menoetius. He was imprisoned with Cronus 
in Tartarus. Being the father of Prometheus, he 
was regarded by the Greeks as the ancestor of the 
human race. His descendants, Prometheus, Atlas, 
and others, are often designated by the patronymics 
lapetidae (es), lapetionidae (es), and the feminine 
lapetionis. 

lapydes ('loTruSey or 'IctTroSes), a warlike and 
barbarous people in the N. of Illyricum, between 
the rivers Arsia and Tedanius, were a mixed race, 
partly Illyrian and partly Celtic, who tattooed 
their bodies. They were subdued by Augustus. 
Their country was called lapydia. 

lapygia {^la-Kvy'ia : 'Ia7ru7es), the name given 
by the Greeks to the S. of Apulia, from Tarentum 
and Brundusium to the Prom. lapygium (C 
Leuca) ; though it is sometimes applied to the 
whole of Apulia. [Apulia.] The name is de- 
rived from the mythical lapyx. 

lapyx ('laTTuI). L Son of Lycaon and brother 
of Daunius and Peucetius, who went as leaders of 
a colony to Italy. According to others, he was a 
Cretan, and a brother af Icadius, or a son of 
Daedalus and a Cretan woman, from whom the 
Cretans who migrated to Italy derived the name 
of lapyges. — 2. The "VV.N.W. wind, blowing 
off the coast of lapygia (Apulia), in the S. of 
Italy, and consequently favourable to persons 
crossing over to Greece. It was the same as the 
apy4(TTr)s of the Greeks. 

larbas or Hiarbas, king of the Gaetulians, and 
son of Jupiter Ammon by a Libyan njTnph, sued 



HEEMES (MERCUEY). HOEAE (SEASONS). 





{To face D. 33fi. 



COINS OF PERSONS. HELENA — JUSTINIAN. 




Heleiui, wife of Julian . Page 301. 




Hicetas, Tyrant of Syracuse. Page 820, No. 2. 




Hieronymus, King of Syracuse, b. c. 21G. Page o21, Xo. 2. 




Honorius, Roman Emperor, a.d. ;?95— 423. Page 328. 




Idricus, King of Caria, a. d. 344. Page 339, 
To face p. 33".] 




Julia, (laughter of Augustus, ob. a.d. 2P. Page 356, No. 5. 




Julia, daughter of Titus. Page 357, Nc. 9. 




Julian, Roman Emperor, a. r. 3G1— 363. Page 357. 




Justinian, Roman Emperor, a. d. 527—565. Page 359. 



lARDANES. 



ICARIUS. 



337 



in vain for the hand of Dido in marriage. For 
details see Dido. 

lardanes {'lapSdvrjs), a king of Lydia, and 
fatlier of Omphale, who is hence called lardanis. 

lardaaes or lardanus (^'lapSdurj^, 'Idpdavoa). 
1. (Jardan), a river in Elis. —2. A river in the 
N. of Crete, which flowed near the town Cydonia. 

lasion or lasiUS ('laaicov, 'idaLos), son of Zeus 
and Electra, the daughter of Atlas, or son of 
Corythus and Electra, At the wedding of his 
sister Harmonia, Demeter fell in love with him, 
and in a thrice-ploughed field (Tp'nrokos) she be- 
came by him the mother of Pluton or Plutus in 
Crete ; Zeus in consequence killed lasion with a 
tlash of lightning. Others represent him as living 
to an advanced age as the husband of Demeter. 
In some traditions lasion and his brother Dardanus 
are said to have carried the palladium to Samo- 
thrace, and there to have been instructed in the 
mysteries of Demeter by Zeus. Others relate that 
lasion, being inspired by Demeter and Cora (Pro- 
serpina), travelled about in Sicily and many other 
countries, and everywhere taught the people the 
mysteries of Demeter. 

lasis, i. e. Atalante, the daughter of lasius. 

laso ('lao-w), i. e. Recover)', a daughter of 
Aesculapius, or Amphiaraus, and sister of Hygiea, 
was worshipped as the goddess of recovery. 

lassius or lassicus Sinus {'laaiKhs kSxttos : 
Gulf of Mandeliyeh), a large gulf on the W. coast 
of Caria, between the peninsulae of Miletus and 
Myndus ; named after the city of lassus, and called 
Bargylieticus Sinus {'Bapyv'KL'i]rLK.hs kcKttos) from 
another city which stood upon it, namely, Bargylia. 

lassus or lasus {"lacraos, "laaos : 'laasvs : 
Asyn-Kalessi^ Ru.), a city of Caria, on the lassius 
Sinus, founded by Argives and further colonised 
by Milesians. 

lasus ("larros). 1. An Arcadian, son of Lycur- 
gus and Cleophile or Eurynome, brother of An- 
caeus, husband of Clymene, the daughter of Mi- 
nyas, and father of Atalante, He is likewise 
called lasius and lasion. — 2. Father of Amphion, 
and king of the Minj^ans. 

lazyges ('Ia^u7es), a powerful Sarmatian people, 
who originally dwelt on the coast of the Pontus 
Euxinus and the Palus Maeotis, but in the reign 
of Claudius settled near the Quadi in Dacia, in the 
country bounded by the Danube, the Theiss, and 
the Sarmatian mountains. They are generally 
called Sartnatae lazyges or simply Sarmatae, but 
Ptolemy gives them the name oi lazyges Metanastae, 
on account of their migration. The lazyges were 
in close alliance with the Quadi, along with whom 
they frequently attacked the Roman dominions, 
especially Moesia and Pannonia. In the 5th cen- 
tury they were conquered by the Goths. 

Iberia ('Ig^jpta : S. part of Georgia)^ a country 
of Asia, in the centre of the isthmus between the 
Black and Caspian Seas, was bounded on the N. 
by the Caucasus, on the W. by Colchis, on the E. 
by Albania, and on the S. by Armenia. It was 
surrounded on every side by mountains, through 
which there were only 4 passes. Sheltered by 
these mountains and watered by the Cyrus {Kour) 
and its upper tributaries, it was famed for a fertility 
of which its modern name (from Tiupyos) remains 
a witness. Its inhabitants, Iberes ["iSrip^s) or 
Iberi., were, and are still, among the most perfect 
specimens of the Caucasian race. The ancients 
believed them to be of the same family as the 



Assyrians andMedes, whom they were thought to 
resemble in their customs. They were more civi- 
lised than their neighbours in Colchis and Albania, 
and were divided into 4 castes : 1 . the nobles, from 
whom 2 kings were chosen ; 2. the priests, who 
were also the magistrates ; 3, the soldiers and hus- 
bandmen ; 4, the slaves, Avho performed all public 
and mechanical work. The chief employment of 
the Iberians was agriculture. The Romans first 
became acquainted witli the country through the 
expedition of Pompey, in B. c. 65 ; and under 
Trajan it was subjected to Rome, In the 5th 
century it was conquered by the Persian king. 
Sapor. — No connection can be traced between the 
Iberians of Asia and those of Spaiu. 

Iberus ("IgTjpos oY^'lS-np: Ebro), the principal 
river in the N.E, of Spain, rises aniong the moun- 
tains of the Cantabri near Juliobriga, flows S.E. 
through a great plain between the Pyrenees and 
the M. Idubeda, and falls into the I\Iediterranean, 
near Dertosa, after forming a Delta. 

Ibycus {"ISvKos), a Greek lyric poet, was a 
native of Rhegium, and spent the best part of his 
life at Samos, at the court of Polycrates, about 
B. c. 540. It is related that travelling through a 
desert place near Corinth, he was murdered by 
robbers, but before he died he called upon a flock 
of cranes that happened to fly over him to avenge 
his death. Soon afterwards, when the people of 
Corinth were assembled in the theatre, the cranes 
appeared; and one of the murderers, who happened 
to be present, cried out involuntarily, " Behold the 
avengers of Ibycus : " and thus were the authors 
of the crime detected. The phrase al 1§vkov yl- 
pauoL passed into a proverb. The poetry of Ibycus 
was chiefly erotic, and partook largely of the im- 
petuosity of his character. In his dialect there was 
a mixture of the Doric and Aeolic. In antiquity 
there were 7 books of his lyric poems, of which 
only a few fragments now remain. 

Icaria or Icarius ('l/capta, 'iKdpios : 'l/capieys), 
a mountain and a demus in Attica, belonging to 
the tribe Aegeis, where Dionysus is said to have 
taught Icarius the cultivation of the vine. 

Icarius ('I/capios), also called Icarus or Ica- 
rion. 1. An Athenian, who lived in the reign of 
Pandion, and hospitably received Dionysus on his 
arrival in Attica. The god in return taught him 
the cultivation of the vine. Icarius made a pre- 
sent of some wine to peasants, who became intoxi- 
cated by it, and thinking that they were poisoned 
by Icarius, slew him, and threw his body into a 
well, or buried it under a tree. His daughter Eri- 
gone, after a long search, found his grave, to which 
she was conducted by his faithful dog Maera. 
From grief she hung herself on the tree under 
which he was buried. Zeus or Dionysus placed 
her and Icarius among the stars, making Erigone 
the Virgin^ Icarius Booles or A returns, and Maera 
Procyon or the little dog. Hence the latter is 
called Icarius cams. The god then punished the- 
ungrateful Athenians with madness, in which 
condition the Athenian maidens hung themselves 
as Erigone had done. The Athenians propitiated 
Icarius and Erigone by the institution of the festi- 
val of the Aeora. (See Did. of Antiq. s. v.) — 2. 
A Lacedaemonian, son of Perieres and Gorgo- 
phone, and brother of Tyndareus. Others called him 
grandson of Perieres, and son of Oebalus. When 
Icarius and Tyndareus were expelled from Lace- 
daemon by their half-brother Hippocoon, Icarius 

z 



338 ICARUS, 
went to Acamania, and there became the father of 
Penelope, and of several other children. He 
afterwards returned to Lacedaeraon. Since there 
were many suitors for the hand of Penelope, he 
promised to give her to the hero who should con- 
quer in a foot-race. Ulysses won the prize, and 
was betrothed to Penelope. Icarius tried to per- 
suade his daughter to remain with him, and not 
accompany Uh'sses to Ithaca. Ulysses allowed 
her to do as she pleased, whereupon she covered 
her face with her veil to hide her blushes, and thus 
intimated that she would follow her husband. 
Icarius then desisted from further entreaties, and 
erected a statue of Modesty on the spot. 

Icarus {"iKapos), son of Daedalus. [Daedalus.] 

Icarus orlcaria ClKopos, 'iKapia: Nikaria), an 
island of the Aegean Sea ; one of the Sporades ; 
W. of Samos; called also Doliche (SoXix^, i.e. long 
island). Its common name, and that of the sur- 
rounding sea, Icarium Mare, were derived from the 
myth of Icarus. It was first colonised by the 
Milesians, but afterwards belonged to the Samians, 
who fed their herds on its rich pastures. 

Iccius, A friend of Horace, who addressed to 
him an ode {Carm. i. 29), and an epistle {Ep. i. 
12). The ode was written in B. c. 25, when Iccius 
Avas preparing to join Aelius Gallus in his expedi- 
tion to Arabia. The epistle was composed about 
10 years afterwards, when Iccius had become Vip- 
sanius Agrippa's steward in Sicily. In both poems 
Horace reprehends pointedly, but delicately, in 
Iccius an inordinate desire for irealth. 

Iceni, called Simeni (^ifxevol) by Ptolemy, a 
numerous and powerful people in Britain, who 
dwelt N. of the Trinobantes, in the modern counties 
of Suffolk and Norfolk. Their revolt from the 
Romans, under their heroic queen Boadicea, is ce-, 
lebrated in history. [Boadicea.] Their chief 
tow was Venta Icenorum (Caisiei-), about 3 
miles from Norwach. 

Ichnae {"ix^ai : 'IxmTos). 1. A town in 
Bottiaea in Macedonia, near the mouth of the 
Axius. — 2. A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, ce- 
lebrated for its worship of Themis, Avho was hence 
sumamed Iclinaea. 

Iclmae or Isclmae (^Ixvai., "laxvai), a Greek 
city in the N. of Mesopotamia, founded by the 
Macedonians, was the scene of the first battle be- 
tvreen Crassus and the Parthians, in which the 
former gained the victory. According to Appian, 
the Parthians soon after defeated the Romans near 
the same spot. 

Ichthyophagi ('Ix0uo(^a7ot, i. e. Fish-eaters)^ 
was a vague descriptive name given by the ancients 
to various peoples on the coasts of Asia and Africa, 
of whom they knew but little. Thus we find 
Ichthyophagi: 1. in the extreme S. E. of Asia, in 
the country of the Sinae : 2. on the coast of Ge- 
DROsiA : 3. on the N.E. coast of Arabia Felix: 4. 
in Africa, on the coast of the Red Sea, above 
Egypt: 5. on the W. coast of Africa. 

Icilius. 1. Sp.. v.-as one of the 3 envoys sent 
by the plebeians, after their secession to the Sacred 
Mount, to treat with the senate, B. c. 494. He 
was thrice elected tribune of the plebs, namely, in 
492, 481, and 471. — 2. L., a man of great energy 
and eloquence, was tribune of the plebs, 456, when 
he claimed for the tribunes the right of convoking 
the senate, and also carried the important law for 
the assignment of the Aventine {de A veritino publi- 
eando) to the plebs. In the following year (455), 



IDAS. 

he was again elected tribune. He was one of the 
chief leaders in the outbreak against the decem- 
virs, 449. Virginia had been betrothed to him, 
and he boldly defended her cause before App. 
Claudius ; and when at length she fell by her 
father's hand, Icilius hurried to the army which 
was carrying on the war against the Sabines, and 
prevailed upon them to desert the government. 

Iconium {^Ikovlov : 'Ikovi^vs : Konit/eh), the 
capital of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, was, when 
visited by St. Paul, a flourishing city, Avith a 
mixed population of Jews and Greeks : under the 
later emperors, a colony : and in the middle ages, 
one of the greatest cities of Asia Minor, and im- 
portant in the historj' of the crusades. 

Ictinus CIktIvos), a contemporary of Pericles, 
was the architect of two of the most celebrated 
of the Greek temples, namely, the great temple of 
Athene, in the acropolis of Athens, called the Par- 
thenon, and the temple of Apollo Epicurius, near 
Phigalia in Arcadia. Callicrates was associated 
with Ictinus in building the Parthenon. 

Ida ("IStj, Dor. •'15a). ]. (Ida, or Kas-Dagh), a 
moimtain range of Mysia, in Asia Minor, which 
fonned the S. boundary- of the Troad; extending from 
Lectum Pr. in the S. W. corner of the Troad, E.- 
wards along the N. side of the Gulf of Adramy ttiura, 
and further E. into the centre of Mysia, Its highest 
summits were Cotylus on the N. and Gargara on 
the S. : the latter is about 5000 feet high, and is 
often capped with snow. Lower down, the slopes 
of the mountain are well- wooded ; and lower still, 
they form fertile fields and valleys. The sources 
of the Scamander and the AesepuSj besides other 
rivers and numerous brooks, are on Ida. The 
mountain is celebrated in mythology, as the scene 
of the rape of Ganj-mede, whom Ovid (Fast. ii. 
145) calls Idaeus puer and of the judgment of 
Paris, who is called Idaeus Judex by Ovid (Fast. 
\i. 44), and Idaeus pastor by Cicero (ad Att. i. 
18). In Homer, too, its summit is the place 
from which the gods watch the battles in the plain 
of Troy. Ida was also an ancient seat of the 
worship of Cybele, who obtained from it the name 
of Idaea Mater. 2. (Psilorati), a mountain in the 
centre of Crete, belonging to the mountain range 
which runs through the whole length of the island. 
Mt. Ida is said to be 7674 feet above the level of 
the sea. It was closely connected with the wor- 
ship of Zeus, who is said to have been brought up 
in a cave in this mountain. 

Idaea Mater, [Ida.] 

Idaei Dactyii. [Dactyll] 

Idalium ('iSdAjoz/), a town in Cyprus, sacred 
to Venus, who hence bore the surname Idalia. 

Idas (*'l5as), son of Aphareus and Arene, the 
daughter of Oebalus, brother of Lv-nceus, husband 
of Marpessa, and father of Cleopatra or Alcyone. 
From the name of their father, Idas and Lynceus 
are called Apharetidae or Apharidae. Apollo was 
in love with Marpessa, the daughter of Evenus, 
but Idas carried her off in a winged chariot which 
Poseidon had given him, Evenus could not over- 
take Idas, but Apollo fo'.md him in Messene, and 
took the maiden from him. The lovers fought for 
her possession, but Zeus separated them, and left 
the decision with Marpessa, who chose Idas, from 
fear lest Apollo should desert her if she grew old. 
The Apharetidae also took part in the Calydonian 
hunt, and in the expedition of the Argonauts. But 
the most celebrated part of their story is their 



IDISTAVISUS. 



ILERACONES. 



339 



battle with the Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux, which 
is related elsewhere [p. 228, b.]. 

Idistavisus Campus, a plain in Germany near 
l!ie Weser, probably in the neighbourhood of the 
Porta Westphalica, between Rinteln and Haushen/e^ 
aaemorable for the victory of Germanicus over the 
Cherusci, A. D. 16. 

Idmon ("iS^ucov), son of Apollo and Asteria, or 
Cyrene, was a soothsayer, and accompanied the 
Ajgonauts, although he knew beforehand that 
death awaited him. He was killed in the country 
of the Mariandynians by a boar or a serpent ; or, 
according to others, he died there of a disease. 

Idomeneus ('iSo^eyeus). 1. Son of the Cretan 
.Deucalion, and grandson of Minos and Pasiphae, 
was king of Crete. He is sometimes called Lyctius 
or Cnossius, from the Cretan towns of Lyctus and 
Cnossus. He was one of the suitors of Helen; and 
in conjunction with Meriones, the son of his half- 
brother Molus, he led the Cretans in 80 ships 
against Troy. He was one of the bravest heroes in 
the Trojan war, and distinguished himself espe- 
cially in the battle near the ships. According to 
Homer, Idomeneus returned home in safety after 
the fall of Troy. Later traditions relate that once 
in a storm he vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon what- 
ever he should first meet on his landing, if the god 
would grant him a safe return. This was his own 
son, whom he accordingly sacrificed. As Crete 
was thereupon visited by a plague, the Cretans 
expelled Idomeneus. He went to Italy, where he 
settled in Calabria, and built a temple to Athena. 
From thence he is said to have migrated again to 
Colophon, on the coast of Asia, His tomb, how- 
ever, was shown at Cnosus, where he and Meriones 
were worshipped as heroes. — 2. Of Lampsacus, a 
friend and disciple of Epicurus, flourished about 
B. c. 310 — 270. He wrote several philosophical 
and historical works, all of which are lost. The 
latter were chiefly devoted to an account of the 
private life of the distinguished men of Greece. 

Idothea (EtSoflea), daughter of Proteus, taught 
Menelaus how he might secure her father, and 
compel him to declare in what manner he might 
reach home in safety. 

Idrieus or Hidrieus ('iSpteus, 'iSpi^vs), king of 
Caria, 2nd son of Hecatomnus, succeeded to the 
throne on the death of Artemisia, the widow of his 
brother Maussolus, in b. c. 3S1. He died in 344, 
leaving the kingdom to his sister Ada, whom he 
bad married. 

Idubeda (Sierra de Oca and Lorenzo), a range 
of mountains in Spain, begins among the Cantabri, 
forms the S. boundary of the plain of the Ebro, 
and runs S.E. to the Mediterranean. 

Idumaea {'iSovixaLa), is the Greek form of the 
scriptural name Edom, but the terms are not pre- 
cisely equivalent. In the 0. T., and in the time 
before the Babylonish captivity of the Jews, Edom 
is the district of Mt. Seir, that is, the mountainous 
region extending N. and S. from the Dead Sea to 
the E. head of the Red Sea, peopled by the de- 
scendants of Esau, and added by David to the 
Israelitish monarchy. The decline of the kingdom 
of Judaea, and at last its extinction by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, enabled the Edomites to extend their power 
to the N.W. over the S. part of Judaea as far as 
Hebron, while their original territory was taken 
possession of by the Nabathaean Arabs. Thus the 
Idumaea of the later Jewish, and of the Roman, 
history is the S. part of Judaea, and a small portion 



j of the N. of Arabia Petraea, extending N.W. and 
S. E. from the Mediterranean to the W. side of 
Mt. Seir. Under the Maccabees, the Idumaeans 
were again subjected to Judaea (b. c. 129), and 
I governed, under them, by prefects ((TrpaT7}yoi), 
who were very pro oably descended from the old 
princes of Edom; but the internal dissensions in 
the Asmonaean family led at last to the establish- 
ment of an Idumaean dynasty on the Jewish 
throne. [Antipater, Nos. 3, 4; Herodes.] The 
Roman writers of the Augustan age and later use 
Idumaea and Judaea as equivalent terms. Soon 
after the destruction of Jerusalem the name of 
Idumaea disappears from history, and is merged in 
that of Arabia. Both the old Edomites and the 
later Idumaeans were a commercial people, and 
carried on a great part of the traffic between the 
East and the shores of the Mediterranean. 

Idyia {'ldv7a), daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, 
and wife of the Colchian king Aeetes. 
lerne. [Hibernia.] 

letae ('lerai: 'Utivgs: Jato), a town in the 
interior of Sicily, on a mountain of the same name, 
S.W. of Macella. 

Igiliura ((r(g/fo), asmall island off the Etruscan 
coast, opposite Cosa. 

Ignatius {'ly VOLT los), one of the Apostolical 
Fathers, was a hearer of the Apostle John, and 
succeeded Evodius as bishop of Antioch in a.d. 69. 
He was condemned to death by Trajan at Antioch, 
and was taken to Rome, where he was thrown to 
the wild beasts in the amphitheatre. The date of 
his martyrdom is uncertain. Some place it in 107, 
but others as late as 11 6. On his way from Antioch 
to Rome, Ignatius -wrote several epistles in Greek 
to various churches. There are extant at present 
15 epistles ascribed to Ignatius, but of these only 
7 are considered to be genuine ; and even these 7 
are much interpolated. The ancient Syriac version 
of some of these epistles, which has been recently 
discovered, is free from many of the interpolations 
found in the present Greek text, and was evi- 
dently executed when the Greek text was in a 
state of greater purity than it is at present. The 
Greek text has been published in the Patres Apos- 
iolici by Cotelerius, Amsterd. 1 724, and by Jacob- 
son, Oxon. 1838 ; and the Syriac version, accompa- 
nied with the Greek text, by Cureton, Lond, 1849. 

Ignvium (Iguvlnus, Iguvinas, -atis : Guhhio or 
Eugubio), an important town in Umbria, on the 
S. slope of the Apennines. On a mountain in the 
neighliournood of this town was a celebrated temple 
of Jupiter, in the ruins of which were discovered, 4 
centuries ago, 7 brazen tables, covered with Urn- 
brian inscriptions, and which are still preserved at 
Gubbio. These tables, frequently called the Eu- 
guhiati Tables, contain more than 1000 Umbrian 
words, and are of great importance for a knowledge 
of the ancient languages of Italy. Thej" are ex- 
plained by Grotefend, ^Mofzmento Linguae Umbrieae, 
&c., Hannov. 1835, seq., and by Lepsius, iKsmjo- 
tion^s Umbricae et Oscae, Lips. 1841. 

Ilaira ('lAdejpa), daughter of Leucippus and 
Philodice, and sister of Phoebe. The 2 sisters are 
frequently mentioned by the poets imder the name 
of Leucippidae. Both were carried off by the 
Dioscuri, and Ilaira became the wife of Castor. 

Ileracones, Ilereaonenses, orlllurgavonenses, 
a people in Hispania Tarraconensis on the W. coast 
between the Iberus and M. Idubeda. Their chief 
tovm was Dertosa. 

z 2 



340 ILEUDA. 

Tlerda (Leriia), a town of the IlereGtes in j 
Hispania Tanaconensis, situated on a height above 
the river Sicoris (6V//re), which was here crossed 
bv a stone bridge. It was afterwards a Roman 
colony, but in the time of Ausonius had ceased to 
be a place of importance. It was here tliat Afra- 
iiius and Petreius, the legates of Pompey, were 
defeated by Caesar (b. c. 49). 

Ilergetes, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
between the Iberus and the Pyrenees. 

Ilia or Khea Silvia. [Romulus.] 

Ilici or mice (Elche), a town of the Contestani 
on the E. coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, on the 
road from Carthago Nova to Valentia, was a co- 
lonia immunis. The modern Elche lies at a greater 
distance from the coast than the ancient town. 

Ilienses, an ancient people in Sardinia. 

Iliona ('lAidi'Tj), daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
•wife of Polymnestor or Polymestor, king of the 
Thracian Chersonesus, to whom she bore a son 
Deipylus. At the beginning of the Trojan war 
her brother Polydorus was intrusted to her care, 
and she brought him up as her own son. For de- 
tails see Polydorus. Iliona was the name of one 
of the tragedies of Pacuvius. (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 61.) 

nioneus (^IKiouevs), a son of Niobe, whom 
Apollo would have liked to save, because he was 
praying ; but the arrow was no longer under the 
control of the god. [Niobe.] 

Ilipa (Pennajlor), a town in Hispania Baetica, 
on the right bank of the Baetis, which was navi- 
gable to this place with small vessels. 

Ilissus ('l\iaa6s, more rarely ElKiaaSs), a 
small river in Attica, rises on the N. slope of Mt. 
Hymettus, receives the brook Eridanus near the 
Lyceum outside the walls of Athens, then flows 
through the E. side of Athens, and loses itself in 
the marshes in the Athenian plain. The Ilissus 
is now usually dry, as its waters are drawn off to 
supply the city. 

Ilithyia (ElXe'idvLa), also called Elithyia, Ile- 
thyia, or Eleutho, the goddess of birth, who came 
to the assistance of women in labour. When she 
was kindly disposed, she furthered the birth ; but 
when she was angry, she protracted the labour. 
In the Iliad the Ilithyiae (in the plural) are called 
the daughters of Hera. But in the Odyssey and 
Hesiod, and in the later poets in general, there is 
only one goddess of this name. Ilithyia was the 
servant of Hera, and was employed by the latter 
to retard the birth of Hercules. [Hercules.] — 
The worship of Ilithyia appears to have been first 
established among the Dorians in Crete, where she 
was believed to have been born in a cave in the 
territory of Cnossus. From thence her worship 
spread over Delos and Attica, According to a 
Delian tradition Ilithyia was not born in Crete, 
but had come to Delos from the Hyperboreans, for 
the purpose of assisting Leto. In an ancient hymn 
attributed to Olen, which was sung in Delos, 
Ilithyia was called the mother of Eros (Love). It 
is probable that Ilithyia was originally a goddess 
of the moon, and hence became identified with 
Artemis or Diana. The moon Avas supposed to 
exercise great influence over growth in general, 
and consequently over that of children, 
nium. [Troas.] 

niiberis Clh\L§fpis). 1. (Tech), called Ticliis 
orTechum by tlie Romans, a river in Gallia Narbo- 
nensis in the territory of the Sardones, rises in the 
Pyrenees and falls, after a short course, into the 



ILLYRICUM. 

Mare Gallicum. — 2. {Ehie), a town of the Saa- 
tones, on the above-mentioned river, at the foot of 
the Pyrenees, was originally a place of importance, 
but afterwards sunk into insignificance. It was 
restored by Constantino, who changed its name 
into Helena, whence the modern Elne, 

Illiturgis or lUiturgi {Andiijar\ an important 
town of the Turduli in Hispania Tarraconensis, si- 
tuated on a steep rock near the Baetis, and on the 
road from Cordubato Castulo ; it was destroyed by 
Scipio B.C. 210, but was rebuilt, and received the 
name of Forum Julium. 

Illyricum or lUyris, more rarely Illyria (tJ> 
^IXAvpiKou, 'IWvpis, 'IWvpia), included, in its 
widest signification, all the land W, of Macedonia 
and E. of Italy and Rhaetia, extending S. as far 
as Epirus, and N. as far as the valleys of the Savus 
and I)ravus, and the junction of these rivers with 
the Danube. This wide extent of country was 
inhabited by numerous Illyrian tribes, all of whom 
were more or less barbarous. They were probably 
of the same origin as the Thracians, but some 
Celts Avere mingled with them. The country was 
divided into 2 parts : 1. Illyris Barbara or Ro- 
mana, the Roman province of Illyricum, extended 
along the Adriatic sea from Italy (Istria), from 
which it was separated by the Arsia, to the river 
Drilo, and was bounded on the E. by Macedonia 
and Moesia Superior, from which it was separated 
by the Drinus, and on the N. by Pannonia, from 
which it was separated by the Dravus. It thus 
comprehended a part of the modem Croatia, the 
whole of Balmatia, almost the whole of Bosnia^ 
and a part of Albania. It was divided in ancient 
times into 3 districts, according to the tribes by 
which it was inhabited : — lapydia, the interior 
of the country on the N., from the Arsia to the 
Tedanius [Iapydes] ; Libumia, along the coast 
from the Arsia to the Titius [Liburni] ; and 
Dalmatia, S. of Libumia, along the coast from the 
Titius to the Drilo. [Dalmatia.] The Libur- 
nians submitted at an early time to the Romans ; 
but it was not till after the conquest of the Dal- 
matians in the reign of Augustus, that the entire 
country was organised as a Roman province. From 
this time the Illyrians, and especially the Dalma- 
tians, formed an important part of the Roman 
legions. — 2. Illyris Graeca, or Illyria proper, 
also called Epirus Nova, extended from the Drilo, 
along the Adriatic, to the Ceraunian mountains, 
which separated it from Epiras proper: it was 
bounded on the E. by Macedonia. It thus em- 
braced the greater part of the modem Albania. It 
was a mountainous country, but possessed some 
fertile land on the coast. Its principal rivers were 
the Aous, Apsus, Genusus, and Panyasus. In 
the interior was an important lake, the Lychnitis. 
On the coast there Avere the Greek colonies of 
Epidamnus, afterwards DYRRHACHiUM,and Apol- 
LONiA.' It was at these places that the celebrated 
Via Egnatia commenced, which ran through Ma- 
cedonia to Byzantium. The country was inha- 
bited by various tribes, Atintanes, Taulantii, 
Parthini, Dassaretae, &c. In early times 
they were troublesome and dangerous neighbours 
to the Macedonian kings. They were subdued 
by Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, 
who defeated and slew in battle their king Bar- 
dylis, B. c. 359. After the death of Alexander 
the Great, most of the Illyrian tribes recovered their 
independence. At a later time the injury which 



ILUS. 



INDIA. 



341 



the Romnn trade suffered from their piracies hroucfht 
against them the arms of the republic. The forces 
of their queen Teuta were easily defeated by the 
Romans, and she was obliged to purchase peace by 
the surrender of part of her dominions and the 
payment of an annual tribute, 229. The 2nd 
lllyrian war was finished by the Romans with the 
same ease. It was commenced by Demetrius of 
Pharos, who was guardian of Pineus, the son of 
Agron, but he was conquered by the consul Aemi- 
lius Paul us, 219. Pineus was succeeded by Pleu- 
ratus, who cultivated friendly relations with the 
Romans. His son Gentius formed an alliance with 
Perseus, king of Macedonia, against Rome ; but 
he was conquered by the praetor L. Anicius, in the 
same year as Perseus, 168 ; whereupon lllyria, as 
well as Macedonia, became subject to Rome. — In 
the new division of the empire under Constantine, 
Illyricum formed one of the great provinces of the 
empire. It was divided into Illyricum Occiden- 
tale, which included Illyricum proper, Pannonia, 
and Noricum,and Illyricum Orientale, which com- 
prehended Dacia, Moesia, Macedonia, and Thrace. 

Ilus ("lAos). 1. Son of Dardanus by Batea, the 
daughter of Teucer. Ilus died without issue, and 
left his kingdom to his brother, Erichthonius. — 
2. Son of Tros and Callirhoe, grandson of Erich- 
thonius, and great-grandson of Dardanus ; Avhence 
he is called Dardanides. He was the father of Lao- 
medon and the grandfather of Priam. He was 
believed to be the founder of Ilion, which was also 
called Troy, after his father. Zeus gave him the 
palladium, a statue of 3 cubits high, with its feet 
close together, holding a spear in its right hand, 
and a distaff in its left, and promised that as long 
as it remained in Troy, the city should be safe. 
The tomb of Ilus was shown in the neighbourhood 
of Troy. — 3. Son of Mermerus, and grandson of 
Jason and Medea. He lived at Ephyra, between 
Elis and Olympia ; and when Ulysses came to him 
to fetch the poison for his arrows, Ilus refused it, 
from fear of the vengeance of the gods. 

II va. [Aethalia.] 

Ilvates, a people in Liguria, S. of the Po, in 
the modern Montferrat. 

Imachara (Imacharensis : Maccara), a town in 
Sicily, in the Heraean mountains. 

Imaus (rh "ijxaou opos), the name of a great 
mountain range of Asia, is one of those terms 
which the ancient geographers appear to have used 
indefinitely, for want of exact knowledge. In its 
most definite application, it appears to mean the 
W. part of the Himalaya, between the Paropamisus 
and the Emodi Montes ; but when it is applied to 
some great chain, extending much further to the 
N. and dividing Scythia into 2 parts, Scythia intra 
Imaum and Scythia extra Imaum, it must either be 
understood to mean the Moussour or Altai moim- 
tains, or else some imaginary range, which cannot 
be identified with any actually existing mountains. 

Imbrasus ("Ifj-Spacros), a river in the island of 
Samos, formerly called Parthenius, flowing into 
the sea not far from the city of Samos. The cele- 
brated temple of Hera {"Upaiov) stood near it, 
and it gave the epithet of Imbrasia both to Hera 
and to Artemis. 

Imbros ("I/igpo? : "IfxSpios : Emhro or Lnbrus), 
an island in the N. of the Aegean sea, near the 
Thiacian Chersonesus, about 18 miles S. E. of Sa- 
mothrace, and about 22 N. E. of Lemnos. It is 
about 25 miles in circumference, and is hilly, but 



contains many fertile valleys. Imbros, like the 
neighbouring island of Samothrace, was in ancient 
times one of the chief seats of the worship of the 
Cabiri and Hermes. There was a town of the 
same name on the E. of the island, of which there 
are still some ruins. 

InacMs ('Ii^axi's), a surname of lo, the daughter 
of Inachus. The goddess Isis is also called InacJiis, 
because she was identified with lo ; and some- 
times Inachis is used as synonymous with an Argive 
or Greek woman. — hiachides in the same way 
was used as a name of Epaphus, a grandson of 
Inachus, and also of Perseus, because he was boni 
at Argos, the city of Inachus. 

Inachus ^Ivaxos), son of Oceanus and Tethys, 
and father of Phoroneus and Aegialeus, to whom 
others add lo, Argos Panoptes, and Phegeus or Pe- 
geus. He was the first king and the most ancient 
hero of Argos, whence the country is frequently 
called the land of Inachus ; and he is said to have 
given his name to the river Inachus. The ancients 
made several attempts to explain the stories about 
Inachus: sometimes they looked upon him as a 
native of Argos, who, after the flood of Deucalion, 
led the Argives from the mountains into the plains ; 
and sometimes they regarded him as the leader of 
an Egyptian or Libyan colony, which settled on 
the banks of the Inachus. 

Inachus {"Ivaxos). 1. {Banitza)^ the chief river 
in Argolis, rises in the mountain Lyrceus on the 
borders of Arcadia, flows in a S.E.-ly direction, 
receives near Argos the Charadrus, and falls into 
the Sinus Argolicus S. of Argos. — 2. A river in 
Acarnania, which rises in Mt. Lacmon in the range 
of Pindus, and falls into the Achelous. 

Inarime. [Aenaria.] 

Inaros (^Ivdpws, occasionally "Ivapos), son of 
Psammitichus, a chief of some Libyan tiibes to the 
W. of Egypt, commenced hostilities against the 
Persians, which ended in a revolt of the whole of 
Egypt, B.C. 461. In 460 Inaros called in the 
Athenians, who, with a fleet of 200 galleys, were 
then off Cyprus : the ships sailed up to Memphis, 
and, occupying two parts of the town, besieged the 
third. In the same year Inaros defeated the Per- 
sians in a great battle, in which Achaemenes, the 
brother of the king Artaxerxes, was slain. But a 
new army, under a new commander, Megabyzus, 
was more successful. The Egyptians and their 
allies were defeated ; and Inaros was taken by 
treachery and crucified, 455. 

India {rj ""IvUa : 'Iv^os, Indus), was a name used 
by the Greeks and Romans, much as the modem 
term East Indies, to describe the whole of the S.E. 
part of Asia, to the E.,S. and S.E. of the great 
ranges of mountains now called the Soliman and 
Himalaya Mountains, including the 2 peninsulas 
of Hindustan, and of Durmah, Cochin-China, Siam^ 
and Malacca, and also the islands of the Indian 
Archipelago. There is ample evidence that com- 
mercial intercourse was carried on, from a very 
early time, between the W. coast of Hindustan 
and the W. parts of Asia, by the way of the 
Persian Gulf, the Euphrates, and across the Sjnrian 
Desert to Phoenicia, and also by way of the Red 
Sea and Idumaea, both to Egypt and to Phoenicia ; 
and so on from Phoenicia to Asia Minor and 
Europe. The direct acquaintance of the western 
nations with India dates from the reign of Darius, 
the son of Hystaspes, who added to the Persian 
empire a part of its N.W. regions, perhaps only as 

z 3 



342 INDIBILIS. INFERL 

frr as the Indus, certainlr not berond the limits of again revolted- The Roman generals whom Scipio 
the Punjab ; and the sUght knowledge of the ; had left in Spain forthwith marched against them ; 
countrv thus obtained by the Persians was con- j Indibilis was slain in battle, and Mandooins was 
Teved to the Greeks through the inquiries of tra»l taken soon afterwards and put to death. 
Tellers, especiallv Herodotus, and afterwards bvj Indicetae or ludigetes, a people in the X.E. 
those Greeks who resided f:.r some time in the comer of Hispania Tatraconensis, close upon the 
Persian empire, such as Ctksias, who wrote a Prreriees. Their chief town was Emporium. 
special work on India ClySifa). The expedition 'indicus Oceanns. [Ertthraki-m Mark.] 



of Alexander into India first brought the Greeks 
into actual contact with the countrv ; but the con- 
quests of Alexander only extended within Sonde, 
and theP«a job. as far as the river Htphasis, down 



Indlgetes, the came of those indigenous gods 
and heroes at Rome, who once lived on earth as 
mortals, and were worshipped after their death as 
ffods. such as Janus. Picns, Faunus, Aeneas, Evar 



which he sailed into the Indus, and down thei der. Hercules, Larinus, Romulus, and others. Thiii 



Indus to the sea. The Greek king of Svria, 



Aeneas, after his disappearance on the banks of the 



Seleucus Nicator, crossed the Hyphasis, and made- Nmnicus, became a deus Indiges, pater Indipe&, or 
war with the P*rasii, a people dwelling on thej Jupiter Indices; and in like manner Romulus be- 



banks of the upper Ganges, to whom he afterwards 
salt ambassadors, named Megasthenes and Daima- 
chus, who lived for several years at Palibothra, the 
capi^ of the Prasii, and had thus the opportunity 



came Quirimts, and Latinus JupUer Latiaris. The 

Indigetes are frequently mentioned together wita 
the Lares and Penates ; and many writers connect 
the Indigetes with those divinities to whom a share 



of obtainin? much information respecting the parts) in the foundation of the Larin and Roman state is 
of India about the Ganges. Megasthenes com-| ascribed, such as Mars, Venus, Vesta, &c 
posed a work on India, which appears to have! ladus or SiadTis (^IrSos : /advs, Simd), a great 
been the chief source of aU the accurate informa- river of India, rises in the table land of Thibet, N. 
tion contained in the works of later writers. Afteri of the Himalatja mountains, flows nearly parallel 
the death of Seleucus Xicator. b. c. 281, the direct to the steat bend of that chain on its N. side, till 



intercourse of the western nations with India, ex 
cent in the way of commerce, ceased almost en- 
tirely ; and whatever new information the late; 
writers obtained was often very erroneous. Mean- 
while, the fonndarlon of Alexandria had created ar 
extensive commerce between India and the "West 



it breaks through the chain a little E. of Attoti, 
in the N.W. comer of the Pumjab, and then flows 
S.W. through the great plain of the Pta^ab. int: 
the Erythraeum Mare {Indian Ocen), which it 
enters by several mouths, 2 according to the earlier 
Greek writers, 6 according to the IsUer. Its chie: 



by way of the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, andj tributaries are the Cophen {Cabal), which enters it 
Egypt, which made the Greeks better acqnaintedl from the N.W. at Attack, and the Acesines on the 
with the W. coast of the peninsula, and extended! K side. [Hyphasis.] lake the Nile, the Indus 
their knowledge farther into the eastern seas ; out, overflows its banks, but with a mnch less fertilising 
the information they thus obtained of the cDuntriegj result, as the country about its lower course is for 
beyond Cape Comarin was extremely vague and j the most part a sandy desert, and the deposit it 
scanty. Another channel of information, however, ! brings down is much less rich than that of the 
was opened, during this period, by the establish- jXile, The erroneous notions of the early Greeks 
ment of the Greek kingdom of Bactria, to whichr a 'respecting the connection between the S.E. parts 
considerabls part of X. India appears to have been of the continents cf Aftica and Asia, led to a con- 
snbject. The later geographers made two great ; fusion between the Indus and the Nile : but this 
divisions of India, which are separated by the land other mistakes were corrected by the voyage 
Ganges, and are called India intra Gangem, and of Alexanders fleet down the Hyphasis and' the 
India extra Gangem, the former including the Indus. The ancient name of India was derived 
peninsula of Hindustan, the latter the Burmese from the native name of the Indus {Sind). 
p enmsnK They were acquainted with the di- ! Indus (TySos : DdUom/cm-Chax), a considerable 
Tision of the people of Hindustan into castes, of jriver of Asia Minor, rising in the S.W. of Phrygia, 
which they enumerate 7. It is not necessary, for 'and flowing through the district of Cibyratis and 
the object of this work, to mention the other parri- l;he S. E. comer of Caria into the Mediterranean, 



cnlars which they relate concerning India and its 
people. 

LidibiHs and HCandonius, 2 brothers, and chiefs 
of the Sr-anish tribe of the Ilergetes, who played 
an important part in the war between the Romans 
and Carthaffbiiaiis in Spain during the '2nd Punic 
war. For some years they were faithful allies of 
the Carthaginians; but in consequence of the gene- 
rous treatment which the wife of Mandonins and 
the daughters of Indibilis received ftom P. Scipio, 
when they feU into his hands, the 2 brothers de- 
serted the Carthaainian cause, and joined Scipio in 
209 with all the forces cf their nation. But in 
206 the illness and reported death of Scipio gave 
th^ hopes of shaking off the yoke of Rome, and 
they excited a general revolt i>ot onlv amon^ their 
own subjects, but the neishbourin? Celtiberian 
tribes also. They were defeated by Scipio, and 
upon suing for forgiveness were p^doned. But 
-iHien Scqao left Spain in the next year (205), they 



(^posite to Rhodes. 

Indutiomarus, or Indncioixianis, one of the 
leadins chie& of the Treviri in GauL As he was 
opposed to the Romans, Caesar induced the leading 
men of the nation to side with Cingetorix, the son- 
in-law but rival of Indutiomarus, B, c 54. Indu- 
tiomarus in consequence took up arms against the 
Romans, but was defeated and slain by Labienus. 

Inessa. [Aetxa. No. 2.] 

Inferi, the gods of the Nether World, in contra- 
distinction from the Svperi, or the gods of heaven 
In Greek the Inferi are called o'i Karte, oi x&ovio^ 
01 vxo ywLas, oi evepde, or ol vrevepiBe beoi ; and 
the Superi. oi &yoe, vracroi and o^pdyiOi. But 
the word In feri is also frequently fO^ to desig- 
nate the dead, in contradistinction from those living 
tqoom the earth ; so that apud inferos is equivalent 
to " in Hades,'' or " in the lower world.'' The 
Inferi therefore comprise all the inhabitants of the 
lower world, the gods, viz. Hades or Pluto, his 



INFERUM. 



lOLAUS. 



■wife Persephone (Proserpina), the Erinnyes or 
Furies, and others, as well as the souls of departed 
men. The gods of the lower world are treated of 
in separate articles. 

Inferum Mare. [Etruria.] 

Ingaevones. [Germania, pp. 281, b., 282, a.] 

Ingauni, a people in Liguria on the coast, Avhose 
chief town was Aleium Ingaunum. 

Ingeniius, one of the Thirty Tyrants, was 
governor of Pannonia when Valerian set out upon 
Ms campaign against the Persians A. d, 258. He 
assumed the purple in his province, but was defeated 
and slain by Gallienus. 

Ino ('Ii'c^), daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, 
and wife of Athamas. For details see Athamas. 

Indus, a name both of Melicertes and of Pa- 
laemon, because they were the sons of Ino. 

Insubres, a Gallic people, Avho crossed the Alps 
and settled in Gallia Transpadana in the N. of 
Italy. Their chief town was Mediolanum. Next 
to the Boii, they were the most powerful and war- 
like of the Gallic tribes in Cisalpine Gaul. They 
were conquered by the Romans, shortly before the 
commencement of the 2nd Punic war. 

Intaphernes {'Ivracpeppr^s), one of the 7 con- 
spirators against the 2 Magi in Persia, B.C. 522. 
He was afterwards put to death by Darius. 

Intemelii, a people in Liguria on the coast, 
whose chief to^vn was Albium Intemelium. 

Interamna (Interamnas), the name of several 
towns in Italy, so called from their lying between 
2 streams. -—1. {Terni), an ancient municipium in 
Umbria, situated on the Nar, and surrounded by a 
canal flowing into this river, whence its inhabitants 
were called Interamnates Nartes. It was the birth- 
place of the historian Tacitus, as well as of the 
emperor of the same name. — 2. A town in Latium 
on the Via Latina, and at the junction of the 
Casinus with the Liris, Avhence its inhabitants 
are called Interamnates Lirinates. It was made a 
Roman colony, B. c. 312, but subsequently sunk 
into insignificance. 

Intercatia, an important town of the Vaccaei in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Asturica 
to Caesaraugusta. 

Intercisa or Petra Pertusa, a town in Umbria, 
so called because a road was here cut through the 
rocks by order of Vespasian. An ancient inscription 
on the spot still commemorates this work. 

Internum Mare, the Mediterranean Sea, ex- 
tended on the W. from the Straits of Hercules, 
which separated it from the Atlantic, to the coasts 
of Syria and Asia Minor on the E. In the N.E. 
it was usually supposed to terminate at the Helles- 
pont. From the Straits of Hercules to the farthest 
shores of Syria it is 2000 miles in length ; and, 
including the islands, it occupies an area of 734,000 
square miles. It was called by the Romans Mare 
Internum or Iniesiitium ; by the Greeks t] ecrw 
^dXarra or 7) ivrhs S^aAarra, or, more fully, t] 
ivrhs 'HpaKXei'wj/ cttjAwi' ^dKarra, and by He- 
rodotus ^'5€ 7j ^aAarra; and from its washing the 
coasts both of Greece and Italy, it was also called 
both by Greeks and Romans Our Sea (rj Tj/ierepa 
^dXaTTa, T] Kaff tj/aSs (^aAaTTo, Mare Nostrum). 
The term Mare Medilerraneum is not used by the 
best classical writers, and occurs first in Solinus. 
Most of the ancients believed that the Mediter- 
ranean received its waters from the Atlantic, and 
poured them through the Hellespont and the Pro- 
pontis into the Eiixine; but others, on the contrary, 



maintained that the waters came from the Euxine 
into the Mediterranean. The ebb and flow of the 
tide are perceptible in only a few parts of the 
Mediterranean, such as in the Syrtes on the coast 
of Africa, in the Adriatic, &c. The different parts 
of the Mediterranean are called by different names, 
which are spoken of in separate articles. See 
Mare Tyrrhenum or Inferum, Adria or M. 
Ai)RiiiTicuM or M. Superum, M. Siculum, M. 
Aegaeum, &C. 

Intonsus, the Unshorn, a surname of Apollo 
and Bacchus, in allusion to the eternal youth of 
these gods, since the Greek youths allowed their 
hair to grow until they attained manhood. 

Inm Castrum. [Castrum, No. 1.] 

Inycum {"Iwkov or -os : 'Iwkivos : Calda Bel- 
lota a small town in the S. of Sicily, not far 
from Selinus, on the river Hypsas. 

lo ('Iw), daughter of Inachus, the first king of 
Argos, or, according to others, of lasus or Piren. 
Zeus loved lo, but on account of Hera's jealousy, 
he metamorphosed her into a white heifer. The 
goddess, who was aware of the change, ob- 
tained the heifer from Zeus, and placed her under 
the care of Argus Panoptes ; but Zeus sent Hermes 
to slay Argus and deliver lo. [Argus.] Hera 
then tormented lo with a gad-fly, and drove her 
in a state of phrenzy from land to land over the 
whole earth, until at length she found rest on tlie 
banks of the Nile. Here she recovered her ori- 
ginal form, and bore a son to Zeus, called Epaphus. 
[Epaphus.] This is the common story, which 
appears to be very ancient, since Homer constantly 
gives the epithet of ArgipJi07ites (the slayer of 
Argus) to Hermes. The wanderings of lo were 
very celebrated in antiquity, and were extended 
and embellished with the increase of geographical 
knowledge. Of these there is a full account in the 
Prometheus of Aeschylus. The Bosporus is said 
to have derived its name from her swimming across 
it. According to some traditions lo married Teie- 
gonus, king of Egypt, and was afterwards identi- 
fied with Isis. — The legend of lo is difficult to 
explain. It appears that lo was identical with the 
moon ; which is probably signified by her being 
represented as a woman, Avith the horns of a heifer. 
Her connection with Egypt seems to be an invention 
of later times, and was probably suggested by the 
resemblance which was found to exist between the 
Argive lo and the Egyptian Isis. 

lobates, king of Lycia. [Bellerophon.] 

lol. [Caesarea, No. 4.] 

lolaenses. [Iolaus.] 

lOxaus ('iSXaos), son of Iphicles and Autome- 
dusa. Iphicles was the half-brother of Hercules, 
and Iolaus was the faithful companion and cha- 
rioteer of the hero. [Hercules.] He assisted 
Hercules in slaying the Lernaean Hydra. After 
Hercules had instituted the Olympic games, Iolaus 
won the victory with the horses of his master. 
Hercules sent him to Sardinia at the head of his 
sons whom he had by the daughters of Thespius. 
He introduced civilisation among the inhabitants of 
that island, and was worshipped by them. From 
Sardinia he v/ent to Sicily, and then returned to 
Hercules shortly before the death of the latter. 
After the death of the hero, Iolaus was the first 
who offered sacrifices to him as a demigod. Accord- 
ing to Pausanias, Iolaus died in Sardinia, whereas, 
according to others, he was buried in the tomb of 
his grandfather, Amphitryon. His descendants in 

z 4 



344 



lOLCUS. 



IONIA. 



Sardinia were called 'loAaets and lolaenses. [Sar- 
dinia.] lolaiis after his death obtained permission 
from the gods of the Nether World to come to the 
assistance of the children of Hercules. He slew 
Eurvsthcus, and then returned to the shades. 

lolcus ('IwA/cos, Ep. 'lawXtcds, Dor. 'IaA/c(5s : 
'IwA/cios), an ancient town in Magnesia in Thessaly 
at the top of the Pagasaean gulf, 7 stadia from the 
sea. It is said to have been founded by the 
mythical Cretheus, and to have been colonised by 
Minyans from Orchomenus. It was celebrated in 
mythology as the residence of Pelias and Jason, 
and as the place from which the Argonauts sailed 
in quest of the golden fleece. At a later time it 
fell into decay, and its inhabitants were removed 
to the neighbouring Xovm. of Deraetrias, which was 
founded by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 

lole ('Io'At}), daughter of Eurytus of Oechalia, 
was beloved by Hercules. For details see p. 310. 
After the death of Hercules, she married his son 
Hyllus. 

lollas or lolaus (\6\\as or 'loAaos). 1. Son of 

Antipator, and brother of Cassander, king of Ma- 
cedonia, He was cup-bearer to Alexander at the 
period of his last illness. Those writers who adopt 
the idea of the king having been poisoned, repre- 
sent lollas as the person who actually administered 
the fatal draught. — 2. Of Bithj-nia, a writer on 
materia medica, flourished in the 3rd century b. c. 

Ion {"liav). 1. The fabulous ancestor of the 
lonians, is described as the son of Apollo hj Creusa, 
the daughter of Erectheus and wife of Xuthus. 
The most celebrated story about Ion is the one 
Avhich forms the subject of the Ion of Euripides. 
Apollo had visited Creusa in a cave below the 
Propylaea, at Athens ; and Avhen she gave birth to 
a son, she exposed him in the same cave. The 
god, however, had the child conveyed to Delphi, 
where he was educated by a priestess. Some time 
afterwards Xuthus and Creusa came to consult the 
oracle about the means of obtaining an heir. They 
received for answer that the first human being 
which Xuthus met on leaving the temple should be 
his son. Xuthus met Ion, and acknowledged him 
as his son ; but Creusa, imagining him to be a son 
of her husband by a former mistress, caused a cup 
to be presented to the youth, which was filled with 
the poisonous blood of a dragon. However, her 
object was discovered, for as Ion, before drinking, 
poured out a libation to the gods, a pigeon which 
drank of it died on the spot, Creusa thereupon 
fled to the altar of the god. Ion dragged her 
away, and was on the point of killing her, when a 
priestess interfered, explained the mystery, and 
showed that Ion was the son of Creusa, Mother 
and son thus became reconciled, but Xuthus was 
not let into the secret. — Among the inhabitants of 
the Aegialus, i. e. the N, coast of Peloponnesus, who 
were lonians, there was another tradition current. 
Xuthus, when expelled from Thessaly, came to the 
Aegialus, After his death Ion Avas on the point 
of marching against the Aegialeans, when their 
king Selinus gave him his daughter Helice in mar- 
riage. On the death of Selinus, Ion succeeded to 
the throne, and thus the Aegialeans received the 
name of lonians, and the town of Helice was built 
in honour of Ion's wife. — Other traditions repre- 
sent Ion as king of Athens between the reigns of 
Erechtheus and Cecrops ; for it is said that his 
assistance was called in by the Athenians in their 
war with the Eleusinians, that he conquered Eu- 



molpus, and then became king of Athens. He 
there became the father of 4 sons, Geleon, Aegicores, 
Argades, and Hoples, whose names were given to 
the 4 Athenian classes. After his death he was 
buried at Potannis. —2. Of Chios, son of Ortho- 
menes, was a celebrated tragic poet. He went 
to Athens when young, and there enjoyed the 
society of Aeschylus and Cimon. The number of 
his tragedies is variously stated at 12, 30, and 40, 
We have the titles and a few fragments of 1 ] . 
Ion also wrote other kinds of poetry, and prose 
works both in history and philosophy. — 3. Of 
Ephesus, a rhapsodist in the time of Socrates, 
from whom one of Plato's dialogues is named. 

loaia ('Iwi'i'a : "loives) and I5iiis (Rom, poet,), 
a district on the W. coast of Asia Minor, so called 
from the Ionian Greeks who colonized it at a time 
earlier than any distinct historical records. The 
mythical account of " the great Ionic migration " 
relates that in consequence of the disputes between 
the sons of Codrus, king of Athens, about the 
succession to his government, his jounger sons, 
Neleus and Androclus, resolved to seek a new 
home beyond the Aegean Sea. Attica was at the 
time overpeopled by numerous exiles, whom the 
great revolution, known as "the return of the 
Heraclidae," had driven out of their own states, 
the chief of whom were the lonians who had 
been expelled from Peloponnesus by the Dorian 
invaders. A large portion of this superfluous po- 
pulation went forth as Athenian colonists, under 
the leadership of Androclus and Neleus, and of 
other chieftains of other races, and settled on that 
part of the W, shores of Asia Minor which formed 
the coast of Lydia and part of Caria, and also in 
the adjacent islands of Chios and Samos, and in 
the Cyclades, The mythical chronology places 
this great movement 140 years after the Trojan 
war, or 60 years after the return of the Heraclidae, 
that is in B.C. 1060 or 1044, according to the 
2 chief dates imagined for the Trojan war. Pass- 
ing from mythology to history, the earliest au- 
thentic records show us the existence of 12 great 
cities on the above-named coast, claiming to be 
(though some of them only partially) of Ionic 
origin, and all imited into one confederacy, similar 
to that of the 1 2 ancient Ionian cities on the N. 
coast of the Peloponnesus, The district they pos- 
sessed formed a narrow strip of coast, extending 
between, and somewhat beyond, the mouths of the 
rivers Maeander, on the S., and Hermus, on the N. 
The names of the 12 cities, going from S, to N,, 
were Miletus, Myus, Priene, Samos (city and 
island), Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos, 
Erythrae, Chios (city and island), Clazo- 
menae, and Phocaea ; the first 3 on the coast 
of Caria, the rest on that of Lydia : the city of 
Smyrna, which lay within this district, but was of 
Aeolic origin, was afterwards (about B. c, 700) 
added to the Ionian confederacy. The common 
sanctuary of the league was the Panionium {irav- 
luiVLOu), a sanctuary of Poseidon Heliconius, on 
the N. side of the promontory of Mycale, opposite 
to Samos ; and here was held the great na- 
tional assembly (irayfiyvpLs) of the confederacy, 
called Panionia {iraviovia : see Did. of Antiq. s. v.). 
It is yerj important to observe that the inhabitants 
of these cities were very far from being exclusively 
and purely of Ionian descent. The traditions of 
the original colonization and the accounts of the 
historians agree in representing them as peopled 



IONIA. 



IPHICLES. 



345 



by a great mixture, not only of Hellenic races, but 
also of these with the earlier inhabitants, such as 
Carians, Leleges, Lydians, Cretans, and Pelas- 
gians ; their dialects, Herodotus expressly tells us, 
were very different, and nearly all of them were 
founded on the sites of pre-existing native settle- 
ments. The religious rites, also, which the Greeks 
of Ionia observed, in addition to their national 
worship of Poseidon, were borrowed in part from 
the native peoples ; such were the worship of Apollo 
Didymaeus at Branchidae near Miletus, of Arte- 
mis at Ephesus, and of Apollo Clarius at Colophon. 
All these facts point to the conclusion, that the 
Greek colonization of this coast was effected, not 
by one, but by successive emigrations from dif- 
ferent states, but chiefly of the Ionic race. The 
central position of this district, its excellent har- 
bours, and the fertility of its plains, Avatered by 
the Maeander, the Cayster, and the Hermus, com- 
bined with the energetic character of the Ionian 
race to confer a high degree of prosperity upon 
these cities ; and it was not long before they began 
to send forth colonies to many places on the shores 
of the Mediterranean and the Euxiue, and even to 
Greece itself. During the rise of the Lydian 
empire, the cities of Ionia preserved their inde- 
pendence until the reign of Croesus, who subdued 
those on the mainland, but relinquished his design 
of attacking the islands. When Cyrus had over- 
thrown Croesus, he sent his general Harpagus to 
complete the conquest of the Ionic Greeks, B. c. 
545. Under the Persian rule, they retained their 
political organization, subject to the government of 
the Persian satraps, and of tyrants who were set 
up in single cities, but they were required to 
render tribute and military service to the king. 
In B. c. 500 they revolted from Darius Hystaspis, 
under the leadership of Histiaeus, the former 
tyrant of Miletus, and his brother-in-law Arista- 
GORAS, and supported by aid from the Athenians. 
The Ionian army advanced as far as Sardis, which 
they took and burnt, but they were driven back 
to the coast, and defeated near Ephesus b. c. 499. 
The reconquest of Ionia by the Persians was com- 
pleted by the taking of Miletus, in 496, and the 
lonians were compelled to furnish ships, and to 
serve as soldiers, in the 2 expeditions against 
Greece. After the defeat of Xerxes, the Greeks 
carried the war to the coasts of Asia, and 
effected the liberation of Ionia by the victories 
of Mycale (479), and of the Eurymedon (469). 
In 387 the peace of Antalcidas restored Ionia 
to Persia ; and after the Macedonian conquest, 
it formed part, successively, of the kingdom of 
Pergamus, and of the Roman province of Asia. 
For the history of the several cities, see the re- 
spective articles. In no country inhabited by the 
Hellenic race, except at Athens, were the refine- 
ments of civilisation, the arts, and literature, more 
highly cultivated than in Ionia. The restless 
energy and free spirit of the Ionic race, the riches 
gained by commerce, and the neighbourhood of 
the great seats of Asiatic civilisation, combined to 
advance with rapidity the intellectual progress and 
the social development of its people ; but these 
same influences, unchecked by the rigid discipline 
of the Doric race, or the simple earnestness of the 
Aeolic, imbued their social life with luxury and 
licence, and invested their works of genius with 
the hues of enchanting beauty at the expense 
of severe good taste and earne.st purpose. Out of 



the long list of the authors and artists of Ionia, we 
may mention Mimnermus of Colophon, the first 
poet of the amatory elegy ; Anacreon of Teos, who 
sang of love and wine to the music of the lyre ; 
Thales of Miletus, Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, and 
several other early philosophers ; the early annalists, 
Cadmus, Dionysius, and Hecataeus, all of Miletus ; 
and, in the fine arts, besides being the home of 
that exquisitely beautiful order of architecture, the 
Ionic, and possessing many of the most magnificent 
temples in the world, Ionia was the native country 
of that refined school of painting, which boasted 
the names_ of Zeuxis, Apelles, and Parrhasius. The 
most flourishing period in the history of Ionia is 
that during which it was subject to Persia ; but its 
prosperity lasted till the decline of the Roman 
empire, under which its cities were among the 
chief resorts of the celebrated teachers of rh°etoric 
and philosophy. The important place which some 
of the chief cities of Ionia occupy in the early his- 
tory of Christianity, is attested by the Ads of the 
Apostles, and the epistles of St. Paul to the 
Ephesians, and of St. John to the 7 churches of 
Asia. 

Ionium Mare {'lovios ttSutos, 'loviov ireXayos, 
'loy'iT] ^aAarra, 'loyios irSpos), a part of the Medi- 
terranean Sea between Italy and Greece, was S. of 
the Adriatic, and began on the W. at Hydruntum 
in Calabria, and on the E. at Oricus in Epirus, or 
at the Ceraunian mountains. In more ancient times 
the Adriatic was called 'Ic^v/os ixvxhs or "lovios k6k- 
iros; while at a later time the Ionium Mare itself 
was included in the Adriatic. In its widest signi- 
fication the Ionium Mare included the Mare Sicu- 
lum, Creticiim and Icarium. Its name was usually 
derived by the ancients from the wanderings of lo, 
but it was more probably so called from the Ionian 
colonies, which settled in Cephallenia and the 
other islands off the W. coasts of Greece. 

lophon ('lo(pcov), son of Sophocles, by Nico- 
strate, was a distinguished tragic poet. He brought 
out tragedies during the life of his father, and was 
still flourishing in B. c. 405, the year in which 
Aristophanes brought out the Frogs. For the 
celebrated story of his undutiful charge against his 
father, see Sophocles. 

Iphias ('I(/)£as), i. e. Evadne, a daughter of 
Iphis, and wife of Capaneus. 

Iphicles or Iphiclus {'IcpiKAris, "IcpiKXos or 
*l(pLK\evs). 1. Son of Amphitryon and Alcmene 
of Thebes, was one night younger than his half- 
brother Hercules. He was first married to Auto- 
medusa, the daughter of Alcathous, by whom he 
became the father of lolaus, and afterwards to the 
youngest daughter of Creon. He accompanied 
Hercules on several of his expeditions, and also 
took part in the Calydonian hunt. He fell in battle 
against the sons of Hippocoon, or, according to 
another account, was wounded in the battle against 
the Molionidae, and was carried to Pheneus, where 
he died. --2. Son of Thestius by Laophonte or 
De'idamia or Eury^emis or Leucippe. He took 
part in the Calydonian hunt and the expedition 
of the Argonauts. — 3. Son of Phylacus, and 
grandson of Deion and Clymene, or son of Cephalus 
and Clymene, the daughter of Minyas. He was 
married to Diomedia or Astyoche, and was the 
father of Podarces and Protesilaus. He was also 
one of the Argonauts ; and he possessed large herds 
of oxen, which he gave to the seer Melampus. He 
was also celebrated for his swiftness in running. 



31G IPHICRATES. 

Iplucrates {'IcpiKparris), the famous Athenian 
general, was the son of a shoemaker. He distin- 
guished himself at an early age by his gallantry in 
battle ; and in B. c. 394, when he was only 25 
years of age, he was appointed by the Athenians 
to the command of the forces which they sent to 
the aid of the Boeotians after the battle of Coronea. 
In 393 he commanded the Athenian forces at 
Corinth, and at the same time introduced an 
important improvement in military tactics — the 
formation of a body of targeteers (TreATacrTat) pos- 
sessing, to a certain extent, the advantages of 
heav^k" and light-armed forces. This he effected 
by substituting a small target for the heavy shield, 
adopting a longer sword and spear, and replacing 
the old coat of mail by a linen corslet. At the 
head of his targeteers he defeated and nearly de- 
stroyed a Spartan ^Mora in the following year (392), 
an exploit which became very celebrated throughout 
Greece. In the same year he was succeeded in the 
command at Corinth by Chabrias. In 389 he was 
sent to the Hellespont to oppose Anaxibius, who 
was defeated by him and slain in the following year. 
On the peace of Antalcidas, in 387, Iphicrates 
went to Thrace to assist Seuthes, king of the 
Odrysae, but he soon afterwards formed an alliance 
with Cotys, who gave him his daughter in mar- 
riage. In 377 Iphicrates was sent by the Athenians, 
with the command of a mercenary force, to assist 
Phamabazus, in reducing Egypt to subjection ; but 
the expedition failed through a misunderstanding 
between Iphicrates and Phamabazus. In 373 | 
Iphicrates was sent to Corcyra, in conjunction with 
Callistratus and Chabrias, in the command of an i 
Athenian force, and he remained in the Ionian sea ; 
till the peace of 371 put an end to hostilities. | 
About 367, he was sent against Amphipolis, and ' 
after carrying on the war against this place for 3 ■ 
years, was superseded by Timotheus. Shortly ' 
afterwards, he assisted his father-in-law Cotys, in 
his war against Athens for the possession of the 
Thracian Chersonesus. But his conduct in this 
matter was passed over by the Athenians. After 
the death of Chabrias (357) Iphicrates, Timotheus, 
and Menestheus vrere joined with Chares as com- 
manders in the Social War, and v.-ere prosecuted 
by their imscmpulous colleague, because they had 
refused to risk an engagement in a storm. Iphi- 
crates was acquitted. From the period of his trial 
he seems to have lived quietly at Athens. He 
died before 348. Iphicrates has been commended 
for his combined prudence and energy as a general. 
The worst words, he said, that a commander could 
utter were, " I should not have expected it." His 
services were highly valued by the Athenians, and 
were rewarded by them with almost unprecedented 
honours. 

Iphigenia CIcpiyeveLo), according to the most 
common tradition, a daughter of Agamemnon and 
Clytaemnestra, but according to others, a daughter 
of Theseus and Helena, and brought up by Cly- 
taemnestra as a foster-child, Agamemnon had 
once killed a stag in the grove of Artemis ; or he 
had boasted that the goddess herself could not hit 
better ; or he had vowed in the year in which 
Iphigenia was bom to sacrifice the most beautifal 
production of that year, but had afterwards neg- 
lected to fulfil his vow. One of these circumstances 
is said to have been the cause of the calm which 
detained the Greek fleet in Axilis, when the Greeks 
wanted to sail against Troy. The seer Calchas 



IPHIS. 

declared that the sacrifice of Iphigenia was the 
only means of propitiating Artemis. Agamemnon 
was obliged to yield, and Iphigenia was brought 
to Chalcis under the pretext of being married to 
Achilles. When Iphigenia was on the point of 
being sacrificed, Artemis carried her in a cloud to 
Tauris, where she became the priestess of the god- 
dess, and a stag was substituted for her by Artemis. 
While Iphigenia was serving Artemis as prie&tess 
in Tauris, her brother Orestes and his friend 
Pylades came to Tauris to carry otf the image 
of the goddess at this place, which was believed to 
have faWen from heaven. As strangers they were 
to be sacrificed in the temple of Artemis ; but 
Iphigenia recognised her brother, and fled with 
him and the statue of the goddess. In the mean- 
time Electra, another sister of Orestes, had heard 
that he had been sacrificed in Tauris by the 
priestess of Artemis. At Delphi she met Iphi- 
genia, v.-hom she supposed had murdered Orestes. 
She therefore resolved to deprive Iphigenia or her 
sight, but was prevented by the interference of 
Orestes ; and a scene of recognition took place. 
All now returned to Mycenae ; but Iphigenia 
carried the statue of Artemis to the Attic town of 
Brauron near Marathon. She there died as 
priestess of the goddess. — As a daughter of Theseus 
Iphigenia was connected with the heroic families 
of Attica, and after her death the veils and most 
costly garments which had been worn by women who 
had died in childbirth were dedicated to her. Ac- 
cording to some traditions Iphigenia never died but 
was changed by Artemis into Hecate, or was en- 
dowed by the goddess with immortality and eternal 
youth, and under the name of Orilochia became 
the wife of Achilles in the island of Leuce. — The 
Lacedaemonians maintained that the image of Ar- 
temis, which Iphigenia and Orestes had carried 
away from Tauris, was preserved in Sparta and not 
in Attica, and was worshipped in the former place 
under the name of Artemis Orthia. Both in Attica 
and in Sparta human sacrifices were oflfered to 
Iphigenia in early times. In place of these humar 
sacrifices the Spartan youths were afterwards 
scourged at the festival of Artemis Orthia. It ap- 
pears probable that Iphigenia was originally the 
same as Artemis herself. 

Iphimedia or Iphimede ('I^tueSem, 'IcpiueSj]), 
daughter of Triops, and wife of Aloeus. Being in 
love with Poseidon, she often walked on the sea- 
shore, and collected its waters in her lap. whence she 
became, by Poseidon, the mother of the Aloidae, 
Otus and Ephialtes, While Iphimedia and her 
daughter, Pancratis, were celebrating the orgies of 
Dionysus on Mount Drius, they were carried off by 
Thracian pirates to Naxos or Strongyie ; but they 
were delivered by the Aloidae. 

Iphis Clcpis). 1. Son of Alector, and father of 
Eteoclus and Evadne, the wife of Capaneus, was 
king of Argos, He advised Polynices to give the 
celebrated necklace of Harmonia to Eriphyle, that 
she might persuade her husband Amphiaraus to 
take part in the expedition against Thebes. He 
lost his two children, and therefore left his kingdom 
to Sthenelus, son of Capaneus. — 2. Son of Sthe- 
nelus, and brother of Eurystheus, was one of the 
Argonauts who fell m the battle with Aeetes. — 3. 
A youth in love -nith Anaxarete. [Axaxarete.] 
— 4. Daughter of Ligdus and Telethusa, of Phaes- 
tus in Crete. She was brought up as a boy, on the 
advice of Isis, because her father, previous to her 



IPHITUS. 



ISANDER. 



347 



birth, had ordered the child to be killed, if it should 
be a girl. When Iphis had grown up, and was 
to be betrothed to lanthe, she was metamorphosed 
by Isis into a youth. 

Iphltus (^Ic^iTos). 1. Son of Eurytus of Oechalia, 
one of the Argonauts, Avas afterwards killed by 
Hercules. (For details, see p. 310, a.) — 2. Son 
of Naubolus, and father of Schedius, Epistrophus, 
and Eurynome, in Phocis, likewise one of the 
Argonauts. — 3, Son of Haemon, or Praxonides, 
or Iphitus, king of Elis, restored the Olympic 
games, and instituted the cessation of all war 
during their celebration, B. c. 884. 

Ipsus ("l^l/os), a small town in Great Phrygia. 
celebrated in history as the scene of the decisive 
baittle which closed the great contest between the 
generals of Alexander for the succession to his 
empire, and in which Antigonus was defeated and 
slain, B.C. 301. [Antigonus.] The site is un- 
known, but it appears to have been about the centre 
of Phrygia, not far from Synnada. 

Ira (Efpa, 'Ipa), a mountain fortress in Messenia, 
memorable as the place where Aristomenes defended 
himself for 11 years against the Spartans. Its 
capture by the Spartans in B. c. 668 put an end to 
the 2nd Messenian war. It is doubtful whether it 
is the same as Ira (11. ix, 150), one of the 7 cities, 
which Agamemnon promised to Achilles. 

Irenaeus (EtpTjmros), one of the early Christian 
fathers, was probably bom at Smyrna between 
A.J). 120 and 140. In his early youth he heard 
Polycarp. He afterwards Avent to Gaul, and in 
177 succeeded Pothinus as bishop of Lyon. He 
made many converts from heathenism, and was 
most active in opposing the Gnostics, especially the 
Valentinians. He seems to have lived till about 
the end of the 2nd century. The only work of 
Irenaeus now extant, Adversus Haereses, is in- 
tended to refute the Gnostics. The original Greek 
is lost, with the exception of a few fragments, but 
the work exists in a barbarous, but ancient Latin 
version. Edited by Grabe, Oxon. 1702. 

Irene {Elp-fivn), called Pax by the Romans, 
the goddess of peace, was, according to Hesiod, a 
daughter of Zeus and Themis, and one of the 
Horae. [Horae.] After the victory of Timotheus 
over the Lacedaemonians, altars were erected to her 
at Athens at the public expense. Her statue at 
Athens stood by the side of that of Amphiaraus, 
carrying in its arms Plutus, the god of wealth, 
and another stood near that of Hestia in the Pry- 
taneum. At Rome, where peace was also wor- 
shipped as a goddess, she had a magnificent temple, 
which was built by the emperor Vespasian. Pax is 
represented on coins as a youthful female, holding 
in her left arm a cornucopia, and in her right hand 
an olive branch or the staff of Mercury. Sometimes 
she appears in the act of burning a pile of arms, or 
carrying corn-ears in her hand or upon her head. 

Iris C^pis), daughter of Thaumas (whence she 
is called Thaumantias) and of Electra, and sister 
of the Harpies. In the Iliad she appears as 
the messenger of the gods, especially of Zeus and 
Hera. In the Odyssey, Hermes is the messenger 
of the gods, and Iris is never mentioned. Iris 
appears to have been originally the personification 
of the rainbow, for this brilliant phenomenon in 
the skies, v/hich vanishes as quickly as it appears, 
was regarded as the swift messenger of the gods. 
Some poets describe Iris as the rainbow itself, but 
other writers represent the rainbow as only the 



road on which Iris travels, and Avhich therefore 
appears whenever the goddess wants it, and va- 
nishes when it is no longer needed. In the earlier 
poets, Iris appears as a virgin goddess ; but in the 
later, she is the wife of Zephyrus, and the mother 
of Eros. Iris is represented in works of art dressed 
in a long and wide tunic, over which hangs a 
light upper garment, with wings attached to her 
shoulders, carrying the herald's staff in her left 
hand, and sometimes also holding a pitcher. 

Iris {"Ipis : Yeshil-Irmak), a considerable river 
of Asia Minor, rises on the N. side of the N.most 
range of the Anti-Taurus, in the S. of Pontus, and 
flows first W. past Comana Pontica, then N. to 
Amasia, where it turns to the E. to Eupatoria 
(Megalopolis), Avhere it receives the Lycus, and 
then flows N. through the territory of Themiscyra 
into the Sinus Amisenus. Xenophon states its 
breadth at 3 plethra. 

Irus C^pos). 1. Son of Actor, and father of 
Eurydamus and Eurytion. He purified Peleus, 
when the latter had murdered his brother ; but 
during the chase of the Calydonian boar, Peleus 
unintentionally killed Eurytion, the son of Irus. 
Peleus endeavoured to soothe him by offering him 
his flocks ; but Irus would not accept them, and at 
the command of an oracle, Peleus allowed them to 
run wherever they pleased. A wolf devoured the 
sheep, but was thereupon changed into a stone, 
which was shown, in later times, on the frontier 
between Locris and Phocis. — 2. The well-known 
beggar of Ithaca. His real name was Arnaeus, 
but he was called Irus because he was the mes- 
senger of the suitors of Penelope. He was slain 
by Ulysses. 

Is (*Is : Hit), a city in the S. of Mesopotamia, 
8 days' journey from Babylon, on the W. bank of 
the Euphrates, and upon a little river of the same 
name. In its neighbourhood were the springs of 
asphaltus, from which was obtained the bitumen 
that was used, instead of mortar, in the walls of 
Babylon. 

Isaeus (l(ra7os). 1. One of the 1 Attic orators, 
was bom at Chalcis, and came to Athens at an 
early age. He was instructed in oratory by Lysias 
and Isocrates. He was afterwards engaged in 
writing judicial orations for others, and established 
a rhetorical school at Athens, in which Demosthenes 
is said to have been his pupil. It is further said that 
Isaeus composed for Demosthenes the speeches 
against his guardians, or at least assisted him in 
the composition. We have no particulars of his 
life. He lived between b. c. 420 and 348. Isaeus 
is said to have written 64 orations, but of these 
only 11 are extant. They all relate to questions 
of inheritance, and afford considerable informa- 
tion respecting this branch of the Attic law. The 
style of Isaeus is clear and concise, and at the 
same time vigorous and powerful. His orations 
are contained in the collections of the Greek 
orators. [Demosthenes.] There is a good se- 
parate edition by Schomann, Greifswald, 1831. 
■=—2. A sophist and rhetorician, a native of Assyria, 
taught at Rome in the time of the younger Pliny. 

Isagoras (laayopas), the leader of the oli- 
garchical party at Athens, in opposition to Clis- 
thenes, B.C. 510. He was expelled from Athens 
by the popular party, althougli supported by Cleo- 
mene^ and the Spartans. 

Isaader ("Itravdpos), son of Bellerophon, killed 
i by Ares in. the fight vnth. the SolyraL 



348 



I SARA. 



ISM EN US. 



Isara {here), a river in Gallia Narbonensis, de- 
scends from the Graian Alps, flows W. with a rapid 
stream, and flows into the Rhone N. of Valentia. 
At its junction with the Rhone Fabiiis Aemilianus 
defeated the Allobroges and Arverni, B.C. 121. 

Isauria (tJ 'laavp'ia, 77 ^la-avpiK-f}), a district of 
Asia Minor, on the N. side of the Taurus, between 
Pisidia and Cilicia, of which the ancients knew 
little beyond the troublesome fact, that its inha- 
bitants, the Isauri {"laavpoi) were daring robbers, 
whose incursions into the sun-ounding districts re- 
ceived only a temporary check from the victor}' 
over them, which gained for L. Servilius the sur- 
name of Isauricus (b. c. 75). Their chief city was 
called Isaura. 

Isca. 1. {Axminster or Bridport or Exeter), the 
capital of the Damnonii or Dumnonii in the S.W. 
of Britain. — 2. {Caer Leon, at the mouth of the 
Usk), a town of the Silures in Britain, and the head 
quarters of the Legio II. There are many Roman 
remains at Caer Leon. The word Leon is a cor- 
ruption of Legio : Caer is the old Celtic name. 

Ischys. [Aesculapius.] 

Isidorus ('Icr/Sa'por). 1. Of Aegae, a Greek 
poet of uncertain age, 5 of whose epigrams are 
contained in the Greek Anthology.— 2. Of Charax, 
a geographical writer, who probably lived under 
the early Roman emperors. His work, 'S.raOixol 
riapdiKOL, is printed in the edition of the minor 
geographers, by Hudson, Oxon. 1703. — 3. Of 
Gaza, a Neo-Platonic philosopher, the friend of 
Proclus and Marinus, whom he succeeded as chief 
of the school. — 4. Of Pelusium, a Christian exe- 
getical writer, a native of Alexandria, who spent 
his life in a monastery near Pelusium, of which he 
was the abbot. He died about a. d. 450. As 
many as 2013 of his letters are extant. They are 
almost all expositions of Scripture. Published at 
Paris, 1638. — 5. Bishop of Hispalis (Seville) in 
Spain, from a. d. 600 to 636, one of the most 
learned men of his age, and an ardent cultivator of 
ancient literature. A great number of his works 
is still extant, but by far the most important of 
them is his Origiiiiim s. Etymologiarum Libri XX. 
This work is an Encyclopaedia of Arts and Sciences, 
and treats of all subjects in literature, science, and 
religion, which were studied at that time. It was 
much used in the middle ages. Published in the 
Corpus Grammaticorum Veierum, Lindemann, Lips. 
1833. A complete collection of the works of 
Isidorus was published by Arevali, Rom., 1797 — 
1803, 7 vols. 4to. — 6. Of Miletus, the elder and 
younger, were eminent architects in the reign of 
Justinian. 

Isigonus ('Icrt7oj'os), a Greek writer, of un- 
certain date, but who lived before the time of 
Pliny, wrote a work entitled "K-Kiara, a few frag- 
ments of which are extant. Published in "Wester- 
mann's Paradoxographi, Brimswick, 1839. 

Isionda ('I(ridv5a : ^Icriov^evs, Isiondensis), a 
city of Pisidia in Asia Minor, E. of the district of 
Cibyra, and 5 Roman miles N.W. of Termessus. 
Mr. Fellows lately discovered considerable ruins 
12 miles from Perge, which he supposes to be 
those of Isionda. 

^ Isis ^^(Tis), one of the principal Egyptian divi- 
nities. The ideas entertained about her underwent 
verv^ great changes in antiquity. She is described 
as the wife of Osiris and the mother of Horus. 
As Osiris, the god of the Nile, taught the people 
the use of the plough, so Isis invented the culti- 



vation of wheat and barley, which were carried 
about in the processions at her festival. She was 
the goddess of the earth, which the Egyptians 
called their mother : whence she and Osiris were 
the only divinities that were worshipped by all the 
Egyptians. This simple and primitive notion of 
the Egyptians was modified at an early period 
through the influence of the East, with which 
Eg}'pt came into contact, and at a later time 
through the influence of the Greeks. Thus Osiris 
and Isis came gradually to be considered as divi- 
nities of the sun and the moon. The Egyptian 
priests represented that the principal religious in- 
stitutions of Greece came from Egypt ; and after 
the time of Herodotus, this belief became esta- 
blished among the learned men in Greece. Hence 
Isis was identified with Demeter, and Osiris with 
Dionj'sus, and the sufferings of Isis were accord- 
ingly modified to harmonise with the mythus of 
the unfortunate Demeter. As Isis was the goddess 
of the moon, she was also identified with lo. [lo.] 

— The worship of Isis prevailed extensively in 
Greece. It was introduced into Rome in the time 
of Sulla ; and though the senate made many at- 
tempts to suppress her worship, and ordered her 
temples to be destroyed, yet the new religious rites 
took deep root at Rome, and became very popular. 
In B. c. 43 the triumvirs coiirted the popular 
favour by building a new temple of Isis and 
Serapis. Augustus forbade any temples to be 
erected to Isis in the city ; but this command was 
afterwards disregarded ; and under the early Ro- 
man emperors the worship of Isis and Serapis 
became firmly established. The most important 
temple of Isis at Rome stood in the Campus 
Martins, whence she was called Isis Campensis. 
The priests and servants of the goddess wore linen 
garments, whence she herself is called linigera. 
Those initiated in her mysteries wore in the public 
processions masks representing the heads of dogs. 
In works of art Isis appears in figure and coun- 
tenance like Hera: she wears a long tunic, and 
her upper garment is fastened on her breast by a 
knot : her head is crowned with a lotus flower, 
and her right hand holds the sistrum. Her son 
Horus is often represented with her as a fine naked 
boy, holding the fore- finger on the mouth, with a 
lotus flower on his head, and a cornucopia in his 
left hand. The German goddess Isis mentioned by 
Tacitus is probably the same as Hertha. 

Ismarus {"lajxapos : ^lafidpios)^ a town in 
Thrace, near Maronea, situated on a moimtain of 
the same name, which produced excellent wine. It 
is mentioned in the Odyssey as a town of the 
Cicones. Near it was the lake Ismaris ('Icrfiapts). 
The poets frequently use the adjective Ismarius as 
equivalent to Thracian. Thus Ovid calls Tereus, 
king of Thrace, Lsmarius iyrannus (Am. ii. 6. 7), 
and Polvmnestor, king of Thrace, Lsmarius rex 
(^[d. xiii. 530). 

Ismene ('Io-^tjj/tj). 1. Daughter of Asopus, 
wife of Argus, and mother of lasus and lo. 

— 2. Daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta, and sister 
of Antigone. 

Ismenus (^laiJ.i]vos), a small river in Boeotia, 
which rises in Mt. Cithaeron, flovv's through 
Thebes, and falls into the lake Hylica. The brook 
Dirce, so celebrated in Theban story, flowed into 
the Ismenus. From this river Apollo was called 
Lsmeniiis. His temple, the Lsmenium, at which 
the festival of the Daphnephoria was celebrated, 



ISOCRATES. 

was situated outside the city. The river is said to 
have been originally called Ladon, and to have de - 
rived its subsequent name from Ismenus, a son of 
Asopus and Metope. According to other traditions, 
Ismenus vi'as a son of Amphion and Niobe, who 
-when struck by the arrow of Apollo leaped into a 
river near Thebes, which was hence called Ismenus. 

Isocrates ('laoKpaTrjs), one of the 10 Attic 
orators, was the son of Theodorus, and was born 
at Athens B.C. 436. Theodorus was a man of 
wealth, and educated his son with the greatest 
care. Among his teachers were Tisias, Gorgias, 
Prodicus, and also Socrates. Since Isocrates was 
naturally timid, and of a weakly constitution, he 
did not come forward as a public speaker himself, 
but devoted himself to giving instruction in oratory, 
and writing orations for others. He first taught 
rhetoric in Cliios, and afterwards at Athens. At 
the latter place he met with great success, and 
gradually acquired a large fortune by his pro- 
fession. He had 100 pupils, every one of whom 
paid him 1000 drachmae. He also derived a large 
income from the orations which he wrote for others ; 
thus, he received 20 talents for the speech which 
he composed for Nicocles, king of Cyprus. Al- 
though Isocrates took no part in public affairs, he 
was an ardent lover of his country; and, accord- 
ingly, Avhen the battle of Chaeronea had destroyed 
\ the last hopes of freedom, he put an end to his 
life, B. c. 338, at the age of 98. — The school of 
Isocrates exercised the greatest influence upon the 
development of public oratorj' at Athens. No 
other rhetorician had so many disciples of celebrity. 
The language of Isocrates forms a great contrast 
I with the natural simplicity of Lysias, as well as 
I with the sublime power of Demosthenes. His 
I style is artificial. The carefully-rounded periods, 
i and the frequent application of figurative expres- 
sions, are features which remind us of the sophists. 
The immense care he bestowed upon the compo- 
sition of his orations may be inferred from the 
statement, that he was engaged for 1 0, or, accord- 
ing to others, 15 years, upon his Panegyric ora- 
tion alone. There were ^ in antiquity 60 orations 
which went under the name of Isocrates, but they 
were not all recognised as genuine. Only 21 have 
come down to us. Of these 8 were written for the 
courts ; all the others are political discourses, 
intended to be read by a large public. The most 
celebrated is his Panegyric oration, in which he 
shows what services Athens had rendered to 
Greece in every period of her history, and contends 
that she, and not Sparta, deserves the supremacy 
in Greece. The orations are printed in the col- 
lections of the Greek orators. The best separate 
edition is by Baiter and Sauppe, Turici, 1839. 

Issa ("lo-tro), daughter of Macareus of Lesbos, 
and beloved by Apollo, from whom the Lesbian 
town of Issa is said to have received its name. 

Issa (Issaeus : Lissa), a small island in the 
Adriatic sea, with a town of the same name, oflF 
the coast of Dalmatia, was colonized at an early 
period by Greeks. It was inhabited by a hardy 
race of sailors, whose barks (lembi Issaei) were 
much prized. The Issaei placed themselves under 
the protection of the Romans, when they were 
attacked by the Illyrian queen, Teuta, B. c. 229 ; 
and their town is spoken of as a place of importance 
in Caesar's time. 

Issedones ('lo-ff-TjStJves), a Scythian tribe, in 
Scythia extra Imaum, the E.most people with 



ITALIA. '649 

whom the Greeks of the time of Herodotus had 
any intercourse. Tlieir coxmtry was in Great Tar- 
tary^ near the Massagetae, whom they resembled 
in their manners. They are represented as ex- 
tending as far as the borders of Serica. 

Issicus Sinus (o 'laaiKhs k6Kitos: Gulf of 
Iskenderoon), the deep gulf at the N.E. corner of 
the Mediterranean, between Cilicia and Syria, 
named after the town of Issus. The width is 
about 8 miles. The coast is much altered since 
ancient times. 

Issoria ('la-o-ojpja), a surname of Artemis, de- 
rived from Mt. Issorion, in Laconia, on which she 
had a sanctuary. 

Issus ('lo-o-ds, also 'lo-troi, Xen.: ^lacraios), a city 
in the S.E. extremity of Cilicia, near the head of 
the Issicus Sinus, and at the N. foot of the pass of 
M. Amanus called the Syrian Gates ; memorable for 
the great battle in which Alexander defeated 
Darius Codomannus (b. c. 333), which was fought 
in a narrow valley near the town. It was at that 
time large and flourishing, but its importance Avas 
much diminished by the fomidation of Alexandria 
in its neighbourhood. Its exact site is doubtful. 

Istaevdnes. [Germania, pp. 281, b, 282, a.] 

Ister. [Danubius.] 

Ister, a Greek historian, was at first a slave of 
Callimachus, and afterwards his friend, and ac- 
cordingly lived in the reign of Ptolemy Evergetes 
(B.C. 247 — 222). He wrote a large number of 
works, the most important of which was an Atthis, 
or history of Attica. His fragments are published 
by C. and Th. Muller, Fragmenia Histor. Graec. 

Istria or Histria, a peninsula at the N. ex- 
tremity of the Adriatic, between the Sinus Ter- 
gestinus on the W. and the Sinus Flanaticus on 
the E. It was separated from Venetia on the N.W. 
by the river Timavus, and from Illyricum on the 
E. by the river Arsia. Its inhabitants, the Istri 
or Histri, were a warlike Illyrian race, who carried 
on several wars with the Romans, till their final 
subjugation by the consul C. Claudius Pulcher, 
B.C. 177. Their chief towns Avere Tergeste and 
PoLA. Istria was originally reckoned part of 
Illyricum, but from the time of Augustus it formed 
one of the divisions of Upper Italy. In consequence 
of its name it Avas believed at one time that a 
branch of the river Ister (Danube) flowed into the 
Adriatic. 

Istropolis, Istros or Istria ("laTpSiroXis, "la- 
rpos, 'larpir], Herod, ii. 33 : Istere), a toAvn in 
LoAver Moesia, not far from the mouth of the 
Danube, and at a little distance from the coast, 
Avas a colony from Miletus. 

Italia ('IraAta), signified, from the time of 
Augustus, the country Avhich Ave call Itali/. It 
was boxmded on the W. by the Mare Ligusticum 
and Tyrrhenum, Tuscum or Inferum ; on the S. 
by the Mare Siculum or Ausonium ; on the E. by 
the Mare Adriaticum or Superum : and on the N. 
by the Alps, Avhich sweep round it in a semicircle, 
the river Varus ( Var, Varo) separating it on the 
N.W. from Transalpine Gaul, and the river Arsia 
{Arsa) on the N.E. from Illyricum. The name 
Italia, however, was originally used to indicate a 
much more limited extent of country. Most of 
the ancients, according to their usual custom, derived 
the name from an ancient king Italus ; but others, 
still more absurdly, connected it with the old 
Italian word Italus (in Oscan, vitlu or vitelu), an 
ox, because the country was rich in oxen ! But 



350 



ITALIA. 



ITALIA. 



there can be no doubt that Italia^ or Vitalia, as it 
was also called, was the land of the Itali, Viiali, 
Vitelli, or Vituli, an ancient race, who are better 
known under the name of Siculi. This race was 
widely spread over the S. half of the peninsula, 
and may be said to have been bounded on the N. 
by a line drawn from Mt. Garganus on the E. to 
Terracina on the W. The Greeks were ignorant 
of this wide extent of the name. According to 
them Italia was originally only the S.most part of 
what was afterwards called Bruttium, and was 
bounded on the N. by a line drav.Ti from the Lii- 
metic to the Scylletic gulf. They afterwards ex- 
tended the name to signify the whole countrj^ S. 
of Posidonia on the W. and Tarentum on the E. 
After the Romans had conquered Tarentum and 
the S. part of the peninsula, about B. c. 272, the 
name Italia had a still further extension given to 
it. It then signified the whole country subject to 
the Romans, from the Sicilian straits as far N. as 
the Arnus and the Rubico. The country N. of 
these rivers continued to be called Gallia Cisalpina 
and Liguria down to the end of the republic. 
Augustus was the first who extended the name 
of Italia, so as to comprehend the whole of the 
basin of the Po and the S. part of the Alps, 
from the Maritime Alps to Pola in Istria, both 
inclusive. In the later times of the empire, when 
Maximian had transferred the imperial residence 
to Milan, the name ItaKa was again used in a 
narrower compass. As it had originally signified 
only the S. of the country, so now it was restricted 
to the N., comprising the 5 provinces of Aemilia, 
Liguria, Flaminia, Venetia, and Istria. — Besides 
Italia, the country was called by various other 
names, especially by the poets. These were Hes- 
peria, a name which the Greeks gave to it, because ' 
it lay to the W, of Greece, or Hesperia Magna, 
to distinguish it from Spain [Hesperia], and Sa- 
turnia, because Saturn was said to have once 
reigned in Latium. The names of separate parts 
of Italy were also applied by the poets to the 
whole country. Thus it was called Oenotria, 
originally the land of the Oenotri, in the country 
afterwards called Bruttium and Lucania : Auso- 
nia, or Opica, or Opicia, originally the land of 
the Ausones or Ausonii, Opici or Osci, on the W. 
coast, in the country afterwards called Campania : 
Tyrrhenia, properly the land of the Tyrrheni, also 
on the W. coast, N. of Ausonia or Opica, and more 
especially in the country afterwards called Etruria : 
lapygia, properly the land of the lapyges on the 
E. coast, in the country afterwards called Calabria : 
and Ombrica, the land of the Umbri on the E. 
coast, alongside of Etruria. — Italy was never in- 
habited by one single race. It contained a great 
number of different races, who had migrated into 
the country at a very early period. The most 
ancient inhabitants were Pelasgians or Oenotrians, 
a branch of the same great race who originally in- 
habited Greece and the coasts of Asia Minor. 
They were also called Aborigines and Siculi, who, 
as we have already seen, were the same as the 
Vitali or Itali, At the time when Roman history 
begins, Italy was inhabited by the following races. 
From the mouth of the Tiber, between its right 
bank and the sea, dwelt the Etruscans, who ex- 
tended as far N, as the Alps, Alongside of these, 
between the left bank of the Tiber and the Adria- 
tic, dwelt the Umbrians, To the S. of the Etrus- 
cans were the Sacrani, Casci, or Prisci, Oscan tribes, 



who had been driven out of the mountains by the 
Sabines, had overcome the Pelasgian tribes of the 
Siculi, Aborigines, or Latins, and, uniting with 
these conquered people, had formed the people 
called Prisci Latini, subsequently simply Latini. 
S. of these again, as far as the river Laus, were 
the Opici, who were also called Ausones or Au-Mj 
runci. and to whom the Volsci, Sidicini, Saticuli,™ 
and Aequi, also belonged. The S, of the peninsulaH 
was inhabited by the Oenotrians, who were sub I 
sequently driven into the interior by the numerouaH 
Greek colonies foimded along the coasts, S. o£9 
the Ui^ibrians, extending as far as Mt. Garganus,™ 
dwelt the various Sabellian or Sabine tribes, the 
Sabines proper, the Peligni, Marsi, Marrucini, 
Vestini, and Hernici, from which tribes the war- 
like race of the Samnites subsequently sprung. 
From Mt. Garganus to the S. E. extremit}" of the 
peninsula, the country was inhabited by the Dau- 
nians or Apulians, Peucetii, Messapii, and Sallen- 
tini. An account of these people is given in se- 
parate articles. They were all eventually subdued 
by the Romans, who became the masters of the 
whole of the peninsula. At the time of Augustus 
the following were the chief divisions of Italy, an 
account of which is also given in separate articles : 

I. Upper Italy, which extended from the Alps to 
the rivers Macra on the W. and Rubico on the E. 
It comprehended, 1. Liguria. 2. Gallia Cis- 
alpina. 3. Venetia, including Cama. 4. Istria. 

II. Central Italy, sometimes called Italia Pro- 
pria (a term not used by the ancients), to distin- 
guish it from Gallia Cisalpina or Upper Italy, and 
Magna Graecia or Lower Italy, extended from the 
rivers Macra on the W. and Rubico on the E,, to 
the rivers Silarus on the W. and Frento on the 
E. It comprehended, 1. Etruria. 2. Umbria. 
3. PiCENUM. 4. Samnium, including the country 
of the Sabini, Vestini, Marrucini, Marsi, Peligni, 
&c, 5. Latium. 6. Campania. III. Lower 
Italy, or Magna Graecia, included the remaining 
part of the peninsula, S. of the rivers Silarus and 
Frento. It comprehended, 1. Apulia, including 
Calabria. 2. Lucania. 3, Bruttium. — Au- 
gustus divided Italy into the following 1 1 Re- 
giones. 1. Latium and Campania. 2. The land 

I of the Hirpini, Apulia and Calabria. 3. Lucania 
and Bruttium. 4. The land of the Frentani, Mar- 
rucini, Peligni, Marsi, Vestini, and Sabini, together 
with Samnium. 5. Picenum. 6. Umbria and the 
district of Ariminum, in what was formerly called 
Gallia Cisalpina. 7. Etruria. 8. Gallia Cispa- 
dana. 9. Liguria. 10. The E, part of Gallia 
Transpadana, Venetia, Camia, and Istria, 1 1. The 
W. part of Gallia Transpadana, — The leading 
features of the physical geography of Italy are so 
well described by a modern writer, that we cannot 
do better than quote his words. " The mere plan- 
geography of Italy gives us its shape and the posi- 
tion of its toAvns ; to these it may add a semicircle 
of mountains roimd the N. boundary, to represent 
the Alps ; and another long line stretching down 
the middle of the country, to represent the Apen- 
nines, But let us cavTj this on a little further, 
and give life and harmony to what is at present at 
once lifeless and confused. Observe, in the first 
place, how the Apennine line, beginning from the 
S. extremity of the Alps, runs across Italy to the 
very edge of the Adriatic, and thus separates na- 
turally the Italy proper of the Romans from Cis- 
alpine Gaul. Observe again, how the Alps, after 



ITALICA. 



ITURAEA. 



3^1 



running N. and S. where they divide Italy from 
France, turn then away to the E.ward, running 
almost parallel to the Apennines, till they too touch 
the head of the Adriatic, on the confines of Istria. 
Thus between these 2 lines of mountains there is 
enclosed one great basin or plain ; enclosed on 3 
sides by mountains, open only on the E. to the sea. 
Observe how widely it spreads itself out, and then 
see how well it is watered. One great river (the 
Po) flows through it in its whole extent ; and this 
is fed by streams almost unnumbered, descending 
towards it on either side, from the Alps on one 
side, and from the Apennines on the other. Then, 
descending into Italy proper, we find the com- 
plexity of its geography quite in accordance with 
its manifold political divisions. It is not one simple 
central ridge of mountains, having a broad belt of 
level country on either side between it and the 
sea ; nor yet is it a chain rising immediately from 
the sea on one side, like the Andes in S. America, 
and leaving room therefore on the other side for 
wide plains of table land, and for rivers with a 
sufficient length of course to become at last great 
and navigable. It is a back- bone, thickly set with 
spines of unequal length, some of them running 
out at regular distances parallel to each other, but 
others twisted so strangely that they often run for 
a long way parallel to the back-bone, or main ridge, 
and interlace with one another in a maze almost 
inextricable. And, as if to complete the disorder, 
in those spots where the spines of the Apennines, 
being twisted round, run parallel to the sea and to 
their own central chain, and thus leave an interval 
of plain between their bases and the Mediterranean, 
volcanic agency has broken up the space thus left 
with other and distinct groups of hills of its own 
creation, as in the case of Vesuvius and of the 
Alban hills near Rome. Speaking generally, then, 
Italy is made up of an infinite multitude of valleys 
pent in between high and steep hills, each forming 
a country to itself, and cut off by natural barriers 
from the others. Its several parts are isolated by 
nature, and no art of man can thoroughly unite 
them. Hence arises the romantic character of 
Italian scenery : the constant combination of a 
mountain outline, and all the wild features of a 
mountain country, with the wild vegetation of a 
southern climate in the valleys." More minute 
details respecting the physical features of the dif- 
ferent parts of Italy are given in the articles on the 
separate provinces into which it is divided. 

Italica. 1. (Sevilla la vieja nr. Santiponce), a 
municipium in Hispania Baetica, on the W. bank 
of the Baetis, N. W. of Hispalis, was founded by 
Scipio Africanus in the 2nd Punic war, who settled 
here some of his veterans. It was the birthplace 
of the emperors Trajan and Hadrian. 3. The 
name given to Corfinium by the Italian Socii 
during their war with Rome. [Corfinium.] 

Italieus, Silius. [Silius.] 
_ Italus ('IraAds), an ancient king of the Pelas- 
gians, Siculians, or Oenotrians, from whom Italy 
was believed to have derived its name. Some call 
him a son of Telegonus by Penelope. 

Itanus ("It avos), a town on the E. coast of 
Crete, near a promontory of the same name, founded 
by the Phoenicians. 

Ithaca ('I0a/c7j: WaK-iicrios : ThiaU), a small 
island in the Ionian Sea, celebrated as the birth- 
place of Ulysses, lies off the coast of Epirus, and is 
'-separated from Cephalonia by a channel about 3 or 



4 miles wide. The island is about 12 miles long, 
and 4 in its greatest breadth. It is divided into 2 
parts, which are connected by a narrow isthmus, 
not more than half a mile across. In each of these 
parts there is a mountain-ridge of considerable 
height ; the one in the N. called Neritum (N^- 
ptToi/, now Anoi), and the one in the S. Ne'ium 
(Nrjiov, now Stefano). The city of Ithaca, the 
residence of Ulysses, was situated on a precipitous, 
conical hill, now called Aeto, or "eagle's cliff," 
occupying the whole breadth of the isthmus men- 
tioned above. The acropolis, or castle of Ulysses, 
crowned the extreme summit of the mountain, and 
is described by a modern traveller as " about as 
bleak and dreary a spot as can well be imagined 
for a princely residence." Hence Cicero {de OraU 
i. 44) describes it, in asperri?uis sacculis tanquam 
nidulus affioca. It is at the foot of Mt. Neium, and 
is hence described by Telemachus as " Under- 
Neium" {'iQaKTis 'TTrovrjiov, Horn. Od. iii. 81). 
The walls of the ancient city are in many places 
well preserved. — Ithaca is now one of the 7 Io- 
nian islands under the protection of Great Britain. 

Ithome ('Iddc/jLT] : 'Ww/x-qrr]?, 'IdcafiaTos). 1. A 
strong fortress in Messenia, situated on a mountain 
of the same name, which afterwards formed the 
citadel of the town of Messene. On the summit 
of the mountain stood the ancient temple of Zeus, 
who was hence surnamed Ithometas {'Ido/x-fiTiis, 
Dor. 'I^o^aras). Ithome was taken by the Spar- 
tans, B. c. 723, at the end of the last Messenian 
war, after an heroic defence by Aristodemus, and 
again in 455, at the end of the 3rd Messenian 
war. 2. A mountain fortress in Pelasgiotis, in 
Thessaly, near Metropolis, also called Thome. 

Itius Portus, a harbour of the Morini, on the 
N. coast of Gaul, from Avhich Caesar set sail for 
Britain. The position of this harbour is much 
disputed. It used to be identified with Gesoria- 
cum, or Boulogne, but it is now usually supposed 
to be some harbour near Calais, probably Vissant, 
or Witsand. 

Iton. [Itonia.] 

Itonia, Itonias, or Itonis (IrccvLa, 'iTcovicis, or 
'IrcauLs), a surname of Athena, derived from the 
town of Iton, in the S. of Phthiotis in Thessaly. 
The goddess there had a celebrated sanctuary and 
festivals, and hence is called Incola Itoni. From 
Iton her worship spread into Boeotia and the 
country about lake Copais, where the Pamboeotia 
was celebrated, , in the neighbourhood of a temple 
and grove of Athena. According to another tra- 
dition, Athena received the surname of Itonia 
from Itonus, a king or priest. 

Itucci ('Ituk/ctj, App.), a town in Hispania 
Baetica, in the district of Hispalis, and a Roman 
colony imder the name of Virtus Julia. 

Ituna {Solway Frith), an aestuary on the W. 
coast of Britain, between England and Scotland. 

Ittiraea, Ityraea {'iTovpaia : 'IrovpaToi, Ituraei, 
Ityraei : El-Jeidur), a district on the N.E. borders 
of Palestine, bounded on the N. by the plain of 
Damascus, on the W. by the mountain-chain (Jebel- 
Heish), which forms the E. margin of the valley 
of the Jordan, on the S.W. and S. by Gaulanitis, 
and on the E. by Auranitis and Trachonitis. It 
occupied a part of the elevated plain into which 
Mt. Hermon sinks down on the S.E., and was in- 
habited by an Arabian people, of warlike and 
predatory habits, which they exercised upon the 
caravans from Arabia to Damascus, whose great 



352 



ITYS. 



JASON. 



road lay through their country. In the wars be- 
tween the Syrians and Israelites, ihey are found 
acting as allies of the kings of Damascus. They 
are scarcely heard of again till B. c. 105, when 
they were conquered by the Asraonaean king of 
Judah. Aristobulus, who compelled them to profess 
Judaism. Restored to independence by the de- 
cline of the Asmonaean house, they seized the 
opportunity offered, on the other side, by the 
weakness of the kings of Syria, to press their pre- 
datory incursions into Coele-Syria, and even be- 
yond Lebanon, to Byblos, Botrys, and other cities 
on the coast of Phoenice. Pompey reduced them 
again to order, and many of their warriors entered 
the Roman army, in which they became celebrated 
for their skill in horsemanship and archery. They 
were not, however, reduced to complete subjection 
to Rome until after the civil wars. Augustus 
gave Ituraea, which had been hitherto ruled by 
its native princes, to the family of Herod. During 
the ministry of our Saviour, it was governed by 
Philip, the brother of Herod Antipas, as tetrarch. 
Upon Philip's death, in a. d. 37, it was united to 
the Roman province of Syria, from which it was 
presently again separated, aud assigned partly to 
Herod Agrippa L, and partly to Soaemus, the 
prmce of Emesa. In a. d. 50, it was finally re- 
united by Claudius to the Roman province of 
Syria, and there are inscriptions which prove that 
the Ituraeans continued to serve with distinction 
in the Roman armies. There were no cities or 
large to-wns in the country, a feet easily explained 
by the unsettled character of the people, who lived 
in the Arab fashion, in unwalled villages and tents, 
and even, according to some statements, in the na- 
tural caves with which the country abomids. 
Itys. [Tereus.] 

lulis ('Iou\ts : 'lovXifjT-ns, 'louXieus), the chief 
to^n in Ceos ; the birthplace of Simonides. [Ceos.] 

lulus. 1. Son of Aeneas, usually called Asca- 
nius, [ AscAXius.] — 2. Eldest son of Ascanius, 
who claimed the government of Latium, but was 
obliged to give it up to his brother Silvius. 

Ixion ('Iltwj'), son of Phlegyas, or of Antion 
and Perimela, or of Pasion, or of Ares. According 
to the common tradition, his mother was Dia, a 
daughter of Deioneus. He was king of the La- 
pithae or Phlegyes, and the father of Pirithous. 
When Deioneus demanded of Ixion the bridal 
gifts he had promised, Ixion treacherously invited 
him to a banquet, and then contrived to make him 
fall into a pit filled with fire. As no one purified 
Ixion of this treacherous murder, Zeus took pity 
upon him, purified him, carried him to heaven, and 
caused him to sit down at his table. But Ixion 
was ungrateful to the father of the gods, and at- 
tempted to win the love of Hera. Zeus thereupon 
created a phantom resembling Hera, and by it 
Ixion became the father of a Centaur. [Centauri.] 
Ixion was fearfully punished for his impious ingra- 
titude. His hands and feet were chained by 
Hermes to a wheel, which is said to have rolled 
perpetually in the air or in the lower world. He 
is further said to have been scourged, and compelled 
to exclaim, Benefactors should be honoured." 

Ixionides, i. e. Pirithous, the son of Ixion. — 
The Centaurs are also called Ixio77idae. 

Ixius {"l^ios), a stimame of Apollo, derived 
from a district of the island of Rhodes which was 
called Ixiae or Ixda. 

lynx Cly7l)j daughter of Peitho aud Pan, or 



of Echo. She endeavoured to charm Zeus, ox 
make him fall in love with lo ; but she was meta- 
morphosed by Hera into the bird called lynx. 

J. 

Jaccetani, a people in Hispania Tarraconensia 
between the Pyrenees and the Iberus. 
Jana. [Janus.] 
Jamciilum. [Roma.] 

Janus and Jana, a pair of ancient Latin di- 
vinities, who were worshipped as the sun and 
moon. The names Janus and Jana are only other 
forms of Dianus and JHana, which words contain 
the same root as dies, day. Janus was worshipped 
both by the Etruscans and Romans, and occupied 
an important place in the Roman religion. He 
presided over the beginning of everything, and was 
therefore always invoked first in every under- 
taking, even before Jupiter. He opened the year 
and the seasons, and hence the first month of the 
year was called after him. He was the porter of 
heaven, and therefore bore the surnames Patulcui 
or Putulcius, the " opener," and Clusius or Clu- 
sivius, the "shutter."' In this capacity he is re- 
presented with a key in his left hand, and a staff 
or sceptre in his right. On earth also he was the 
guardian deity of gates, and hence is commonly 
represented with 2 heads, because every door looks 
2 ways. {Janus hifrons.) He is sometimes repre- 
sented with 4 heads {Janus quadrifrons), because 
he presided over the 4 seasons. Most of the attri- 
butes of this god, which are very numerous, are 
connected with his being the god who opens and 
shuts ; and this latter idea probably has reference 
to his original character as the god of the sim, in 
connection with the alternations of day and ni^ht. 
At Rome, Numa is said to have dedicated^ to 
Janus the covered passage bearing his name, which 
was opened in times of war, and closed in times 
of peace. This passage is commonly, but erro- 
neously, called a temple. It stood close by the fo- 
rum. It appears to have been left open in war, to 
indicate symbolically that the god had gone out to 
assist the Roman warriors, and to have been shut in 
time of peace that the god, the safeguard of the 
city, might not escape. A temple of Janus was 
built by C. Duilios in the time of the first Pimic 
war : it was restored by Augustus, and dedicated 
by Tiberius. On new year's day, which was the 
principal festival of the god, people gave presents 
to one another, consisting of sweetmeats and cop- 
per coins, showing on one side the double head of 
Janus and on the other a ship. The general name 
for these presents was strenae. The sacrifices 
offered to Janus consisted of cakes (called janual), 
barley, incense, and v.'-ine. 

Jason (^laauv). L The celebrated leader of the 
Argonauts, was a son of Aeson and Poh-mede or 
Alcimede, and belonged to the family of the Aeo- 
lidae, at lolcus in Thessaly. Cretheus, who had 
founded lolcus, was succeeded by his son Aeson; 
but the latter was deprived of the kingdom by his 
half-brother Pelias, who attempted to take the life of 
the infant Jason. He was saved by his friends, who 
pretended that he was dead, and intrusted him to 
the care of the centaur Chiron. Pelias was now 
warned by an oracle to be on his guai-d against the 
one-sandaled man. "When Jason had grown up, 
he came to claim the throne. As he entered the 



HESTIA (VESTA). HONOS. IRIS. JANUS. LAOCOON. LETO (LATONA). 

LYCUHaUS. 




COINS OF CITIES AXD COUNTRIES. HIEEAPOLIS — ITHACA. 




Hierapolis in Cilicia. Page 320. 




Him era in Sicily. Page S22. 




lassus in Caria. Page 3S7. 




Herda in Spain. Page 340, 
lofate p. 353.] 




Inibros. Page 3-11. 




Issa. Page 349. 




Itanus in Crete. Page 351. 




Ithaca. Page Sol. 



JASON. 



JERUSALEM. 



853 



market-place, Pelias, perceiving he had only one 
sandal, asked him who he was ; whereupon Jason 
declared his name, and demanded the kingdom. 
Pelias consented to surrender it to him, but per- 
suaded him to remove the curse which rested on 
the family of the Aeolidae, by fetching the golden 
ileece, and soothing the spirit of Phrixus. An- 
otlier tradition related that Pelias, once upon a 
time, invited all his subjects to a sacrifice, which 
he intended to offer to Poseidon. Jason came 
with the rest, but, on his journey to lolcus, he lost 
one of his sandals in crossmg the river Anaurus. 
Pelias, remembering the oracle about the one-san- 
daled man, asked Jason what he would do if he 
were told by an oracle that he should be killed by 
one of his subjects? Jason, on the suggestion 
of Hera, who hated Pelias, answered, that he 
would send him to fetch the golden fleece. Pelias 
accordingly ordered Jason to fetch the golden 
fleece, which was in the possession of king Aeetes 
in Colchis, and was guarded by an ever-watchful 
dragon. Jason willingly undertook the enterprize, 
and set sail in the ship Argo, accompanied by the 
chief heroes of Greece. He obtained the fleece 
with the assistance of Medea, whom he made his 
wife, and along with whom he returned to lolcus. 
The history of his exploits on this memorable en- 
terprize, and his adventures on his return home, 
are related elsewhere. [Argonautae.] On his 
arrival at lolcus, Jason, according to one account, 
found his aged father Aeson still alive, and Medea 
made him young again ; but according to the more 
common tradition, Aeson had been slain by Pelias, 
during the absence of Jason, who accordingly called 
upon Medea to take vengeance on Pelias. Medea 
thereupon persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut 
their father to pieces and boil him, in order to re- 
store him to youth and vigour, as she had before 
changed a ram into a lamb, by boiling the body in 
a cauldron. But Pelias was never restored to life, 
and his son Acastus expelled Jason and Medea 
from loclus. They then went to Corinth, where 
they lived happily for several years, until Jason 
deserted Medea, in order to marry Glauce or 
Creusa, daughter of Creon, the king of the country. 
Medea fearfully revenged this insult. She sent 
Glauce a poisoned garment, which burnt her to 
death when she put it on. Creon likewise perished 
in the flames. Medea also killed her children by 
Jason, viz. Mermerus and Pheres, and then fled to 
Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. 
Later writers represent Jason as becoming in the 
end reconciled to Medea, returning with her to 
Colchis, and there restoring Aeetes to his kingdom, 
of which he had been deprived. The death of 
Jason is related differently. According to some, 
he made away with himself from grief, according 
to others, he was crushed by the poop of the ship 
Argo, which fell upon him as he was lying under 
it. — 2. Tyrant of Pherae and Tagus of Thessaly 
(Diet, of Antiq. art. Tagus), was probably the son 
of Lycophron, who established a tyranny on the 
! ruins of aristocracy at Pherae. He succeeded his 
' father as tyrant of Pherae soon after B. c. 395, and 
in a few years extended his power over almost the 
whole of Thessaly. Pharsalus was the only city in 
Thessaly which maintained its independence under 
the government of Polydamas ; but even this place 
submitted to him in 375. In the following year 
(374) he was elected Tagus or generalissimo of 
Thessalj. His power was strengthened by the 



weakness of the other Greek states, and by the 
exhausting contest in which Thebes and Sparta 
were engaged. He was now in a position which 
held out to him every prospect of becoming master 
of Greece ; but when at the height of his power, 
he was assassinated at a public audience, 370. — 
Jason had an insatiable appetite for power, which he 
sought to gratify by any and every means. With 
the chief men in the several states of Greece, as 
e. g. with Timotheus and Pelopidas, he cultivated 
friendly relations. He is represented as having all 
the qualifications of a great general and diplo- 
matist — as active, temperate, prudent, capable of 
enduring much fatigue, and skilful in concealing 
his own designs and penetrating those of his ene- 
mies. He was an admirer of the rhetoric of Gor- 
gias ; and Isocrates was one of his friends. — 3. Of 
Argos, an historian, lived under Hadrian, and 
wrote a work on Greece in 4 books. 

Javolenus Priscus, an eminent Roman jurist, 
was bom about the commencement of the reign of 
Vespasian (a. b. 79), and was one of the council of 
Antoninus Pius. He was a pupil of Caelius Sabi- 
nus, and a leader of the Sabinian or Cassian school. 
[See p. 144, b.] There are 206 extracts from 
Javolenus in the Digest, 

Jaxartes ('Ia|a/JTi7s : Syr, Syderia, or Syhoun), 
a great river of Central Asia, about which the 
ancient accounts are very different and confused. 
It rises in the Comedi Montes (Moussour), and 
flows N.W. into the /Sea of Aral: the ancients 
supposed it to fall into the N. side of the Caspian, 
not distinguishing between the 2 seas. It divided 
Sogdiana from Scythia. On its banks dwelt a 
Scythian tribe called Jaxartae. 

Jericlio or Hierichus ('lepix^, 'lepixoDy : Er- 
Riha ? Ru.), a city of the Canaanites, in a plain 
on the W. side of the Jordan near its mouth, was 
destroyed by Joshua, rebuilt in the time of the 
Judges, and formed an important frontier fortress 
of Judaea. It was again destroyed by Vespasian, 
rebuilt under Hadrian, and finally destroyed during 
the crusades. 

Jerom. [Hieronymus.] 

Jerusalem or Hierosolyma ('Upovadh-nfi, 'U- 
pocrdXvjxa: 'UpoaoAvfj.'iT'ns : Jerusalem, Arab. El- 
Kuds, i. e. the Holy City), the capital of Palestine, 
in Asia. At the time of the Israelitish conquest 
of Canaan, under Joshua, Jerusalem, then called 
Jebus, was the chief city of the Jebusites, a Ca- 
naanitish tribe, who were not entirely driven out 
from it till B. c. 1050, when David took the city, 
and made it the capital of the kingdom of Israel. 
It was also established as the permanent centre of 
the Jewish religion, by the erection of the temple 
by Solomon. After the division of the kingdom, 
under Rehoboam, it remained the capital of the 
kingdom of Judah, until it was entirely destroyed, 
and its inhabitants were carried into captivity by 
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, B. c. 588. In 
B. c. 536, the Jewish exiles, having been pennitted 
by Cyrus to return, began to rebuild the city and 
temple ; and the work was completed in about 24 
years. In b. c. 332, Jerusalem quietly submitted 
to Alexander. During the wars which followed 
his death, the city was taken by Ptolemy, the son 
of Lagus (b. c. 320), and remained subject to the 
Greek kings of Egypt, till the conquest of Palestine 
by Antiochus III. the Great, king of Syria, b. c. 
198. Up to this time the Jews had been allowed 
the free enjoyment of their religion and their own 

A A 



354 



JOCASTE. 



JOSEPHUS. 



intemal government, and Antiochus coniirmed them 
in these privileges ; but the altered government of 
his son, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, provoked a re- 
bellion, which was at first put down when An- 
tiochus took Jerusalem and polluted the temple 
(B.C. 170); but the religious persecution which 
ensued drove the people to despair, and led to a 
new revolt under the Maccabees, b}' whom Jeru- 
salem was retaken, and the temple purified in b. c. 
163 [Maccabaei]. In b.c. 133, Jerusalem was 
retaken by Antiochus VII. Sidetes, and its forti- 
fications dismantled, but its government was left 
in the hands of the Maccabee, John Hyrcanus, 
who took advantage of the death of Antiochus 
in Parthia (b.c. 128) to recover his full power. 
His son Aristobulus assumed the title of king of 
Judaea, and Jerusalem continued to be the capital of 
the kingdom till B. c. 63, when it was taken by Pom- 
pey, and the temple was again profaned. For the 
events which followed, see Hyrcanus, Herodes. 
and Palaestixa. In a. d. 70, the rebellion of 
the Jews against the Romans was put down, and 
Jerusalem was taken by Titus, after a siege of se- 
veral months, during which the inhabitants en- 
dured the utmost horrors ; the survivors were all 
put to the sword or sold as slaves, and the city 
and temple were utterly razed to the ground. In 
consequence of a new revolt of the Jews, the em- 
peror Hadrian resolved to destroy all vestiges of 
their national and religious peculiarities ; and, as 
one means to this end, he established a new 
Roman colon}-, on the ground where Jerusalem 
had stood, by the name of Aelia Capitclina, and 
built a temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, on the site 
of the temple of Jehovah, a. d. 135. The esta- 
blishment of Christianity as the religion of the 
Roman empire restored to Jerusalem its sacred 
character, and led to the erection of several 
churches ; but the various changes which have 
taken place in it, since its conquest by the Arabs 
mider Omar in A. D. 638, have left very few ves- 
tiges even of the Roman city. Jerusalem stands 
due W. of the head of the Dead Sea, at the dis- 
tance of about 20 miles (in a straight line) and 
about 35 miles from the Mediterranean, on an 
elevated platform, divided, by a series of valleys, 
from hills which surround it on every side. This 
platform has a general slope from W. to E. its 
highest point being the summit of Mt. Zion, in 
the S. W. corner of the city on which stood 
the original " city of David." The S. E. part 
of the platform is occupied by the hill called 
Moriah, on which the temple stood, and the E. 
part by the hill caUed Acra ; but these two 
summits are now hardly distinguishable from the 
general surface of the platform, probably on ac- 
count of the gradual filling up of the valleys be- 
tween. The height of Mt. Zion is 2535 feet above 
the level of the Mediterranean, and about 300 
feet above the valley below. The extent of the 
platform is 5400 feet- from N. to S., and 1100 feet 
frora^E. to AV. 

Jocaste ('loKacTTTj), called Epicaste in Homer, 
daughter of Z\Ienoeceus, and wife of the Theban 
king Laius, by whom she became the mother of 
Oed ipus. She afterwards married Oedipus, not 
knowing that he was her son ; and when she dis- 
covered the crime she had unwittingly committed, 
she put an end to her life. For details see Oedipus. 

Joppe, Joppa ('loTTTrTj: 0. T. Japho : Jafa), 
a xery ancient maritime city of Palestine, and. 



before the building of Caesarea, the only sea-port 
of the whole coimtry, and therefore called by 
Strabo the port of Jerusalem, lay just S. of the 
boimdary between Judaea and Samaria, S.W. of 
Antipatris, and N.W. of Jerusalem. 

Jordanes {'lopSdvris, 'UpBavos ; Jordan^ Arab. 
Esh-Sheriah el-Kebir^ or eh-TJrduii), has its source 
at the S. foot of M. Hermon (the S.most part of 
Anti-Libanus), near Paneas (aft. Caesarea Phi- 
lippi), whence it flows S. into the little lake Se- 
mechonitis, and thence into the Sea of Galilee 
(Lake of Tiberias), and thence through a narrow 
plain, depressed below the level of the surrounding 
country into the lake Asphaltites {Dead Sea\ 
where it is finally lost. [Palaestixa.] Its course, 
from the lake Semechonitis to the Dead Sea, is 
about 60 miles ; the depression through which it 
runs consists, first, of a sandy valley, from 5 to 10 
miles broad, within which is a lower valley, in 
width about half a mile, and, for the most part, 
beautifully clothed with grass and trees ; and, in 
some places, there is still a lower valley within 
this. The average -width of the river itself is 
calculated at 30 yards, and its average depth at 9 
feet. It is fordable in many places in summer, 
but in spring it becomes much deeper, and often 
overflows its banks. Its bed is considerably below 
the level of the Mediterranean, 

Jornandes. or Jordanes, an historian, lived in 
the time of Justinian, or in the 6th century of 
oar era. He was a Goth by birth ; was secretary 
to the king of the Alani, adopted the Christian reli- 
gion, took orders, and was made a bishop in Italy. 
There is not sufficient evidence for the common 
statement that he was bishop of Ravenna. He 
wrote 2 historical works in the Latin language. 
1. De Getarinn [Gothorum) Origine et Rebus Ges- 
tis, containing the history of the Goths, from the 
earliest times down to their subjugation by Belisa- 
rius in 54 1. The work is abridged from the lost 
historj' of the Goths b}* Cassiodorus, to which Jor- 
nandes added various particulars ; but it is com- 
piled without judgment, and is characterised by 
partiality to the Goths. 2. De Regnorum ac Tem- 
porum Successione, a short compendium of history 
from the creation down to the victory obtained by 
Narses, in 552, over king Theodatus. It is only 
valuable for some accoimts of the barbarous nations 
of the North, and the countries which they inha- 
bited. Edited by Lindenbrog, Hamburg, 1611. 

Joseplius, Flavius, the Jewish historian, was 
bom at Jerusalem, a. d. 37. On his mother's side 
he was descended from the Asmonaean princes, 
while from his father, Matthias, he inherited the 
priestly ofiice. He enjoyed an excellent education ; 
and at the age of 26 he went to Rome to plead the 
cause of some Jewish priests whom Felix, the 
procurator of Judaea, had sent thither as prisoners. 
After a narrow escape from death by shipwreck, 
he safely landed at Puteoli ; and being introduced 
to Poppaea, he not only efiected the release of his 
friends, but received great presents from the era- 
press. On his return to Jerusalem he found his 
countrymen eagerly bent on a revolt from Rome, 
from which he used his best endeavours to dis- 
suade them ; but failing in this, he professed to 
enter into the popular designs. He was chosen 
one of the generals of the Jews, and was sent to 
manage affairs in Galilee. When Vespasian and 
his army entered Galilee, Josephus threw himself 
into lotapata, which he defended for 47 days. 



JOSEPHUS. 



JUGURTHA. 



35.6 



When the place was taken, the life of Josephus 
•was spared b}' Vespasian through the intercession 
of Titus. Josephus thereupon assumed the cha- 
racter of a prophet, and predicted to Vespasian 
that the empire should one day be his and his son's. 
Vespasian treated him with respect, but did not 
release him from captivitj^ till he was proclaimed 
emperor nearly 3 years afterwards (a. d. 70). Jo- 
sephus was present with Titus at the siege of Je- 
rusalem, and afterwards accompanied him to Rome. 
He received the freedom of the city from Vespa- 
sian, who assigned him, as a residence, a house 
formerly occupied by himself, and treated him ho- 
nourably to the end of his reign. The same favour 
was extended to him by Titus and Domitian as 
Avell. He assumed the name of Flavins, as a de- 
pendant of the Flavian family. His time at Rome 
appears to have been employed mainly in the com- 
position of his works. He died about 100. — The 
works of Josephus are written in Greek. They 
are : — 1. The History of the Jeivish War (ITepl 
Tov ^lov^a'iKOv iro\4ixov r) 'lovBaiKrjs tcxTopias irepl 

! aAwcrecos), in 7 books, published about A. D. 75. 

\ Josephus first wrote it in Hebrew, and then trans- 
lated it into Greek. It commences with the cap- 
ture of Jerusalem by Antiochus Epiphanes in B. c. 

i 170, runs rapidly over the events before Josephus 's 

, own time, and gives a detailed account of the fatal 
war with Rome. — 2. T7ie Jewish Antiquities {'lov- 
SaiKT} apxaioAoyia), in 20 books, completed about 
A. D. 93, and addressed to Epaphroditus. The 
title as well as the number of books may have been 
suggested by the 'FufiaiKTj apxcLoXoyia of Diony- 
sius of Halicarnassus. It gives an account of 
Jewish History from the creation of the world to 
A. D. 66, the 12th year of Nero, in which the Jews 
were goaded to rebellion by Gessius Floras. In 
tin's work Josephus seeks to accommodate the Jewish 
religion to heathen tastes and prejudices. Thus he 
speaks of Moses and his law in a tone which might 
be adopted by any disbeliever in his divine lega- 
tion. He says that Abraham, went into Egypt 
(Gen. xii.), intending to adopt the Egyptian views 
of religion, should he find them better than his own. 
He speaks doubtfully of the preservation of Jonah 
by the whale. He intimates a doubt of there 
having been any miracle in the passage of the Red 
Sea, and compares it with the passage of Alexander 
the Great along the shore of the sea of Pamphylia. 
He interprets Exod. xxii. 28, as if it conveyed a 
command to respect the idols of the heathen. Many 
similar instances might be quoted from his Avork. 
— 3. His own life, in one book. This is an ap- 
pendage to the Archaeologia, and is addressed to 
the same Epaphroditus. It was not written earlier 
than A. B. 97, since Agrippa II. is mentioned in it 
as no longer living. — 4. A treatise on the Antiquity 
of the Jews, or Against Apion, in 2 books, also 
addressed to Epaphroditus. It is in answer to 
such as impugned the antiquity of the Jewish 
nation, on the ground of the silence of Greek 

• writers respecting it. [Apion.] The treatise ex- 
hibits extensive acquaintance with Greek literature 
and philosophy. — 5. Els MaKKaSa'iovs fi irepl 

! avTOKpaTopos Xoyicr(xov, in 1 book. Its genuine- 
ness is doubtful. It is a declamatory account of 
the martyrdom of Eleazar (an aged priest), and of 
7 youths and their mother, in the persecution under 
Antiochus Epiphanes. The best editions of Jo- 
! sephus are by Hudson, Oxon. 1720 ; and by Ha- 
vercamp, Amst. 1726. 

I 



Jovianus, Flavius Claudius, was elected em- 
peror by the soldiers, in June A. D. 363, after the 
death of Julian [Julianus], whom he had accom- 
panied in his campaign against the Persians. In 
order to effect his retreat in safelj', Jovian surren- 
dered to the Persians the Roman conquests beyond 
the Tigris, and several fortresses in Mesopotamia. 
He died suddenly at a small town on the frontiers of 
Bithynia and Galatia, February 17th, 3G4, after a 
reign of little more than 7 months. Jovian was a 
Chri^stian ; but he protected the heathens. 

Juba (^l6§as). 1. King of Numidia, was son 
of Hiempsal, who was re-established on the throne 
by Pompey. On the breaking out of the civil war 
between Caesar and Pompey, he actively espoused 
the cause of the latter; and, accordingly, when 
Caesar sent Curio into Africa (b. c. 49), he sup- 
ported the Pompeian general Attius Varus with a 
large body of troops. Curio was defeated by their 
united forces, and fell in the battle. In 46 Juba 
fought along with Scipio against Caesar himself, 
and was present at the decisive battle of Thapsus. 
After this defeat he wandered about for some time, 
and then put an end to his own life. — 2. King of 
Mauretania, son of the preceding, was a mere child 
at his father's death (46), was carried a prisoner 
to Rome by Caesar, and compelled to grace the 
conqueror's triumph. He was brought up in Italy, 
where he received an excellent education, and 
applied himself with such diligence to study, that 
he turned out one of the most learned men of his 
day. After the death of Antony (30), Augustus 
conferred upon Juba his paternal kingdom of Nu- 
midia, and at the same time gave him in marriage 
Cleopatra, otherwise called Selene, the daughter 
of Antony and Cleopatra, At a subsequent period 
(25), Augustus gave him Mauretania in exchange 
for Numidia, which was reduced to a Roman pro- 
vince. He continued to reign in Mauretania till 
his death, which happened about a. d. 19. He 
was beloved by his subjects, among whom he 
endeavoured to introduce the elements of Greek 
and Roman civilisation ; and, after his death, they 
even paid him divine honours. — Juba wrote a 
great number of Avorks in almost every branch of 
literature. They are all lost, with the exception 
of a few fragments. They appear to have been all 
written in Greek. The most important of them 
were : — \. A History of Africa (Ai§vKd), in 
which he made use of Punic authorities. — 2. On 
the Assyrians. — S. A History of Arabia. — A. A 
Roman History {'PwfxaiKi] laropia). — 5. QearpiKT] 
tffTopia, a general treatise on all matters connected 
with the stage. — 6. Hepl ypa(piKi]s, or Trepl (w- 
ypd(pwy, seems to have been a general history of 
painting. He also wrote some treatises on botany 
and on grammatical subjects. 

Judaea, Judaei. [Palaestina.] 

Jugunthi, a German people, sometimes de- 
scribed as a Gothic, and sometimes as an Ale- 
mannic tribe. 

Jugurtha {'levy ovp6as or '1070^^05), king of 
Numidia, was an illegitimate son of Mastanabal, 
and a grandson of Masinissa. He lost his father 
at an early age, but was adopted by his uncle 
Micipsa, who brought him up with his OAvn sons, 
Hiempsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha quickly dis- 
tinguished himself both by his abilities and his 
skill in all bodily exercises, and rose to so much 
favour and popularity with the Numidians, that he 
began to excite the jealousy of Micipsa. In order 

A A 2 



356 JUGURTHA. 



JULIA. 



to remove bim to a distance, Micipsa sent him, in 
B. C 134. with an auxiliary force, to assist Scipio 
against Nuraantia. Here his zeal, courage, and 
ability, gained for hira the favour and com- 
mendation of Scipio, and of all the leading nobles in 
the Roman camp. On his return to Numidia he was 
received with honour by Micipsa, who was obliged 
to dissemble the fears which he entertained of his am- 
bitious nephew. Micipsa died in 118, leaving the 
kingdom to Jugurtha and his 2 sons, Hiempsal and 
Adherbal, in common. Jugurtha soon showed that 
he aspired to the sole sovereignty of the country. In 
the course of the same year he found an opportunity 
to assassinate Hiempsal at Thirmida, and afterwards 
defeated Adherbal in battle. Adherbal fled to 
Rome to invoke the assistance of the senate ; but 
Jugurtha, by a lavish distribution of bribes, coun- 
teracted the just complaints of his enemy. The 
senate decreed that the kingdom of Numidia 
should be equally divided between the 2 com- 
petitors ; but the senators entrusted with the 
execution of this decree were also bribed by 
Jugurtha, who thus succeeded in obtaining the 
"W. division of the kingdom, adjacent to Mau- 
retania, by far the larger and richer portion of the 
two (117). But this advantage was far from con- 
tenting him. Shortly afterwards he invaded the 
territories of Adherbal with a large army, and 
defeated him. Adherbal made his escape to the 
strong fortress of Cirta, where he was closely 
blockaded by Jugurtha. The Romans commanded 
Jugurtha to abstain from further hostilities ; but 
he paid no attention to their commands, and at 
length gained possession of Cirta, and put Adherbal 
to death, 112. War was now declared against 
Jugurtha at Rome, and the consul, L. Calpurnius 
Bestia, was sent into Africa, 111. Jugurtha had 
recourse to his customar}'- arts ; and by means 
of large sums of money given to Bestia and 
Scaurus, his principal lieutenant, he purchased 
from them a favourable peace. The conduct of 
Bestia excited the greatest indignation at Rome ; 
and Jugurtlia was summoned to the city under a 
safe conduct, the popular party hoping to be able 
to convict the nobility by means of his evidence. 
The scheme, however, failed ; since one of the 
tribunes who had been gained over by the friends 
of Bestia and Scaurus forbade the king to give 
evidence. Soon afterwards Jugurtha was compelled 
to leave Itah', in consequence of his having ven- 
tured on the assassination of Massiva, whose 
counter influence he regarded with apprehension. 
[Massiva.] The war was now renewed ; but 
the consul, Sp. Postumius Albinus, who arrived to 
conduct it (110), was able to effect nothing against 
Jugurtha. When the consul went to Rome to 
hold the comitia, he left his brother Aulus in 
command of the army. Aulus was defeated by 
Jugurtha ; great part of his army was cut to pieces, 
and the rest only escaped a similar fate by the 
ignominy of passing under the yoke. But this 
disgrace at once roused all the spirit of the B^oman 
people : the treaty concluded by Aulus was in- 
stantly annulled ; and the consul Q. Caecilius 
Metellus was sent into Africa at the head of a 
new army (109). Metellus was an able general 
and an upright man. whom Jugurtha Avas unable 
to cope with in the field, or to seduce by bribes. 
In the course of 2 years Metellus frequently de- 
feated Jugurtha, and at length drove him to take 
refuge among the Gaetulians. la 107 Metellus 



was succeeded in the command by Marius ; but 
the cause of Jugurtha had meantime been espoused 
by his father-in-law Bocchus, king of Mauretania, 
who had advanced to his support with a large 
army. The united forces of Jugurtha and Bocchus 
were defeated in a decisive battle by Marius ; and 
Bocchus purchased the forgiveness of the Romans 
by surrendering his son-in-law to Sulla, the quaes- 
tor of Marius (106). Jugurtha remained in cap- 
tivity till the return of Marius to Rome, when, 
after adorning the triumph of his conqueror (Jan. 
1, 104), he was thrown into a dungeon, and there 
starved to death. 

Julia. 1. Aunt of Caesar the dictator, and wife 
of C. Marius the elder. She died B. c. 68, and her 
nephew pronounced her funeral oration. — 2. 
Mother of !M. Antonius, the triumvir. In the 
proscription of the triumvirate (43) she saved the 
life of her brother, L. Caesar [Caesar, No. 5.]— 
3. Sister of Caesar the dictator, and wife of M. Atius 
Balbus, by whom she had Atia, the mother of 
Augustus [Atia]. — 4. Daughter of Caesar the 
dictator, by Cornelia, and his only child in marriage, 
Avas married to Cn. Pompey in 59. She was a 
woman of beauty and virtue, and was tenderly 
attached to her husband, although 23 years older 
than herself. She died in childbed in 54.-5. 
Daughter of Augustus by Scribonia, and his only 
child, was born in 39. She was educated with 
great strictness, but grew up one of the most pro- 
fligate women of her age. She was thrice married : 
— 1. to ^I. Marcellus, her first cousin in 25 : 2. 
after his death (23) without issue, to M. Agrippa, 
by whom she had 3 sons, C. and L. Caesar, and 
Agrippa Postumus, and 2 daughters, Julia and 
Agrippina : 3. after Agrippa 's death in 12, to 
Tiberius Nero, the future emperor. In B. c. 2 
Augustus at length became acquainted with the 
misconduct of his daughter, whose notorious adul- 
teries had been one reason why her husband Ti- 
berius had quitted Italy 4 years before. Augustus 
was incensed beyond measure, and banished her to 
Pandataria, an island off the coast of Campania. 
At the end of 5 years she was removed to Rhegium, 
but she was never suffered to quit the bounds of 
the city. Even the testament of Augustus showed 
the inflexibility of his anger. He bequeathed her 
no legacy, and forbade her ashes to repose in his 
mausoleum. Tiberius on his accession (a. d. 14) 
deprived her of almost all the necessaries of life ; 
and she died in the course of the same year. — 6. 
Daughter of the preceding, and wife of L. Aemilius 
Paulus. She inherited her mother's licentiousness, 
and was in consequence banished by her grandfather 
Augustus to the little island Tremerus, on the coast 
of Apulia, A. D. 9, where she lived nearly 20 years. 
She died in 28. It was probably this Julia whom 
Ovid celebrated as Corinna in his elegies and other 
erotic poems ; and his intrigues with her appear to 
have been the cause of the poet's banishment in 
A. D. 9.-7. Youngest child of Germanicus and 
Agrippina, was born a. D. 18; was married to M. 
Vinicius in 33; and was banished in 37 by her 
brother Caligula, who was believed to have had an 
incestuous intercourse with her. She was recalled 
by Claudius, but was afterwards put to death by 
this emperor at Messalina's instigation. The charge 
brought against her was adultery, and Seneca, the 
philosopher, v.-as banished to Corsica as the partner 
of her guilt. — 8. Daughter of Drusus and Livia, 
the sister of Germanicus. She wa.« married, a. d.^ 

J 



JULIA. 



JULIANUS. 



357 



20, to her first cousin, Nero, son of Germanicus 
and Agrippina; and after Nero's death, to Rubellius 
Blandus, by whom she had a son, Rubellius 
Plautus. She, too, was put to death by Claudius, 
at the instigation of Messalina, 59.-9. Daughter 
of Titus, the son of Vespasian, married Flavins 
Sabinus., a nephew of the emperor Vespasian. Julia 
died of abortion, caused by her uncle Domitian, 
with whom she lived in criminal intercourse. — 10. 
Domna [Domna]. — 11. Drusilla [Drusilla]. 
— 12. Maesa [Maesa]. 

Julia Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
houses at Rome, was of Alban origin, and was 
removed to Rome by Tullus Hostilius upon the 
d^^struction of Alba Longa. It claimed descent 
from tlie mythical lulus, the son of Venus and 
Anchises. The most distinguished family in the 
gens is that of Caesar. Under the empire we find 
an immense number of persons of the name of 
Julius, the most important of whom are spoken of 
under their surnames. 

Julianus Didius. [Didius.] 

Julianus, Flavius Claudius, usually called 
Julian, and surnamed the Apostate, Roman em- 
peror, A. D. 361' — 363. He was born at Constan- 
tinople, A. D. 331, and was the son of Julius Con- 
stantius by his second wife, Basilina, and the 
nephew of Constantine the Great. Julian and his 
elder brother, Gallus, were the only members of the 
imperial family whose lives were spared by the 
sons of Constantine the Great, on the death of the 
latter in 337. The 2 brothers were educated with 
care, and were brought up in the principles of the 
Christian religion ; but as they advanced to man- 
hood, they were watched with jealousy and sus- 
picion by the emperor Constantius. After the 
execution of Gallus in 354 [Gallus], the life of 
Julian was in great peril; but he succeeded in 
pacifying the suspicions of the emperor, and was 
allowed to go to Athens in 355 to pursue his 
studies. Here he devoted himself with ardour to 
the study of Greek literature and philosophy, and 
attracted universal attention both by his attainments 
and abilities. Among his fellow-students were 
Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil, both of whom 
afterwards became so celebrated in the Christian 
church. Julian had already abandoned Christianity 
in his heart and returned to the pagan faith of his 
ancestors; but fear of Constantius prevented him 
from making an open declaration of his apostacy. 
Julian did not remain long at Athens. In Novem- 
ber, 355, he received from Constantius the title of 
Caesar, and was sent into Gaul to oppose the 
Germans, who had crossed the Rhine, and were 
ravaging some of the fairest provinces of Gaul. 
During the next 5 years (356 — 360) Julian carried 
on war against the 2 German confederacies of the 
Alemanni and Franks with great success, and 
gained many victories over them. His internal 
administration was distinguished by justice and 
wisdom ; and he gained the goodwill and affection 
of the provinces intrusted to his care. His growing 
popularity awakened the jealousy of Constantius, 
Avho commanded him to send some of his best 
troops to the East, to serve against the Persians. 
His soldiers refused to leave their favourite general, 
and proclaimed him emperor at Paris in 360. After 
several fruitless negotiations between Julian and 
Constantius, both parties prepared for war. In 361 
Julian marched along the valley of the Danube 
towards Constantinople; but Constantius, who had 



set out from Syria to oppose his rival, died on his 
march in Cilicia. His death left Julian the undis- 
puted master of the empire. On the 11 th of De- 
cember Julian entered Constantinople. He lost no 
time in publicly avowing liimself a pagan, but he 
proclaimed that Christianity would be tolerated 
equally with paganism. He did not, however, act 
impartially towards the Christians. He preferred 
pagans as his civil and military officers, forbade the 
Christians to teach rhetoric and grammar in the 
schools, and, in order to annoy them, allowed the 
Jews to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. In the 
following year (362) Julian went to Syria in order 
to make preparations for the war against the Per- 
sians. He spent the winter at Antioch, where he 
made the acquaintance of the orator Libanius ; and 
in the spring of 363 he set out against the Persians. 
He crossed the Euphrates and the Tigris; and after 
burning his fleet on the Tigris, that it might not 
fall into the hands of the enemy, he boldly marched 
into the interior of the country in search of the 
Persian king. His army suflfered much from the 
heat, want of water, and provisions ; and he was 
at length compelled to retreat. The Persians now 
appeared and fearfully harassed his rear. Still the 
Romans remained victorious in many a bloody en- 
gagement ; but in the last battle fought on the 
26th of June, Julian was mortally wounded by an 
arrow, and died in the course of the day. Jovian 
was chosen emperor in his stead, on the field of 
battle. [JoviANUS.] Julian was an extraordinary 
character. As a monarch he was indefatigable in 
his attention to business, upright in his adminis- 
tration, and comprehensive in his views; as a raan^ 
he was virtuous, in the midst of a profligate age,, 
and did not j^ield to the luxurious temptations to. 
which he was exposed. In consequence of his; 
apostacy he has been calumniated by Christian! 
writers; but for the same reason he has been unduly 
extolled by heathen authors. He wrote a large- 
number of works, many of which are extant. He- 
was a man of reflection and thought, but possessed 
no creative genius. He did not however write 
merely for the sake of writing, like so many of 
his contemporaries ; his works show that he had 
his subjects really at heart, and that in literature 
as well as in business his extraordinary activity 
arose from the wants of a powerful mind, which 
desired to improve itself and the world. The style 
of Julian is remarkably pure, and is a close imitation 
of the style of the classical Greek writers. The- 
following are his most important works : — 1. Letters, . 
most of which were intended for public circulation, 
and are of great importance for the history of the 
time. Edited by Heyler, Mainz, 1 828. — 2. Orations, 
on various subjects, as for instance. On the emperor 
Constantius, On the worship of the sun, On the- 
mother of the gods (Cybele), On true and false Cy- 
nicism, &c. — 3. The Caesars or the Banrjzict (Kat- 
aapes ^ '2,u/j.ir6cnou), a satirical composition, which' 
is one of the most agreeable and instructive pro- 
ductions of ancient wit. Julian describes the Roman- 
emperors approaching one after the other to take 
their seat round a table in the heavens ; and as 
they come up, their faults, vices, and crimes, are 
censured with a sort of bitter mirth by old Silenus, 
whereupon each Caesar defends himself as well as 
he can. Edited by Heusinger, Gotha, 1736, and 
by Harless, Erlangen, 1785. — 4. Misopogon or tJie 
Enemy of the Beard {Miaonwycvv), a severe satire 
on the licentious and effeminate manners of the 

A. A 3 



358 



JULIANUS. 



inhabitants of Antioch, wlio had ridiculed Julian, 
when he resided in the citj-, on account of his 
austere virtues, and had laughed at- his allowing 
his beard to grow in the ancient fashion. — 5. 
Atiuinst ihe Ciiristians (Kara Xpianavcav). Tills 
■work is lost, but some extracts from it are given in 
Cyriirs reply to it, which is still extant. — The best 
edition of the collected works of Julian is bv 
Spanheim, Lips. 1696. 

Julianus, Salvius, an eminent Roman jurist, 
who flourished under Hadrian and the Antonines. 
He was praefectus urbi, and twice consul, but his 
name does not appear in the Fasti. By the order 
of Hadrian, he drew up the edictum perpetuum, 
which forms an epoch in the history of Roman 
jurisprudence. His work appears to have consisted 
in collecting and arranging the clauses which the 
praetors were accustomed to insert in their annual 
edict, in condensing the materials, and in omitting 
antiquated provisions. He was a voluminous legal 
writer, and his works are cited in the Digest. 

Julias {'lovXias : Bib. Bethsaida : Et-Tell, Ru.), 
a city of Palestine on the E. side of the Jordan, 
N. of the Lake of Tiberias, so called by the te- 
trarch Philip, in honour of Julia, the daughter of 
Augustus. 

Juliobriga (Eetorlillo, nr. Reynosa\ a town of 
the Cantabri in Hispania Tarraconensis, near the 
sources of the Iberus. 

Juliomagus. [Andecavi.] 

Juli6p61is('IouAi07roAis). [GoRDiUM ; Tarsus.] 

Julius. [Julia Gens.] 

Juncaria (Jimquera), a town of the Indigetes 
in Plispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Bai- 
cino to the frontiers of Gaul, in a plain covered 
with rushes {'lovyKapiov ireS'iov). 

Junia. 1. Half-sister of M. Brutus, the mui-- 
derer of Caesar, and wife of M. Lepidus, the trium- 
vir. — 2. Tertia, or Tertulla, own sister of the 
preceding, was the wife of C. Cassius, one of 
Caesar's murderers. She survived her husband a 
long while, and did not die till a. d. 22. 

Junia Gens, an ancient patrician house at Rome, 
to which belonged the celebrated M. Junius Brutus, 
who took such an active part in expelling the Tar- 
quins. But afterwards the gens appears as only a 
plebeian one. Under the republic the chief fa- 
milies were those of Brutus, Bubulcus, Grac- 

CHANUS, NORBANUS, PULLUS, SiLANUS. The 

Junii who lived under the empire, are likewise 
fipoken of under their various surnames. 

Juno, called Hera by the Greeks. The Greek 
goddess is spoken of in a separate article. [Hera.] 
The word Ju-720 contains the same root as Ju-piter. 
As Jupiter is the king of heaven and cf the gods, 
so Juno is the queen of heaven, or the female Ju- 
piter. She was worshipped at Rome as the queen 
of heaven, from early times, with the surname of 
Regina. At a later period her worship was so- 
lemnly transferred from Veil to Rome, where a 
sanctuary was dedicated to her on the Aventine. 
As Jupiter was the protector of the male sex, so 
Juno watched over the female sex. She was sup- 
posed to accompany every woman through life, 
from the monunt of her birth to her death. Hence 
she bore the special surnames of Virginalis and 
Matrona^ as well as the general ones of Opiyma 
and Sospita, and under the last mentioned name 
she was worshipped at Lanuvium. On their birth- 
day women olfered sacrifices to Juno sumamed Na- 
talis, ju3t as men sacriticed to their genius natalis. 



JUPITER. 

The great festival, celebrated by all the women, 
in honour of Juno, was called Matronalia {Did. of 
Ant. S.V.), and took place on the 1st of March. 
Her protection of women, and especially her power 
of making them fruitful, is further alluded to in the 
festival Fopulifuyia [Did. of Ant. s. v.), as well as 
in the surname of Februlis, Februaia, Febrata, or 
Februalis. Juno was further, like Saturn, the 
guardian of the finances, and under the name of 
Moneta she had a temple on the Capitoline hill, 
which contained the mint. The most important 
period in a woman's life is that of her marriage, 
and she was therefore believed especially to pre- 
side over marriage. Hence she was called Jiiga or 
Jugalis, and had a variety of other names, such as 
Froiuba, Cinxia, Lucina^ &c. The month of June, 
which is said to have been originally called Juno- 
nius, w^as considered to be the most favourable 
period for marrying. Women in childbed invoked 
Juno Ijucina to help them, and newly-born children 
were likewise under her protection : hence she was 
sometimes confounded with the Greek Artemis or 
^ Ilithyia. In Etruria she Avas worshipped imder 
I the name of Cupra. She was also worshipped at 
Falerii, Lanuvium. Aricia, Tibur, Praeneste, and 
other places. In the representations of the Roman 
Juno that have come down to us, the type of the 
Greek Hera is commonly adopted. 

Jupiter, called Zeus by the Greeks. The Greek 
god is spoken of in a separate article [Zeus.] Ju- 
piter was originally an elemental divinity, and his 
name signifies the father or lord of heaven, being 
a contraction of Diovis pater, or Diespiter. Being 
the lord of heaven, he was worshipped as the god 
of rain, storms, thunder, and lightning, whence 
he had the epithets of Pluvius, Fulgurator, Toni- 
trualis, Tonans, and Fulminator. As the pebble 
or flint stone was regarded as the symbol of light- 
ning, Jupiter was frequently represented with such 
a stone in his hand instead of a thunderbolt. In 
concluding a treaty, the Romans took the sacred 
symbols of Jupiter, viz. the sceptre and flint stone, 
together with some grass from his temple, and the 
oath taken on such an occasion was expressed by 
per Jovem Lapidem jurare. In consequence of his 
possessing such powers over the elements, and espe- 
I cially of his always having the thunderbolt at his 
command, he was regarded as the highest and most 
: powerful among the gods. Hence he is called the 
I Best and Most High {Optimus Moucimus). His 
j temple at Rome stood on the lofty hill of the Ca- 
pitol, whence he derived the surnames of Capitoli- 
i <ius and Tarpeius. He was regarded as the special 
i protector of Rome. As such he was worshipped by 
the consuls on entering upon their office ; and the 
triumph of a victorious general was a solemn pro- 
cession to his temple. He therefore bore the sur- 
names of Imperator, Vidor, Invidus, Statoi; Opt- 
izilus, Feretrius, Praedator, Triumphator, and the 
like. Under all these surnames he had temples or 
statues at Rome ; and 2 temples, viz. those of Ju- 
piter Stator and of Jupiter Feretrius, were believed 
to have been built in the time of Romulus. Under 
the name of Jupiter CapitoliJius, he presided over 
the great Roman games ; and under the name of 
Jnpiler Latialis or Laiiaris, over the Feriae Latinae. 
Jupiter, according to the belief of the Romans, de- 
termined the course of all human affairs. He fore- 
saw the future, and the events happening in it were 
the results of his will. He revealed the future to 
man through signs in the heavens and the flight of 



JURA. 

birds, which are hence called the messengers of 
Jupiter, while the god himself is designated as 
Prodiffialis, that is, the sender of prodigies. For 
the same reason the god was invoked at the begin- 
ning of every undertaking, whether sacred or pro- 
fane, together with Janus, who blessed the begin- 
ning itself. Jupiter was further regarded as the 
guardian of law, and as the protector of justice and 
virtue. He maintained the sanctity of an oath, 
and presided over all transactions which were based 
upon faithfulness and justice. Hence Fides was 
his companion on the Capitol, along with Victoria ; 
and hence a traitor to his country, and persons 
guilty of perjury, were thrown down from the Tar- 
peian rock. — As Jupiter was the lord of heaven, 
and consequently the prince of light, the white 
colour was sacred to him, white animals were sa- 
crificed to him, his chariot was believed to be drawn 
by 4 white horses, his priests wore white caps, 
and the consuls were attired in white when the}'^ 
offered sacrifices in the Capitol the day they en- 
tered on their office. The worship of Jupiter at 
Rome was under the special care of the Flamen 
Dialis^ who was the highest in rank of all the 
flamens, (Diet, of Ant. art. Flamen.) The Ro- 
mans, in their representations of the god, adopted 
the type of the Greek Zeus. 

Jura or Jurassus Mons (Jura), a range of 
mountains, which run N. of the lake Lemanus as 
far as Augusta Rauracorum (August near Basle), 
on the Rhine, forming the boundary between the 
Sequani and Helvetii. 

Justiniana. 1. Prima, a town in Illyria, near 
Tauresium, was the birthplace of Justinian, and 
was built by that emperor ; it became the resi- 
dence of the archbishop of Illyria, and, in the 
middle ages, of the Servian kings. — 2. Secunda, 
also a town in Illyria, previously called Ulpiana, 
was enlarged and embellished by Justinian. 

Justinianus, surnamed the Great, emperor of 
Constantinople, a.d. 527 — 565. He was bore near 
Tauresium in Illyria, a. D. 483 ; was adopted by 
his uncle, the emperor Justinus, in 520 ; sue- 1 
ceeded his uncle in 527 ; married the beautiful j 
but licentious actress, Theodora, who exercised 
great influence over him ; and died in 565, 
leaving the crown to his nephew, Justin II. He 
was, during the greater part of his reign, a firm 
supporter of orthodoxy, and thus has received from 
ecclesiastical writers the title of Great ; but towards 
the end of his life, he became a heretic, being one 
of the adherents of Nestorianism. His foreign 
wars were glorious, but all his victories were won 
by his generals. The empire of the Vandals in 
Africa was overthrown by Belisarius, and their 
king Gelimer led a prisoner to Constantinople ; 
and the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy was 
likewise destroyed, by the successive victories of 
Belisarius and Narses. [Belisarius ; Narses.] 
Justinian adorned Constantinople with many public 
buildings of great magnificence ; but the cost of 
their erection, as well as the expenses of his foreign 
wars, obliged him to impose many new taxes, 
which were constantly increased by the natural 
covetousness and rapacity of the emperor. — The 
great work of Justinian is his legislation. He re- 
solved to establish a perfect system of written le- 
gislation for all his dominions ; and, for this end, 
to make 2 great collections, one of the imperial 
constitutions, the other of all that was valuable in 
the works of jurists.. His first work was the 



JUSTINUS. 359 

j collection of the imperial constitutions. This he 
' commenced in 528, in the 2nd year of his reign. 
The task was entrusted to a commission of 10, 
who completed their labours in the following 
year (529) ; and their collection was declared to 
be law under the title of Justinianeus Codex. — In 
530 Tribonian, who had been one of the commis- 
sion of 1 employed in drawing up the Code, was 
authorised by the emperor to select fellow-labourers 
to assist him in the other division of the under- 
taking. Tribonian selected 16 coadjutors ; and 
this commission proceeded at once to lay under 
contribution the works of those jurists who had re- 
ceived from former emperors " auctoritatem con- 
scribendarum interpretandique legum." They were 
ordered to divide their materials into 50 Books, and 
to subdivide each Book into Titles (Tituli). No- 
thing that was valuable was to be excluded, nothing 
that was obsolete was to be admitted, and neither 
repeti-tion nor inconsistency was to be allowed. 
This work was to bear the name Digesta or Pan- 
dectae. The work was completed, in accordance 
with the instructions that had been given, in the 
short space of 3 years ; and on the 30t«k of Dec. 
533, it received from the imperial sanction the au- 
thority of law. It comprehends upwards of 9000 
extracts, in the selection of which the compilers 
made use of nearly 2000 different books, containing 
more than 3,000,000 lines.— The Code and the Di- 
gest contained a complete body of law ; but as they 
were not adapted to elementary instruction, a com- 
mission was appointed, consisting of Tribonian, 
Theophilus, and Dorotheus, to compose an institu- 
tional work, which should contain the elements of 
the law (legum incunabula), and should not be en- 
cumbered with useless matter. Accordingly they 
produced a treatise under the title of Insiituiiones, 
which was based on elementary works of a similar 
character, but chiefly on the Institutiones of Gains. 
[Gaius.] The Institutiones consisted of 4 books, 
and were published with the imperial sanction, at 
the same time as the Digest. — After the publi- 
cation of the Digest and the Institutiones, 50 de- 
cisiones and some new constitutiones also were 
promulgated by the emperor. This rendered a 
levision of the Code necessary ; and accordingly a 
new Code was promulgated at Constantinople, on 
the 16th of November, 534, and the use of the do- 
cisiones, of the new constitutiones, and of the first 
edition of the Code, was forbidden. The 2nd 
edition (Ccdex Repetitae Praelectionis) is the Code 
that we no\t possess, in 12 books, each of which 
is divided into titles. — Justinian sul)3equently 
published various new constitutiones, to which he 
gave the name of Novellae Constitutiones. These 
Constitutiones form a kind of supplement to the 
Code, and were published at various times from 
535 to 565, but most of them appeared between 
535 and 539. It does not seem, however, that 
any official compilation of these Novellae appeared 
in the lifetime of Justinian. — The 4 legislative 
works of Justinian, the Institutiones, Digesta or 
Pandedae, Codex, and Novellae, are included under 
the general name of Corpus Juris Civilis, and form 
the Roman law, as received in Europe. — The best 
editions of the Corpus for general use are by Gotho- 
fredus and Van Leeuwen, Amst. 1663, 2 vols. fol. ; 
by Gebauer and Spangenberg, Gotting. 1776 — 
1797, 2 vols. 4to. ; and by Beck, Lips. 1836, 
2 vols. 4to. 

Justinus. 1. The historian, of uncertain date, 
A A 4 



H60 



JUSTUS. 



LA BD AC US. 



but who did not live later than the 4th or 3th 1 
century of our aera, is the author of an extant ' 
work entitled Ilistoriarum Philippicarmn Libri ' 
XLIV. This work is taken from the Hidoriae \ 
Philippicae of Tro^ms Pompeius, who lived in the 
time of Augustus. The title Philippicae was given 
to it, because its main object was to give the his- 
tory of the Macedonian monarchy, with all its 
branches ; but in the execution of this design, 
Trogus permitted himself to indulge in so many 
excursions, that the work formed a kind of uni- 
versal history from the rise of the Assyrian mo- 
narchy to the conquest of the East by Rome. The 
original work of Trogus, which was one of great 
value, is lost. The work of Justin is not so much 
an abridgment of that of Trogus, as a selection of 
such parts as seemed to him most worthy of being 
generally known. Edited by Graevius, Lug. Bat. 
1683 ; by Gronovius, Lug. Bat. 1719 and 1760 ; 
and by Frotscher, Lips. 1827, 3 vols. — 2. Sur- 
named the Martj^T, one of the earliest of the 
Christian writers, was bom about a. d. 103, at 
Flavia Neapolis, the Shechem of the Old Testa- 
ment, a city in Samaria. He was brought up as a 
heathen, and in his youth studied the Greek 
philosophy with zeal and ardour. He was after- 
wards converted to Christianit}'. He retained as 
a Christian the garb of a philosopher, but devoted 
himself to the propagation, by writing and other- 
wise, of the faith which he had embraced. He 
was put to death at Rome in the persecution under 
M. Antoninus, about 165. Justin v/rote a large 
number of works in Greek, several of which have 
come down to us. Of these the most important 
are : — 1. An Apology for the Christians^ addressed 
to Antoninus Pius, about 139 ; 2. A Secmid Apo- 
logy for the Christians, addressed to the emperors 
M. Aurelius and L. Verus ; 3. A Dialogue with 
Tryphon the Jen; in which Justin defends Chris- 
tianity against the objections of Tryphon. The 
best edition of the collected works of Justin is by 
Otto, Jena, 1842—1844, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Justus, a Jewish historian of Tiberias in Gali- 
laea, was a contemporary of the historian Josephus, 
who was very hostile to him. 

Juturna, the nymph of a fountain in Latium, 
famous for its healing qualities. Its water was 
used in nearly all sacrifices ; a chapel was dedi« 
cated to its nymph at Rome in the Campus 
Martins by Lutatius Catulus ; and sacrifices were 
offered to her on the 1 1th of January. A pond in 
the forum, between the temples of Castor and 
Vesta, was called Lacus Juturnae, whence we 
must infer that the name of the nymph Juturna is 
not connected with jugis, but probably with juvare. 
She is said to have been beloved by Jupiter, who 
rewarded her with immortality .and the rule over 
the waters. Some writers call her the wife of 
Janus and mother of Fontus, but in the Aeneid 
she appears as the aflfectionate sister of Tumus. 

JuvaTUm or Juvavia {Salzburg), a town in 
Noiicum. on the river Jovavus or Isonta (Salza), 
was a Roman colony founded by Hadrian, and 
the residence of the Roman governor of the pro- 
vince. It was destroyed by the Heruli in the 5th 
centurv, but was afterwards rebuilt. 

Juveualis, Decimus Junius, the great Roman 
satirist, but of whose life we have few authentic 
particulars. His ancient biographers relate that 
he was either the son or the "alumnus" of a rich 
freedraan ; that he occupied himself, until he had 



j nearly reached the term of middle life, in declaiin- 
' ing ; that, having subsequently composed some 
clever lines upon Paris the pantomime, he was in- 
i duced to cultivate assiduously satirical composition ; 
and that in consequence of his attacks upon Paris 
becoming known to the court, the poet, although 
now an old man of 80, was appointed to the 
command of a body of troops, in a remote district 
of Egj-pt, where he died shortly afterwards. It 
is supposed by some that the Paris, who was at- 
tacked by Juvenal, was the contemporary of Do- 
mitian, and that the poet was accordingly banished 
by this emperor. But this opinion is clearly un- 
tenable. 1. We know that Paris was killed in 
A. D. 83, upon suspicion of an intrigue with the 
empress Domitia. 2. The 4th satire, as appears 
from the concluding lines, was written after the 
death of Domitian, that is, not earlier than 96. 
3. The Ist satire, as we learn from the 49th line, 
was written after the condemnation of Marius 
Priscus, that is, not earlier than 109. These po- 
sitions admit of no doubt ; and hence it is esta- 
blished that Juvenal was alive at least 17 years 
after the death of Paris, and that some of his 
satires were composed after the death of Domitian. 
— The only facts with regard to Juvenal upon 
which we can implicitly rely are, that he flourished 
towards the close of the first centur}', that Aqui- 
num, if not the place of his nativity, was at least 
his chosen residence (Sat. iii. 319), and that he is 
in all probability the friend whom Martial ad- 
dresses in 3 epigrams. There is, perhaps, another 
circumstance which we may admit. We are told 
that he declaimed for many years of his life ; and 
every page in his writings bears evidence to the 
accuracy of this assertion. Each piece is a finished 
rhetorical essay, energetic, glowing, and sonorous. 
He denounces vice in the most indignant terms ; 
but the obvious tone of exaggeration which per- 
vades all his invectives leaves us in doubt how far 
this sustained passion is real, and how far assumed 
for show. The extant works of Juvenal consist of 
16 satires, the last being a fragment of very 
doubtful authenticity, all composed in heroic hexa- 
meters. Edited by Ruperti, Lips. 1819 ; and by 
Heinrich, Bonn, 1839. 
Juventas. [Hebe.] 

Juventius. I. Celsus. [Celsus.] — 2. Late- 
rensis. [Laterensis.]— 3. Thalna. [Thalna.] 



L. 

Labda (Ad€8a), daughter of the Bacchiad Am- 
phion, and mother of Cypselus, by Eetion, [Cyp- 
selus.] 

Labdacidae. [Labdacus.] 

Labdacus (Ad§8aKos), son of the Theban king, 
Polydorus, by Nycteis, daughter of Nycteus. Lab- 
dacus lost his father at an early age, and was 
placed under tlie guardianship of Nycteus, and 
afterwards under that of Lycus, a brother of Nyc- 
teus. When Labdacus had grown up to manhood, 
Lycus surrendered the government to him ; and 
on the death of Labdacus, which occurred soon 
after, Lycus undertook the guardianship of his son 
Laius, the father of Oedipus. — The name Labda- 
cidae is frequently given to the descendants of 
Labdacus, — Oedipus, Polynices, Eteocles and 
Antigone. 



LABDALUM. 



LACEDAS. 



3G1 



Labdalum. [Syracusae.] 

Labeates, a warlike people in Dalmatia, whose 
chief town was Scodra, and in whose territory was 
the Labeatis Palus {Lake of Scutari), through 
which the river Barbana (Bogana) runs. 

Labeo, Antistius. 1. A Roman jurist, was one 
of the murderers of Julius Caesar, and put an end 
to his life after the battle of Philippi, b. c. 42, — 
2. Son of the preceding, and a still more eminent 
jurist. He adopted the republican opinions of his 
father, and was in consequence disliked by Au- 
gustus. It is probable that the Labeone insanior 
of Horace {Sat. i. 3. 80) was a stroke levelled 
against the jurist, in order to please the emperor. 
Labeo wrote a large number of works, which are 
cited in the Digest, He was the founder of one of 
the 2 great legal schools, spoken of under Capito. 

Labeo, Q, Fabius, quaestor urbanus b, c. 196; 
praetor 1 89, when he commanded the fleet in the 
war against Antiochus ; and consul 183. 

Laberius, Decimus, a Roman eques, and a 
distinguished writer of mimes, was born about 
B. c. 107, and died in 43 at Puteoli, in Campania. 
At Caesar's triumphal games in October, 45, P. 
Syrus, a professional mimus, seems to have chal- 
lenged all his craft to a trial of wit in extempora- 
neous farce, and Caesar offered Laberius 500,000 
sesterces to appear on the stage. Laberius was 60 
years old, and the profession of a mimus was infa- 
mous, but the wish of the dictator was equivalent 
to a command, and he reluctantly complied. He 
had however revenge in his power, and took 
it. His prologue awakened compassion, and per- 
haps indignation : and during the performance he 
adroitly availed himself of his various characters 
to point his wit at Caesar. In the person of a 
beaten Syrian slave he cried out, — " Marry ! 
Quirites, but we lose our freedom," and all eyes 
were turned upon the dictator ; and in another 
mime he uttered the pregnant maxim " Needs 
must he fear, who makes all else adread." Caesar, 
impartially or vindictiveh', awarded the prize to 
Syrus. The prologue of Laberius has been pre- 
served by Macrobius {Sat. ii. 7) ; and if this may 
be taken as a specimen of his style, he would rank 
above Terence, and second only to Plautus, in 
dramatic vigour. Laberius evidently made great 
impression on his contemporaries, although he is 
depreciated by Horace {Sat. i. 10. 6). 

Labicum, Labici, Lavicum, Lavici (Labica- 
nus : Colonna), an ancient town in Latium on one 
of the hills of the Alban mountain, 15 miles S.E. 
of Rome, W. of Praeneste, and N.E. of Tusculum. 
It was an ally of the Aequi ; it was taken and was 
colonised by the Romans, B. c. 41 8. 

Labienus. 1. T., tribune of the plebs b. c. 63, 
the year of Cicero's consulship. Under pretence 
of avenging his uncle's death, who had joined Sa- 
turninus (100), and had perished along with the 
other conspirators, he accused Rabirius of perduellio 
or high treason. Rabirius was defended by Cicero. 
[Rabirius] In his tribuneship Labienus was 
entirely devoted to Caesar's interests. Accordingly 
when Caesar went into Transalpine Gaul in 58, he 
took Labienus with him as his legatus. Labienus 
continued with Caesar during the greater part of 
his campaigns in Gaul, and was the ablest officer 
he had. On the breaking out of the civil war in 
49, he deserted Caesar and joined Pompey. His 
defection caused the greatest joy among the Pom- 
peian party ; but he disappointed the expectations 



of his new friends, and never performed any thing 
of importance. He fought against his old com- 
mander at the battle of Pharsalia in Greece, 48, at 
the battle of Thapsus in Africa, 46, and at the 
battle of Munda in Spain, 45. He was slain in 
the last of these battles. — 2. Q., son of the pre- 
ceding, joined the party of Brutus and Cassias 
after the murder of Caesar, and was sent by them 
into Parthia to seek aid from Orodes, the Parthian 
king. Before he could obtain any definite answer 
from Orodes, the news came of the battle of Phi- 
lippi, 42. Two years afterwards he persuaded 
Orodes to entrust him with the command of a 
Parthian army ; and Pacorus, the son of Orodes, was 
associated with him in the command. In 40 
they crossed the Euphrates and met with great 
success. They defeated Decidius Saxa, the lieu- 
tenant of Anton}', obtained possession of the two 
great towns of Antioch and Apamea, and pene- 
trated into Asia Minor. But in the following 
year, 39, P. Ventidius, the most able of Antony's 
legates, defeated the Parthians. Labienus fled in 
disguise into Cilicia, where he was apprehended, 
and put to death. —3. T., a celebrated orator and 
historian in the reign of Augustus, either son or 
grandson of No. 1. He retained all the republican 
feelings of his family, and never became reconciled 
to the imperial government, but took every oppor- 
tunity to attack Augustus and his friends. His 
enemies obtained a decree of the senate that all 
his writings should be burnt; whereupon he shut 
himself up in the tomb of his ancestors, and thus 
perished, about A. D. 12. 

Labranda (ra AdSpavda : AaSpavSevs, AaSpav- 
Sriv6s, Labrandenus), a town in Caria, 68 stadia 
N. of Mylasa, celebrated for its temple of Zeus 
Stratios or Labrandenus, on a hill near the city. 
Mr. Fell owes considers some ruins at Jakli to be 
those of the temple ; but this is doubtful. 

Labro, a sea-port in Etruria, mentioned by 
Cicero along with Pisae, and supposed by some to 
be the Liburnum, mentioned by Zosimus, and the 
modern Livorno or Leghorn. Others however 
maintain that the ancient Portus Pisanus corre- 
sponds to Leghorn. 

Labus or Labutas (Aagos or AaSovras : Sohad 
Koli, part of the Elburz), a mountain of Parthia, 
between the Coronus and the Sariphi Montes. 

Labynetus {Aa€vvr]Tos\ a name common to 
several of the Babylonian monarchs, seems to have 
been a title rather than a proper name. The 
Labynetus, mentioned by Herodotus (i. 74) as 
mediating a peace between Cyaxares and Alyattes, 
is the same with Nebuchadnezzar. The Laby- 
netus who is mentioned by Herodotus (i. 77) as 
a contemporary of Cyrus and Croesus, is the same 
with the Belshazzar of the prophet Daniel. By 
other writers he is called Nabonadius or Nabonidus. 
He was the last king of Babylon. [Cyrus.] 

Labjrrintlius. [See Did. of Antiq. s. v.^ 

Lacedaemon (AaK65ai'/.iwz/), son of Zeus and 
Taygete, was married to Sparta, the daughter of 
Eurotas, by whom he became the father of Amyclas, 
Eurydice, and Asine. He was king of the country 
which he called after his own name, Lacedaemon, 
while he called the capital Sparta after the name of 
his wife. [Sparta.] 

Lacedaemonius (AoKe5at/i(}i/jos), son of Cimon, 
so named in honour of the Lacedaemonians. 

Lacedas (AaKiiSos), or Leocedes (Herod, yi. 
127), king of Argos, and father of Melas. 



3G2 



LACETANL 



LACYDES. 



Lacetani, a people in HispaniaTarraconensis at 
the foot of the PjTenees. 

Lachares (Aaxap^O- ^- An Athenian dema- 
gogue, made himself tyrant of Athens, B. c. 296, 
when the city was besieged by Demetrius. When 
Athens was on the point of falling into the hands 
of Demetrius, Lachares made his escape to Thebes. 
— 2. An eminent Athenian rhetorician, who flou- 
rished in the 5th century of our era. 

Laches (Aax^js), an Athenian commander in 
the Peloponnesian war, is first mentioned in b. c. 
427. lie fell at the battle of Mantinea, 418. In 
the dialogue of Plato which bears his name, he is 
represented as not over-acute in argiament, and 
with temper on a par with his acuteness. 

Lachesis, one of the Fatos. [Moerae.] 

Lacia or Laciadae (Aa/ci'a, AuKLadai : AaKidSrjs, 
Aa/cievs), a demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe 
Oeneis, W. of, and near to Athens. 

Lacimum {Aaiuviov &Kpov), a promontory on the 
E. coast of Bruttium, a few miles S. of Croton, and 
forming the W. boundary of the Tarentine gulf. 
It possessed a celebrated temple of Juno, who was 
worshipped here imder the surname of Lacinia. 
The remains of this temple are still extant, and 
have given the modem name to the promonton,', 
Capo delle Colonyie or Capo di Nao (vaos). Han- 
nibal dedicated in this temple a bilingual inscrip- 
tion (in Punic and Greek), which recorded the 
history of his campaigns, and of which Polybius 
made use in writing his history. 

Lacippo (Alecippe), a town in Hispania Baetica 
not far from the sea, and W. of Malaca. 

Lacmon or Lacmus (AdKuwv, Actfc^uos), the N. 
part of Mt. Pindus, in which the river Aous takes 
its origin. 

Lacobriga, 1. (Lobera), a town of the Vaccaei ' 
in the N. of Hispania Tarraconensis on the road 
from Asturica to Tarraco. — 2. (Lagoa), a town on 
the S.W. of Lusitania, E. of the Prom. Sacrum. 

Lacomca (AaKuyiKT]), sometimes called Laconia 
by the Romans, a country of Peloponnesus, was 
bounded on the N. by Argolis and Arcadia, on the 
W. by Messenia, and on the E. and S. by the sea. 
Laconica was a long valley, ninning southwards to 
the sea, and was inclosed on 3 sides by mountains. 
On the N. it was separated by Mt. Pamon from 
Argolis, and by jNIt. Sciritis from Arcadia. It was 
bounded by Mt. Taygetus on the W. and by Mt. 
Pamon on the E., which are 2 masses of mountains 
extending from Arcadia to the S. extremities of 
the Peloponnesus, Mt. Taygetus terminating at 
the Prom. Taenarum, and Mt. Pamon, continued 
under the names of Thomax and Zarex, termi- 
nating at the Prom. Malea. The river Eurotas 
flows through the valley lying between these 
mountain masses, and falls into the Laconian gulf. 
In the upper part of its coiirse the A-alley is narrow, 
and near Sparta the mountains approach so close to 
each other as to leave little more than room for the 
channel of the river. It is for this reason that we 
find the vale of Sparta called the hollow Lace- 
daemon. Below Sparta the mountains recede, and 
the valley opens out into a plain of considerable 
extent. The soil of this plain is poor, but on the 
slopes of the mountains there is land of considerable 
fertility. There were valuable marble quarries near 
Taenams. Off the coast shell-fish were caught, 
■which produced a purple dye inferior only to the 
Tyrian. Laconica is well described bv Euripides 
as difficult of access to an enemy. On the N. the 



country could only be invaded by the valleys of the 
Eurotas and the Oenus ; the range of Taygetu.s 
formed an almost insuperable barrier on the W.; 
and the want of good harbours on the E. coast 
protected it from invasion by sea on that side. 
Sparta was the only town of importance in the 
country [Sparta]. — The most ancient inhabitants 
of the country are said to have been CjTiurians 
and Leleges. They were expelled or conquered by 
the Achaeans, who were the inhabitants of the 
country in the heroic age. The Dorians afterwards 
invaded Peloponnesus and became the raling race 
in Laconica. Some of the old Achaean inhabitants 
were reduced to slavery ; but a great number of 
them became subjects of the Dorians under the name 
of Perioeci (TlepioiKoi). The general name for the 
inhabitants is Lacones (AaKosves) or Lacedaemonii 
(AaKedaiiu.6viOL) ; but the Perioeci are frequently 
called Lacedaemonii, to distinguish them from the 
Spartans. 

Lacomcus Sinus (koXttos AoKwi/t/cbs), a gulf in 
the S. of Peloponnesus, into which the Eurotas 
lalls, beginning W. at the Prom. Taenarum and E. 
at the Prom, Malea. 

Lactantius, a celebrated Christian Father, but 
his exact name, the place of his nativity, and the 
date of his birth, are uncertain. In modern works 
we find him denominated Lucius Coelius Firmianus 
Lactantius ; but the 2 former appellations, in the 
2nd of which Caecilius is often substituted for 
Coelius, are omitted in many MSS., while the 2 
latter are frequently presented in an inverted order. 
Since he is spoken of as far advanced in life about 
A.D. 315, he must have been bom not later than 
the middle of the 3rd centurj', probably in Italy, 
possibly at Firmum, on the Adriatic, and certainly 
' studied in Africa, where he became the pupil of 
Arnobius, who taught rhetoric at Sicca. His fame 
became so widely extended, that about 301 he 
was invited by Diocletian to settle at Nicomedia, 
and there to practise his art. At this period he ap- 
pears to have become a Christian. He was summoned 
to Gaul, about 312 — 318, when now an old man, 
to superintend the education of Crispus, son of Con- 
stantine, and he probably died at Treves some 10 
or 12 years afterwards (325 — 330.) — The extant 
works of Lactantius are : — 1. Divinarum Instiiu- 
tionum Lihri VII., a sort of introduction to Christ- 
ianity, intended to supersede the less perfect 
treatises of Minucius Felix, Tertullian, and Cyprian. 
Each of the 7 books bears a separate title : (1.) Z>e 
Falsa Religione. (2.) De Origine Erroris. (3.) 
De Falsa Sapientia. (4.) De Vera Sapientia et 
Religione. (5.) De Justitia. (6.) De Vero Cultu. 
(7.) De Vita Beata. — 2. An Epitome of the In- 
stitutions. — 3. De Ira Dei. — 4. De Opificio Dei 
3. De Formatione Hominis. — 5. De Mortibus Per- 
secutorum. — 6. Various Poems, most of which 
were probably not written by Lactantius. — The 
style of Lactantius, formed upon the model of the 
great orator of Rome, has gained for him the ap- 
pellation of the Christian Cicero, and not unde- 
servedly. The best edition of Lactantius is by Le 
Brun and Lenglet du Fresnoy, Paris, 1748. 

Lactarius Mens or Lactis Mens, a mountain 
in Campania, belonging to the Apennines, 4 miles 
E. of Stabiae, so called because the cows which 
grazed upon it produced excellent milk. Here 
Narses gained a victory over the Goths, A. d. 553. 

Lacydes (.Voki'Stjs), a native of Cyrene, suc- 
ceeded Arcesilaus as president of the Academy at 



LADE. 



LAEVI. 



363 



Athens. The place where his instructions were 
delivered was a garden, named the Lacydeum (Aa- 
/cwSetov), provided for the purpose by his friend 
Attains Philometor, king of Pergamus. This al- 
teration in the locality of the school seems at least 
to have contributed to the rise of the name of the 
Neiv Academy. He died about 215, from the 
effects, it is said, of excessive drinking. 

Lade (AkStj), an island off the W. coast of 
Caria, opposite to Miletus and to the bay into 
which the Maeander falls. 

Ladon {AaZoov), the dragon who guarded the 
apples of the Hesperides, Avas the offspring of 
Typhon and Echidna, or of Ge, or of Phorcys 
and Ceto. He was slain by Hercules ; and the 
representation of the battle was placed by Zeus 
among the stars. 

Ladon (AaSwr). 1. A river in Arcadia, which 
rose near Clitor, and fell into the Alpheus between 
Heraea and Phrixa. In mythology Ladon is the 
husband of Stymphalis, and the father of Daphne 
and Metope, — 2. A small river in Elis, which 
rose on the frontiers of Achaia and fell into the 
Peneus. 

Laeetani, a people on the E. coast of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, near the mouth of the river Rubri- 
catus {Llobregat)., probably the same as the Lale- 
tani, whose country, Laletama produced good 
wine, and whose chief town was Barcino. 

Laelaps (Aa?Ao\//), i. e. the storm wind, per- 
sonified in the legend of the dog of Procris which 
bore this name. Procris had received this swift 
animal from Artemis, and gave it to her husband 
Cephalus. When the Teumessian fox was sent 
to punish the Thebans, Cephalus sent the dog 
Laelaps against the fox. The dog overtook the 
fox, but Zeus changed both animals into a stone, 
which was shown in the neighbourhood of Thebes. 

Laelianus, one of the 30 tyrants, emperor in 
Gaul after the death of Postumus, a. d. 267, 
was slain, after a few months, by his own soldiers, 
who proclaimed Victorinus in his stead. 

Laelius. 1. C, was from early manhood the 
friend and companion of Scipio Africanus the 
elder, and fought under him in almost all his cam- 
paigns. He was consul b. c. 190, and obtained 
the province of Cisalpine Gaul. — 2. C, sumamed 
Sapiens, son of the preceding. His intimacy with 
Scipio Africanus the younger was as remarkable 
as his father's friendship with the elder, and it ob- 
tained an imperishable monument in Cicero's trea- 
tise Laelius sive de Amicitia. He was born about 
186, was tribune of the plebs 151 ; praetor 145 ; and 
consul 140. Though not devoid of military talents, 
as his campaign against the Lusitanian Viriathus 
proved, he was more of a statesman than a soldier, 
and more of a philosopher than a statesman. From 
Diogenes of Babylon, and afterwards from Panae- 
tius, he imbibed the doctrines of the stoic school ; 
his father's friend Polj'bius was his friend also ; 
the wit and idiom of Terence were pointed and 
polished by his and Scipio's conversation ; and the 
satirist Lucilius was his familiar companion. The 
political opinions of Laelius were different at dif- 
ferent periods of his life. He endeavoured, pro- 
bably during his tribunate, to procure a re-division 
of the public land, but he desisted from the 
attempt, and for his forbearance received the appel- 
lation of the Wise or the Prudent. He afterwards 
became a strenuous supporter of the aristocratical 
party. Several of his orations were extant in the 



time of Cicero, but were characterised more by 
smoothness (Jenitas) than by power. — Laelius is 
the principal interlocutor in Cicero's dialogue De 
Amicitia., and is one of the speakers in the De Se- 
nectute., and in the De Repiiblica. His two daughters 
were married, the one to Q. Mucins Scaevola, the 
augur, the other to C. Fannius Strabo. The opinion 
of his worth seems to have been universal, and it 
is one of Seneca's injunctions to his friend Lucilius 
" to live like Laelius." 

Laenas, Popilius, plebeians. The family was 
unfavom-ably distinguished, even among the Ro- 
mans, for their sternness, cruelty, and haughtiness 
of character, 1. M., 4 times consul B. c. 359, 356, 
350, 348. In his 3rd consulship (350) he won a 
hard-fought battle against the Gauls, for which 
he celebrated a triumph — the first ever obtained by 
a plebeian. —2. M., praetor 176, consul 172, and 
censor 159. In his consulship he defeated the 
Ligurian mountaineers ; and when the remainder 
of the tribe surrendered to him, he sold them all 
as slaves. -—3. C, brother of No. 2, was consul 
172. He was afterwards sent as ambassador to 
Antiochus, king of Syria, whom the senate wished 
to abstain from hostilities against Egypt. Antio- 
chus was just marching upon Alexandria, when Po- 
pilius gave him the letter of the senate, which the 
king read and promised to take into consideration 
with his friends. Popilius straightway described 
with his cane a circle in the sand round the king, 
and ordered him not to stir out of it before he had 
given a decisive answer. This boldness so fright- 
ened Antiochus, that he at once yielded to the 
demand of Rome. — 4. P., consul 132, the year 
after the murder of Tib. Gracchus. He was 
charged by the victorious aristocratical party with 
the prosecution of the accomplices of Gracchus ; 
and in this odious task he showed all the hard- 
heartedness of his family. He subsequently with- 
drew himself, by voluntary exile, from the ven- 
geance of C. Gracchus, and did not return to Rome 
till after his death. 

Laertes (Aae'pxTjs), king of Ithaca, was son of 
Acrisius and Chalcomedusa, and husband of Anti- 
clea, by whom he became the father of Ulysses and 
Ctiraene. Some writers call Ulysses the son of 
Sisyphus. [Anticlea.] Laertes took part in the 
Calydonian hunt, and in the expedition of the 
Argonauts. He was still alive when Ulysses re- 
turned to Ithaca after the fall of Troy. 

Laertms, Diogenes. [Diogenes.] 

Laestrygones (Aaio-rpiryoVes), a savage race of 
cannibals, whom Ulysses encountered in his wan- 
derings. They were governed by Antiphates 
and Lamus. They belong however to mythology 
rather than to history. The modem interpreters 
of Homer place them on the N. W. coast of Sicily. 
The Greeks themselves placed them on the E. coast 
of the island in the plains of Leontini, which are 
therefore called Laestrygonii Camjn. The Romans 
however, and more especially the Roman poets, 
who regarded the prom. Circeium as the Homeric 
island of Circe, transplanted the Laestrygones to 
the S. coast of Latium in the neighboi^hood of 
Formiae, which they supposed to have been built 
by Lamus, the king of this people. Hence Horace 
(Carm. iii. 16. 34) speaks of Laestrygonia Bacchus 
in amphora, that is, Formian wine; and Ovid {Met 
xiv. 233) calls Formiae, Laestrygonis Lami Urhs. 

Laevi or Levi, a Ligurian people in Gallia 
Transpadana on the river Ticinus, who, in con- 



364 



LAEVINUS. 



LAMPON. 



junction with the Marici, built the town of Ticinum 
(Paviu). 

Laevinus, Valerius. 1. P., consul b. c. 280, had 
the conduct of the war against Pyrrhus. The king 
wrote to Laevinus, offering to arbitrate between 
Rome and Tarentum ; but Laevinus bluntly bade 
him mind his own business, and begone to Epirus. 
An Epirot spy having been taken in the Roman 
lines, Laevinus showed him the legions under 
arms, and bade him tell his master, if he was 
curious about the Roman men and tactics, to come 
and see them himself. In the battle which fol- 
lowed, Laevinus was defeated by Pyrrhus on the 
banks of the Siris. — 2. M., praetor 215, crossed 
over to Greece and carried on war against Pliilip. 
He continued in the command in Greece till 211, 
when he was elected consul in his absence. In 
his consulship (210) he carried on the war in 
Sicily, and took Agrigentum. He continued as 
proconsul in Sicily for several years, and in 208 
made a descent upon the coast of Africa. He died 
200, and his sons Publius and Marcus honoured 
his memory with funeral games and gladiatorial 
combats, exhibited during 4 successive days in the 
forum. — 3. C, son of No. 2, was by the mother's 
side brother of M. Fulvius Nobilior, consul 189. 
Laevinus was himself consul in 176, and carried 
on war against the Ligurians. 

Lagos, a city in great Phrygia. 

Lagns (Adyos), a Macedonian of obscure birth, 
was the father, or reputed father, of Ptolemy, the 
founder of the Egj'-ptian monarchy. He married 
Arsinoe, a concubine of Philip of Macedon, who 
was said to have been pregnant at the time of their 
marriage, on which account the Macedonians ge- 
nerally looked upon Ptolemy as the son of Philip. 

Lais (Aoi's), the name of 2 celebrated Grecian 
Hetaerae, or courtezans. — 1. The elder, a native 
probably of Corinth, lived in the time of the 
Peloponnesian war, and was celebrated as the 
most beautiful woman of her age. She was no- 
torious also for her avarice and caprice. — 2. The 
younger, was the daughter of Timandra, and was 
probably born at Hyccara in Sicily. According 
to some accounts she was brought to Corinth when 
7 years old, having been taken prisoner in the 
Athenian expedition to Sicily, and bought by a 
Corinthian. This story, however, involves nume- 
rous difficulties, and seems to have arisen from a 
confusion between this Lais and the elder one of 
the same name. She was a contemporary and 
rival of Phrj'ne. She became enamoured of a 
Thessalian named Hippolochus, or Hippostratus, 
and accompanied him to Thessaly. Here, it is 
said, some Thessalian women, jealous of her 
beauty, enticed her into a temple of Aphrodite, 
.and there stoned her to death. 

Lams (Aatos), son of Labdacus, lost his father 
at an early age, and was brought up by Lycus. 
[Labdacus.] When Lycus was slain by Am- 
phion and Zethus, Laius took refuge with Pelops 
in Peloponnesus. After the death of Amphion and 
Zethus, Laius returned to Thebes, and ascended 
the throne of his father. He married Jocasta, and 
became by her the father of Oedipus, by whom he 
was slain. For details see Okdipus. 

Lalage, a common name of courtezans, from the 
Greek XaXayri, prattling, used as a term of en- 
dearment, " little prattler." 

Laletani. [Laeetani.] 

Lamaclius (Aci^oxos), an Athenian, son of 



Xenophanes, was the colleague of Alcibiades and 
Nicias, in the great Sicilian expedition, B.C. 415. 
He fell under the walls of Syracuse, in a sally of 
the besieged. He appears amongst the dramatis 
personae of Aristophanes, as the brave and some- 
what blustering soldier, delighting in the war, and 
thankful, moreover, for its pay. Plutarch describes 
him as brave, but so poor, that on every fresh 
appointment he used to beg for money from the 
government to buy clothing and shoes. 

Lametus (Lamato), a river in Bruttium, near 
Croton, which falls into the Lameticus Sinus. 
Upon it was the town Lametini {St. Eufemia). 

Lamia (Aoyui'a). L A female phantom. [Em- 
PUSA.] — 2. A celebrated Athenian courtezan, 
was a favourite mistress for many years of De- 
metrius Poliorcetes. 

Lamia, Aelius. This family claimed a high 
antiquity, and pretended to be descended from the 
mythical hero. Lam us. —l. L., a Roman eques, 
supported Cicero in the suppression of the Cati- 
linarian conspiracy, B. c. 63, and was accordingly 
banished by the influence of the consuls Gabinius 
and Piso in 58. He was subsequently recalled 
from exile, and during the civil wars espoused 
Caesar's party. — 2. L., son of the preceding, and 
the friend of Horace, was consul a. d. 3. He was 
made praefectus urbi in 32, but he died in the 
following year. — 3. L., was married to Domitia 
Longina, the daughter of Corbulo ; but during the 
lifetime of Vespasian he was deprived of her by 
Domitian, who first lived with her as his mistress, 
and subsequently married her. Lamia was put 
to death by Domitian after his accession to the 
throne. 

Lamia (Aa/xia : Aa^jeuy, Aa^iwTTjs : Zeitun or 
Zeituni), a town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, situated 
on the small river Achelous, and 50 stadia inland 
from the Maliac gulf, on which it possessed a 
harbour, called Phalara. It has given its name 
to the war, which was carried on by the confe- 
derate Greeks against Antipater after the death 
of Alexander, B.C. 323. The confederates under 
the command of Leosthenes, the Athenian, de- 
feated Antipater, w^ho took refuge in Lamia, where 
he was besieged for some months. Leosthenes 
was killed during the siege ; and the confederates 
were obliged to raise it in the following year (322), 
in consequence of the approach of Leonnatus. The 
confederates under the command of Antiphilus de- 
feated Leonnatus who was slain in the action. Soon 
afterwards Antipater was joined by Craterus ; and 
thus strengthened he gained a decisive victory over 
the confederates at the battle of Cranon, which put 
an end to the Lamian war. 

Laminium (Laminitanus), a town of the Car- 
petani in Hispania Tarraconensis, 95 miles S. E. of 
Toletum. 

Lampa or Lappa (Aafxirr], Adinrr} : Aaixnalos, 
AaixTTcvs), a town in the N. of Crete, a little inland, 
S. of Hydramum, said to have been built by Aga- 
memnon, but to have been called after Lampus. 

Lampea (tj Aa^Trejo) or Lampeus Mons, a 
part of the mountain range of Erymanthus, on the 
frontiers of Achaia and Elis. 

Lampetia (Aa/^TreriTj), daughter of Helios by 
the nymph Neaera. She and her sister Phae- 
tusa tended the flocks of their father in Sicily. 
In some legends she appear^ as one of the sisters 
of Phaethon. 

Lampon {Adfxwwv), an Athenian, a celebrated 



LAMPONIA. 

soothsayer and interpreter of oracles. In con- 
junction with Xenocritus, he led the colony which 
founded Thurii in Italy, b. c. 443. 

Lamponia, or -ium (Aaixirwueia, -doviov), an 
important city of Mysia, in the interior of the 
Troad, near the borders of Aeolia. 

Lampra, Lamprae, or Lamptrae (Aa/xTrpd, 
AajXTTpai^ Aa^nTpai : Aa/xirpevs : Lamorica), a 
demus on the W. coast of Attica, near the promon- 
tory Astypalaea, belonging to the tribe Erechtheis. 
It was divided into an upper and a lower city. 

Lampridius, Aelms, one of the Scriptores His- 
toriae Augustae, lived in the reigns of Diocletian 
and Constantine, and wrote the lives of the em- 
perors : — 1. Commodus ; 2. Antoninus Diadu- 
menus ; 3. Elagabalus, and 4. Alexander Severus. 
It is not improbable that Lampridius is the same 
as Spartianus, and that the name of the author in 
full was Aelius Lampridius Spartianus. For the 
editions of Lampridius, see Capitolinus. 

Lampsacus (AajU\|/a/cos : Aafi^paKrjvSs : Lap- 
saki, Ru.), an important city of Mysia, in Asia 
Minor, on the coast of the Hellespont, possessed a 
good harbour. It was celebrated for its wine ; 
and hence it was one of the cities assigned by 
Xerxes to Theraistocles for his maintenance. It 
was the chief seat of the worship of Priapus ; and 
the birthplace of the historian Charon, the phi- 
losophers Adimantus and Metrodorus, and the 
rhetorician Anaximenes. Lampsacus was a colony 
of the Phocaeans : the name of the surrounding 
district, Berbrycia, connects its old inhabitants 
with the Thracian Bebryces. 

Lamus (Aoiuos), son of Poseidon, and king of 
the Laestrygones, was said to have founded For- 
miae, in Italy. [Formiae.] 

Lamus (Aa/^oy : Lamas), a river of Cilicia, the 
boundary between Cilicia Aspera and Cilicia Cam- 
pestris ; with a town of the same name. 

Lancia (Lancienses). 1. {SoUanco or Sollancia, 
near Leon), a town of the Astures in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, 9 miles E. of Legio, was destroyed 
by the Romans. — 2. Sumamed Oppidana, a town 
of the Vettones in Lusitania, not far from the 
sources of the river Munda. 

Langobardi or Longobardi, corrupted into Lom- 
bards, a German tribe of the Suevic race. They 
dwelt originally on the left bank of the Elbe, near 
the river Saale ; but they afterwards crossed the 
Elbe, and dwelt on the E. bank of the river, where 
they were for a time subject to Maroboduus in the 
reign of Tiberius. After this they disappear from 
history for 4 centuries. Like most of the other 
German tribes, they migrated southwards ; and in 
the 2nd half of the 5th century we find them again 
on the N. bank of the Danube, in Upper Hungary. 
Here they defeated and almost annihilated the 
Heruli. In the middle of the 6th century they 
crossed the Danube, at the invitation of Justinian, 
and settled in Pannonia. Here they were engaged 
for 30 years in a desperate conflict with the Ge- 
pidae, which only ended with the extermination of 
the latter people. In A. D. 568, Alboin, the king 
of the Lombards, under whose command they had 
defeated the Gepidae, led his nation across^ the 
Julian Alps, and conquered the plains of N. Italy, 
which have ever since received the name of Lom- 
bardy. Here he founded the celebrated kingdom 
of the Lombards, which existed for upwards of 2 
centuries, till its overthrow by Charlemagne. — 
Paulus Diaconus, who was a Lombard by birth, 



LAODAMIA. 36r, 

derives their name of Langobardi from their long 
beards ; but modern critics reject this etymology, 
and suppose the name to have reference to their 
dwelling on the banks of the Elbe, inasmuch as 
Borde signifies in low German a fertile plain on 
the bank of a river, and there is still a district in 
Magdeburg called the lange Borde. Paulus Dia- 
conus also states that the Lombards came originally 
from Scandinavia, where they were called Vinili, 
and that they did not receive the name of Lango- 
bardi or Long-Beards, till they settled in Germany ; 
but this statement ought probably to be rejected. 

Lanice (AaviK-q), nurse of Alexander the Great, 
and sister of Clitus. 

Lanuvium (Lanuvinus: Lavigna), an ancient 
city in Latium, situated on a hill of the Alban 
Mount, not far from the Appia Via, and subse- 
quently a Roman municipium. It possessed an 
ancient and celebrated temple of Juno Sospita. 
Under the empire it obtained some importance as 
the birthplace of Antoninus Pius. Part of the 
walls of Lanuvium and the substructions of the 
temple of Juno are still remaining. 

Laocoon {AaoKowv), a Trojan, who plays a 
prominent part in the post-Homeric legends, 
was a son of Antenor or Acoetes, and a priest 
of the Thymbraean Apollo. He tried to dissuade 
his countrymen from drawing into the city 
the wooden horse, which the Greeks had left 
behind them when they pretended to sail away 
from Troy ; and, to show the danger from the 
horse, he hurled a spear into its side. The Tro- 
jans, however, would not listen to his advice ; and 
as he was preparing to sacrifice a bull to Poseidon, 
suddenly 2 fearful serpents were seen swimming 
towards the Trojan coast from Tenedos. They 
rushed towards Laocoon, who, while all the people 
took to flight, remained with his 2 sons standing 
by the altar of the god. The serpents first coiled 
around the 2 boys, and then around the father, and 
thus all 3 perished. The serpents then hastened 
to the acropolis of Troy, and disappeared behind 
the shield of Tritonis. The reason why Laocoon 
suflfered this fearful death is differently stated. 
According to some, it was because he had run his 
lance into the side of the horse ; according to 
others, because, contrary to the will of Apollo, he 
had married and begotten children ; or, according 
to others again, because Poseidon, being hostile to 
the Trojans, wanted to show to the Trojans in the 
person of Laocoon what fate all of them deserved. 
— The story of Laocoon 's death was a fine subject 
for epic and lyric as well as tragic poetry, and was 
therefore frequently related by ancient poets, such 
as by Bacchylides, Sophocles, Euphorion, Virgil, 
and others. His death also formed the subject of 
many ancient works of art ; and a magnificent 
group, representing the father and his 2 sons en- 
twined by the 2 serpents, is still extant, and 
preserved in the Vatican. [Agesander.] 

Laodamas {Aao'Sdjxas). 1. Son of Alcinous, 
king of the Phaeacians, and Arete. — 2. Son of 
Eteocles, and king of Thebes, in whose reign the 
Epigoni marched against Thebes. In the battle 
against the Epigoni, he slew their leader Aegia- 
leus, but was himself slain by Alcmaeon. Others 
related, that after the battle was lost, Laodamas 
fled to the Encheleans in Illyricum. 

Laodamia (AaoSctjUem). 1. Daughter of Acas- 
tus, and wife of Protesilaus. When her husband 
was slain before Troy, she begged the gods to be 



3b-6 LAODICE. 
allowed to converse with him for only 3 hours. 
The request was granted. Hermes led Protesi- 
laus back to the upper world, and when Protesilaus 
died a second time, Laodamia died with him. A 
later tradition states, that after the second death of 
Protesilaus, Laodamia made an image of her hus- 
band, to which she payed divine honours ; but as 
her father Acastus interfered, and commanded her 
to burn the image, she herself leaped into the fire. 
— 2. Daughter of Bellerophontes, became by Zeus 
the mother of Sarpcdon, and was killed by Artemis 
while she was engaged in weaving. — 3. Nurse of 
Orestes, usually called Arsinoe. 

Laodice (AaoSI/cTj), 1. Daughter of Priam and 
Hecuba, and wife of Helicaon, Some relate that 
she fell in love with Acamas, the son of Theseus, 
-when he came with Diomedes as ambassador to 
Troy, and that she became by Acamas the mother 
of Munitus. On the death of this son, she leaped 
down a precipice, or was swallowed up by the 
earth. — 2. Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytaem- 
nestra (Horn. Jl. ix. 146), called Electra hy the 
tragic poets. [Electra.] —3. Mother of Se- 
leucus Nicator, the founder of the Syrian mo- 
narchy. —4. Wife of Antiochus II. Theos, king 
of Syria, and mother of Seleucus Callinicus. For 
details, see p. 55, a. — 6. Wife of Seleucus Calli- 
nicus, and mother of Seleucus Ceraunus and 
Antiochus the Great. — 6. Wife of Antiochus the 
Great, was a daughter of Mithridates IV. king of 
Pontus, and granddaughter of No. 4.— -7. Wife 
of Achaeus, the cousin and adversary of Antiochus 
the Great, Avas a sister of No. 6.-8. Daughter of 
Antiochus the Great by his wife Laodice [No. 6]. 
She was married to her eldest brother Antiochus, 
who died in his father's lifetime, 195.— 9. Daughter 
of Seleucus IV. Philopator, was married to Perseus, 
king of Macedonia.— 10. Daughter of Antiochus 
IV. Epiphanes, was married to the impostor Alex- 
ander Balas.— 11. Wife and also sister of Mith- 
ridates Eupator (commonly called the Great), king 
of Pontus. During the absence of her husband, 
and deceived by a report of his death, she gave free 
scope to her amours ; and, alarmed for the conse- 
quences, on his return attempted his life by poison. 
Her designs were, however, betrayed to Mithri- 
dates, who immediately put her to death. — 12. 
Another sister of Mithridates Eupator, married to 
Ariarathes VI., king of Cappadocia. After the 
death of her husband she married Nicomedes, king 
of Bithynia. 

Laodicea (AaodiKeia : AaoSt/ceus, Laodicensis, 
Laodicenus), the name of 6 Greek cities in Asia, 
4 of which (besides another now unkno^vn) were 
founded by Seleucus I. Nicator, and named in 
honour of his mother Laodice, the other 2 by 
Antiochus IT. and Antiochus I. or III. (See Nos. 
1.&5). — 1, L. ad Lycum (A. irphs rip Avkw, 
Eski-Hissar, Ru.), a city of Asia Minor, stood on 
a ridge of hills near the S. bank of the river 
Lycus {Ckoruk-Su), a tributary of the Maeander, 
a little to the W, of Colossae, and to the S. of 
Hierapolis, on the borders of Lydia, Caria, and 
Phrygia, to each of which it is assigned by dif- 
ferent writers ; but, after the definitive division of 
the provinces, it is reckoned as belonging to Great 
Phrygia, and under the later Roman emperors it 
was the capital of Phrygia Pacatiana. It was 
founded by Antiochus II. Theos, on the site 
of a previously existing town, and named in 
honour of his wife Laodice. It passed from the 



LAODICEA. 

kings of Syria to those of Pergamus, and from 
them to the Romans, to whom Attalus III. 
bequeathed his kingdom. Under the Romans it 
belonged to the province of Asia. At first it was 
comparatively an insignificant place, and it suffered 
much from the frequent earthquakes to which its 
site seems to be more exposed than that of any 
other city of Asia Minor, and also from the Mith- 
ridatic War. Under the later Roman republic 
and the early emperors, it rose to importance ; 
and, though more than once almost destroyed by 
earthquakes, it was restored by the aid of the 
emperors and the munificence of its own citizens, 
and became, next to Apamea, the greatest city in 
Phrygia, and one of the most flourishing in Asia 
Minor. In an inscription it is called " the most 
splendid city of Asia," a statement confirmed by 
the magnificent ruins of the cit5% which comprise 
an aqueduct, a gymnasium, several theatres, a 
stadium almost perfect, besides remains of roads, 
porticoes, pillars, gates, foundations of houses, and 
sarcophagi. This great prosperity was owing 
parti}-- to its situation, on the high road for the 
traffic between the E. and W. of Asia, and partly 
to the fertility and beauty of the country round it. 
Already in the apostolic age it was the seat of a 
flourishing Christian Church, which, however, be- 
came very soon infected with the pride and luxury 
produced by the prosperity of the city, as we learn 
from St. John's severe Epistle to it. (Revel, iii. 
14 — 22). St. Paul also addresses it in common 
with the nighbouring church of Colossae {Coloss. ii. 
1 ; iv. 13. 16).— 2. L.Combusta (A. ?} KaraKCKav- 
fiivK] or KeKavfievT], i. e. the burnt ; the reason of 
the epithet is doubtful : Ladik, Ru.), a city of 
Lycaonia, N. of Iconium, on the high road from 
the W. coast of Asia Minor to the Euphrates.— 
3. L. ad Mare (A. eVi ttj eaKarrri : Ladikiyeli), 
a city on the coast of Syria, about 50 miles S. of 
Antioch, was built by Seleucus I. on the site of 
an earlier city, called Ramitha or Aeu/fr/ 'Akt^. 
It had the best harbour in Syria, and the sur- 
rounding country was celebrated for its wine and 
fruits, which formed a large part of the traffic of 
the city. In the civil contests during the later 
period of the Syrian kingdom, Laodicea obtained 
virtual independence, in which it was confirmed 
probably by Pompey, and certainly by Julius 
Caesar, who greatly favoured the city. In the 
civil wars, after Caesar's death, the Laodiceans 
were severely punished by Cassius for their adher- 
ence to Dolabella, and the city again suffered in 
the Parthian invasion of Syria, but was recom- 
pensed by Antony with exemption from taxation. 
Herod the Great built the Laodiceans an aqueduct, 
the ruins of which still exist. It is mentioned 
occasionally as an important city under the later 
Roman empire ; and, after the conquest of Syria 
by the Arabs, it was one of those places on the 
coast which still remained in the hands of the 
Greek emperors, and with a Christian population. 
It was taken and destroyed by the Arabs in 1188. 
It is now a poor Turkish village, with very con- 
siderable ruins of the ancient city, the chief of 
which are a triumphal arch, the remains of the 
mole of the harbour, of a portico near it, of cata- 
combs on the sea-coast, of the aqueducts and cis- 
terns, and of pillars where the Necropolis is sup- 
posed to have stood. — 4. L. ad Libanum (A. Ai- 
§avov, irphs Ai€av^)^ a city of Coele-Syria, at the 
N. entrance to the narrow valley (auAwv), between 



LAODOCUS. 



LARES. 



367 



Libanus and Antilibanus, appears to have been, 
through its favourable situation, a place of com- 
mercial importance. During the possession of 
Coele- Syria by the Greek kings of Egypt, it was 
the S. W. border fortress of Syria. It was the 
chief city of a district called Laodicene. — 5. A 
city in the S. E. of Media, near the boundary of 
Persis, founded either by Antioclms I., Soter, or 
Antiochus II. the Great : site unknown. — 6. In 
Mesopotamia : site unknown. 

Laodocus (AaoddKos). 1. Son of Bias and Pero 
and brother of Talaus, took part in the expedi 
tions of the Argonauts, and of the Seven against 
Thebes. — 2. Son of Antenor. 

Laomedon (Aaofxidoov). 1, King of Troy, son of 
Ilus and Eurydice, and father of Priam, Hesione, 
and other children. His wife is called Strymo, 
Rhoeo, Placia, Thoosa, Zeuxippe, or Leucippe. 
Poseidon and Apollo, who had displeased Zeus, 
were doomed to serve Laomedon for wages. Ac- 
cordingly, Poseidon built the walls of Troy, Avhile 
Apollo tended the king's flocks on Mount Ida. 
When the two gods had done their work, Laome- 
don refused them the reward he had promised them, 
and expelled them from his dominions. Thereupon 
Poseidon in wrath let loose the sea over the lands, 
and also sent a marine monster to ravage the country. 
By the command of an oracle, the Trojans were 
obliged, from time to time, to sacrifice a maiden 
to the monster ; and on one occasion it was decided 
by lot that Hesione, the daughter of Laomedon 
himself, should be the victim. But it happened 
that Hercules was just returning from his expedi- 
tion against the Amazons, and he promised to save 
the maiden, if Laomedon would give him the horses 
which Tros had once received from Zeus as a com- 
pensation for Ganymedes. Laomedon promised 
them to Hercules, but again broke his word, when 
Hercules had killed the monster and saved Hesione. 
Hereupon Hercules sailed with a squadron of 6 
ships against Troy, killed Laomedon, with all his 
sons, except Podarces (Priam), and gave Hesione 
to Telamon. Hesione ransomed her brother Priam 
with her veil.- — Priam, as the son of Laomedon, is 
called Laomedontiades ; and the Trojans, as the 
subjects of Laomedon, are called Laomedontia- 
dae. — 2. Of Mytilene, was one of Alexander's 
generals, and after the king's death (b.c. 323), 
obtained the governnient of Syria. He was after- 
wards defeated by Nicanor, thf- general of Ptolemy, 
and deprived of Syria. 

Lapethus or Lapathus {AaTnrjdos, Adira6os : 
Aair-fidioSf AairrjOevs : Lapitho or Lapta), an im- 
portant town on the N. coast of Cyprus, on a river 
of the same name, E. of the prom. Crommyon. 

Laphria (Aacppla), a surname of Artemis among 
the Calydonians, from Avhom the worship of the 
goddess was introduced into Naupactus and Patrae, 
in Achaia. The name was traced back to a hero, 
Laphrius, son of Castalius, who was said to have 
instituted her worship at Calydon. 

Laphystms {Aa<pv<rrio5\ a mountain in Boeotia, 
betAveen Coronea, Lebadea, and Orchom.enus, on 
which was a temple of Zeus, who hence bore the 
surname Laphystius. 

Lapidei Campi. [Campi Lapidei.] 

Lapitlies (AaTTi'^Tjs), son of Apollo and Stilbe, 
brother of Centaurus, and husband of Orsinome, 
the daughter of Eurynomus, by whom he became 
the father of Phorbas, Triopas, and Periphas. He 
was regarded as the ancestor of the Lapithae in 



the mountains of Thessalj', The Lapithae were 
governed by Pirithous, who being a son of Ixion, 
was a half-brother of the Centaurs. The latter, 
therefore, demanded their share in their father's 
kingdom, and, as their claims were not satisfied, a 
war arose between the Lapithae and Centaurs, 
which, however, was terminated by a peace. But 
when Pirithous married Hippodamia, and invited 
the Centaurs to the marriage feast, the latter, fired 
by wine, and urged on by Ares, attempted to carry 
off the bride and the other women. Thereupon a 
bloody conflict ensued, in which the Centaurs were 
defeated by the Lapithae. — The Lapithae are said 
to have been the inventors of bits and bridles for 
horses. It is probable that they were a Pelasgian 
people, who defeated the less civilised Centaurs, 
and compelled them to abandon Mt. Pelion. 

Lar or Lars, was an Etruscan praenomen, borne 
for instance by Porsena and Tolumnius. From the 
Etruscans it passed over to the Romans, whence 
we read of Lar Herminius, Avho was consul B. c. 
448. This word signified lord, king, or hero in 
the Etruscan. 

Lara. [Larunda.] 

Laranda [to. AdpavSa: Larenda or Caraman), 
a considerable town in the S. of Lycaonia, at the 
N. foot of M. Taurus, in a fertile district : taken 
by storm by Perdiccas, but afterwards restored. 
It was used by the Isaurian robbers as one of their 
strongholds. 

Larentia. [Acca Larentia.] 

Lares, inferior gods at Rome. Theii worship 
was closely connected with that of the Manes, and 
was analogous to the hero worship of the Greeks. 
The Lares may be divided into 2 classes, the Lares 
domestici and Lares puhlici. The fo'mer were the 
Manes of a house raised to the dignity of heroes. 
The Manes were more closely connected with the 
place of burial, while the Lares were more particu- 
larly the divinities presiding over the hearth and 
the whole house. It was only the spirits of good 
men that were honoured as Lares. All the domestic 
Lares were headed by the Lar familiaris, who was 
regarded as the founder of the family. He was 
inseparable from the family ; and when the latter 
changed their abode, he went with them. Among 
the Lares puhlici we have mention made of Lares 
praestites and Lares compitales, who are in reality 
the same, and diflier only in regard to the place or 
occasion of their worship. Servius TuUius is said 
to have instituted their worship ; and when Augustus 
improved the regulations of the city, he also re- 
newed the worship of the public Lares. Their 
name. Lares praestiies, characterises them as the 
protecting spirits of the city, in which they had a 
temple in the uppermost part of the Via Sacra, that 
is, near a compitum, whence they might be called 
Compitales. This temple {Sacellum Larum or aedes 
iMTuni) contained 2 images, which were probably 
those of Romulus and Remus. Now, while these 
Lares were the general protectors of the v/hole city, 
the Lares compitales must be regarded as those 
who presided over the several divisions of the city, 
which were marked by the compita or the points 
where tAvo or more streets crossed each other, and 
where small chapels {aediculae) were erected to 
them. In addition to the Lares praestites and 
compitales, there are other Lares Avhich must be 
reckoned among the public ones, viz., the Lares 
rurales^ who Avere worshipped in the country ; the 
Lares viales, who were Avorshipped on the high- 



LARES. 



LAS. 



roads hy travellers ; and the Lares marini or per- 
marini, to wlioni P. Aemilius dedicated a sanctuary 
in rtnncmbiance of his naval victory over Antiochus. 
— The worship of the domestic Lares, together 
with that of the Penates and Manes, constituted 
what are called the sacra privata. The images of 
the Lares, in great houses, were usually in a sepa- 
rate compartment, called aediculae or lararia. They 
were generally represented in the cinctus Gabinus. 
Their worship was very simple, especially in early 
times and in the country. The offerings were set 
before them in patellae, whence they themselves 
are called patellarii. Pious people made offerings to 
them every day ; but they were more especially 
worshipped on the calends, nones, and ides of every 
month. When the inhabitants of the house took 
their meals, some portion was offered to the Lares, 
and on joyful family occasions they were adorned 
with wreaths, and the lararia were thrown open. 
When the young bride entered the house of her 
husband, her first duty was to offer a sacrifice to 
the Lares. Respecting the public worship of the 
Lares, and the festival of the Larentalia, see Diet, 
of Ant. art. Larentalia, Compitalia. 

Lares {Adpr]s : Alarbous), a city of N. Africa, 
in the Carthaginian territory (Byzacena), S. W. of 
Zama ; a place of some importance at the time of 
the war with Jugurtha. 
Largus, Scribonius. [Scribonius.] 
Larinum (Larlnas, atis : Larino), a town of 
the Frentani (whence the inhabitants are some- 
times called Frentani Larinates), on the river Ti- 
fernus, and near the borders of Apulia, subsequently 
a Roman municipium, possessed a considerable ter- 
ritory extending down to the Adriatic sea. The 
town of Clitoria on the coast was subject to La- 
rinum. 

Larissa (Aopjo-o-o), the name of several Pelas- 
gian places, whence Larissa is called in mythology 
the daughter of Pelasgus. I. In Europe. 1. (Xa- 
rissa or Larza), an important town of Thessaly, in 
Pelasgiotis, situated on the Peneus, in an extensive 
plain. It was once the capital of the Pelasgi, and 
had a democratical constitution, but subsequently 
became subject to the Macedonians. It retained its 
importance under the Romans, and after the time 
of Constantine the Great, became the capital of the 
province of Thessaly. — 2. Surnamed Cremaste 
(t? Kpe/iao-TTj), another important town of Thessaly, 
in Phthiotis, situated on a height, whence probably 
its name, and distant 20 stadia from the Maliac 
gulf. II. In Asia. 1. An ancient city on the 
coast of the Troad, near Hamaxitus ; ruined at 
the time of the Persian war. — 2. L. Phriconis 
(A. 7j ^piKwvis, also at Aripicrcrai), a city on the 
coast of Mysia, near Cyme (hence called t? irepl 
TTjv Kvjx-nv), of Pelasgian origin, but colonised by 
the Aeolians, and made a member of the Aeolic 
confederacy. It was also called the Egyptian 
Larissa (?) At7U7rTi'a), because Cyrus the Great 
settled in it a bodj' of his Egyptian mercenaiy 
soldiers. — 3. L. Ephesia (A. rj 'E^ecrm), a city 
of Lydia, in the plain of the Cayster, on the N. 
side of M. Messogis, N.E. of Ephesus ; with a 
temple of Apollo Larissaeus. — 4. In Assyria, an 
ancient city on the E. bank of the Tigris, some 
distance N. of the mouth of the river Zabatas or 
Lycus, described by Xenophon {Anab. iii. 4). It 
was deserted when Xenophon saw it ; but its 
brick walls still stood, 25 feet thick, 100 feet high, 
and 2 parasangs (=60 stadia =6 geog. miles), in 



circuit, and there was a stone pyramid near it. 
Xenophon relates the tradition that, when the 
empire passed from the Medes to the Persians, the 
city resisted all the efforts of the Persian king 
(i. e. Cyrus) to take it, until the inhabitants, ter- 
rified at an obscuration of the sun, deserted the 
city. Mr. Layard identifies the site of Larissa 
with that of the ruins near Nimroud, the very 
same site as that of Nineveh. The name Larissa 
is no doubt a corruption of some Assyrian name 
(perhaps Al-Assur), which Xenophon naturally 
fell into through his familiarit}' with the word as 
the name of cities in Greece. — 5. In Syria, called 
by the Syrians Sizara (Si'fapa : Kulat Seijar), a 
city in the district of Apamene, on the W". bank 
of the Orontes, about half-way between Apamea 
and Epiphania. 

Larissus or Larisus {hapiaaos, Adpiaos : Ris- 
so), a small river forming the boundary between 
Achaia and Elis, rises in Mt. ScoUis, and flows 
into the Ionian sea. 

Larius Lacus (Lake o/Oomo), a beautiful lake 
in Gallia Transpadana, running from N. to S., 
through which the river Adda flows. After 
extending about 15 miles, it is divided into 2 
branches, of which the one to the S.W. is about 
18 miles in length, and the one to the S.E. about 
12 miles. At the extremity of the S.W. branch 
is the town of Comum ; and at the extremity of 
the S.E. branch the river Adda issues out of the 
lake. The beauty of the scenery of this lake is 
praised by Pliny. He had several villas on the 
banks of the lake, of which he mentions 2 parti- 
cularly ; one called Comoedia, and the other Tra- 
goedia. (Plin. Ep. ix. 7.) Some helieve Comoedia 
to have been situated at the modern Bellagio, on 
the promontory which divides the 2 branches of 
the lake ; and Tragoedia at Lenno, on the W. bank, 
where the scenery is more wild. The intermitting 
fountain, of which Pliny gives an account in another 
letter {Ep. iv. 30), is still called Pliniana. 
Lars Tolumnius. [Tolumnius.] 
Lartia Gens, patrician, distinguished at the 
beginning of the republic through 2 of its members, 
T. Lartius, the first dictator, and Sp. Lartius, the 
companion of Horatius on the wooden bridge. The 
name soon after disappears entirely from the annals. 
The Lartii were of Etruscan origin, as is clearly 
shown by their name, which comes from the 
Etruscan word Lar or Lars. [Lar.] 

Larunda, or Lara, daughter of Almon, was a 
nymph who informed Juno of the connexion be- 
tween Jupiter and Juturna ; hence her name is 
connected with AoAetj/, Jupiter deprived her of 
her tongue, and ordered Mercury to conduct her 
into the lower world. On the way thither, Mercury 
fell in love with her, and she afterwards gave birth 
to 2 Lares. 
Larvae. [Lemures.] 

Larymna (Adpu/xva), the name of 2 towns on 
the river Cephissus, on the borders of Boeotia and 
Locris, and distinguished as Upper and Lower 
Larymna. The latter was at the mouth, of the 
river and the former a little way inland. 

Las (Aas: Ep. Adas : Passava)., an ancient towii 
of Laconia, on the E. side of the Laconian gulf, 10 
stadia from the sea, and S. of Gytheum. It is 
said to have been once destroyed by the Dioscuri, 
who hence received the surname of Lapersae, or 
the Destroyers of Las. In the time of the Ro- 
mans it had ceased to be a place of importan.:^. 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. LAMPASCUS — MAGNESIA. 




COINS OF PERSONS. LABIENUS — M ARCELLUS. 




Q. Labienus, ob. b. c. 30. Page 301, No. 2. 




Laelianus, one of the Thirty Tyrants, ob. a. d. 267. Page 363. 




LdWa, mother of the Emperor Tiberius, ob. a. d. 29. Page 385. 




Annia Lucilla, daughter of M. Aurelius, ob. a.d. 183. 
Page 392. 




Lysimachus, King of Thrace, ob. b. c. 281 . Page 402. 
To face p. 369.] 




Macrinus, Roman Emperor, a. d. 217 — 218. Page 405. 




Majorianus, Roman Emperor, a.d. 457 — 461. 




Julia Mamaea, mother of Alexander Severus, ob. a. i>. 235. 




Marcellus, the Conqueror of Syracuse. Tlie reverse repre- , 
sents him carrying the spoZia opi//»a to the Temple of Jupiter 
Feretrius. Page 413, No. 1. 



LASAEA. 



LATIUM. 



3()<) 



Lasaea (Aaaala), a town in the E. of Crete, 
not far from the Prom. Samonium, mentioned in 
the Acts of the Apostles (xxvii. 8). 

Lasion (Aaaiav : Aacicvvios : Lala), a fortified 
town in Elis, on the frontiers of Arcadia, and not 
far from the confluence of the Erymanthus and the 
Alpheus. The possession of this town was a con- 
stant source of dispute between the Eleans and 
Arcadians. 

Lastlienes {Aa<xB4vt]s) L An Olynthian, who, 
together with Euthycrates, betrayed his country to 
Philip of Macedon, by whom he had been bribed, 
B. c. 347. — 2. A Cretan, one of the principal 
leaders of his countrymen in their war with the 
Romans. He was defeated and taken prisoner by 
Q. Metellus, 67. 

Lasus (Aao-os), one of the principal Greek lyric 
poets, was a native of Hermione, in Argolis. He 
is celebrated as the founder of the Athenian school 
of dithyrambic poetry, and as the teacher of Pindar, 
He was cotemporary with Simonides, like whom 
he lived at Athens, under the patronage of Hip- 
parchus. It would appear that Lasus introduced 
a greater freedom, both of rhythm and of music, 
into the dithyrambic Ode ; that he gave it a more 
artificial and more mimetic character ; and that the 
subjects of his poetry embraced a far wider range 
than had been customary. 

Latera Stagnum {Etang de Maguelone et de 
Perols\ a lake in the territory of Nemausus in 
Gallia Narbonensis, connected with the sea by a 
canal. On this lake was a fortress of the same 
name. {Chateau de la Laite.) 

Laterensis, Juventius, was one of the accusers 
of Plancius, whom Cicero defended, b. c. 54. 
[Plancius.] He was praetor in 51. He served 
as a legate in the army of M. Lepidus, and when 
the soldiers of Lepidus passed over to Antony, 
Laterensis put an end to his life. 

lathon, Lethon, Lethes, lethaeus (Adeav 
Doric, A^Oai; Ar)Odios), a river of Cyrenaica in 
N. Africa, falling into a Lacus Hesperidum, near 
the city of Hesperis or Berenice, in the region 
which the early Greek navigators identified with 
the gardens of the Hesperides. 

Latialis or Latiaris, a surname of Jupiter as 
the protecting divinity of Latium. The Latin towns 
and Rome celebrated to him every year the feriae 
Latinae, on the Alban mount, which were con- 
ducted by one of the Roman consuls. [L atintjs.] 

Latinus. 1. King of Latium, son of Faunus and 
the nymph Marica, brother of Lavinius, husband of 
Amata, and father of Lavinia, whom he gave in mar- 
riage to Aeneas. [Lavinia.] This is the common 
tradition ; but according to Hesiod he was a son of 
Ulysses and Circe, and brother of Agrius, king of 
the Tyrrhenians ; according to Hyginus he was a 
son of Telemachus and Circe; while others describe 
him as a son of Hercules, by an Hyperborean 
woman, who was afterwards married to Faunus, 
or as a son of Hercules by a daughter of Faunus. 
According to one account Latinus after his death 
became Jupiter Latiaris, just as Romulus became 
Quirinus. — 2. A celebrated player in the farces 
called mimes (Did. of Ant. s, v.) in the reign of 
Domitian, with whom he was a great favourite, 
and whom he served as a delator. He frequently 
acted as mimus with Thymele as mima. 

Latium (t? AotiVt]), a country in Italy, inha- 
bited by the Latini. The origin of the name is 
uncertain. Most of the ancients derived it from a 



king Latinus, who was supposed to have been a 
cotemporary of Aeneas [Latinus] ; but there 
can be no doubt that the name of the people was 
transferred to this fictitious king. Other ancient 
critics connected the name with the verb latere, 
either because Saturn had been hidden in the 
countrj^ or because Italy is hidden between the 
Alps and the Apennines ! But neither of these 
explanations deserves a serious refutation. A 
modern writer derives Latium from latus (like Cam- 
pania from campus)., and supposes it to mean the 
" flat land ; " but the quantity of the a in Idtus is 
opposed to this etymology. — The boundaries of 
Latium varied at different periods. 1. In the 
most ancient times it reached only from the river 
Tiber on the N., to the river Numicus and the 
town of Ardea on the S., and from the sea- coast on 
the W. to the Alban Mt. on the E. 2. The terri- 
tory of Latium was subsequently extended S.wards ; 
and long before the conquest of the Latins by the 
Romans, it stretched from the Tiber on the N., to 
■the Prom. Circeium and Anxur or Tarracina on the 
S. Even in the treaty of peace made between 
Rome and Carthage in b. c. 509, we find Antiiim, 
Circeii, and Tarracina, mentioned as belonging to 
Latium. The name of Latium antiquum or vetus 
was subsequently given to the country from the 
Tiber to the Prom. Circeium. 3. The Romans 
still further extended the territories of Latium, bv 
the conquest of the Hernici, Aequi, Volsci, and 
Aurunci, as far as the Liris on the S., and even 
beyond this river to the town Sinuessa and to Mt. 
Massicus. This new accession of territory was 
called Latimn novum or adjectum. — Latium, there- 
fore, in its widest signification was bounded by 
Etruria on the N., from which it was separated by 
the Tiber ; by Campania on the S., from which it 
was separated by the Liris ; by the Tyrrhene sea 
on the W. ; and by the Sabine and Samnite tribes 
on the E. The greater part of this country is an 
extensive plain of volcanic origin, out of which rise 
an isolated range of mountains known by the name 
of MoNS Albanus, of which the Algidus and the 
Tusculan hills are branches. Part of this plain, 
on the coast between Antium and Tarracina, 
which was at one time well cultivated, became a 
marsh in consequence of the rivers Nymphaeus, 
Ufens, and Amasenus finding no outlet for their 
waters [Pomptinae Paludes] ; but the re- 
mainder of the country was celebrated for its fer- 
tility in antiquity. — The Latini were some of 
the most ancient inhabitants of Italy. Thej^ appear 
to have been a Pelasgian tribe, and are frequently 
called Aborigines. At a period long anterior to 
the foundation of Rome, these Pelasgians or Ab- 
origines descended into the narrow plain between 
the Tiber and the Numicus, expelled or subdued 
the Siculi, the original inhabitants of that district, 
and there became known under the name of La- 
tini. These ancient Latins, Avho were called Prisci 
Laiini, to distinguish them from the later Latins, 
the subjects of Rome, formed a league or confedera- 
tion, consisting of 30 states. The town of Alba 
Longa subsequently became the head of the league. 
This town, which founded several colonies, and 
among others Rome, boasted of a Trojan origin ; 
but the whole story of a Trojan settlement in Italy 
is probably an invention of later times. Although 
Rome was a colony from Alba, she became power- 
ful enough in the reign of her 3rd king, Tullus 
Hostilius, to take Alba and raze it to the ground. 

B B 



370 LATIUjNL 
In this war Alba seems to have received no assist- i 
ance from the other Latin towns. Ancus IVIarcius j 
and Tarquinius Priscus carried on war successfully i 
with several other Latin towns. Under Servius ' 
Tullius Rome was admitted into the Latin League ; 
and his successor Tarquinius Superbus compelled 
the other Latin towns to acknowledge Rome as the 
head of the league, and to become dependent upon 
the latter city. But upon the expulsion of the 
kings the Latins asserted their independence, and 
commenced a struggle with Rome, which, though 
frequently suspended and apparently terminated 
by treaties, was as often renewed, and was not 
brought to a final close till b. c. 340, when the 
Latins were defeated by the Romans at the battle 
of Mt. Vesuvius. The Latin league was now dis- 
solved, and the Latins became the subjects of 
Rome. — The following were the most important 
institutions of the Latins during the time of their 
independence : — The towns of Latium were inde- 
pendent of one another, but formed a league for 
purposes of mutual protection. This league con- 
sisted, as we have already seen, of 30 cities, a 
number which could not be exceeded. Each state 
sent deputies to the meetings of the league, which 
were held in a sacred grove at the foot of the Alban 
Mt, by the fountain of Ferentina. On the top of 
the mounta,in was a temple of Jupiter Latiaris, and 
a festival was celebrated there in honour of this 
god from the earliest times. This festival, which 
was called the Feriae Latinae^ is erroneously said 
to have been instituted by Tarquinius Superbus, 
in commemoration of the alliance between the 
Romans and Latins. It is true, however, that the 
festival was raised into one of much greater im- 
portance when Rome became the head of the 
league ; for it was now a festival common both to 
Rome and Latium, and served to unite the 2 nations 
by a religious bond. Having thus become a Ro- 
man as well as a Latin festival, it continued to be 
celebrated by the Romans after the dissolution of 
the Latin league. [Diet, of Ant. art. Feriae.) — 
The chief magistrate in each Latin town appears to 
have borne the title of dictator. He was elected 
annually, but might be re-elected at the close of 
his year of office. Even in ihe time of Cicero we 
find dictators in the Latin towns, as for instance in 
Lanuvium. (Cic. joro il/zY. 10.) In every Latin 
town there was also a senate and a popular assem- 
bly, but the exact nature of their powers is un- 
known. — The old Latin towns were built for the 
most part on isolated hills, the sides of which were 
made by art ver}- steep and almost inaccessible. 
They were surrounded by walls built of great po- 
lygonal stones, the remains of which still excite 
our astonishment. — On the conquest of the Latins 
in 340, several of the Latin towns, such as Lanu- 
vium, Aricia, Nomentum, Pedum, and Tusculum, 
received the Roman franchise. All the other to-vv-ns 
became Roman Socii, and are mentioned in history 
xmder the general name of iVomcn Latinum or La- 
iini. The Romans, however, granted to them 
from time to time certain rights and privileges, 
which the other Socii did not enjoy ; and in par- 
ticular they founded many colonies, consisting of 
Latins, in various parts of Italy. These Latin co- 
lonies formed a part of the A^o??je»ZaimMm, although 
they were not situated in Latium. Thus the La- 
tini came eventually to hold a certain st^tus inter- 
mediate between that of Roman citizens and pere- 
grini. (For details see Dkt. of Ant. art. Latini.) 



LAURIUM. 

Latmicus Sinus (o AarfjuKbs kSKitos), a gulf 
on the coast of Ionia, in Asia Minor, into which 
the river Macander fell, named from M. Latmus, 
which overhangs it. Its width from Miletus, 
which stood on its S. side, to Pyrrha, was about 
30 stadia. Through the changes effected on this 
coast by the Maeander, the gulf is now an inland 
lake, called Akees-Chai or Ufa-Bassi. 

Latmus (Adrfj-os : Monte di Palatia), a moun- 
tain in Caria, extending in a S. E. direction from 
its commencement on the S. side of the Maeander, 
N. E. of Miletus and the Sinus Latmicus. It was 
the mythological scene of the story of Luna and 
Endymion, who is hence called by the Roman 
poets " Latmius heros " and Latmius venator : " 
he had a temple on the mountain, and a cavern in 
its side was sho^ra as his grave. 

Latobrigi, a people in Gallia Belgica, who are 
mentioned, along with the Tulingi and Rauraci, 
as neighbours of the Helvetii. They probably 
dwelt near the sources of the Rhine, in Switzerland. 

Latona. [Leto.] 

Latopolis (ArtottoAis : Esneh, Ru.), a city of 
Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, be- 
tween Thebes and Apollonopolis ; the seat of the 
worship of the Nile-fish called latus, which was 
the symbol of the goddess Neith, whom the Greeks 
identified with Athena. 

LatOVici, a people in the S.W. of Pannonia on 
the river Savus, in the modern lUyria and Croatia. 

Latro, M. Porcms, a celebrated Roman rheto- 
rician in the reign of Augustus, was a Spaniard by 
birth, and a friend and contemporary of the elder 
Seneca, by whom lie is frequently mentioned. His 
school was one of the most frequented at Rome, 
and he numbered among his pupils the poet Ovid. 
He died B. c. 4. Many modern writers suppose 
that he was the author of the Declamations of 
Sallust against Cicero, and of Cicero agamst Sallust. 

Laureacum or Lauriacum (Lorch near Ens), 
a strongly fortified town on the Danube in Nori- 
cum Ripense, the head- quarters of the 2nd legion, 
and the station of a Roman fleet. 

Laurentia, Acca. [Acca Laurentia.] 

Laurentius Lydus. [Lydus.] 

Laurentum (Laurens, -ntis : Casale of Cbpo- 
cotta., not Paterno), one of the most ancient towns 
of Latium, was situated on a height between Ostia 
and Ardea,not far from the sea, and was surrounded 
by a grove of laurels, from which the place Avas 
supposed to have derived its name. According to 
Virgil, it was the residence of king Latinus and 
the capital of Latium ; and it is certain that it 
was a place of importance in the time of the Ro- 
man kings, as it is mentioned in the treaty con- 
cluded between Rome and Carthage in B. c. 509. 
The younger Pliny and the emperor Commodus had 
villas at Laurentum, which appears to have been 
a healthy place, notwithstanding the marshes in 
the neighbourhood. These marshes supplied the 
tables of the Romans with excellent boars. — In 
the time of the Antonines Laurentum was united 
with Lavinium, from which it was only 6 miles 
distant, so that the 2 formed only one town, which 
was call-ed Laurolavinium, and its inhabitants 
were named Laurentes Lavinates. 

Laujetanus Portus, a harbour of Etruria, on 
the road from Populonia to Cosa. 

Lauriacum. [Laureacum.] 
Laurium {Kavpiov, Aavpeiov), a moxmtain in 
the S. of Attica, a little N. of the Prom. Sunium, 



LAURON. 



LEDA. 



371 



celebrated for its silver mines, wliicli in early 
times were so productive that ever}' Athenian 
citizen received annually 10 drachmae. On the 
advice of Themistocles, the Athenians applied this 
money to equip 200 triremes, shortly before the 
invasion of Xerxes. In the time of Xenophon the 
produce of the mines was 1 00 talents. They gra- 
dually became less and less productive, and in the 
time of Strabo they yielded nothing. 

Lauron {Laury, W- of Xucar in Valencia), a 
town in the E. of Hispania Tarraconensis, near the 
sea and the river Sucro, celebrated on account of 
its siege by Sertorius, and as the place where Cn. 
Pompey, the Younger, was put to death after the 
battle of Munda. 

Lans (Aaos : Aouvos\ a Greek city in Lucania, 
situated near the mouth of the river Laus, which 
formed the boundary between Lucania and Brut- 
tium. It was founded by the Sybarites, after 
their own city had been taken by the inhabitants 
of Croton, B. c. 510, but it had disappeared in the 
time of Pliny. — The gulf into which the river 
Laus flowed, was also called the gulf of Laus. 

Laus Pompeii {Lodi Vecdiio), a town in Gallia 
Cisalpina, N.W. of Placentia, and S.E. of Medio- 
ianum. It was founded by the Boii, and was 
afterwards made a municipium by Pon>peius Strabo, 
the father of Fompeius Magnus, whence it was 
called by his name. 

Lausus. L Son of Mezentius, king of the 
Etruscans, slain by Aeneas.— 2. Son of Numitor 
and brother of Ilia, killed by Amulius. 

Lautulae, a village of the Volsci in Latium, in 
a narrow pass between Tarracina and Fundi. 

Laverna, the Roman goddess of thieves and 
impostors. A grove was sacred to her on the via 
Salaria, and she had an altar near the porta Laver- 
nalis, which derived its name from her. 

LavicTam, [Labicum.] 

Lavinia, daughter of Latinus and Amata, was 
betrothed to Turaus [Turnus], but was afterwards 
given in marriage to Aeneas, by whom she became 
the mother of Aeneas Silvius. 

Lavinium (Laviniensis : Pratica), an ancient 
town of Latium, 3 miles from the sea and 6 miles 
E. of Laurentum, on the Via Appia, and near the 
river Numicus, which divided its territory from 
that of Ardea. It is said to have been founded by 
Aeneas, and to have been called Laviniuin, in 
honour of his wife Lavinia, the daughter of Lati- 
nus. It possessed a temple of Venus, common to 
all the Latins, of which the inhabitants of Ardea 
had the oversight. It was at Lavinium that tlie 
king Titus Tatius was said to have been murdered. 
Lavinium was at a later time united with Lauren- 
turn ; respecting v/hich see Laurentum. 

Lazae or Lazi (Ao^cu, Aafot), a people of Col- 
chis, S. of the Phasis, 

Leaena (At'cuj'o), an Athenian hetaera, beloved 
by Aristogiton or Harmodius. On the murder of 
Hipparchus she was put to the torture ; but she 
died under her sufferings without making any 
disclosure, and, if we may believe one account, she 
bit off her tongue, that no secret might be wrurig 
from her. The Athenians honoiured her memory 
greatly, and in particular by a bronze statue of a 
lioness (Kiatva) without a tongue, in the vestibule 
of the Acropolis. 

Leander {A^iavhpos or Aiav'Spos), the famous 
youth of Abydos, who was in love with Hero, the 
priestesa of Aphrodite in Sestus, and swam every 



night across the Hellespont to visit her, and 
returned before daybreak. Once dm-ing a stormy 
night he perished in the waves. Next morning 
his corpse was washed on the coast of Sestus, 
whereupon Hero threw herself into the sea. This 
story is the subject of the poem of Musaeus, 
entitled De Amore Herois et Leandri [MuSAEUs], 
and is also mentioned by Ovid (Zfer. xviii. 19), 
and Virgil. {Georg. iii. 258.) 

Learchus (Aeapxos). 1. [Athamas.] 2. Of 
Rhegium, one of those Daedalian artists who stand 
on the confines of the mythical and historical 
periods, and about Avhom we have extremely 
uncertain information. One account made him a 
pupil of Daedalus, another of Dipoenus and Scyllis. 

Lebadea (AegaSeza : Livadhia\ a town in 
Boeotia, W. of the lake Copais, between Chaeronea 
and Mt. Helicon, at the foot of a rock from which 
the river Hercyna flows. In a cave of this rock, 
close to the town, was the celebrated oracle of 
Trophonius, to which the place owed its importance. 

Lebedos (Ae'geSos: Ae^e'Stos), one of the 12 
cities of the Ionian confederacy, in Asia Minor, 
stood on the coast of Lydia, between Colophon and 
Teos, 90 stadia E. of the promontory of Myonne- 
sus. It was said to have been built at the time 
of the Ionian migration, on the site of an earlier 
Carian city ; and it flourished, chiefly by commerce, 
until Lysimachus transplanted most of its inha- 
bitants to Ephesus. Near it were some mineral 
springs, which still exist near EkUesia, but no 
traces remain of the city itself. 

Leben or Lebena (AeS-nu, Ae§r}ua), a town on 
the S. coast of Crete, 90 stadia S.E. of Gortyna, of 
which it was regarded as the harbour. It possessed 
a celebrated temple of Aesculapius. 

Lebinthus {A4§iveos: Lebitha), an island in 
the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades, W. of Ca- 
lymna, E. of Amorgos and N. of Astypalaea. 

Lecliaeum {rh Aexouoy : Aexaios), one of the 
2 harbours of Corinth, with which it Avas connected 
by 2 long walls. It was 12 stadia from Corinth, 
was situated on the Corinthian gulf, and received 
all the ships which came from Italy and Sicily. It 
possessed a temple of Poseidon, who was hence 
surnamed Lechaeus. 

Lectum (rh A^ktSv : C. Baha or S. Maria)^ the 
S. W. promontory of the Troad, is formed where 
the W. extremity of M. Ida juts out into the sea, 
opposite to the N. side of the island of Lesbos. 
It was the S. limit of the Troad ; and, under the 
Byzantine emperors, the N. limit of the province 
of Asia. An altar was shown here in Strabo's 
time, which was said to have been erected by 
Agamemnon to the 12 chief gods of Greece. 

Leda (A-jjSa), daughter of Thestius, whence she 
is called Thesiias^ and wife of Tyndareus, king of 
Sparta. One night she was embraced both by her 
husband and by Zeus ; by the former she became 
the mother of Castor and Clytaemnestra, by the 
latter of Pollux and Helena. According to Homer 
{Od. xi. 298), both Castor and Pollux were sons 
of Tyndareus and Leda, while Helena is described 
as a daughter of Zeus. Other traditions reverse 
the story, making Castor and Pollux the sons of 
Zeus, and Helena the daughter of Tyndareus. 
According to the common legend Zeus visited 
Leda in the form of a swan; and she brought 
forth 2 eggs, from the one of which issued Helena, 
and from the other Castor and Pollux. The visit 
of Zeus to Leda in the form of a swan was fre- 

B B 2 



372 LEDON. 

quently represented by ancient artists. The Roman 
poets sometimes call Helena Ledaea, and Castor 
and Pollux T^daei Dii. 

Ledon (Ac'Swi'), a town in Phocis, N. W. of 
Tithorea ; the birth-place of Philomelus, the com- 
mander of the Phocians in the Sacred war ; it was 
destroyed in this war. 

Ledus or Ledum {Les or Lez^ near Montpellier), 
a small river in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Legae (AT770i or Ai77es), a people on the S. 
shore of the Caspian Sea, belonging to the same 
race as the Cadusii. A branch of them was found 
by the Romans in the X. mountains of Albania, at 
the time of Pompey's expedition into those regions. 

Legio Septima Gemina {Leon), a town in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, in the country of the Astures, 
which was originally the head-quarters of the 
legion so-called. 

Leitus (ATjiTos), son of Alector or Alectryon, 
by Cleobule, and father of Peneleus, was one of 
the Argonauts, and commanded the Boeotians in 
the war against Troy. 

Lelantns Campus (to AriXavrov TreSi'ov), a 
plain in Euboea, between Eretria and Chalcis, for 
the possession of which these two cities often con- 
tended. It contained warm springs and mines of 
iron and copper, but was subject to frequent earth- 
quakes. 

Leleges (Ae'\e7€s), an ancient race which inha- 
bited Greece before the Hellenes. They are fre- 
quently mentioned along with the Pelasgians as 
the most ancient inhabitants of Greece. Some 
WTiters erroneously identify them with the Pelas- 
gians, but their character and habits were essen- 
tially different : the Pelasgians were a peaceful and 
agricultural people, whereas the Leleges were a war- 
like and migrator}- race. They appear to have first 
taken possession of the coasts and the islands of 
Greece, and afterwards to have penetrated into the 
interior. Piracy was probably their chief occupation ; 
and they are represented as the ancestors of the Tele- 
boans and the Taphians, who sailed as far as Phoe- 
nicia, and were notorious for their piracies. The 
coasts of Acamania and Aetolia appear to have 
been inhabited by Leleges at the earliest times ; 
and from thence they spread over other parts of 
Greece. Thus we find them in Phocis and Locris, 
in Boeotia, in Megaris, in Laconia, which is said 
to have been more anciently called Lelegia, in 
Elis, in Euboea, in several of the islands of the 
Aegaean sea, and also on the coasts of Asia Minor, 
in Caria, Ionia, and the S. of Troas. — The origin 
of the Leleges is uncertain. Many of the ancients 
connected them with the Carians, and according 
to Herodotus (i. 171), the Leleges were the same 
as the Carians ; but whether there was any real 
connection between these peoples cannot be deter- 
mined. The name of the Leleges was derived, 
according to the custom of the ancients, from an 
ancestor Lelex, who is called king either of Mega- 
ris or of Lacedaemon. According to some tradi- 
tions this Lolex came from Egypt, and was the 
son of Poseidon and Libya ; but the Egyptian 
origin of the people was evidently an invention of 
later times. — The Leleges must be regarded as a 
branch of the great Indo-Germanic race, who be- 
came gradually incorporated with the Hellenes, 
and thus ceased to exist as an independent people. 

Lelex. [Leleges.] 

Lemannus or Lemanus Lacus {Lake of Ge- 
"■wl, a large lake formed by the river Rhodanus, 



LEMURES. 

was the boundary between the old Roman pro- 
vince in Gaul and the land of the Helvetii. Ita 
greatest length is 55 miles, and its greatest breadth 
6 miles. 

Lemnos (Atj^vos : At^/jlvios, fem. A-nuvid^ : Sia- 
limene, i, e. els rav Arjixvov), one of the largest 
islands in the Aegaean sea, was situated nearly 
midway between Mt. Athos and the Hellespont, 
and about '22 miles S. W. of Imbros. Its area is 
about 147 square miles. In the earliest times it 
appears to have contained only one town, which 
bore the same name as the island (Hom. //. xiv, 
230) ; but at a later period we read of 2 towns, 
Myrina {Palaeo Castro) on the W. of the island, and 
Hephaestia or Hephaestias (nr. Rapanidi) on the 
N.W., with a harbour. Lemnos was sacred to He- 
phaestus (Vulcan), who is said to have fallen here, 
when Zeus hurled him down from Olympus. 
Hence the workshop of the god is sometimes 
placed in this island. The legend appears to have 
arisen from the volcanic nature of Lemnos, which 
possessed in antiquity a volcano called Mosycldus 
{yioavx^os). The island still bears traces of 
having been subject to the action of volcanic fire, 
though the volcano has long since disappeared. — 
The most ancient inhabitants of Lemnos, according 
to Homer, were the Thracian Sinties ; a name, how- 
ever, which probably only signifies robbers (2tV- 
Ties from (rivouai). When the Argonauts landed 
at Lemnos, they are said to have found it inhabited 
only by women, who had murdered all their hus- 
bands, and had chosen as their queen Hypsipyle, 
the daughter of Thoas, the king of the island. 
[Hypsipyle.] Some of the Argonauts settled 
here, and became by the Lemnian women the 
fathers of the JMini/ae, the later inhabitants of the 
island. The Minyae are said to have been driven 
out of the island by the Pelasgians, who had been 
expelled from Attica, These Pelasgians are fur- 
ther said to have carried away from Attica some 
Athenian women ; but as the children of these 
women despised their half-brothers, bom of Pelas- 
gian women, the Pelasgians murdered both them 
and their children. In consequence of this atro- 
city, and of the former murder of the Lemnian 
husbands by the wives, Lemnian Deeds became a 
proverb in Greece for all atrocious acts, Lemnos 
was afterwards conquered hy one of the gene- 
rals of Darius ; but Miltiades delivered it from 
the Persians, and made it subject to .Athens, 
in whose power it remained for a long time. Pliny 
speaks of a remarkable labyrinth in Lemnos, but 
no traces of it have been discovered by modem 
travellers. The principal production of the island 
was a red earth called terra Lemnia or sigillala, 
which was employed by the ancient physicians as 
a remedy for wounds and the bites of serpents, and 
which is still much valued by the Turks and 
Greeks for its supposed medicinal virtues. 

Lemonia, one of the country tribes of Rome, 
named after a village Lemoniura, situated on the 
Via Latina before the Porta Capena. 

Lemovices, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, be- 
tween the Bituriges and Arvemi, whose chief towTi 
was Augustoritum, subsequently called Lemovices, 
the modem Limoges. 

Lemovii, a people of Germany, mentioned along 
with the Rugii, who inhabited the shores of the 
Baltic in the modem Pommerania. 

Lemiires, the spectres or spirits of the dead. 
; Some writers describe Lemures as the common 



LENAEUS. 



LENTULUS. 



373 



name for all the spirits of the dead, and divide 
them into 2 classes ; the Lares, or the souls of 
good men, and the Larvae, or the souls of wicked 
men. But the common idea was that the Lemures 
and Larvae were the same. They were said to 
wander about at night as spectres, and to torment 
and frighten the living. In order to propitiate 
them the Romans celebrated the festival of the 
Lemuralia or Lemuria. {Diet of Antiq. s.v.) 

Lenaens (AtjvoTos), a surname of Dionysus, de- 
rived from Xr\v6s, the wine-press or the vintage. 

Lentia {Linz), a town in Noricum, on the 
Danube. 

Lentienses, a tribe of the Alemanni, who lived 
on the N. shore of the Lacus Brigantinus {Lake of 
Constajice), in the modern Linzgau. 

Lento, Caesennius, a follower of M. Antony. 
He was one of Antony's 7 agrarian commissioners 
(septemviratus) in B. c. 44, for apportioning the 
Campanian and Leontine lands, whence Cicero 
terms liim divisor Italiae. 

Lentulus, Cornelius, one of the haughtiest 
patrician families at Rome ; so that Cicero coins 
the words Jppietas and Lentulitas to express 
the qualities of the high aristocratic party {ad Fam. 
iii. 7). The name was derived from le7is, like 
Cicero from deer. — 1. L., consul B. c. 327 ; le- 
gate in the Caudine campaign, 321 ; and dictator 
320, when he avenged the disgrace of the Furculae 
Caudinae. This was indeed disputed (Liv. ix. 15); 
but his descendants at least claimed the honour 
for him, by assuming the agnomen of Caudinns. — 
2. L., sumamed Caudinus, pontifex maximus, and 
consul 237, when he triumphed over the Ligurians. 
He died 213.— 3. P., sumamed Caudinus, served 
Avith P. Scipio in Spain, 210 ; praetor 204 ; one of 
the 10 ambassadors sent to Philip of Macedon, 196. 
— 4. P., praetor in Sicily 214, and continued in 
his province for the 2 following years. In 189 he 
was one of 10 ambassadors sent into Asia after the 
submission of Antiochus. «— 5. Cn., quaestor 212 ; 
curule aedile 204 ; consul 201 ; and proconsul in 
Hither Spain 199. — 6. L., praetor in Sardinia 
211, succeeded Scipio as proconsul in Spain, where 
he remained for 11 years, and on his return was 
only allowed an ovation, because he only held pro- 
consular rank. He was consul 199, and the next 
year proconsul in Gaul.— 7. L., curule aedile 163 ; 
consul 156; censor 147. — 8. P., curule aedile 
with Scipio Nasica 169, consul suffectus, with 
C. Domitius 162, the election of the former 
consuls being declared informal. He became 
princeps senatus, and must have lived to a good 
old age, since he was wounded in the contest with 
C. Gracchus in 121.-9. P., surnamed Sura, the 
man of chief note in Catiline's crew. He was 
quaestor to Sulla in 81 : before him and L. Tri- 
arius, Verres had to give an account of the monies 
he had received as quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. 
He was soon after himself called to account for 
the same matter, but was acquitted. It is said 
that he got his cognomen of Sura from his conduct 
on this occasion ; for when Sulla called him to 
account, he answered by scornfully putting out his 
leg, like boys," says Plutarch, " when they 
make a blunder in playing at ball." Other 
persons, however, had borne the name before, one 
perhaps of the Lentulus family. In 75 he was 
praetor ; and Hortensius, pleading before such a 
judge, had no difficulty in procuring the acquittal 
of Terentius Varro, when accused of extortion. 



In 71 he was consul. But in the next year 
he was ejected from the senate, with 63 others, 
for infamous life and manners. It was this, 
probably, that led him to join Catiline and his 
crew. From his distinguished birth and high 
rank, he calculated on becoming chief of the con- 
spiracy; and a prophecy of the Sibylline books was 
applied by flattering haruspices to him. Three 
Comelii were to rule Rome, and he was the 3rd 
after Sulla and Cinna ; the 20th year after the 
burning of the capitol, &c., was to be fatal to the 
city. To gain power, and recover his place in the 
senate, he became praetor again in 63. When 
Catiline quitted the city for Etruria, Lentulus was 
left as chief of the home conspirators, and his irre- 
solution probably saved the city from being fired. 
For it was by his over-caution that the negotiation 
with the ambassadors of the AUobroges was entered 
into : these unstable allies revealed the secret to 
the consul Cicero, who directed them to feign 
compliance with the conspirators' wishes, and thus 
to obtain written documents which might be 
brought in evidence against them. The well- 
known sequel will be found under the life of 
Catiline. Lentulus was deposed from the praetor- 
ship, and was strangled in the Capitoline prison on 
the 5th of December. His step-son Antony pre- 
tended that Cicero refused to deliver up his corpse 
for burial, — 10. P., surnamed Spinther. He 
received this nickname from his resemblance to 
the actor Spinther. Caesar commonly calls him 
by this name : not so Cicero ; but there could be 
no harm in it, for he used it on his coins when 
pro-praetor in Spain, simply to distinguish himself 
from the many of the same family ; and his son 
bore it after him. He was curule aedile in 63, 
the year of Cicero's consulship, and was entrusted 
with the care of the apprehended conspirator, 
P. Sura [No. 9]. His games were long remem- 
bered for their splendour ; but his toga, edged 
with Tyrian purple, gave offence. He was praetor 
in 60 ; and by Caesar's interest he obtained 
Hither Spain for his next year's province, where 
he remained into part of 58. In 57 he was consul, 
which dignity he also obtained by Caesar's support. 
In his consulship he moved for the immediate 
recall of Cicero, brought over his colleague Me- 
tellus Nepos to the same views ; and his services 
were gratefully acknowledged by Cicero. Now, 
therefore, notwithstanding his obligations to Caesar, 
he had openly taken part with the aristocracy. He 
received Cilicia as his province, but he attempted 
in vain to obtain a decree of the senate, charging 
him with the office of restoring Ptolemy Auletes, 
the exiled king of Egypt. He remained as pro- 
consul in Cilicia from 56 till July, 53, and obtained 
a triumph, though not till 51. On the breaking 
out of the civil war in 49, he joined the Pompeian 
party. He fell into Caesar's hands at Corfinium, 
but was dismissed by the latter uninjured. He 
then joined Pompey in Greece ; and after the 
battle of Pharsalia, he followed Pompey to Egypt, 
and got safe to Rhodes. — 11. P., surnamed 
Spinther, son of No. 10, followed Pompey's 
fortunes with his father. He was pardoned by 
Caesar, and returned to Italy. In 45 he was 
divorced from his abandoned wife, Metella. (Comp. 
Hor., Serm. ii. 3. 239.) After the murder of 
Caesar (44) he joined the conspirators. He served 
with Cassius against Rhodes ; with Brutus in 
Lycia. — 12. Cn., surnamed Clodianus, a Clau- 

B B 3 



374 
diiis 



LEO. 



iiiis adopted into the Lentulus family. He was ' 
consul in 72, with L. Gellius Publicola. In the 
war with Spartacus both he and his colleajjue were 
defeated — but after their consulship. With the 
same colleague he held the censorship in 70, and 
ejected 63 members from the senate for infamous 
life, among whom were Lentulus Sura [No. 9] 
and C. Antonius, afterwards Cicero's colleague in 
the consulship. Yet the majority of those expelled 
were acquitted by the courts, and restored ; and 
Lentulus supported the Manilian law, appointing 
Pompey to the command against Mithridates. As 
an orator, he concealed his want of talent by great 
skill and art, and by a good voice. —13. L., sur- 
iiamed Crus, appeared in 61 as the chief accuser 
of P. Clodius, for violating the mysteries of the 
Bona Dea. In 58 he was praetor, and in 49 consul 
with C. 2klarcellus. He was raised to the consxil- ^ 
ship in consequence of his being a known enemy i 
of Caesar. He did all he could to excite his [ 
waverin? party to take arms and meet Caesar : he ■ 
called Cicero cowardly ; blamed hira for seeking a ' 
triumph at such a time ; urged war at any price, \ 
in the hope, says Caesar (B. C. i. 4), of retrieving ; 
his ruined fortunes, and becoming another Sulla. I 
It was mainly at Lentulus' instigation that the 
violent measures passed the senate early in the 
year, which gave the tribiines a pretence for flying 
to Caesar at Ravenna. He himself fled from the 
city at the approach of Caesar, and afterwards 
crossed over to Greece. After the battle of Phar- . 
salia, he fled to Eg}-pt, and arrived there the day ! 
after Pompey's murder. On landing, he waa } 
apprehended by young Ptolemy's ministers, and [ 
put to death in 'prison.— 14. L., sumamed Niger, | 
flamen of Mars. In 57, he was one of the priests j 
to whom was referred the question whether the , 
site of Cicero's house was consecrated ground. In 1 
56 he was one of the judges in the case ofi 
P. Sextius, and he died in the same year, much j 
praised by Cicero. — 15. L., son of the last, and i 
also flamen of Mars. He defended M. Scaurus, in ' 
54, when accused of extortion ; he accused Ga- 
binius of high treason, about the same time, but 
was suspected of collusion. In the Philippics he 
is mentioned as a friend of Anton}- 's.— 16. Cossus, | 
sumamed Gaetnlicus, consul b. c. 1, was sent into 
Africa in a. d. 6, where he defeated the Gaetuli : 
hence his surname. On the accession of Tiberius, 
A. D. 14, he accompanied Drusus, who was sent 
to quell the mutiny of the legions in Pannonia. 
He died 25, at a very great age, leaving behind 
him an honourable reputation. — 17. Cn., sur- 
named Gaetulieus, son of the last, consul a. d. 26. 
He afterwards had the command of the legions of 
Upper Germany for 10 years, and was very popular 
among the troops. In 39 he was put to death by 
order of Caligula, who feared his influence with 
the soldiers. He v/as an historian and a poet ; 
but v/e have only 3 lines of his poems extant, 
unless he is the author of 9 epigrams in the Greek! 
Anthology, inscribed with the name of Gaetulieus. 

Leo, or Leon (Aday). 1. Also called Leonides 
(AeuviSrjs), of Heraclea on the Pontus, disciple of 
Plato, was one of the conspirators who, with their j 
leader, Chion, assassinated Clearchus, tyrant of' 
Heraclea, b. c. 353.-2. Of Byzantium^ a rhe- | 
torician and historical writer of "the age of Philip 
and Alexander the Great. — 3. Diaconus or the } 
Deacon, a Byzantine historian of the 10th century, j 
His history, in 1 books, includes the period from 



LEOCHARES. 

the Cretan expedition of Nicephorus Phocas, in 
the reign of the emperor Romanus II., a. d. 959, 
to the death of Joannes I. Zimisces, 975. The 
Etyle of Leo is vicious : he emploj-s unusual and 
inappropriate words (many of them borrowed from 
Homer, Agathias the historian, and the Septuagint), 
in the place of simple and common ones ; and he 
abounds in tautological phrases. His histor\-, 
however, is a valuable contemporary record of a 
stirring time, honestly and fearlessly written. 
Edited for the first time by Hase, Paris, 18 lo. 
— 4. Grammaticus, one of the continuators of 
Byzantine history from the period when Theo- 
phanes leaves off. His work, entitled Chrono- 
graphia^ extends from the accession of Leo V. the 
Annenian, 813, to the death of Romanus Leca- 
penus, 944. Edited with Theophanes by Combefis, 
Paris, 1 655. — 5. Archbishop of Thessalonica, an 
eminent Byzantine philosopher and ecclesiastic of 
the 9th century. His works are lost, but he is 
frequentl}- mentioned in terras of the highest 
praise by the Byzantine wTiters, especially for his 
knowledge of geometry and astronomy. — 6. Ma- 
gentenus, a commentator on Aristotle, flourished 
during the 1st half of the 14th century. He 
was a monk, and afterwards archbishop of My- 
tilene. Several of his commentaries on Aristotle 
are extant, and have been published. — 7. Leo 
was also the name of 6 Byzantine emperors. Of 
these Leo VI., sumamed the philosopher, who 
reigned 886 — 911, is celebrated in the history of 
the later Greek literature. He wTote a treatise on 
Greek tactics, 17 oracles, 33 orations, and several 
other wi>rks, which are still extant. He is also ce- 
lebrated in the history of legislation. As the Latin 
language had long ceased to be the official lan- 
guage of the Eastern empire, Basil, the father of 
Leo, had formed and partly executed the plan of 
issuing an luithorised Greek version of Justinian's 
legislation. This plan was carried out by Leo. 
The Greek version is known under the title of 
Baa-iXiKoX AiOTo^eis-, or shortly, 'QaciXiKal ; in 
Latin, Basilica, which means " Imperial Consti- 
tutions," ot " Laws." It is divided into 60 books, 
subdivided into titles, and contains the Institutes, 
the Digest, the Codex, and the Novellae ; and 
likewise such constitutions as were issued by the 
successors of Justinian down to Leo VI. There 
are, however, many laws of the Digest omitted in 
the Basilica, which contain, on the other hand, a 
considerable nimiber of laws or extracts from 
ancient jurists which are not in the Digest. The 
publication of this authorised body of law in the 
Greek language led to the gradual disuse of the 
original compilations of Justinian in the East. 
But the Roman law vras thus more firmly esta- 
blished in Eastem Europe and Western Asia, 
where it has maintained itself among the Greek 
population to the present day. The best edition 
of the Basilica is the one now publishing by 
Heimbach, Lips. 1833, seq. 
Leobotes. [Labotas.] 

Leochares (Aecoxc^-pTjs), an Athenian statuary 
and sculptor, was one of the great artists of the 
later Athenian school, at the head of which were 
Scopas and Praxiteles. He flourished B.C. 352 — 
338. The masterpiece of Leochares seems to have 
been his statue of the rape of Ganymeda. The 
original work was in bronze. Of the extant copies 
in marble, the best is one, half the size of life, in 
the Museo Pio-Clementino. 



LEOCORIUM. 

Leocorium (AewnSpioi'), a shrine in Athens, in 
the Ceramicus, erected in honour of the daughters 
of Leos. Hipparchus was murdered here. 

Leodamas (AewSa/^as), a distinguished Attic 
oratoij was educated in the school of Isocrates, 
and is greatly praised by Aeschines. 

Leonica, a town of the Edetani in the W. of 
Hispania Tarraconensia. 

Leonidas (Aewvidas). 1, 1. King of Sparta, 
B. c. 491 — 480, was one of the sons of Anaxan- 
drides by his first wife, and, according to some 
accounts, was twin-brother to Cleombrotus. He 
succeeded his half-brother Cleomenes I., b. c. 491, 
his elder brother Dorieus also having previously 
died. When Greece was invaded by Xerxes, 
480, Leonidas was sent with a small army to 
make a stand against the enemy at the pass of 
Thermopylae. The number of his army is va- 
riously stated: according to Herodotus, it amounted 
to somewhat more than 5000 men, of whom 300 
were Spartans ; in all probability, the regular 
band of (so called) knigUs {iivir^ls). The Persians 
in vain attempted to force their way through the 
pass of Thermopylae. They were driven back by 
Leonidas and his gallant band with imm.ense 
slaughter. At length the Malian Ephialtes be- 
trayed the mountain path of the Anopaea to the 
Persians, who were thus able to fall upon the rear 
of the Greeks. When it became kiiown to Le- 
onidas that the Persians were crossing the moun- 
tain, he dismissed all the other Greeks, ejfcept the 
Thespian and Theban forces, declaring that he 
and the Spartans under his command must needs 
remain in the post they had been sent to guard. 
Then, before the body of Persians, who were 
crossing the mountain under Hydarnes, could 
arrive to attack him in the rear, he advanced from 
the narrow pass and charged the myriads of the 
enemy with his handful of troops, hopeless now of 
preserving their lives, and anxious only to sell 
them dearly. In the desperate battle which en- 
sued, Leonidas himself fell soon. His body was 
rescued by the Greeks, after a violent struggle. 
On the hillock in the pass, where the remnant of 
the Greeks made their last stand, a lion of stone 
was set up in his honour.— =2. II. King of Sparta, 
was son of the traitor, Cleonymus. He acted as 
guardian to his infant relative, Areus II., on 
whose death he ascended the throne, about 25 G. 
Being opposed to the projected reforms of his con- 
temporary Agis IV., he Avas deposed, and the 
throne was transferred to his son-in-law, Cleom- 
brotus ; but he was soon afterwards recalled, and 
caused Agis to be put to death, 240. He died 
about 236, and was succeeded by his son, Cleo- 
menes III. — 3. A kinsman of Olympias, the 
mother of Alexander the Great, was entrusted 
with the main superintendence of Alexander's 
education in his earlier years, before he became 
the pupil of Aristotle. Leonidas was a man of 
austere character, and trained the young prince in 
hardy and self-denying habits. There were 2 excel- 
lent cooks (said Alexander afterwards) with which 
Leonidas had furnished him, — a night's march to 
season his breakfast, and a scanty breakfast to 
season his dinner. — » 4. Of Tarentum, the author 
of upwards of 100 epigrams in the Doric dialect. 
His epigrams formed a part of the Garland of 
Meleager. They are chiefly inscriptions for de- 
dicatory offerings and works of art, and, though 
not of a very high order of poetry, are usually 



LEOSTHENES. 



375 



pleasing, ingenious, and in good taste. Leonidas 
probably lived in the time of PyiThus.— -5. Of 
Alexandria, also an epigrammatic poet, flourished 
under Nero and Vespasian. In the Greek Antho- 
logy, 43 epigrams are ascribed to him : they are of 
a very low order of merit. 

Leonnatus (Aeofyaros), a Macedonian of Pella, 
one of Alexander's most distinguished officers. 
His father's name is variously given, as Anteas, 
Anthes, Onasus, and Eunus. He saved Alex- 
ander's life in India in the assault on the city of 
the Malli. After the death of Alexander (b. c. 
323), he obtained the satrapy of the Lesser or 
Hellespontine Phrygia, and in the following year 
he crossed over into Europe, to assist Antipater 
against the Greeks ; but he was defeated by the 
Athenians and their allies, and fell in battle. 

Leontiades (Aeoj/naSTjs). 1. A Theban, com- 
manded at Thermopylae the forces supplied by 
Thebes to the Grecian army, b. c. 480. — 2. A 
Theban, assisted the Spartans in seizing the Cad- 
mea, or citadel of Thebes, in 382. He was slain 
by Pelopidas in 379, when the Spartan exiles 
recovered possession of the Cadmea. 

Leontini (ot Aeovr7voi : A.€ovr7vos : Leniini), a 
town in the E. of Sicily, about 5 miles from the 
sea, N. W. of Syracuse, was situated upon the 
small river Lissus. It was built upon 2 hills, 
which were separated from one another by a val- 
ley, in which were the forum, the senate-house, 
and the other public buildings, while the temples 
and the private houses occupied the hills. The 
rich plains N. of the city, called Leontini Campi, 
were some of the most fertile in Sicily, and pro- 
duced abundant crops of most excellent wheat. Leon- 
tini was founded by Chalcidians from Naxos, b. c. 
730, only 6 years after the foundation of Naxos it- 
self. It never attained much political importance in 
consequence of its proximitj' to Syracuse, to which 
it soon became subject, and whose fortunes it 
shared. At a later time it joined the Carthaginians,. 
;nid was in consequence taken and plundered by 
the Romans. Under the Romans it sunk into in- 
significance. Gorgias Avas a native of Leontini. 

Leontium (Aeovnov), an Athenian hetaera, 
the disciple and mistress of Epicurus, wrote a 
treatise against Theophrastus. She had a daughter, 
Dane, who was also an hetaera of some notoriety-. 

Leontium [AeSvTiou), a town in Achaia, be- 
tween Pharae and Aegium. 

Leontopolis (AeovTonoXis^ AeovTWV rroAis). 1. 
A city in the Delta of Egypt, S. of Thmnis, and 
N. W. of Athribis, was the capital of the Nomos 
Leontopolites, and probably of late foundation, as 
no writer before Strabo mentions it. Its site is 
uncertain. «»«• 2. [Nicephorium.] 

Leoprepides, i. e. Simonides, the son of Lco- 
prepes. 

Leos (AeoSs), one of the heroes eponymi of the 
Athenians, said to have been a son of Orpheus. 
The phyle or tribe of Leontis derived its name 
from him. Once, when Athens was suffering from 
famine or plague, the Delphic oracle demanded 
that the daughters of Leos should be sacrificed, 
and the father complied with the command of the 
oracle. The maidens were afterwards honoured 
by the Athenians, who erected the Leocorium 
(from Aschs and icipai) to them. Their names 
were Praxithea, Tlieope, and Eubule. 

Leosthenes (Aeojcr^ei/Tjs), an Athenian com- 
mander of the combined Greek army in the Lamian 

E B 4 



376 



LEOTYCHIDES. 



war. In the year after the death of Alexander 
(b. c. 323), he defeated Antipater near Thermo- 
pylae ; Antipater thereupon threw himself into 
the small town of Lamia, Leosthenes pressed the 
siege with the utmost vigour, but was killed by a 
blow from a stone. His loss was mourned by the 
Athenians as a public calamity. He was honoured 
with a public burial in the Ceramicus, and his 
funeral oration was pronounced by Hyperides. 
LeotycMdes (AeurvxiSr^s, A€UTw;ctS77s, Herod.), 

1. King of Sparta, B. c. 4.91 — 469. He commanded 
the Greek fleet in 479, and defeated the Persians 
at the battle of Mycale. He was afterwards sent 
with an army into Thessaly to punish those who 
had sided with the Persians ; but in consequence 
of his accepting the bribes of the Aleuadae, he was 
brought to trial on his return home, and went into 
exile to Tegea, 469, where he died. He was suc- 
ceeded by his grandson, Archidamus II.— 2. Grand- 
son of Archidamus II., and son of Agis II. There 
was, however, some suspicion that he was in 

eality the fruit of an intrigue of Alcibiades with 
fimaea, the queen of Agis ; in consequence of 
which he was excluded from the throne, mainly 
through the influence of Lysander, and his uncle, 
Agesilaus II., was substituted in his room. 

Lepidns Aemilius, a distinguished patrician &- 
mil}'. 1. M., aedile B. c. 192 ; praetor 191, with 
Sicily as his province ; consul 187, when he de- 
feated the Ligurians ; pontifex maximus 180 ; 
censor 179 with M. Fulvius Nobilior ; and consul 
a second time 175. He was six times chosen by 
the censors princeps senatus, and he died 152, full 
of years and honours. Lepidus the triumvir is 
called by Cicero (Phil. xiii. 7) the pronepos of this 
Lepidus ; but he would seem more probably to 
have been his abnepos, or great -great-grandson. — 

2. M., consul 137, carried on war in Spain against 
the Vaccaei, but unsuccessfully. Since he had at- 
tacked the Vaccaei in opposition to the express 
orders of the senate, he was deprived of his com- 
mand, and condemned to pay a fine. He was a 
man of education and refined taste. Cicero, who 
had read his speeches, speaks of him as the greatest 
orator of his age. He helped to form the style of 
Tib. Gracchus and C. Carbo, who were accustomed 
to listen to him with great care.— 3. M., the 
father of the triumvir, was praetor in Sicily in 81, 
where he earned a character by his oppressions 
onh' second to that of Verres. In the civil wars 
between Marius and Sulla he belonged at first to 
the party of the latter, but he afterwards came 
forward as a leader of the popular party. In his 
consulship, 78, he attempted to rescind the laws of 
Sulla, who had lately died, but he was opposed by 
his colleague Catulus, who received the powerful 
support of Pompey. In the following year (77) 
Lepidus took up arms, and marched against Rome. 
He was defeated by Pompey and Catulus, under 
the walls of the cit\', in the Campus Alartius, and 
was obliged to take to flight. Finding it impossible 
to hold his ground in Italy, Lepidus sailed with 
the remainder of his forces to Sardinia ; but re- 
pulsed even in this island by the propraetor, he 
died shortly afterwards of chagrin and sorrow, 
which is said to have been increased by the dis- 
covery of his wife's infidelity.— 4. Mam., sur- 
naraed Livianus, because he belonged originally to 
the Livia gens, consul 77, belonged to the aristo- 
cratical party, and was one of the influential persons 
who prevailed upon Sulla to spare the life of the 



LEPIDUS. 

yoimg Julius Caesar. — 5. M., consul 66, with L. 
Volcatius Tullus, the same year in which Cicero was 
praetor. He belonged to the aristocratical party, 
but on the breaking out of the civil war in 49, he 
retired to his Formian villa to watch the progress 
of events. — 6. L. Aemilius Paulus, son of No. 
3, and brother of M. Lepidus, the triumvir. His 
surname of Paulus was probably given him by his 
father, in honour of the celebrated Aemilius Paulus, 
the conqueror of Macedonia, But since he belonged 
to the family of the Lepidi, and not to that of the 
Pauli, he is inserted in this place and not under 
Paulus, Aemilius Paulus did not follow the ex- 
ample of his father, but commenced his public 
career by supporting the aristocratical part}'. His 
first public act was the accusation of Catiline in 
63. He was quaestor in Macedonia 59 ; aedile 
55 ; praetor 53 ; and consul 50, along with M. 
Claudius Marcellus. Paulus was raised to the 
consulship, on account of his being one of the most 
determined enemies of Caesar, but Caesar gained 
him over to his side by a bribe of 1500 talents, 
which he is said to have expended on the comple- 
tion of a magnificent basilica which he had com- 
menced in his aedileship. After the murder of 
Caesar (44), Paulus joined the senatorial party. 
He was one of the senators who declared M. Lepi- 
dus a public enemy, on account of his having joined 
Antony ; and, accordingly, when the triumvirate 
was formed, his name was set down first in the 
proscription list by his own brother. The soldiers, 
however, who were appointed to kill him, allowed 
him to escape. He passed over to Brutus in Asia, 
and after the death of the latter repaired to Mile- 
tus, Here he remained, and refused to go to 
Rome, although he was pardoned by the triumvirs. 
—7. M, Aemilius Lepidus, the Triumvir, brother 
of the last. On the breaking out of the civil war 
(49), Lepidus, v.'ho was then praetor, joined Caesar's 
party ; and as the consuls had fled with Pompey 
from Italy, Lepidus, as praetor, was the highest 
magistrate remaining in Italy, Dtiring Caesar's 
absence in Spain, Lepidus presided at the comitia 
in which the former was appointed dictator. In 
the following year (48) he received the province of 
Nearer Spain. On his retimi to Rome in 47, 
Caesar granted him a triumph, and made him his 
magister equitum ; and in the next year (46), his 
colleague in the consulship. In 44 he received 
from Caesar the government of Narbonese Gaul 
and Nearer Spain, but had not quitted the neigh- 
bourhood of Rome at the time of the dictator's death. 
Having the command of an army near the city, he 
was able to render M. Antony efficient assistance ; 
and the latter in consequence allowed Lepidus to 
be chosen pontifex maximus, which dignity had 
become vacant by Caesar's death. Lepidus soon 
afterwards repaired to his provinces of Gaul and 
Spain. He remained neutral in the struggle be- 
tween Antony and the senate ; but he subsequently 
joined Antony, when the latter fled to him in 
Gaul after his defeat at Mutina. This was in the 
end of May, 43 ; and when the news reached 
Rome, the senate proclaimed Lepidus a public 
enemy. In the autumn Lepidus and Antony 
crossed the Alps at the head of a powerful army. 
Octavian (afterwards Augustus) joined them ; and 
in the month of October the celebrated triumvirate 
was formed, by which the Roman world was di- 
vided between Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus. 
[See p. 108, a.] In 42 Lepidus remained in Italy 



LEPONTII. 



LEPTINES. 



377 



as consul, while the two other triumvirs prosecuted 
the war against Brutus and Cassius. In the fresh 
division of the provinces after the battle of Phi- 
lippi, Lepidus received Africa, where he remained 
till 36. In this year Octavian summoned him to 
Sicily to assist him in the war against Sex. Pompey. 
Lepidus obeyed, but tired of being treated as a 
subordinate, he resolved to make an effort to acquire 
Sicily for himself and to regain his lost power. 
He was easily subdued by Octavian, who spared 
his life, but deprived him of his triumvirate, his 
army, and his provinces, and commanded that he 
should live at Circeii, under strict surveillance. He 
allowed him, however, to retain his dignity of pon- 
tifex maximus. He died b. c. 13. Augustus suc- 
ceeded him as pontifex maximus. Lepidus was 
fond of ease and repose, and it is not improbable 
that he possessed abilities capable of effecting much 
more than he ever did. — 8. Paulus Aemilius 
Lepidus, son of No. 6, with whom he is fre- 
quently confounded. His name is variously given 
by the ancient writers Aemilius Paulus, or Paulus 
Aeinilius, or Aemilius Lepidus Paulus, but Paulus 
Aemilius Lepidus seems to be the most correct 
form. He probably fled with his father to Brutus, 
but he afterwards made his peace with the trium- 
virs. He accompanied Octavian in his campaign 
against Sex. Pompey in Sicily in 36. In 34 he 
was consul suffectus. In 22 he was censor with 
L. Munatius Plancus, and died while holding this 
dignity. — 9. M. Aemilius Lepidus, son of the 
triumvir [No. 7] and Junia, formed a conspiracy 
in 30, for the purpose of assassinating Octavian on 
his return to Rome after the battle of Actium. 
Maecenas, who had charge of the city, became 
acquainted with the plot, seized Lepidus, and sent 
him to Octavian in the East, who put him to death. 
His father was ignorant of the conspiracj-, but his 
mother was privy to it. Lepidus was married 
twice : his first wife was Antonia, the daughter of 
the triumvir, and his 2nd Servilia, who put an end 
to her life by swallowing burning coals when the 
conspiracy of her husband was discovered.— 10. 
Q. Aemilius Lepidus, consul 21 with M. Lollius. 
(Hor. Ep. i. 20. 28.)— 11. L. Aemilius Paulus, 
son of No. 8 and Cornelia, married Julia, the grand- 
daughter of Augustus. [Julia, No. 6.] Paulus 
is therefore called the progener of Augustus. He 
was consul a.d. 1 with C. Caesar, his wife's 
brother. He entered into a conspiracy against Au- 
gustus, of the particulars of which we are not in- 
formed.— 12. M. Aemilius Lepidus, brother of 
the last, consul A. d. 6 with L. Arruntius. He 
lived on the most intimate terms with Augustus, 
who employed him in the war against the Dalma- 
tians in A. D. 9. After the death of Augustus, he 
was also held in high esteem by Tiberius. — 
13. M. Aemilius Lepidus, consul with T. Sta- 
tilius Taurus in a. d. 11, must be carefully distin- 
guished from the last. In a. d. 21 he obtained 
the province of Asia. — 14. Aemilius Lepidus, 
the son of 11 and Julia, the granddaughter of 
Augustus, and consequently the great-grandson of 
Augustus. He was one of the minions of the em- 
peror Caligula, with whom he had the most shame- 
ful connection. He married Drusilla, the favourite 
sister of the emperor ; but he was notwithstanding 
put to death by Caligula, a. d. 39. 

Lepontii, a people inhabiting the Alps, in whose 
country Caesar places the sources of the Rhine, 
and Pliny the sources of the Rhone. They dwelt 



on the S. slope of the St. Gotthard and the Simplon, 
towards the Lago Maggiore, and their name is still 
retained in the Val Leventina. Their chief town 
was Oscela {Domo d''Ossola). 

Leprea (AeVpea), daughter of Pyrgeus, from 
whom the town of Lepreum in Elis was said to 
have derived its name. [Lepreum.] Another tra- 
dition derived the name from Lepreus, a son of Cau- 
con, Glaucon, or Pyrgeus, by Astydamia. He was 
a grandson of Poseidon, and a rival of Hercules 
both in his strength and his powers of eating, but 
he was conquered and slain by the latter. His 
tomb was believed to exist at Phigalia. 

Lepreum (AeTrpeoi/, AeVpeos : AeTrpeaTTjy : Stro- 
vitzi), a town of Elis in Triphylia, situated 40 
stadia from the sea, was said to have been founded 
in the time of Theseus by Minyans from Lemnos. 
After the Messenian wars it was subdued by the 
Eleans with the aid of Sparta ; but it recovered its 
independence in the Peloponnesian war, and was 
assisted by the Spartans against Elis. At the time 
of the Achaean league it was subject to Elis. 

Q. Lepta, a native of Cales in Campania, and 
praefectus fabrum to Cicero in Cilicia B.C. 51, He 
joined the Pompeian party in the civil war, and is 
frequently mentioned in Cicero's letters. 

Leptines (Aeirrlv-i^i). 1, A Syracusan, son of 
Hermocrates, and brother of Dionysius the elder, 
tyrant of Syracuse. He commanded his brother's 
fleet in the war against the Carthaginians B.C. 397, 
but was defeated by Mago with great loss. In 390 
he was sent by Dionysius with a fleet to the assist- 
ance of the Lucanians against the Italian Greeks. 
Some time afterwards he gave offence to the jealous 
temper of the tyrant, by giving one of his daughters 
in marriage to Philistus, without any previous in- 
timation to Dionysius, and on this account he was 
banished from Syracuse, together with Philistus. 
He thereupon retired to Thurii, but was subse- 
quently recalled by Dionysius to Syracuse. Here 
he was completely reinstated in his former favour, 
and obtained one of the daughters of Dionysius in 
marriage. In 383, he again took an active part 
in the war against the Carthaginians, and com- 
manded the right wing of the Syracusan army in 
the battle near Cronium ; in which he was killed. 
—2. A Syracusan, who joined with Calippus in 
expelling the garrison of the younger Dionysius 
from Rhegiura, 351. Soon afterwards he assas- 
sinated Calippus, and then crossed over to Sicily, 
where he made himself tyrant of Apollonia and 
Engyum. He was expelled in common with the 
other tyrants by Timoleon ; but his life was spared 
and he was sent into exile at Corinth, 342.-3. 
An Athenian, known only as the proposer of a law 
taking away all special exemptions from the burden 
of public charges (dreAejat ruy K^irovpyiwv)^ 
against which the celebrated oration of Demosthenes 
is directed, usually known as the oration against 
Leptines. This speech was delivered 355 : and 
the law must have been passed above a year before, 
as we are told that the lapse of more than that 
period had already exempted Leptines from all per- 
sonal responsibility. Hence the efforts of Demo- 
sthenes were directed solely to the repeal of the 
law, not to the punishment of its proposer. His 
arguments were successful, and the law was re- 
pealed. —4. A Syrian Greek, who assassinated 
with his own hand at Laodicea, Cn. Octavius, the 
chief of the Roman deputies, who had been sent 
into Syria, 162. Demetrius caused Leptines to be 



378 LEPTIS. 
seized, and sent as a prisoner to Rome ; but the 
senate refused to receive him, being desirous to re- 
serve this cause of complaint as a public grievance. 

Leptis (AeTTTty). 1. Leptis Magna or Neapo- 
lis (7} AeTTTts fJ-eydXr], f^ediroXls), a city on the 
coast of N. Africa, between the Syrtes, E. of Abro- 
tonum, and W. of the mouth of the little river 
Cinyps, was a Phoenician colony, with a flourish- 
ing commerce, though it possessed no harbour. 
With Abrotonum and Oea it formed the African 
Tripolis. The Romans made it a colony : it was 
the birthplace of the emperor Septimius Severus: 
and it continued to flourish till a. d. 866, when it 
was almost ruined by an attack from a Libyan 
tribe. Justinian did something towards its resto- 
ration ; but the Arabian invasion completed its 
destniction. Its ruins are still considerable. — 2. 
Leptis Minor or Parva (AeTrrl? 77 /xiKpa : Lamta, 
Ru.), usually called simply Leptis, a Phoenician 
colony on the coast of Byzacium, in N. Africa, 
between Hadrumetum and Thapsus ; an important 
place under both the Carthaginians and the Ro- 
mans. 

Lerina (St. Honorat), an island off the coast gf 
Gallia Narbonensis, opposite Antipolis (Antibes). 

Lerna or Leme (Ae'pvrj), a district in Argolis, 
not far from Argos, in which was a marsh and a 
small river of the same name. It was celebrated 
as the place where Hercules killed the Lernean 
Hydra. [See p. 308, b.] 

Lero (St Marguerite), a small island off the 
coast of Gallia Narbonensis. 

Leros (Ae'pos : Aepios), a small island, one of 
the Sporades, opposite to the mouth of the Sinus 
lassius, on the coast of Caria. Its inhabitants, 
who came originally from Miletus, bore a bad 
character. Besides a city of the same name, it 
had in it a temple of Artemis, where the trans- ! 
formation of the sisters of Meleager into guinea- 
fowls was said to have taken place, in memory of 
which guinea-fowls were kept in the court of that 
temple. 

Lesbonax (AeaSwva^). 1. Son of Potamon of 
Mytilene, a philosopher and sophist, in the time 
of Augustus. He was the father of Polemon, the 
teacher and friend of the emperor Tiberius. Les- 
bonax wrote several political orations, of which 2 
have come down to us, one entitled Trepi rod -rroX^jxov 
Koptudiccu, and the other TrporpeTTTLKhs \6yos, both 
of which are not unsuccessful imitations of the Attic 
orators of the best times. They are printed in the 
collections of the Greek orators [Demosthenes], 
and separately by Orelli, Lips. 1820. — 2. A Greek 
grammarian, of uncertain age, but later than No. 1 , 
the author of an extant work on grammatical figures 
(irepl crxvi^dTwu), published by Valckenaer in his 
v,°dition of Ammonius. 

IjbTJiQS^ (AecxSos : Aetr^to?, Lesbius : Mytilene, 
Metelin)^ t'lit ■'•■.largest, and by far the most import- 
ant, of the islancfi'.of the Aegean along the coast of 
Asia Minor, lay o^pposite to the Gulf of Adra- 
myttium, off the coa^it of Mysia, the direction of 
its length being N. \t'Y and S. E. It is inter- 
sected by lofty mounmins, and indented with 
large bays, the chief or which, on the W. side, 
runs more than half way across the island. It 
had 3 chief headlands, Avrgennum on the N. E., 
Sigrium on the W., and; Malea on the S. Its 
Tallies were very fertile,_ esspecially in the N, part, 
near Methymna ; and it produced corn, oil, and 
wine renowned for its excf;llence. In early times 



LETO. 

it was called by various names, the chief of whicli 
were, Issa, Pelasgia, Mytanis, and Macaria : the 
late Greek writers called it Mytilene, from its 
chief city, and this name has been preserved to 
modern times. The earliest reputed inhabitants 
were Pelasgians ; the next, an Ionian colony, who 
were said to have settled in it 2 generations before 
the Trojan War ; lastly, at the time of the great 
Aeolic migration (130 years after the Trojan 
War, according to the mythical chronologj'), the 
island was colonised by Aeolians, who founded in 
it an Hexapolis, consisting of the 6 cities, Myti- 
lene, Methj-mna, Eresus, Pyrrha, Antissa, and 
Arisbe, afterwards reduced to 5 through the de- 
struction of Arisbe by the Methymnaeans. The 
Aeolians of Lesbos afterwards founded numerous 
settlements along the coast of the Troad and in the 
region of Mt. Ida, and at one time a great part of 
the Troad seems to have been subject to Lesbos. 
The chief facts in the history of the island are 
connected with its principal city, Mytilene, which 
was the scene of the struggles between the nobles 
and the commons, in which Alcaeus and Pitta- 
jus took part. At the time of the Peloponnesian 
War, Lesbos was subject to Athens. After va- 
rious changes, it fell under the power of Mithri- 
dates, and passed from him to the Romans. The 
island is most important in the early history of 
Greece, as the native region of the Aeolian school 
of lyric poetrj% It was the birthplace of the mu- 
sician and poet Terpander, of the lyric poets 
Alcaeus, Sappho, and others, and of the dithy- 
rambic poet Arion. Other forms of literature 
and philosophy early and long flourished in it : the 
sage and statesman Pittacus, the historians Hel- 
lanicus and Theophanes, and the philosophers 
Theophrastus and Phanias, w^ere all Lesbians. 
_ Lesbothemis (Aeo-go'ee/x/s), a statuary of an- 
cient date, and a native of Lesbos. 

Lesches or Lesch.eus (A^ctxt/s-, Aeo-xew?), one 
of the so-called cyclic poets, son of Aeschylinus, a 
native of Pj-rrha, in the neighbourhood of Mytilene, 
and hence called a Mytilenean or a Lesbian. He 
flourished about B.C. 708, and was usually regarded 
as the author of the Little Iliad ('lAtas t] ixdaacav or 
'IA:as fxiKpd j, though this poem was also ascribed 
to various other poets. It consisted of 4 books, 
and was intended as a supplement to the Homeric 
Iliad. It related the events after the death of 
Hector, the fate of Ajax, the exploits of Philoctetes, 
Neoptolemus, and Ulysses, and the final capture 
and destruction of Troy, which part of the poem 
was called The Destrtiction of Troy {^IXiov Treptny). 
There was no unity in the poem, except that of 
historical and chronological succession. Hence 
Aristotle remarks that the little Iliad furnished 
materials for 8 tragedies, whilst only one could be 
based upon the Iliad or Odyssey of Homer. 

Lethaens (Aridaios). 1. A river of Ionia, in 
Asia Minor, flowing S. past Magnesia into the 
Maeander. =- 2. A river in the S. of Crete, flow- 
ing past Gortyna. — 3. [Lathon.] 

Lethe (A.-hQn), the personification of oblivion, 
called by Hesiod a daughter of Eris. A river in 
the lower world was likewise called Lethe. The 
souls of the departed drank of this river, and thus 
forgot all they had said or done in the upper world. 

Lethie, a river in Spain. See Limaea. 

Leto (Atjtw), called Latona by the Romans, is 
described by Hesiod as a daughter of the Titan 
Coeus and Phoebe, a sister of Asteria, and the 



LEUCA. 

mother of Apollo and Artemis by Zeus, to whom 
she was married before Hera. ' Homer likewise 
calls her the mother of Apollo and Artemis by Zeus ; 
he mentions her in the story of Niobe, who paid so 
dearly for her conduct towards Leto [Niobe], and 
he also describes her as the friend of the Trojans 
in the war with the Greeks. In later writers these 
elements of her story are variously embellished, for 
they do not describe her as the lawful wife of 
Zeus, but merely as his mistress, who was perse- 
cuted by Hera during her pregnancy. All the 
world being afraid of receiving Leto on account of 
Hera, she wanderad about till she came to Delos, 
which was then a floatiiig island, and bore the name 
of Asteria or Ortygia. When Leto arrived there, 
Zeus fastened it by adamantine chains to the 
bottom of the sea, that it might be a secure resting- 
place for his beloved, and here she gave birth to 
Apollo and Artemis. The tradition is also related 
with various other modifications. Some said 
that Zeus changed Leto into a quail (opTu|), 
and that in this state she arrived in the floating 
island, which was hence called Ortygia. Others 
related that Zeus was enamoured with Asttria, 
but that she being metamorphosed into a bird, flew 
across the sea ; that she was then changed into a 
rock, Avhich for a long time, lay under the surface 
of the sea ; and that this rock arose from the waters 
and received Leto when she was pursued by Python. 
Leto was generally worshipped only in conjunction 
with her children. Delos was the chief seat of her 
Avorship. [Apollo.] — It is probable that the name 
of Leto belongs to the same class of words as the 
Greek XrjOr] and the Latin lateo. Leto would there- 
fore signify "the obscure" or " concealed," not as 
a physical power, but as a divinity yet quiescent 
and invisible, from whom issued the visible divi- 
nity with all his splendour and brilliancy. This 
view is supported by the account of her genealogy 
given b}' Hesiod. — From their mother Apollo is 
frequently Leto'ius or Laioms, and Artemis (Diana) 
Leto'ia, Leto'is, Latois, or Lato'd. 

Leuca (to Aeu/ca), a town at the extremity of 
the lapygian promontory in Calabria, with a stink- 
ing fountain, under which the giants who were 
vanquished by Hercules are said to have been 
buried. The promontory is still called Capo di 
Leuca. 

Leucae, Leuca (AeCiKai, AeuKTj : Lefke), a 
small town on the coast of Ionia, in Asia Minor, 
near Phocaea, built by the Persian general Tachos 
in B. c. 352, and remarkable as the scene of the 
battle between the consul Licinius Crassus and 
Aristonicus, in 131. 

Leucas or Leucadia (Aeu/cas, Aeu/caSta : Aey- 
KaZios : Santa Maura), an island in the Ionian sea, 
off the W. coast of Acarnania, about 20 miles in 
length, and from 5 to 8 miles in breadth. It has 
derived its name from the numerous calcareous 
hills which cover its surface. It was originally 
united to the mainland at its N.E. extremity b}^ a 
narrow isthmus. Homer speaks of it as a penin- 
sula, and mentions its well fortified town Nericus 
(Nfjpiicos). It was at that time inhabited by the 
Teleboans and Leleges. Subsequently the Corin- 
thians under Cypselus, between B.C. 665 and 625, 
founded a new town, called Leucas in the N. E. of 
the country near the isthmus, in which they settled 
1000 of their citizens, and to which they removed 
the inhabitants of Nericus, which lay a little to the 
W. of the new town. The Corinthians also cut a 



LEUCIPPUS. 379 

canal through the isthmus and thus converted the 
peninsula into an island. This canal was afterwards 
filled up by deposits of sand ; and in the Pelopon- 
nesian war it was no longer available for ships, 
which during that period were conveyed across the 
isthmus on more than one occasion (Thuc. iii. 81, 
iv. 8). The canal was opened again by the Romans. 
At present the channel is dry in some parts, and 
has from 3 to 4 feet of water in others. The town 
of Leucas was a place of importance, and during 
the war between Philip and the Romans was at 
the head of the Acarnanian league, and the place 
where the meetings of the league were held. It 
was in consequence taken and plundered by the 
Romans, B.C. 197. The remains of this town are 
still to be seen. The other towns in the island 
were Hellomenum {'EWofxeuov) on the S. E. coast, 
and Phara (*apa), on the S.W. coast. — At the S. 
extremity of the island, opposite Cephallenia, was 
the celebrated promontory, variously called Leucas^ 
Leucatas,Leucates,ov Leticate {C.Ducato), on which 
was a temple of Apollo, who hence had the surname 
of Leucadius. At the annual festival of the god it 
was the custom to cast down a criminal from this 
promontory into the sea : to break his fall birds of 
all kinds were attached to him, and if he reached 
the sea uninjured, boats were ready to pick him 
up. This appears to have been an expiatory rite ; 
and it gave rise to the well known story that lovers 
leaped from this rock, in order to seek relief from 
the pangs of love. Thus Sappho is said to have 
leapt down from this rock, when in love with 
Phaon ; but this well known story vanishes at the 
first approach of criticism. 

Leuce (AevK-n), an island in the Euxine sea, 
near the mouth of the Borysthenes, sacred to 
Achilles. [Achilleus Dromos.] 

Leuci, a people in the S. E. of Gallia Belgica, 
S. of the Mediomatrici, between the Matrona and 
Mosella. Their chief town was Tullum (Toul). 

Lenci Montes, called by the Romans Aibi 
Montes, a range of mountains in the W. of Crete. 
[Albi Montes.] 

Leucippe. [Alcathoe.] 

Leucippides (Aeu/ci-n-Tn'Ses), i. e. Phoebe and 
Hilaira, the daughters of Leucippus. They were 
priestesses of Athena and Artemis, and betrothed 
to Idas and LjTiceus, the sons of Aphareus ; but 
Castor and Pollux being charmed with their beauty, 
carried them off and married them. 

Leucippus (AevKiTTTTos). 1. Son of Oenomaus. 
For details see Daphne. -=2. Son of Perieres and 
Gorgophone, brother of Aphareus, and prince of 
the Messenians, was one of the Calydonian hmitera. 
By his wife Philodice, he had 2 daughters, Phoebe 
and Hilaira, usually called Leucippides.-— 3. A 
Grecian philosopher, the founder of the atomic 
theory of the ancient philosophy, which was more 
fully developed by Democritus. Where and when 
he Avas born we have no data for deciding. Mile- 
tus, Abdera, and Elis have been assigned as his 
birth-place ; the 1st, apparently, for no other 
reason than that it was the birth-place of several 
natural philosophers ; the 2nd, because Democritus 
came from that town ; the 3rd, because he was looked 
upon as a disciple of the Eleatic school. The period 
when he lived is equally uncertain. He is called 
the teacher of Democritus the disciple of Panne- 
nides, or, according to other accounts, of Zeno, of 
Melissus, nay even of Pythagoras. With regard 
to his philosophical system it is impossible to speak 



3C0 LEUCON. 
with certainty, since the writers who mention him, | 
either mention him in conjunction with Democritus, 
or attribute to him doctrines which are in like 
manner attributed to Democritus. [Democritus.] 

Leucon {A(VK(t3v). 1. Son of Poseidon or Atha- 
mas and Themisto, and father of Erythrus and 
Evippe. — 2, A powerful king of Bosporus, who 
reigned B. c. 393 — 353. He was in close alliance 
with the Athenians, whom he supplied with com 
in great abundance, and who, in return for his ser- 
vices, admitted him and his sons to the citizenship 
of Athens. — 3. An Athenian poet, of the old 
comedy, a contemporary and rival of Aristophanes. 

Leuconium (AeuKwriov), a place in the island 
of Chios. (Thuc. viii. 24.) 

Leuconoe {htvKovor])^ daughter of Minyas, 
uiually called Leucippe. [Alcathoe.] 

Leucopetra [A^vKo-nirpa : C. deW Armi)^ a pro- 
montory in the S.W. of Bruttium, on the Sicilian 
straits, and a few miles S. of Rhegium, to whose 
territory it belonged. It was regarded by the 
ancient writers as the termination of the Apennines, 
and it derived its name from the white colour of 
its rocks. 

Leucophrys (AewKoc/jpus). 1. A city of Caria, 
in the plain of the Maeander, close to a curious 
lake of warm water, and having a renowned temple 
of Artemis Leucophryne. — 2. A name given to 
the island of Tknedos, from its white cliff's. 

Leucopkryne. [Leucophrys.] 

Leucosia or Leucasia (Pm«a), a small island 
in the S. of the gulf of Paestum, olf the coast of 
Lucania, and opposite the promontory Posidium, 
said to have been called after one of the Sirens. 

Leucosyri {AevKoavpoi, i. e. White Si/ria7is), 
was a name early applied by the Greeks to the in- 
habitants of Cappadocia, who were of the Syrian 
race, in contradistinction to the Syrian tribes of a 
darker colour beyond the Taurus. Afterwards, 
when Cappadoces came to be the common name 
for the people of S. Cappadocia, the word Leucosyri 
was applied specifically to the people in the N. of 
the country (aft. Pontus) on the coast of the 
Euxine, between the rivers Halys and Iris : these 
are the White Syrians of Xenophon (Anab. v. 6). 
After the Macedonian conquest, the name appears 
to have fallen into disuse. 

Leucothea (AeuKo0ea), a marine goddess, was 
previously Ino, the wife of Athamas. For details 
see Athamas. 

Leucothoe, daughter of the Babylonian king 
Orchamus and Eurj-nome, was beloved by Apollo. 
Her amour was betrayed by the jealous Clytia to 
her father, who buried her alive ; whereupon Apollo 
metamorphosed her into an incense shrub. — Leu- 
cothoe is in some writers only another form for 
Leucothea. 

Leuctra (ra AevKrpa: Lefka or Lefkra)^ a 
small town in Boeotia, on the road from Plataeae 
to Thespiae, memorable for the victory which 
Epaminondas and the Th^bans here gained over 
Cleombrotus and the Spar fans, B. c. 371. 

Leuctnun. (AeD/crpoi/). 1. Or Leuctra {Leftro\ 
a town in Messenia, on the E. side of the Messenian 
gulf, between Cardamyle and Thalama, on the 
small river Pamisus. The Spartans and Messenians 
disputed for the possession of it. —2. A small town 
in Achaia, dependent on Rhypae, 

Lexovii or Lezobii, a people in Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis, on the Ocean, W. of the moutb of the Se- 
quana. Their capital was Noviomagus. (Lisieux). 



LIBANIUS. 

Liba (if Ai§a), a city of Mesopotamia, between 
Nisibis and the Tigris. 

Libanius (Ai€di>ios), a distinguished Greek 
sophist and rhetorician, was bom at Antioch, on the 
Orontes, about a. d. 314. He studied at Athens, 
where he imbibed an ardent love for the great 
classical writers of Greece ; and he afterwards set 
up a private school of rhetoric at Constantinople, 
which was attended by so large a number of pupils, 
that the classes of the public professors were com- 
pletely deserted. The latter, in revenge, charged 
Libanius with being a magician, and obtained his 
expulsion from Constantinople about 346. He 
then went to Nicomedia, where he taught with 
equal success, but also drew upon himself an equal 
degree of malice from his opponents. After a stay 
of five years at Nicomedia, he was recalled to Con- 
stantinople. Eventually he took up his abode at 
Antioch, where he spent the remainder of his life. 
Here he received the greatest marks of favour from 
the emperor Julian, 362. In the reign of Valens 
he was at first persecuted, but he afterwards suc- 
ceeded in winning the favour of that monarch also. 
The emperor Theodosius likewise showed him 
marks of respect, but his enjoyment of life was dis- 
turbed b}' ill health, by misfortunes in his family, 
and more especially by the disputes in which he 
was incessantly involved, partly with rival sophists, 
and partly with the prefects. It cannot, however, 
be denied, that he himself was as much to blame 
as his opponents, for he appears to have provoked 
them by his querulous disposition, and by the 
pride and vanity which everywhere appear in his 
orations, and which led him to interfere in political 
questions which it would have been wiser to have 
left alone. He was the teacher of St. Basil and 
Chrysostom, with whom he always kept up a 
friendly connexion. The year of his death is uncer- 
tain, but from one of his epistles it is evident that 
he was alive in 391, and it is probable that he died 
a few years after, in the reign of Arcadius. The 
extant works of Libanius are : 1 . Models for rheto- 
rical exercises (JlpoyvjivaaixaTuv irapa5eiyfj.aTa). 
2. Orations (A6yoi), 67 in number. 3. Declama- 
tions (MeAeroi), i. e. orations on fictitious subjects, 
and descriptions of various kinds, 50 in number. 
4. A life of Demosthenes, and arguments to the 
speeches of the same orator. 5. Letters {*Eiri(rTo- 
Aai), of which a very large number is still extant. 
Many of these letters are extremely interesting, 
being addressed to the most eminent men of his 
time, such as the emperor Julian, Athanasius, 
Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, Chrysostom, and others. 
The style of Libanius is superior to that of the 
other rhetoricians of the 4th century. He took 
the best orators of the classic age as his models, 
and we can often see in him the disciple and happy 
imitator of Demosthenes ; but he is not always able 
to rise above the spirit of his age, and we rarely 
find in him that natural simplicity which constitutes 
the great charm of the best Attic orators. His 
diction is a curious mixture of the pure old Attic 
•\A-ith what may be teraied modem. Moreover it 
is evident that, like all other rhetoricians, he is 
more concerned about the form than the sub- 
stance. As far as the history of his age is con- 
cerned, some of his orations, and still more his 
epistles are of great value, such as the oration in 
which he relates the events of his own life, the 
eulogies on Constantius and Constans, the orations 
on Julian, several orations describing the condition 



LIBANUS. 



LIBO. 



381 



of Antioch, and those which he wrote against his 
professional and political opponents. There is no 
complete edition of all the works of Libanius. The 
best edition of the orations and declamations is by 
Reiske, Altenburg, 1791 — 97, 4 vols. 8vo., and the 
best edition of the epistles is by Wolf, Amster- 
dam, 1738, fol. 

Libanus (6 AiSavos^ rh AiSavov : Heb. Le- 
banon, i. e. the White Mountain : Jehel Lihnaii)^ 
a lofty and steep mountain range on the confines of 
Syria and Palestine, dividing Phoenice from Coele- 
Syria. It extends from above Sidon, about lat, 
33-^° N., in a direction N.N.E. as far as about 
lat. 341°. Its highest summits are covered with 
perpetual snow, its sides were in ancient times 
clothed with forests of cedars, of which only 
scattered trees now remain, and on its lower slopes 
grow vines, figs, mulberries, and other fruits : its 
wines were highly celebrated in ancient times. It 
is considerably lower than the opposite range of 
Antilibanus. In the Scriptures the word Le- 
banon is used for both ranges, and for either of 
them ; but in classical authors the names Libanus 
and Antilibanus are distinctive terms, being applied 
to the W. and E. ranges respectively. 

Libama or Libarnum, a town of Liguria on 
the Via Aurelia, N.W. of Genua. 

Libentina, Lnbentina, or Lubentia, a surname 
of Venus among the Romans, by which she is 
described as the goddess of sexual pleasure {dea 
libidinis). 

Liber, or Liber Pater, a name frequently given 
by the Roman poets to the Greek Bacchus or 
Dionysus, who was accordingly regarded as iden- 
tical with the Italian Liber. But the god Liber, 
and the goddess Libera were ancient Italian divi- 
nities, presiding over the cultivation of the vine 
and the fertility of the fields. Hence they were 
worshipped even in early times in conjunction Avith 
Ceres. A temple to these 3 divinities was vowed 
by the dictator, A. Postumius, in B.C. 496, and was 
built near the Circus Flaminius ; it was afterwards 
restored by Augustus, and dedicated by Tiberius. 
The name Liber is probably connected with lihe- 
rare. Hence Seneca says, Liber dictus est quia 
liberat servitio curarum animi; while others, who 
were evidently thinking of the Greek Bacchus, 
found in the name an allusion to licentious drink- 
ing and speaking. Poets usually called him Liber 
Pater^ the latter word being very commonly added 
by the Italians to the names of gods. The female 
Libera was identified by the Romans with Cora or 
Proserpina, the daughter of Demeter (Ceres) ; 
whence Cicero calls Liber and Libera children of 
Ceres ; whereas Ovid calls Ariadne Libera. The 
festival of the Liberalia was celebrated by the 
Romans every year on the 17th of March. 

Lroera, [Liber.] 

Libertas, the personification of Liberty, was 
worshipped at Rome as a divinity. A temple was 
erected to her on the Aventine by Tib. Sempronius 
Gracchus. Another was built by Clodius on the 
spot where Cicero's house had stood. A third was 
erected after Caesar's victories in Spain. From 
these temples we must distinguish the Atrium 
Libertatis, which was in the N. of the forum, to- 
wards the Quirinal. This building under the re- 
public served as an office of the censors, and also 
contained tables with laws inscribed upon them. It 
was rebuilt by Asinius PoUio, and then became 
the repository of the first public library at Rome. 



— Libertas is usually represented in works of art 
as a matron, with the pileus, the sj^mbol of liberty, 
or a wreath of laurel. Sometimes she appears 
holding the Phrygian cap in her hand. 

Libetlirides. [Libethrum.] 

Libetlirius Mons {rh AiSidpiov opos), a moun- 
tain in Boeotia, a branch of Mt. Helicon, 40 stadia 
from Coronea, possessing a grotto of the Libethrian 
nymphs, adorned with their statues, and 2 fountains 
Libethrias and Petra. 

Libethrum (Aeigr/Spojc, to Ad§r}dpa, rb. Ai§r]- 
6pa), an ancient Thracian town in Pieria in Mace- 
donia, on the slope of Olympus, and S.W. of Dium, 
where Orpheus is said to have lived. This town 
and the surrounding country were sacred to the 
Muses, who were hence called Libethrtdes ; and it is 
probable that the worship of the Muses under this 
name was transferred from this place to Boeotia. 

Libitina, an ancient Italian divinity, who was 
identified by the later Romans sometimes with 
Persephone (Proserpina), on account of her con- 
nection with the dead and their burial, and some- 
times with Aphrodite (Venus). The latter was 
probably the consequence of etymological specula- 
tions on the name Libitina, which people connected 
with libido. Her temple at Rome was a repository 
of everything necessary for burials, and persons 
might there either buy or hire those things. Hence 
a person undertaking the burial of a person (an 
undertaker) was called libitiiiarius, and his business 
libitina ; hence the expressions libiiinam exercere, or 
facere, and libitina funeribus non sufficiebat^ i. e. they 
could not all be buried. It is related that king 
Servius Tullius, in order to ascertain the number 
of deaths, ordained that for every person who died, 
a piece of money should be deposited in the temple 
of Libitina, — Owing to this connection of Libitina 
with the dead, Roman poets frequently employ her 
name in the sense of death itself. 

Libo, Scribonius, a plebeian family. 1. L., 
tribune of the plebs, B.C. 149, accused Ser. Sulpi- 
cius Galba on account of the outrages which he had 
committed against the Lusitanians. [Galba, 
No. 6.] It was perhaps this Libo who consecrated 
the Puteal Scribonianum or Puteal Libonis, of which 
we so frequently read in ancient writere. The 
Puteal was an enclosed place in the forum, near 
the Arcus Fabianus, and was so called from its 
being open at the top, like a puteal or well. It ap- 
pears that there was only one such puteal at Rome, 
and not two, as is generally believed. It was de- 
dicated in very ancient times either on account of 
the whetstone of the augur Navius (comp. Liv. i. 
36), or because the spot had been struck by light- 
ning ; it was subsequently repaired and re-dedicated 
by Libo, who erected in its neighbourhood a tri- 
bunal for the praetor, in consequence of which the 
place was frequented by persons who had law-suits, 
such as money lenders and the like. (Comp. Hor. 
Sat. ii. 6. 35, Epist. i. 19. 8.) — 2. L., the father- 
in-law of Sex. Pompey, the son of Pompey the 
Great. On the breaking out of the civil war in 49, 
he naturally sided with Pompey, and was entmsted 
with the command of Etruria. Shortly afterwards 
he accompanied Pompey to Greece, and was ac- 
tively engaged in the war that ensued. On the 
death of Bibulus (48) he had the chief command 
of the Pompeian fleet. In the civil Avars which 
followed Caesar's death, he followed the fortunes 
of his son-in-laAv Sex. Pompey. In 40, Octavian 
married his sister Scribonia, and this marriage 



38-: 



LI BON. 



WHS followed by a peace between the triumvirs and 
Poinpey (39).' When the war was renewed in 
36. Libo for a time continued with Pompey, but, 
seein? his cause hopeless, he deserted him in the fol- 
lowiiiii vear. In 34, he was consul with M. Antony. 

Libo'n (AiSujv), an Elean, the architect of the 
great temple of Zeus in the Altis at Olympia, 
flourished about B.C. 450. 

Libui, a Gallic tribe in Gallia Cispadana, to 
whom the tow^^s of Brisia and Verona formerly be- 
longed, from which they were expelled by the 
Cenomani. They are probably the same people 
whom we afterwards find in the neighbourhood of 
Vercellae under the name of Lebecii or LibicL 

Libarnia, a district of lUyricum, along the coast 
of the Adriatic sea, was separated from Istria on 
the N. W. by the river Arsia, and from Dalmatia 
on the S. by the river Titius, thus corresponding 
to the W. part of Croatia, and the N. part of the 
modern Dalmatia. The country is mountainous 
and unproductive, and its inhabitants, the Libumi. 
supported themselves chiefly by commerce and 
navigation. They were celebrated at a very early 
period as bold and skilful sailors, and they appear 
to have been the nrst people who had the sway of 
the waters of the Adriatic. They took possession of 
most of the islands of this sea as far as Corcyra, and 
had settlements even on the opposite coast of Italy. 
Their ships were remarkable for their swift sail- 
ing, and hence vessels built after the same model 
were called Liburnicae or Liburnae naves. It was 
to light vessels of this description that Augustus 
was mainly indebted for his victory over Antony's 
fleet at the battle of Actium. The Libumians 
were the first lUyrian people who submitted to the 
Romans. Being hard pressed by the lapydes on 
the N. and by the Dalmatians on the S., they 
sought the protection of Rome at a comparatively 
early period. Hence we find that many of their 
towns werr. immunes, or exempt from taxes. The 
islands ofic the coast were reckoned a part of Libur- 
nia and a e known by the general name of Libur- 
nides or Liburnicae Insulae. [Illyricum.] 

Libya (Atgurj), daughter of Epaphus and 
Memphis, from whom Libya (Africa) is said to 
have derived its name. By Poseidon she became 
the mother of Agenor, Belus, and Lelex. 

Libya -. A'i§ues, Libyes). L The Greek 

name for the continent of Africa in general 
[Africa].— 2. L. Interior (A v eVro's), the 
whole interior of Africa, as distinguished from the 
well-known regions on the N. and N.E. coasts.— 
3. Libya, specifically, or Libyae Nomos (AjguTjr 
vo/xcJy), a district of N. Africa, between Egypt and 
Marmarica, so called because it once formed an 
Egyptian Nomos. It is sometimes called Libya 
Exterior. 

Libyci Montes (rh Ai§vKhv opos: Jebd Selseleh), 
the range of mountains which form the W. margin 
of tee valley of the Nile. [Aegyptus.] 

Libycum Mare (t^* Ai§vKhv TreAayos), the part 
of the Mediterranean between the island of Crete 
and the N. coast of Africa. 

Libyphoenices {AiSvcpoiviKes, Ai§o(po(viKes), a 
term applied to the people of those parts of N. 
Africa, in which the Phoenicians had founded co- 
lonies, and especially to the inhabitants of the 
Phoenician cities on the coast of the Carthaginian 
territory : it is derived from the fact that "these 
people were a mixed race of the Libyan natives 
with the Phoenician settlers. 



LICINIUS. 
Libyssa {Alevaaa: Herekehf), a tou-n of Bi- 
thynia, in Asia Minor, on the N. coast of the Sirnig 
Astacenus, W. of Nicomedia. celebrated as the 
place where the tomb of Hannibal was to be seen. 

Licates or Licatii, a people of Vindelicia on 
the E. bank of the river Licus or Licia {Lech), one 
of the fiercest of the Vindelician tribes. 

Lichades (AixaSes : Ponticonesi)^ 3 small islands 
between Euboea and the coast of Locris, called 
Scarphia, Caresa, and Phocaria. See Lichas, No. 1. 

Ochas (Ai'xas). L An attendant of Hercules, 
brought his master the poisoned garment, which 
destroyed the hero. [See p. 310, b.] Hercules, in 
anguish and -wrath, threw Lichas into the sea, and 
the Lichadian islands were believed to have derived 
their name from him, — 2. A Spartan, son of 
Arcesila'os, was proxenus of Argos, and is fre- 
quently mentioned in the Peloponnesian war. He 
was famous throughout Greece for his hospitality, 
j especially in his entertainment of strangers at the 
i Gymnopaedia. 

I Licia or Licus. [Licates.] 
I Licinia. 1. A Vestal virgin, accused of incest, 
j together with 2 other Vestals, Aemilia and Marcia, 
I B. c. 114. L. Metellus, the pontifex maximus, 
j condemned Aemilia, but acquitted Licinia and 
: Marcia. The acquittal of the 2 last caused such 
I dissatisfaction that the people appointed L. Cassius 
j Longinus to investigate the matter ; and he con- 
1 demned both Licinia and Marcia. — 2. Wife of 
C. Sempronius Gracchus, the celebrated tribune. 
' — 3. Daughter of Crassus the orator, and wife of 
' the younger Marius. 

Licinia Gens, a celebrated plebeian house, to 
which belonged C. Licinius CjJvus Stolo, whose 
exertions threw open the consulship to the ple- 
beians. Its most distinguished families at a later 
time were those of Crassus, Lucullus and 
!Ml'reka. There were likewise numerous other 
surnames in the gens, which are also given in 
' their proper places. 

I licinitis. 1. C. Licinius Calvus, sumamed 
! Stolo, which he derived, it is said, from the care 
i with which he dug up the shoots that sprang up 
from the roots of his vines. He brought the contest 
between the patricians and plebeians to a happy 
termination, and thus became the founder of Rome's 
greatness. He was tribune of the people from B.C. 
376 to 367, and was faithfully supported in his 
exertions by his colleague L. Sextius. The laws 
which he proposed were : 1. That in future no 
more consular tribunes should be appointed, but 
that consuls should be elected, one of whom should 
always be a plebeian. 2. That no one should 
possess more than 500 jugera of the public land, 
or keep upon it more than 100 head of large and 
500 of small cattle. 3. A law regulating the afiairs 
between debtor and creditor. 4. That the Sibylline 
books should be entrusted to a college of ten men 
(decemviri), half of whom should be plebeians. 
These rogations were passed after a most vehement 
opposition on the part of the patricians, and 
L. Sextius was the first plebeian who obtained the 
consulship, 366. Licinius himself was elected 
twice to the consulship, 364 and 361. Some years 
later he was accused by M. Popilius Laenas of 
having transgressed his own law respecting the 
amount of public land which a person might pos- 
sess. He was condemned and sentenced to pay a 
hea\-y fine. — 2. C. Licinius Macer, an annalist 
and an orator, Tvas a man of praetorian dignity, 



LICINIUS. 



LIGURIA. 



383 



who, when impeaclied (6G) of extortion by Cicero, 
finding that the verdict was against him, forthwith 
committed suicide before the formalities of the trial 
were completed, and thus averted the dishonour 
and loss which would have been entailed upon 
his family by a public condemnation and by the 
confiscation of property which it involved. His 
Annales commenced with the very origin of the 
city, and extended to 21 books at least ; but how 
far he brought down his histor}^, is unknown.— 
3. C. Licinius Macer Calvns, son of the last, a 
distinguished orator and poet, was born in 82, and 
died about 47 or 46, in his 35th or 36th year. 
His most celebrated oration was delivered against 
Vatinius, who was defended by Cicero, when he 
was only 27 years of age. So powerful was the 
effect produced by this speech, that the accused 
started up in the midst of the pleading, and pas- 
sionately exclaimed, " Rogo vos, judices, num, si 
iste disertus est, ideo me damnari oporteat ? " His 
poems were full of wit and grace, and possessed 
sufficient merit to be classed by the ancients with 
those of Catullus. His elegies, especially that 
on the untimely death of his mistress Quintilia, 
have been warmly extolled by Catullus, Pro- 
pertius, and Ovid. Calvus was remarkable for 
the shortness of his stature, and hence the vehe- 
ment action in which he indulged while pleading 
was in such ludicrous contrast with his insignificant 
person, that even his friend Catullus has not been 
able to resist a joke, and has presented him to us 
as the " Salaputium disertum," " the eloquent 
Toni Thumb." 

Licmms, Roman emperor a. d. 307 — 324, 
whose full name was Publius Flavius Galerius 
Valerius Licinianus Licinius. He was a Da- 
cian peasant by birth, and the early friend and com- 
panion in arms of the emperor Galerius, by whom 
he was raised to the rank of Augustus, and invested 
with the command of the H/yrian provinces at 
Carmentum, on the 11th of November, A. d. 307. 
Upon the death of Galerius in 311, he concluded 
a peaceful arrangement with Maximinus II., in 
virtue of which the Hellespont and the Bosporus 
were to form the boundary of the two empires. In 
313 he married at Milan, Constantia, the sister of 
Constantine, and in the same year set out to en- 
counter Maximinus, who had invaded his dominions. 
Maximinus was defeated by Licinius near He- 
raclea, and died a few months afterwards at 
Tarsus. Licinius and Constantine were now the 
only emperors, and each was anxious to obtain the 
undivided sovereignty. Accordingly war broke 
out between them in 315. Licinius was defeated 
at Cibalis in Pannonia, and afterwards at Adri- 
anople, and was compelled to purchase peace by 
ceding to Constantine Greece, Macedonia, and 
Illyricum. This peace lasted about 9 years, at 
the end of which time hostilities were renewed. 
The great battle of Adrinople (July, 323), fol- 
lowed by the reduction of Byzantium, and a second 
great victory achieved near Chalcedon (September), 
placed Licinius at the mercy of Constantine, who, 
although he spared his life for the moment, and 
merely sentenced him to an honourable imprison- 
ment at Thessalonica, soon found a convenient pre- 
text for putting him to death, 324. 

Licinxis. 1. A Gaul by birth, was taken pri- 
soner in war, and became a slave of Julius Caesar, 
whose confidence he gained so much as to be made 
his dispensator or steward. Caesar gave him his 



freedom. He also gained the favour of Augustus, 
who appointed him in B. c. 1 5, governor of his 
native country, Gaul. By the plunder of Gaul 
and by other means, he acquired enormous wealth, 
and hence his name is frequently coupled with 
that of Crassus. He lived to see the reign of 
Tiberius. — 2. The barber (tonsor) Licinus spoken 
of by Horace (Ars Pott. 301), must have been a 
different person from the preceding, although iden- 
tified by the Scholiast. — 3. Clodius Licinus, a 
Roman annalist, who lived about the beginning of 
the first century b. c, wrote the history of Rome 
from its capture by the Gauls to his own time. 
This Clodius is frequently confounded with Q. 
Claudius Quadrigarius. [Quadrigarius.] — 4. 
L. Porcius Licinus, plebeian aedile, 210, and 
praetor 207, when he obtained Cisalpine Gaul as 
his province. — 5. L. Porcius Licinus, praetor 
193, with Sardinia as his province, and consul 
184, when he carried on war against the Ligii- 
rians.— 6. Porcius Licinus, an ancient Ronian 
poet, who probably lived in the latter part of the 
2nd century b. c. 

Licymnia, spoken of by Horace (Carm. ii. 12. 
13, seq.), is probably the same as Terentia, the 
wife of Maecenas. 

Licymnius {AiKvfjLVLos). 1. Son of Electryon 
and the Phrygian slave Midea, and consequently 
half-brother of Alcmene. He was married to 
Perimede, by whom he became the father of 
Oeonus, Argeus, and Melas. He was a friend of 
Hercules, whose son Tlepolemus slew him, accord- 
ing to some unintentionally, and according to 
others in a fit of anger. — 2. Of Chios, a distin- 
guished dithyrambic poet, of uncertain date. Some 
writers place him before Simonides ; but it is per- 
haps more likely that he belonged to the later 
Athenian dithyrambie school about the end of the 
4th century b. c. — 3. Of Sicily, a rhetorician, the 
pupil of Gorgias, and the teacher of Polus, 

Lide (Ai'Stj), a mountain of Caria, above Pedasus. 

Q. Ligarius, was legate, in Africa, of C. Considius 
Longus, who left him in command of the province, 
B. c. 50. Next year (49) Ligarius resigned the 
government of the province into the hands of 
L. Attius Varus. Ligarius fought under Varus 
against Curio in 49, and against Caesar himself in 
46. After the battle of Thapsus, Ligarius was 
taken prisoner at Adrumetum ; his life was spared, 
but he was banished by Caesar. Meantime, a 
public accusation was brought against Ligarius by 
Q. Aelius Tubero. The case was pleaded before 
Caesar himself in the forum. Cicero defended 
Ligarius in a speech still extant, in which he 
maintains that Ligarius had as much claims to the 
mercy of Caesar, as Tubero and Cicero himself. 
Ligarius was pardoned by Caesar, who was on the 
point of setting out for the Spanish war. The 
speech which Cicero delivered in his defence was 
subsequently published, and was much admired. 
Ligarius joined the conspirators, who assassinated 
Caesar in 44. Ligarius and his 2 brothers perished 
in the proscription of the triumvirs in 43, 

Liger or Ligeris (Loire), one of the largest 
rivers in Gaul, rises in M. Cevenna, flows through 
the territories of the Arvemi, Aedui, and Carnu- 
tes, and falls into the ocean between the territories 
of the Na-mnetes and Pictones. 

Liguria (^ AiyvcniKy], i] AvyvaTivri), a dis- 
trict of Italy, was, in the time of Augustus, bounded 
on the W. by the river Varus, and the Maritime 



'm 



LIGURIA. 



Alps, which separated it from Transalpine Gaul, 
on the S. E. by the river Macra, which separated 
it from Etruria, on the N. by the river Po, and on 
the S. by the Mare Ligusticum. The country is 
very mountainous and unproductive, as the Maritime 
Alps and the Apennines run through the greater 
part of it. The mountains run almost down to the 
toast, leaving only space sufficient for a road, which 
formed the highway from Italy to the S, of Gaul. 
The chief occupation of the inhabitants was the 
rearing and feeding of cattle. The numerous forests 
on the mountains produced excellent timber, which, 
with the other products of the country, was ex- 
ported from Genua, the principal town of the 
country. Tlie inhabitants were called by the 
Greeks Ligyes (Aiyues) and Ligystini {AiyvarL- 
vo'i) and by the Romans Ligures (Sing. Li</us, 
more rarely Ligur). They were in early times a 
powerful and widely extended people ; but their 
origin is uncertain, some writers supposing them to 
be Celts, others Iberians, and others again of the 
same race as the Siculians, or most ancient inha- 
bitants of Italy. It is certain that the Ligurians 
at one time inhabited the S. coast of Gaul as well 
as the country afterwards called Liguria, and that 
they had possession of the whole coast from the 
mouth of the Rhone to Pisae in Etruria. The 
Greeks probably became acquainted with them 
first from the Samians and Phocaeans, who visited 
their coasts for the pui-poses of commerce ; and so 
powerful were they considered at this time that 
Hesiod names them, along with the Scythians and 
Ethiopians, as one of the chief people of the earth. 
Tradition also related that Hercules fought with 
the Ligurians on the plain of stones near Massilia ; 
and even a writer so late as Eratosthenes gave the 
name of Ligystice to the whole of the W. peninsula 
of Europe. So widely were they believed to be 
spread that the Ligyes in Germany and Asia were 
supposed to be a branch of the same people. The 
Ligurian tribes were divided by the Romans into 
Ligures Transalpini cind. Cisalpi?ii. The tribes which 
inhabited the Maritime Alps were called in general 
Alpini, and also CapiUati or Comati, from their 
custom of allowing their hair to grow long. The 
tribes which inhabited the Apennines were called 
Montani. The names of the principal tribes were : 
— on the "W. side of the Alps, the Salves or 
Salluvii, Oxvbh, and Deciates ; on the E. 
side of the Alps, the Ixtemelii, Ixgauni and 
Apl'axi near the coast, the Vagiexni. Salassi 
and Taurini on the upper course of the Po, and 
the Laevi and Marisci N. of the Po. — The 
Ligurians were small of stature, but strong, active, 
and brave. In early times the}- served as merce- 
naries in the armies of the Carthaginians, and 
subsequently they carried on a long and fierce 
struggle with the Romans. Their country was 
invaded for the first time by the Romans in B. c. 
238 ; but it was not till after the termination of the 
2nd Punic war and the defeat of Philip and An- 
tiochus that the Romans were able to devote their 
energies to the subjugation of Liguria. It was 
many years however before the whole country was 
finally subdued. Whole tribes, such as the Apuani, 
were transplanted to Samnium, and their place 
supplied by Roman colonists. The country v.as 
divided between the provinces of Gallia Narbo- 
nensis and Gallia Cisalpina ; and in the time of 
Augustus and of the succeeding emperors, the 
tribes in the mountains were placed under the 



LIMNAEA. 

government of an imperial procurator, called Pro- 
curator or Praefectus Alpuim Maritimarum. 

Ligusticum Mare, the name originally of the 
whole sea S. of Gaul and of the N.W. of Italy, 
but subsequently only the E. part of this sea, or 
the Gulf of Genoa, whence later writers speak 
only of a Sinus Ligusticus. 

Lilaea {\l\aia\ AiAotews), an ancient town in 
Phocis, near the sources of the Cephissus. 

Lilybaeum (Ai\v§aiov : Marsala), a town in 
the W. of Sicily, with an excellent harbour, situ- 
ated on a promontory of the same name {C. Boeo 
or di Marsala), opposite to the Prom. Hermaeum 
or Mercurii (C, Bon) in Africa, the space between 
the 2 being the shortest distance between Sicily 
and Africa. The town of Lilybaeum was founded 
by the Carthaginians about B. c. 397, and was 
made the prmcipal Carthaginian fortress in Sicily. 
It was surrounded by massive walls and by a 
trench 60 feet wide and 40 feet deep. On the 
destruction of Selinus in 249, the inhabitants of 
the latter city were transplanted to Lilybaeum, 
which thus became still more powerful. Lily- 
baeum was besieged by the Romans in the J st 
Punic war, but they were unable to take it ; and 
they only obtained possession of it by the treaty 
of peace. Under the Romans Lilybaeum continued 
to be a place of importance. At Marsala, which 
occupies only the S. half of the ancient town, there 
are the ruins of a Roman aqueduct, and a few 
other ancient remains. 

Limaea, Limia, Limius, Belion {Lima), a 
river in Gallaecia in Spain, between the Durius 
and the Minius, which flowed into the Atlantic 
Ocean. It was also called the river of Forget- 
fulness (6 ttjs Arjdrjs, Flumen Oblivionis) ; and it 
is said to have been so called, because the Turduli 
and the Celts on one occasion lost here their com- 
mander, and forgot the object of their expedition. 
This legend was so generally believed that it was 
with difficulty that Brutus Callaicus could induce 
his soldiers to cross the river, when he invaded 
Gallaecia, B.C. 136. On the banks of this river 
dwelt a small tribe called Limici. 

Limites Romani, the name of a continuous series 
of fortifications, consisting of castles, walls, earthem 
ramparts, and the like, which the Romans erected 
along the Rhine and the Danube, to protect their 
possessions from the attacks of the Germans. 

Limnae {Aijj.vai, Aiixvaios). L A town in 
Messenia, on the frontiers of Laconia, with a 
temple of Artemis, who was hence surnamed Lim- 
natis. This temple was common to the people of 
both countries ; and the outrage which the Mes- 
senian youth committed against some Lacedae- 
monian maidens, who were sacrificing at this 
temple, was the occasion of the 1st M(Jssenian 
war. Limnae was situated in the Ager Denthe- 
liatis, which district was a subject of constant 
dispute between the Lacedaemonians and Mes- 
senians after the re-establishment of the Messenian 
independence by Epaminondas. — 2. A town in 
the Thracian Chersonesus on the Hellespont, not 
far from Sestus, founded by the Milesians. — 3. 
See Sparta. 

Limnaea {Aiixvaia : AiuvaTos), a town in the 
X. of Acamania, on the road from Argos Amphi- 
lochicum to Stratos, and near the Ambracian gulf, 
on which it had a harbour. 

Limnaea, Linmetes, Limnegenes (Aifivaia 
Cos), Aiftv7]T7js (is), Aiixvny^vris), i. e. inhabiting 



LIMONUM. 



LIVIA. 



385 



or bom in a lake or marsh, a surname of several 
divinities who were believed either to have sprung 
from a lake, or who had their temples near a lake. 
Hence we find this surname given to Dionysus 
at Athens, and to Artemis at various places. 
Limonum. [Pictones.] 

Limyra (to. Aiij-vpa : Ru. N. of PUneka ?), a 
city in the S.E. of Lycia, on the river Limyrus, 
20 stadia from its mouth. 

Limyrus (Ai/xvpos : FJdneka a river of Lycia, 
flowing into the bay W. of the Sacrum Promon- 
torium {PUneka Bay) : navigable as far up as Li- 
myra, The recent travellers differ as to whether 
the present river Pliineka is the Limyra or its tri- 
butary the Arycandus. 

Lindum {Lincoln), a town of the Coritani, in 
Britain, on the road from Londinium to Eboracum, 
and a Roman colony. The modem name Lincoln 
has been formed out of Lindum Colonia. 

Lindus (AtVSos : AtV5/o9 : Lindo, Ru.), on the 
E. side of the island of Rhodes, was one of the 
most ancient Dorian colonies on the Asiatic coast. 
It is mentioned by Homer (//. ii. 656), with its 
kindred cities, lalysus and Camirus. Tliese 3 cities, 
with Cos, Cnidus, and Halicamassus, formed the 
original Hexapolis, in the S.W, comer of Asia 
Minor. Lindus stood upon a mountain in a dis- 
trict abounding in vines and figs, and had 2 cele- 
brated temples, one of Athena sumamed Aij/5ta, 
and one of Hercules. It was the birthplace of 
Cleobulus, one of the 7 wise men. It retained 
much of its consequence even after the foundation 
of Rhodes. Inscriptions of some importance have 
lately been found in its Acropolis. 

Lingoaes. 1. A powerful people in Trans- 
alpine Gaul, whose territory extended from the 
foot of Mt. Vogesus and the sources of the Ma- 
trona and Mosa, N. as far as the Treviri, and S. as 
far as the Sequani, from whom they were separated 
by the river Arar. The emperor Otho gave them 
the Roman franchise. Their chief town was An- 
dematurinum, afterwards Lingones {Langres).— 
2. A branch of the above mentioned people, who 
migrated into Cisalpine Gaul along with the Boii, 
and shared the fortunes of the latter. [Boii.] They 
dwelt E. of the Boii as far as the Adriatic sea in 
the neighbourhood of Ravenna. 

Linternum, [Liternum.] 

Linus (AiVcs), the personification of a dirge or 
lamentation, and therefore described as a son of 
Apollo by a Muse (Calliope, or by Psamathe or 
Chalciope), or of Amphimarus by Urania. Both 
Argos and Thebes claimed the honour of his birth. 
An Argive tradition related, that Linus was exposed 
by his mother after his birth, and was brought up 
by shepherds, but was afterwards torn to pieces 
by dogs. Psamathe's grief at the occurrence be- 
trayed her misfortune to her father, who condemned 
her to death. Apollo, indignant at the father's 
cruelty, visited Argos with a plague ; and, in obe- 
dience to an oracle, the Argives endeavoured to 
propitiate Psamathe and Linus by means of sacri- 
fices. Matrons and virgins sang dirges which were 
called \ivoi. According to a Boeotian tradition 
Linus was killed by Apollo, because he had ventured 
upon a musical contest with the god ; and every 
year before sacrifices were offered to the Muses, a 
funeral sacrifice was offered to him, and dirges 
{Xhoi) were sung in his honour. His tomb was 
claimed by Argos and by Thebes, and likewise by 
Chalcis in Euboea. It is probably owing to the 



difficulty of reconciling the different mythuses 
about Linus, that the Thebans thought it necessary 
to distinguish between aji earlier and later Linus ; 
the latter is said to have instructed Hercules in 
music, but to have been killed by the hero. In 
the time of the Alexandrine grammarians Linus 
was considered as the author of apocryphal works, 
in which the exploits of Dionj-'sus were described. 

Lipara and Liparenses Insulae. [Aeoliae.] 

Liparis (AtVapis), a small river of Cilicia, flow- 
ing past Soloe. 

Liquentia {Livenza), a river in Venetia in the 
N. of Italy between Aitinum and Concordia, which 
flowed into the Sinus Tergestinus. 

Liris {Garigliayio), more anciently called Clanis, 
or Glanis, one of the principal rivers in central 
Italy, rises in the Apennines W. of lake Fucinus, 
flows first through the territory of the Marsi in a 
S. E.-ly direction, then turns S. W. near Sora, and 
at last flows S. E. into the Sinus Caietanus near 
Minturnae, forming the boundary between Latium 
and Campania. Its stream was sluggish, whence 
the " Liris quieia aqua " of Horace (Carm. i. 31). 

Lissus (Attro-os : AiWioy, Aiffa^vs). 1. {Ales- 
sic), a town in the S. of Dalmatia, at the mouth of 
the river Drilon, founded by Dionysius of Syra- 
cuse, B. c. 385. It was situated on a hill near the 
coast, and possessed a strongly fortified acropolis, 
called Acrolissus, which was considered impreg- 
nable. The town afterwards fell into the hands 
of the Illyrians, and was eventually colonized by 
the Romans. — 2. A small river in Thrace W, of 
the Hebrus. 

Lista {S. Anatoglia), a town of the Sabines, S. 
of Reate, is said to have been the capital of the 
Aborigines, from which they were driven out by 
the Sabines, who attacked them in the night. 

Litana Silva {Silva di Lvge), a large forest on 
the Apennines in Cisalpine Gaul, S. E. of Mutina, 
in which the Romans were defeated by the Gauls, 
B.C. 216. 

Liternum or Linternum {Patria), a town on 
the coast of Campania, at the mouth of the river 
Clanius or Glanis, which in the lower part of its 
course takes the name of Liternus {Pairia or 
Clanio), and which flows through a marsh to the 
N, of the town called Literna Palus. The town 
was made a Roman colony B.C. 194, and was 
recolonized by Augustus. It was to this place 
that the elder Scipio Africanus retired, M^hen the 
tribunes attempted to bring him to trial, and here 
he is said to have died. His tomb was shown at 
Liternum ; but some maintained that he v/as 
buried in the family sepulchre near the Porta 
Capena at Rome, 

Livia. 1. Sister of M. Livius Dmsus, the cele- 
brated tribune, B.C. 91, was married first to 
M. Porcius Cato, by whom she had Cato Uticensis, 
and subsequently to Q. Servilius Caepio, by whom 
she had a daughter, Servilia, the mother of M. 
Bmtus, who killed Caesar. — 2. Livia Brusilla, 
the daughter of Livius Drusus Claudianus [Drusus, 
No. 3], Avas married first to Tib. Claudius Nero ; 
and afterwards to Augustus, who compelled her 
husband to divorce her, B. c. 38, She had already- 
borne her husband one son, the future emperor 
Tiberius, and at the time of her marriage with. 
Augustus was 6 months pregnant with another, 
who subsequently received the name of Drusus. 
She never had any children by Augustus, but she 
retained his affections till his death. It was gene- 

c c 



386 LIVIA. 
rally believed that shecaused C. Caesar and L. Caesar, 
the'2 crrandsons of Augustus to be poisoned, in order 
to secure the succession for her owti children ; and 
she was even suspected of having hastened the 
death of Augustus. On the accession of her son 
Tiberius to the throne, she at first attempted to 
obtain an equal share in the government ; but this 
the jealous temper of Tiberius would not brook. 
He commanded her to retire altogether from public 
affairs, and soon displayed even hatred towards 
her. "When she was on her death-bed, he re- 
fused to visit her. She died in a. d. 29, at the 
age of 82 or 86. Tiberius took no part in the 
funeral rites, and forbade her consecration, which 
had been proposed by the senate. — 3. Or Livilla, 
the daughter of Dnisus senior and Antonia, and 
the wife of Drusus junior, the son of the emperor 
Tiberius. She was seduced by Sejanus, who per- 
suaded her to poison her husband, a. d. 23. Her 
guilt -n-as not discovered till the fall of Sejanus, 8 
years afterwards, 31.— 4. Julia Livilla, daughter 
of Gennanicus and Agrippina. [Julia, No. 7.] 

Livia Gens, plebeian, but one of the most illus- 
trious houses among the Roman nobility. The 
Livii obtained 8 consulships, 2 censorships, 3 tri- 
umphs, a dictatorship, and a mastership of the horse. 
The most distinguished families £ire those of 
Drusus and Salinator. 

Livius, T.. the Roman historian, was bom at 
Patavium {Padua), in the X. of Italy, B. c. 59. 
The greater part of his life appears to have been 
spent in Rome, but he returned to his native town 
before his death, which happened at the age of 76, 
in the 4th year of Tiberius, a. D. 17. We know 
that he was married, and that he had at least 2 
children, a son and a daughter, married to L. Ma- 
gius, a rhetorician. His literary talents secured 
the patronage and friendship of Augustus ; he be- 
came a person of consideration at court, and by his 
advice Claudius, afterwards emperor, was induced 
in early life to attempt historical composition ; but 
there is no ground for the assertion that Livy acted 
as preceptor to the young prince. Eventually his 
reputation rose so high and became so widely dif- 
fused, that a Spaniard travelled from Cadiz to 
Rome, solely for the purpose of beholding him, 
and having gratified his curiosity in this one par- 
ticular, immediately returned home. The great 
and only extant work of Livy is a History of 
Rome, termed by YiimsQii Annales (xliii. 13), ex- 
tending from the foundation of the city to the 
death of Drusus, B.C. 9, comprised in 142 books. 
Of these 35 have descended to us ; but of the 
whole, with the exception of 2, we possess Epitomes, 
which must have been drawn up by one who was 
well acquainted with his subject. By some they 
have been ascribed to Li^■y himself, by others to 
Florus ; but there is nothing in the language or 
context to warrant either of these conclusions ; 
and external evidence is altogether wanting. From 
the circumstance that a short introduction or pre- 
face is found at the beginniug of books 1. 21, and 
31, and that each of these marks the commence- 
ment of an important epoch, the whole work has 
been divided into decades, containing 10 books 
each ; but the grammarians Priscian and Diomedes, 
who quote repeatedly from particular books, never 
allude to any such distribution. The commence- 
ment of book xli. is lost, but there is certainly no 
remarkable crisis at this place which invalidates 
one part of the argument in favour of the antiquity 



LIVIUS. 

of the arrangement. The 1st decade (bks. i — ^x.) 
is entire. It embraces the period from the foun- 
dation of the city to the year b. c. 294, when the 
subjugation of the Samnites may be said to have 
been completed. The 2nd decade (bks. xi — xx.) 
is altogether lost. It embraced the period from 
294 to 219, comprising an account, among other 
matters, of the invasion of Pyrrhus and of the 
first Punic war. The 3rd decade (bks. xxi — 
XXX.) is entire. It embraces the period from 219 
to 201, comprehending the whole of the 2nd Punic 
war. The 4th decade (bks. xxxi — xl.) is entire, 
and also one half of the 5th (bks. xli — xlv.). These 
15 books embrace the period from 201 to 167, and 
develope the progress of the Roman arms in Cisal- 
pine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece and Asia, ending 
with the triumph of Aemilius Paulus. Of the 
remaining books nothing remains except incon- 
siderable fragments, the most notable being a few- 
chapters of the 91st book, concerning the fortunes 
of Sertorius. The composition of such a vast work 
necessarily occupied many years ; and we find 
indications which throw some light upon the 
epochs when different sections were composed. 
Thus in book first (c. 19) it is stated that the 
temple of Janus had been closed twice only since 
the reign of Numa, for the first time in the con- 
sulship of T. 3ilanlius (b. c. 235), a few years after 
the termination of the first Punic war ; for the 
second time by Augustus Caesar, after the battle 
of Actium, in 29. But we know that it was shut 
again by Augustus after the conquest of the Can- 
tabrians, in 25 ; and hence it is evident that the 
first book must have been written between the 
years 29 and 25. ^loreover, since the last book 
contained ^ account of the death of Drusus, it 
is evident that the task must have been spread 
over 17 years, and probably occupied a much longer 
time. — The style of lAxj may be pronounced 
almost faultless. The narrative flows on in a calm, 
but strong current ; the diction displays richness 
without heaviness, and simplicity without tameness. 
There is, moreover, a distinctness of outline and a 
warmth of colouring in all his delineations, whether 
of living men in action, or of things inanimate, 
which never fail to call up the whole scene before 
our eyes. — In judging of the merits of Livy as an 
historian, we are bound to ascertain, if possible, the 
end which he proposed to himself. Ko one who 
reads Livy with attention can suppose that he ever 
conceived the project of dra^nnng up a critical history 
of Rome. His aim was to offer to his countrymen a 
clear and pleasing narrative, which, while it gratified 
their vanity, should contain no stanling improba- 
bilities nor gross amplifications. To effect this pur- 
pose he studied with care the writings of some of 
his more celebrated predecessors on Roman history, 
Where his authorities were in accordance with 
each other, he generally rested satisfied vdxh. this 
agreement ; where their testimony was irrecon- 
cileable, he was content to point out their want of 
harmony, and occasionally to offer an opinion on 
their comparative credibEity. But, in no case did 
he ever dream of ascending to the fountain head. 
He never attempted to test the accuracy of his 
authorities by examining monuments of remote 
antiquity, of which not a few were accessible to 
every inhabitait of the metropolis. Thus, it is 
perfectly clear that he had never read the Leges 
Regiae, nor the Commentaries of Servius Tullius, 
nor even the Licinian Rogations ; and that he had 



LIVIUS. 



LOCRI. 



387 



never consulted the vast collection of decrees of the 
senate, ordinances of the plehs, treaties and other 
state papers, which were preserved in the city. 
Nay more, he did not consult even all the au- 
thors to Avhom he might have resorted with 
advantage, such as the Annala and Antiquities of 
Varro, and the Origines of Cato, And even those 
writers whose authority he followed, he did not 
use in the most judicious manner. He seems to 
have performed his task piecemeal. A small section 
was taken in hand, different accoimts were com- 
pared, and the most plausible was adopted ; the 
same sj^stem was adhered to in the succeeding 
portions, so that each considered by itself, without 
reference to the rest, was executed with care ; but 
the witnesses who were rejected in one place were 
admitted in another, without sufficient attention 
being paid to the dependence and the connection 
of the events. Hence the numerous contradictions 
and inconsistencies which have been detected by 
sharp-eyed critics. Other mistakes also are found 
in abundance, arising from his want of anything 
like practical knowledge of the world, from his 
never having acquired even the elements of the 
military art, of jurisprudence, or of political eco- 
nomy, and above all, from his singular ignorance 
of geography. But while we fully acknowledge 
these defects in Livy, we cannot admit that his 
general good faith has ever been impugned with 
any show of justice. We are assured (Tacit. Ann. 
iv. 34) that he was fair and liberal upon matters 
of contemporary history ; we know that he praised 
\ Cassius and Brutus, that his character of Cicero 
was a high eulogium, and that he spoke so warmly 
of the unsuccessful leader in the great civil war, 
that he was sportively styled a Pompeian by 
Augustus. It is true that in recounting the do- 
mestic strife which agitated the republic for nearly 
two centuries, he represents the plebeians and 
their leaders in the most unfavourable light. But 
this arose, not from any wish to pervert the truth, 
but from ignorance of the exact relation of the 
contending parties. It is manifest that he never 
can separate in his own mind the spirited plebeians 
of the infant commonwealth from the base and 
venal rabble which thronged the forum in the days 
of Marius and Cicero ; while in like manner he 
confounds those bold and honest tribunes, who 
were the champions of liberty, with such men as 
Saturninus or Sulpicius, Clodius orVatinius. — There 
remains one topic to which we must advert. We 
are told by Quintilian (i. 5. § 56, viii. 1. § 3) 
that Asinius Pollio had remarked a certain Pata- 
vinity in Livy. Scholars have given themselves a 
vast deal of trouble to discover what this term 
may indicate, and various hypotheses have been 
propounded ; but if there is any truth in the 
story, it is evident that Pollio must have intended 
to censure some provincial peculiarities of expres- 
sion, which we, at all events, are in no position to 
detect. The best edition of Livy is by Draken- 
borch, Lugd. Bat. 1738—46, 7 vols. 4to. There 
is also a valuable edition, now in course of pub- 
lication, by Alchefski, Berol. Bvo. 1841, seq. 
Livius Andronicus, [Andronicus.] 
Lix, Lixa, Lixus (Ai'|, Ai|a, At|os : AhAraish\ 
a city on the W. coast of Mauretania Tingitana, in 
Africa, at the mouth of a river of the same name : 
it was a place of some commercial importance. 

Locri, sometimes called Locrenses by the 
Romans, the inhabitants of Locris (77 AoKpis), 



were an ancient people in Greece, descended from 
the Leleges, with which some Hellenic tribes were 
intermingled at a very early period. They were, 
however, in Homer's time regarded as Hellenes ; 
and according to tradition even Deucalion, the 
founder of the Hellenic race, was said to have 
lived in Locris in the town of Opus or Cynos. In 
historical times the Locrians were divided into 2 
distinct tribes, differing from one another in cus- 
toms, habits and civilization. Of these the Eastern 
Locrians, called Epicnemidii and Opuntii, Avho 
dwelt on the E, coast of Greece opposite the island 
of Euboea, were the more ancient and more 
civilized ; while the Western Locrians, called 
Ozolae, who dwelt on the Corinthian gulf, were a 
colony of the former, and were more barbarous. 
Homer mentions only the E. Locrians. At a later 
time there was no connexion between the Eastern 
and Western Locrians ; and in the Peloponnesian 
war we find the former siding with the Spartans, 
and the latter with the Athenians. — - 1. Eastern 
Locris, extended from Thessaly and the pass of 
Thermopylae along the coast to the frontiers of 
Boeotia, and was bounded by Doris and Phocis 
on the W. It was a fertile and well cultivated 
country. The N. part was inhabited by the Locri 
Epicnemidii {'ETriKurnji'iSioL), who derived their 
name from Mt. Cnemis. The S. part was inhabited 
by the Locri Opuntii {'Ottovptiol), who derived 
their name from their principal town, Opus. The 
two tribes were separated by Daphnus, a small 
slip of land, which at one time belonged to Phocis, 
These two tribes are frequently confounded with 
one another ; and ancient writers sometimes use 
the name either of Epicnemidii or of Opimtii 
alone, when both tribes are intended. The Epic- 
nemidii were for a long time subject to the Pho- 
cians, and were included under the name of the 
latter people ; whence the name of the Opuntii 
occurs more frequently in Greek history. — 2. 
Western Locris, or the country of the Locri 
Ozolae CoC6Xai), was bounded on the N. by 
Doris, on the W. by Aetolia, on the E. by Phocis, 
and on the S. by the Corinthian gulf. The origin 
of the name of Ozolae is uncertain. The ancients 
derived it either from the undressed skins worn by 
the inhabitants, or from o^eLv " to smell," on 
account of the great quantity of asphodel that 
grew in their country, or from the stench arising 
from mineral springs, beneath which the centam- 
Nessus is said to have been buried. The country 
is mountainous, and for the most part unpro- 
ductive. Mt. Corax from Aetolia, and Mt. Par- 
nassus from Phocis, occupy the greater part of it. 
The Locri Ozolae resembled their neighbours, the 
Aetolians, both in their predatory habits and in 
their mode of warfare. They were divided into 
several tribes, and are described by Thucydides as 
a rude and barbarous people, even in the time of 
the Peloponnesian war. From B.C. 315 they be- 
longed to the Aetolian League. Their chief town 
was Amphissa. 

Locri Epizephyrii (AoKpo'i 'Ewi^e^vpioi : MoUa 
di Burzano), one of the most ancient Greek 
cities in Lower Italy, was situated in the S. E. of 
Bruttium, N, of the promontory of Zephyrium, 
from which it was said to have derived its sur- 
name Epizephyrii, though others suppose this 
name given to the place, simply because it lay to 
the W. of Greece. It was founded by the Locrians 
from Greece, b. c, 683. Strabo expressly savs that it 

c c 2 



388 LOCUSTA. 
was founded by the Ozolae, and not by the Opuntii, 
as most writers related ; but his statement is not 
BO probable as the common one. The inhabitants 
repiirdcd themselves as descendants of Ajax Oiieus ; 
and as he resided at the town of Naryx among 
the Opuntii, the poets gave the name of Narycia 
to Locris (Ov, Met. xv. 705), and called the 
founders of the town the Narycii Locri (Virg. 
Ae?i. iii. 399). For the same reason the pitch of 
Bruttium is frequently called Najycia (Virg. 
Gcorff. ii. 438). Locri was celebrated for the 
excellence of its laws, which were drawn up by 
Zaleuciis soon after the foundation of the city. 
[Z.ALEUCUS.] The town enjoyed great prosperity 
down to the time of the younger Dionysius, who 
resided liere for some years after his expulsion 
from Syracuse, and committed the greatest atro- 
cities against the inhabitants. It suffered much in 
the wars against Pyrrhus, and in the 2nd Punic war. 
The Romans allowed it to retain its freedom and 
its own constitution, which was democratical ; but 
it gradually sunk in importance, and is rarely 
mentioned in later times. Near the town was an 
ancient and "wealthy temple of Proserpina. 

Locusta, or, more correctly, Lucusta, a woman 
celebrated for her skill in concocting poisons, She 
was employed by Agrippiua in poisoning the em- 
peror Claudius, and by Nero for despatching Bri- 
tannicus. She was rewarded by Nero with ample 
estates ; but under the emperor Galba she was 
executed with other malefactors of Nero's reign. 

Lollia Paulina, granddaughter of M. Lollins, 
mentioned below, and heiress of his immense 
wealth. She was married to C. Memmius Regulus ; 
but on the report of her grandmother's beauty, the 
emperor Caligula sent for her, divorced her from 
her husband, and married her, but soon divorced 
her again. After Claudius had put to death his 
wife Messalina, Lollia was one of the candidates 
for the vacancy, but she was put to death by means 
of Agrippina. 

Lollianus {A.oK\iav6s\ a celebrated Greek 
sophist in the time of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, 
was a native of Ephesus, and taught at Athens. 

LoUius. 1. M. Lollms Palicanus, tribune of 
the plebs, B.C. 71, and an active opponent of the 
aristocracy. — 2. M. LoUius, consul 21, and 
governor of Gaul in 1 6. He was defeated by some 
German tribes who had crossed the Rhine. Lollius 
was subsequently appointed by Augustus as tutor 
to his grandson, C. Caesar, whom he accompanied 
to the East, b. c. 2. Here he incurred the dis- 
pleasure of C. Caesar, and is said in consequence 
to have put an end to his life by poison. Horace 
addressed an Ode (iv. 9) to Lollius, and 2 Epistles 
(i. 2, 18) to the eldest son of Lollius. 

Londinium, also called Oppidum Londiniense 
Lundinium or Londinum {London), the capital 
of the Cantii in Britain, was situated on the S. 
bank of the Thames in the modern Southwark, 
though it afterwards spread over the other side of 
the river. It is not mentioned by Caesar, pro- 
bably because his line of march led liim in a dif- 
ferent direction ; and its name first occurs in the 
reign of Nero, when it is spoken of as a flourish- 
ing and populous town, much frequented by mer- 
chants, although neither a Roman colony nor a 
mmiicipium. On the revolt of the Britons under 
Boadicea, A. d. 62, the Roman governor Sue- 
tonius Paulinus abandoned Londinium to the 
enemy, who massacred the inhabitants and plun- 



LONGINUS. 

derod the town. From the effects of this devas- 
tation it gradually recovered, and it appears again 
as an important place in the reign of Antoninus 
Pius. It was surrounded with a wall and ditch 
by Constantine the Great or Theodosius, the 
Roman governor of Britain ; and about this time 
it was distinguished by the surname of Augusta^ 
whence some writers have conjectured that it was 
then made a colonj'. Londinium had now extended 
so much on the N. bank of the Thames, that it 
was called at this period a town of the Trino- 
bantes, from which we may infer that the new 
quarter was both larger and more populous than 
the old part on the S. side of the river. The wall 
built by Constantine or Theodosius was on the N. 
side of the river, and is conjectured to have com- 
menced at a fort near the present site of the tower, 
and to have been continued along the Minories, to 
Cripplegate, Newgate and Ludgate. London was 
the central point, from which all the Roman roads 
in Britain diverged. It possessed a MiUiarium 
Aurezim, from which the miles on the roads were 
numbered ; and a fragment of this Milliarium, the 
celebrated London Stone, may be seen affixed to 
the wall of St. Swithin's Church in Cannon Street. 
This is almost the only monument of the Roman 
Londinium still extant, with the exception of 
coins, tesselated pavements, and the like, which 
have been found buried under the ground. 

Longailus (St. Lucia), a river in the N. E. of 
Sicily between Mylae and Tyndaris, on the banks 
of which Hieron gained a victory over the Ma- 
mertines. 

Longinus, a distinguished Greek philosopher and 
grammarian of the 3rd century of our era. His ori- 
ginal name seems to have been Dionysius ; but he 
also bore the name of Dionysius Longinus, Cassius 
Longinus, or Dionysius Cassius Longinus, probably 
because either he or one of his ancestors had 
received the Roman franchise through the in- 
fluence of some Cassius Longinus. The place of his 
birth is uncertain ; he was brought up with care by 
his uncle Fronto, who taught rhetoric at Athens, 
whence it has been conjectured that he was a 
native of that city. He afterwards visited many 
countries, and became acquainted with all the 
illustrious philosophers of his age, such as Am- 
monius Saccas, Origen the disciple of Ammonius, 
not to be confounded with the Christian writer, 
Plotinus, and Amelius. He was a pupil of the 
2 former, and was an adherent of the Platonic 
philosophy ; but instead of following blindly the 
system of Ammonius, he went to the fountain- 
head, and made himself thoroughly familiar with 
the works of Plato. On his return to Athens he 
opened a school, which was attended by numerous 
pupils, among whom the most celebrated Avas Por- 
phyry. He seems to have taught philosophy and 
criticism, as well as rhetoric and grammar ; and 
the extent of his information was so great, that he 
was called " a living library " and " a walking 
museum." After spending a considerable part of 
his life at Athens he went to the East, where he 
became acquainted with Zenobia, of Palmj'ra, 
who made him her teacher of Greek literature. 
On the death of her husband Odenathus Lon- 
ginus became her principal adviser. It was mainly 
through his advice that she threw off her alle- 
giance to the Roman empire. On her capture by 
Aurelian in 273, Longinus was put to death by 
the emperor. Longinus was unquestionably the 



LONGINUS. 



LUCANUS. 



389 



greatest philosopher of his age. He was a man of 
excellent sense, sound judgment, and extensive 
knowledge. His work on the Sublime (ITept v\\,ovs)^ 
a great part of wliich is still extant, surpasses in 
oratorical power every thing written after the time 
of the Greek orators. There is scarcely any work 
in the range of ancient literature which, inde- 
pendent of its excellence of style, contains so many 
exquisite remarks upon oratory, poetry, and good 
taste in general. The best edition of this work is 
byWeiske, Lips. 1809, 8vo., reprinted in London, 
1820. Longinus wrote many other works, both rhe- 
torical and philosophical, all of which have perished. 

Longinus, Cassius. [Cassius.] 

Longobardi. [Langobardl] 

Longula (Longulanus : Buon Riposo), a town 
of the Volsci in Latium, not far from Corioli, and 
belonging to the territory of Antium, but destroyed 
by the Romans at an early period. 

Longlis (Ad77os), a Greek sophist, of uncertain 
date, but not earlier than the 4th or 5th century 
of our era, is the author of an erotic work, entitled 
HoifxevLKuv roov Kara Aacpviv Kal XXSrju, or Bas- 
toralia de Daphnide et C/doe, written in pleasing 
and elegant prose. The best editions are by Vil- 
loison, Paris, 1778; Schaefer, Lips. 1803; and 
Passow, Lips. 1811. 

Lopadusa [AoTradodaa : Lainpedusa\ an island 
in the Mediterranean, between Melita {Malta) 
and the coast of Byzacium in Africa. 

Lormm or Lorii, a small place in Etruria with 
an imperi-al villa, 12 miles N. W. of Rome on the 
Via Aurelia, where Antoninus Pius was brought 
up, and where he died. 

Loryma {ja Acopv/xa : AplotheU, Ru.), a city 
on the S. coast of Caria, close to the promontory of 
Cynossema (C. Aloupo), opposite to lalysus in 
Rhodes, the space between the two being about 
the shortest distance between Rhodes and the 
coast of Caria. 

Lotis, a nymph, who, to escape the embraces of 
Priapus, was metamorphosed into a tree, called 
after her Lotus. (Ov. Met. ix. 347.) 

Lotophagi (AcoTocpdyoi, i. e. lotus-eaters). Ho- 
mer, in the Odyssey, represents Ulysses as coming 
in his wanderings to a coast inhabited by a people 
who fed upon a fruit called lotus, the taste of which 
was so delicious that every one who eat it lost all 
wish to return to his native country, but desired to 
remain there with the Lotophagi, and to eat the 
lotus {Od. ix. 94). Afterwards, in historical 
times, the Greeks found that the people on the N. 
coast of Africa, between the Syrtes, and especially 
about the Lesser Syrtis, used to a great extent, as 
an article of food, the fruit of a plant, which they 
identified with the lotus of Homer, and they called 
these people Lotophagi. To this day, the inha- 
bitants of the same part of the coast of Tunis and 
Tripoli eat the fruit of the plant which is supposed 
to be the lotus of the ancients, and drink a wine 
made from its juice, as the ancient Lotophagi are 
also said to have done. This plant, the Zizyplms 
Lotus of the botanists {ov jujube-tree), is a prickly 
branching shrub, with fruit of the size of a wild- 
plum, of a saffron colour and a sweetish taste. The 
ancient geographers also place the Lotophagi in the 
large island of Meninx or Lotophagitis {Jerbah), 
adjacent to this coast. They carried on a commer- 
cial intercourse with Egypt and with the interior 
of Africa, by the very same caravan routes wliich 
are used to the present day. 



Loxias (Aortas), a surname of Apollo, derived 
by some from his intricate and ambiguous oracles 
(Ao'|a), but better from Ae^etj/, as the prophet or 
interpreter of Zeus. 

Loxo (Ao|ci), daughter of Boreas, one of the 
Hyperborean maidens, who brought the worship 
of Artemis to Delos, whence the name is also used 
as a surname of Artemis herself. 

Lua, also called Lua mater or Lua Saturni, 
one of the early Italian divinities, whose worship 
was forgotten in later times. It may be that she 
was the same as Ops, the wife of Saturn ; but all 
we know of her is, that sometimes the arms taken 
from a defeated enemy were dedicated to her, and 
burnt as a sacrifice, with a view of averting calamity. 

Luca (Lucensis : Lucca), a Ligurian city in 
Upper Italy, at the foot of the Apennines and on 
the river Ausus, N. E. of Pisae. It was included 
in Etruria by Augustus ; but in the time of Julius 
Caesar it was the most S.-ly city in Liguria, and 
belonged to Cisalpine Gaul. It was made a Roman 
colony, B.C. 177. The amphitheatre of Lucca 
may still be seen at the modern town in a state of 
tolerable preservation, and its great size proves the 
importance and populousness of the ancient city. 

Lucania (Lucanus), a district in Lower Italy, 
was bounded on the N. by Campania and Sam- 
nium, on the E. by Apulia and the gulf of Ta- 
rentum, on the S. by Bruttium, and on the W. by 
the Tyrrhene sea, thus corresponding for the most 
part to the modern provinces of Frincipato, Ci- 
teriore and Basilicata, in the kingdom of Naples. 
It was separated from Campania by the river 
Silarus, and from Bruttium by the river Laus, and 
it extended along the gulf of Tarentum from Thurii 
to Metapontum. The country is mountainous, as 
the Apennines run through the greater part of it ; 
but towards the gulf of Tarentum there is an 
extensive and fertile plain. Lucania was celebrated 
for its excellent pastures (Hor. Ep. i. 28) ; and its 
oxen were the finest and largest in Italy. Hence, 
the elephant was at first called by the Romans a 
Lucanian ox {Lucas bos). The swine also were 
very good ; and a peculiar kind of sausages was 
celebrated at Rome under the name of Lucanica. 
The coast of Lucania was inhabited chiefly by 
Greeks, whose cities were numerous and flourish- 
ing. The most important were Metapontum, 
Heraclea, Thurii, Buxentum, Elba or Ve- 
LIA, Posidonia or Paestum. The interior of 
the country was originally inhabited by the Chones 
and Oenotrians. The Lucanians proper were Sam- 
nites, a brave and warlike race, who left their 
mother-country and settled both in Lucania and 
Bruttium. They not only expelled or subdued 
the Oenotrians, but they gradually acquired pos- 
session of most of the Greek cities on the coast. 
They are first mentioned in b. c. 396 as the allies 
of the elder Dionysius in his war against Thurii. 
They were subdued by the Romans after Pyrrhus 
had left Italy. Before the 2nd Punic war their 
forces consisted of 30,000 foot and 3000 horse ; 
but in the course of this war their country was 
repeatedly laid waste, and never recovered its 
former prosperity. 

Lucanus, M. Annaeus, usually called Lucan, 
a Roman poet, was born at Corduba in Spain, a. d. 
39. His father was L. Annaeus Mella, a brother 
of M. Seneca, the philosopher. Lucan was carried 
to Rome at an early age, where his education was 
superintended by the most eminent preceptors of 

c c 3 



3.00 LUCANUS. 
the day. His talents developed themselves at h 
very early age, and excited such general admiration 
as to awaken the jealousy of Nero, who, unable to 
brook competition, forbade him to recite in public. 
Stung to the quick by this prohibition Lucan em- 
barked in the famous conspiracy of Piso, was be- 
trayed, and, by a promise of pardon, was induced 
to turn informer. He began by denouncing his 
own mother Acilia (or Atilia), and then revealed 
the rest of his accomplices without reserve. But 
he received a traitor's reward. After the more 
important victims had been despatched, the em- 
peror issued the mandate for the death of Lucan 
who, finding escape hopeless, caused his veins to 
be opened. When, from the rapid effusion of 
blood, he felt his extremities becoming chill, he 
began to repeat aloud some verses which he had 
once composed, descriptive of a wounded soldier 
perishing by a like death, and, with these lines 
upon his lips, expired A. d. 65, in the 26th year of 
his age. Lucan wTote various poems, the titles of 
which are preserved, but the only extant production 
is an heroic poem, in 10 books, entitled Fharsalia, 
in which the progress of the struggle between 
Caesar and Pompey is fully detailed, the events, 
commencing with the passage of the Rubicon, being 
arranged in regular clironological order. The 1 0th 
book is imperfect, and the narrative breaks off 
abniptly in the middle of the Alexandrian war, 
but we know not whether the conclusion has been 
lost, or whether the author ever completed his 
task. The whole of what we now possess was 
certainly not composed at the same time, for the | 
different parts do not by any means breathe the j 
same spirit. In the earlier portions we find liberal } 
sentiments expressed in very moderate terms, ac- 
companied by open and almost fulsome flattery of . 
Nero ; but, as we proceed, the blessings of freedom 
are loudly proclaimed, and the invectives against 
tyranny are couched in language the most offensive, 
evidently aimed directly at the emperor. The j 
Avork contains great beauties and great defects. It 
is characterised by copious diction, lively imagina- 
tion, and a bold and masculine tone of thought ; 
but it is at the same time disfigured by extrava- 
gance, far-fetched conceits, and unnatural similes. 
The best editions are by Oudendorp, Lug. Bat. 
1728 ; by Bunnann, 1740 ; and bv Weber, Lips. 
1821—1831. 

Lucanus, Ocellus. [Ocellus.] 

Lucceius. 1. L., an old friend and neighboiu- of 
Cicero. His name frequently occurs at the com- 
mencement of Cicero's correspondence with Atticus, 
with whom Lucceius had quarrelled. Cicero at- 
tempted to reconcile his two friends. In B. c. 63 
Lucceius accused Catiline ; and in 60 he became a 
candidate for the consulship, along with Julius 
Caesar, who agreed to support him ; but he lost 
his election in consequence of the aristocracy bring- 
ing in Bibulus, as a counterpoise to Caesar's in- 
fluence. Lucceius seems now to have withdrawn 
from public life and to have devoted himself to 
literature. He was chiefly engaged in the compo- 
sition of a contemporaneous history of Rome, com- 
mencing with the Social or Marsic war. In 55 he 
had nearly finished the history of the Social and of 
the first Civil war, when Cicero wrote a most urgent 
letter to his friend, pressing him to suspend the 
thread of his history, and to devote a separate 
work to the period from Catiline's conspiracy to 
Cicero's recall from banishment {ad Fam. y. 12). 



LUCIANUS. 

Lucceius promised compliance with his request, but 
he appears never to have written the work. On 
the breaking out of the civil war in 49, he espoused 
the side of Pompey. He was subsequently par- 
doned by Caesar and returned to Rome, where he 
continued to live on friendly terms with Cicero.— 
2. C, surnamed Hirrus, of the Pupinian tribe, 
tribune of the plebs 53, proposed that Pompey 
should be created dictator. In 52 he was a can- 
didate with Cicero for the augurship, and in the 
following year a candidate with M. Caelius for the 
acdileship, but he failed in both. On the breaking 
out of the civil war in 49, he joined Pompey. He 
was sent by Pompey as ambassador to Orodes, 
king of Parthia, but he was thrown into prison by 
the Parthian king. He was pardoned by Caesar 
after the battle of Pharsalia, and returned to Rome. 

Lucenses Callaici, one of the 2 chief tribes of 
the Callaici or Gallaeci on the N. coast of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, derived their name from their town 
Lucus Augusti. 

Lucentum {Alicante), a town of the Contestani, 
on the coast of Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Luceria (Lucerinus : Lucera), sometimes called 
Nuceria, a town in Apulia on the borders of 
Samnium, S. W. of Arpi, was situated on a steep 
hill, and possessed an ancient temple of Minerva. 
In the war between Rome and Samnium, it was 
first taken by the Samnites (b. c. 321), and next 
by the Romans (319) ; but having revolted to the 
Samnites in 3j.4, all the inhabitants were mas- 
sacred by the Romans, and their place supplied 
by 2500 Roman colonists. Having thus become 
a Roman colony, it continued faithful to Rome in. 
the 2nd Punic war. In the time of Augustus it 
had greatly declined in prosperitj'- ; but it was still 
of sufficient importance in the 3rd century to be 
the residence of the praetor of Apulia. 

Lucianus {Aovkluvos), usually called Lucian, 
a Greek writer, born at Samosata, the capital of 
Commagene, in Syria. The date of his birth and 
death is uncertain ; but it has been conjectured, with 
much probability, that he was born about a. n. 120, 
and he probably lived till towards the end of this 
century. We know that some of his more cele- 
brated works were written in the reign of M. Au- 
relius. Luaian's parents Avere poor, and he was 
at first apprenticed to his maternal uncle, who was 
a statuary. He afterwards became an advocate, 
and practised at Antioch. Being unsuccessful in 
this calling, he employed himself in writing speeches 
for others, instead of delivering them himself. But 
he did not remain long at Antioch ; and at an 
early period of his life he set out upon his travels, 
and visited the greater part of Greece, Italy, and 
Gaul. At that period it was customary for pro- 
fessors of the rhetorical art to proceed to different 
cities, where they attracted audiences by their 
displays, much in the same manner as musicians or 
itinerant lecturers in modern times. He appears 
to have acquired a good deal of money as well as 
fame. On his return to his native country, pro- 
bably about his 40th year, he abandoned the rhe- 
torical profession, the artifices of which, he tells 
us, were foreign to his temper, the natural enemy 
of deceit and pretension. He now devoted most 
of his time to the composition of his works. He 
still, however, occasionally travelled ; for it appears 
that he was in Achaia and Ionia about the close of 
the Parthian war, 160 — 165 ; on which occasion, 
too, he seems to have visited Olympia, and beheld 



LUCIANUS. 



LUCILIUS. 



391 



t.he self-immolation of Peregrinus. About the 
year 170, or a little previously, he visited the 
false oracle of the impostor Alexander, in Paphla- 
gonia. Late in life he obtained the office of procu- 
rator of part of Egypt, which office Avas probably 
bestowed upon him by the emperor Commodus. 
The nature of Lucian's writings inevitably procured 
him many enemies, by whom he has been painted 
in very black colours. According to Suidas he 
was surnamed tlie Blaspltemer^ and was torn to 
pieces by dogs, as a punishment for his impiety ; 
but on this account no reliance can be placed. 
Other writers state that Lucian apostatised from 
Christianity ; but there is no proof in support of 
this charge ; and the dialogue entitled PhUopatris^ 
which would appear to prove that the author had 
once been a Christian, was certainly not written 
by Lucian, and was probably composed in the 
reign of Julian the Apostate. — As many as 82 
works have come down to us under the name of 
Lucian ; but some of these are spurious. The 
most important of them are his Dialogues. They 
are of very various degrees of merit, and are treated 
in the greatest possible variety of style, from se- 
riousness down to the broadest humour and buf- 
foonery. Their subjects and tendency, too, vary 
considerably ; for while some are employed in 
attacking the heathen philosophy and religion, 
others are mere pictures of manners without any 
polemic drift. Our limits only allow us to men- 
tion a few of the more important of these Dia- 
logues : — The Dialogues of the Gods, 26 in number, 
consist of short dramatic narratives of some of the 
most popular incidents in the heathen mythology. 
The reader, however, is generally left to draw his 
own conclusions from the story, the author only 
taking care to put it in the most absurd point of 
view. — In the Jupiter Cojivicted a bolder style of 
attack is adopted ; and the cynic proves to Ju- 
piter's face, that every thing being under the do- 
minion of fate, he has no power whatever. As this 
dialogue shows Jupiter's want of power, so the 
Jupiter the Tragedian strikes at his very existence, 
and that of the other deities. — The Vitarum 
Audio, or Sale of tlte Philosophers, is an attack 
upon the ancient philosophers. In this humourous 
piece the heads of the different sects are put up to 
sale, Hermes being the auctioneer. — The Fisher- 
man is a sort of apology for the preceding piece, 
and may be reckoned among Lucian's best dia- 
logues. The philosophers are represented as having 
obtained a day's life for the purpose of taking ven- 
geance upon Lucian, who confesses that he has 
borrowed the chief beauties of his writings from 
them. — The Banquet, or the Lapithae, is one of 
Lucian's most humourous attacks on the philoso- 
phers. The scene is a wedding feast, at which a 
representative of each of the principal philosophic 
sects is present. A discussion ensues, which sets all 
the philosophers by the ears, and ends in a pitched 
battle. — The Nigrinus is also an attack on philo- 
sophic pride ; but its main scope is to satirise the 
Romans, Avhose pomp, vain- glory, and luxury, are 
imfavourably contrasted Avith the simple habits of 
the Athenians. — The more miscellaneous class of 
Lucian's dialogues, in Avhich the attacks upon rny- 
thologj'- and philosophy are not direct but incidental, 
or which are mere pictures of manners, contains 
some of his best. At the head must be placed 
Timon, Avhich may perhaps be regarded as Lucian's 
masterpiece. — The Dialogues of the Dead are 



perhaps the best knoAvn of all Lucian's works. 
The subject affords great scope for moral reflection, 
and for satire on the vanity of human pursuits. 
Wealth, poAver, beauty, strength, not forgetting 
the vain disputations of philosophy, afford the ma- 
terials. Among the moderns these dialogues have 
been imitated by Fontenelle and Lord Lyttelton. 
— The Icaro-Menippus is in Lucian's best vein, 
and a master-piece of Aristophanic humour. Me- 
nippus, disgusted Avith the disputes and pretensions 
of the philosophers, resolves on a visit to the stars, 
for the purpose of seeing how far their theories 
are correct. By the mechanical aid of a pair of 
wings he reaches the moon, and surveys thence 
the miserable passions and quarrels of men. Hence 
he proceeds to Olympus, and is introduced to the 
Thunderer himself. Here he is Avitness of the 
manner in Avhich human prayers are received in 
heaven. They ascend by enormous ventholes, and 
become audible Avhen Jupiter removes the co\'ers. 
Jupiter himself is represented as a partial judge, 
and as influenced by the largeness of the rewards 
promised to him. At the end he pronounces judg- 
ment against the philosophers, and threatens in 4 
daj's to destroy them all. — Charon is a very ele- 
gant dialogue, but of a graver turn than the pre- 
ceding. Charon visits the earth to see the course 
of life there, and Avhat it is that ahvays makes men 
weep when they enter his boat. Mercury acts as 
his Cicerone. — Lucian's merits as a Avriter consist 
in his knoAvledge of human nature ; his strong 
common sense ; the fertility of his invention ; the 
raciness of his humour ; and the simplicity and 
Attic grace of his diction. There was abundance 
to justify his attacks, in the systems against Avhich 
they Avere directed. Yet he establishes nothing in 
their stead. His aim is only to pull doAvn ; to 
spread a universal scepticism. Nor Avere his 
assaults confined to religion and philosophy, but 
extended to every thing old and venerated, the 
poems of Homer and Hesiod, and the history of 
Plerodotus. — The best editions of Lucian are by 
Hemsterhuis and Reitz, Amst. 1743, 4 a'oIs. 4to. ; 
by Lehman, Lips. 1821 — 1831, 9 vols. 8vo. ; and 
by Dindorf, Avith a Latin version, but Avithout notes, 
Paris, 1840, 8vo. 

Liicifer or Phosphorus {^caacpopos, also by the 
poets 'Ewacpopos or ^aeacpopos), that is, the bringer 
of light, is the name of the planet Venus, Avhen seen 
in the morning before sunrise. The same planet 
Avas called Hesperus, Vesperugo, Vesper, Noctifer, 
or Nodurnus, Avhen it appeared in the heavens 
after sunset. Lucifer as a personification is called 
a son of Astraeus and Aurora or Eos, of Cephalus 
and Aurora, or of Atlas. By Philonis he is said 
to have been the father of Ceyx. He is also called 
the father of Daedalion and of the Hesperides 
Lucifer is also a surname of several goddesses of 
light, as Artemis, Aurora, and Hecate. 

Lucilius. 1. C, Avas born at Suessa of the Au- 
runci, B.C. 148. He served in the cavalry under 
Scipio in the Numantine Avar; lived upon terms of 
the closest familiarity Avith Scipio andLaelius; and 
Avas either the maternal grand-uncle, or, Avhich is 
less probable, the maternal grandfather of Pompey 
the Great. He died at Naples, 103, in the 46th 
year of his age. Ancient critics agree that, if not 
absolutely the inventor of Roman satire, he was 
the first to mould it into that form Avhich afterwards 
received full developement in the hands of Horace, 
Persius, and Juvenal. The first of these 3 great 

cc 4 



392 



LUCILLA. 



LUCRINUL. 



masters, while he censures the harsh versification 
and the slovenly haste with which Lucilius threw 
off his compositions, acknowledges with admiration 
the fierceness and boldness of his attacks upon the 
vices and follies of his contemporaries. The Satires 
of liucilius were divided into 30 V;ooks. Upwards 
of oOO fragments from these have been preserved, 
but the greatest number consist of isolated couplets, 
or single lines. It is clear from these fragments 
that his reputation for caustic pleas.intr}- was by no 
means unmerited, and that in coarseness and broad 
personalities he in no respect fell short of the 
licence of the old comedy, which would seem to 
have been, to a certain extent, his model. The 
fragments were published separately, by Franciscus 
Doiisa, Lug, Bat. 4to. 1597, reprinted by the 
brothers Volpi, 8vo. Patav. 1735; and, along with 
Censorinus, by the two sons of Havercamp, Lug. 
Bat. 8vo. 1743. — 2. Lucilius Junior, probably 
the author of an extant poem in 640 hexameters, 
entitled Aetna, which exhibits throughout great 
command of language, and contains not a few 
brilliant passages. Its object is to explain upon 
philosophical principles, after the fashion of Lu- 
cretius, the causes of the various physical pheno- 
mena presented by the volcano. Lucilius Junior 
was the procurator of Sicily, and the friend to 
whom Seneca addresses his Epistles, his Natural 
Questions, and his tract on Providence, and whom 
he strongly urges to select this very subject of 
Aetna as a theme for his muse. 

Lncilla, Annia, daughter of !M. Aurellus and 
the younger Faustina, was born about a. d. 147. 
She was married to the emperor. L. Verus, and 
after his death (169) to Claudius Pompeianus. In 
183 she engaged in a plot against the life of her 
brother Commodus, which, having been detected, 
she was banished to the island of Capreae, and 
there put to death. 

Lucina, the goddess of light, or rather the god- 
dess that brings to light, and hence the goddess 
that presides over the birth of children. It was 
therefore used as a surname of Juno and Diana. 
Lucina corresponded to the Greek goddess Ilith via. 

Lucretia, the wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus, 
whose rape by Sex. Tarquinius led to the dethrone- 
ment of Tarquinius Superbus and the establishment 
of the republic. For details see Tarquinius. 

Lucretia Gens, originally patrician, but subse- 
quently plebeian also. The surname of the pa- 
trician Lucretii was Triciptinus, one of whom, Sp. 
Lucretius Triciptinus, the father of Lucretia, Avas 
elected consul, with L. Junius Brutus, on the esta- 
blishment of the republic, B. c. 509. The plebeian 
families are known by the surnames of Gallus, 
Ofella, and Vespillo^ but none of them is of sufficient 
importance to require notice. 

Lucretilis, a pleasant mountain in the country 
of the Sabines, overhanging Horace's villa, a part 
of the modern jMonte Gennaro. 

T. Lucretius Cams, the Roman poet, respecting 
whose personal history, our information is both 
scanty and suspicious. The Eusebian Chronicle 
fixes B. c. 95 as the date of his birth, adding that 
he was driven mad by a love potion, that during 
his lucid intervals he composed several works which 
were revised by Cicero, and that he perished by 
his own hand in his 44th year, B.C. 52 or 51. 
Another ancient authority places his death in 55. 
From what source the tale about the philtre may 
have been derived we know not; but it is not im- 



probable that the whole story was an invention of 
some enemy of the Epicureans. Not a hint is to be 
found anywhere which corroborates the assertion 
with regard to the editorial labours of Cicero. — 
The work, which has immortalised the name of 
Lucretius, is a philosophical didactic poem, composed 
in heroic hexameters, divided into 6 books, con- 
taining upwards of 7400 lines, addressed to C. 
Memmius Gemellus, who was praetor in 58, and is 
entitled De, Rerum Natara. It was probably pub- 
lished about 57 or 56 ; for, from the way in which 
Cicero speaks of it in a letter to his brother, written 
in 55, we may conclude that it had only recently 
appeared. The poem has been sometimes repre- 
sented as a complete exposition of the religious, 
moral, and physical doctrines of Epicurus, but this 
is far from being a correct description. Epicurus 
maintained that the unhappiness and degradation of 
mankind arose in a great degree from the slavish dread 
which they entertained of the power of the gods, and 
from terror of their wTath ; and the fundamental 
doctrine of his system was, that the gods, whose 
existence he did not deny, lived in the enjoyment 
of absolute peace, and totally indifferent to the 
world and its inhabitants. To prove this position 
Epicurus adopted the atomic theory of Leucippus, 
according to which the material universe was not 
created by the Supreme Being, but was formed by 
the union of elemental particles which had existed 
from all eternity, governed by certain simple lav,-s. 
He further sought to show that all those striking 
phaenomena which had been regarded by the 
■vulgar as direct manifestations of diA-ine power, 
were the natural results of ordinary processes. To 
state clearly and develope fully the leading prin- 
ciple of this philosophy, in such a form as might 
render the study attractive to his countrj-men, was 
the object of Lucretius, his work being simply an 
attempt to show that there is nothing in the liistory 
or actual condition of the world which does not 
admit of explanation without having recourse to 
the active interposition of divine beings. The poem 
of Lucretius has been admitted by all modem 
critics to be the greatest of didatic poems. The 
most abstruse speculations are clearly explained in 
majestic verse ; while the subject, which in itself 
was dry and dull, is enlivened by digressions of 
matchless power and beauty. — The best editions 
are by Wakefield, London, 1796, 3 vols. 4to., re- 
printed at Glasgow, 1813, 4 vols. 8vo.; and by 
Forbiger, Lips. 1828, r2mo. 

Lucrinus Lacus, was properly the inner part of 
the Sinus Cumanus or Puteolanus, a bay on the coast 
of Campania, between the promontory Misenum 
and Puteoli, running a considerable way inland. 
But at a very early period the Lucrine lake was 
separated from the remainder of the bay by a dike 
8 stadia in length, which was probably formed 
originally by some volcanic change, and was sub- 
sequently rendered more complete by the work of 
man. Being thus separated from the rest of the 
sea, it assumed the character of an inland lake, 
and is therefore called Lacus by the Ptomans. Its 
waters still remained salt, and were celebrated for 
their oyster beds. Behind the Lucrine lake was 
another lake called Lacus Avernus. In the 
time of Augustus, Agrippa made a communication 
between the lake Avernus and the Lucrine lake, 
and^lso between the Lucrine lake and the Sinus 
Cumanus, thus forming out of the 3 the celebrated 
Julian Harbour. The liucrine lake was filled up 



LUCULLUS. 



LUCULLUS. 



393 



by a volcanic eruption in 1538, when a conical 
mountain rose in its place, called Moiite A'uovo. 
The Avemus has thus become again a separate 
lake, and no trace of the dike is to be seen in the 
Gulf of Pozzuoli. 

Lncullus, Licinius, a celebrated plebeian family, 
1. L., the grandfather of the conqueror of Mithri- 
dates, was consul B.C. 151, together with A. Pos- 
turnius Albinus, and carried on war in Spain against 
the Vaccaei. — 2. L., son of the preceding, was 
praetor 103, and carried on war unsuccessfully 
against the slaves in Sicily. On his return to Rome 
he was accused, condemned, and driven into exile, 
— 3. L., son of the preceding, and celebrated as 
the conqueror of Mithridates, He was probably born 
about 110. He served with distinction in the 
Marsic or Social war, and accompanied Sulla as 
his quaestor into Greece and Asia, 88, When Sulla 
returned to Italy after the conclusion of peace 
with Mithridates in 84, LucxiUus was left behind 
in Asia, where he remained till 80. In 79 he Avas 
curule aedile with his younger brother Marcus. 
So great was the favour at this time enjoyed by 
Lucullus with Sulla, that the dictator, on his 
death-bed, not only confided to him the charge of 
revising and correcting his Commentaries, but ap- 
pointed him guardian of his son Faustus, to the 
exclusion of Pompej ; a circumstance which is said 
to have first given rise to the enmity and jealousy 
that ever after subsisted between the two. In 77 
Lucullus was praetor, and at the expiration of this 
magistracy obtained the government of Africa, 
where he distinguished himself by the justice of 
his administration. In 74 he was consul with M, 
Aurelius Cotta. In this year the war with Mithri- 
dates was renewed, and Lucullus received the 
conduct of it. He carried on this war for 8 years 
with great success. The details are given under 
Mithridates, and it is only necessary to mention 
here the leading outlines. Lucullus defeated Mi- 
thridates with great slaughter, and drove him out 
of his hereditary dominions, and compelled him 
to take refuge in Armenia with his son-in-law 
Tigranes (71). He afterwards invaded Armenia, 
defeated Tigranes, and took his capital Tigranocerta 
(69). In the next campaign (68) he again defeated 
the combined forces of Mithridates, and laid siege 
to Nisibis ; but in the spring of the following year 
(67), a mutiny among his troops compelled him to 
raise the siege of Nisibis, and return to Pontus. 
Mithridates had already taken advantage of his 
absence to invade Pontus, and had defeated his 
lieutenants Fabius and Triarius in several successive 
actions. But Lucullus on his arrival was unable 
to effect any thing against Mithridates, in conse- 
quence of the mutinous disposition of his troops. 
The adversaries of Lucullus availed themselves of 
so favourable an occasion, and a decree was passed 
to transfer to Acilius Glabrio, one of the consuls 
for the year, the province of Bith^mia and the 
command against Mithridates. But Glabrio was 
wholly incompetent for the task assigned him : on 
arriving in Bithynia, he made no attempt to assume 
the command, but remained quiet within the con- 
fines of the Roman province. Mithridates mean- 
while ably availed himself of this position of affairs, 
and Lucullus had the mortification of seeing Pontus 
and Cappadocia occupied by the enemy before his 
eyes, without being able to stir a step in their 
defence. But it was still more galling to his feel- 
ings when, in 66, he was called upon to resign the 



command to his old rival Pompej'", who liad been 
appointed by the Manilian law to supersede both 
him and Glabrio. Lucullus did not obtain his 
triumph till 63, in consequence of the opposition of 
his enemies. He was much courted by the aristo- 
cratical party, who sought in Lucullus a rival and 
antagonist to Pompey; but, instead of putting him- 
self prominently forward as the leader of a party, 
he soon began to withdraw gradually from public 
affairs, and devote himself more and more to a life 
of indolence and luxurj-. He died in 57 or 56. 
Previous to his death he had fallen into a state of 
complete dotage, so that the management of his 
affairs was confided to his brother Marcus. The 
name of Lucullus is almost as celebrated for the 
luxury of his latter years as for his victories over 
Mithridates, He amassed vast treasures in Asia ; 
and these supplied him the means, after his return 
to Rome, of gratifying his natural taste for luxury, 
together with an ostentatious display of magnifi- 
cence. His gardens in the immediate suburbs of 
the city were laid out in a style of extraordinary 
splendour ; but still more remarkable were his 
villas at Tusculum, and in the neighbourhood of 
Neapolis. In the construction of the latter, with 
its parks, fish-ponds, &c., he had laid out vast sums 
in cutting through hills and rocks, and throwing 
out advanced works into the sea. So gigantic 
indeed was the scale of these labours for objects 
apparently so insignificant, that Pompey called him, 
in derision, the Roman Xerxes. His feasts at Rome 
itself were celebrated on a scale of inordinate mag- 
nificence : a single supper in the hall, called that of 
Apollo, was said to cost the sum of 50,000 denarii. 
Even during his campaigns the pleasures of the 
table had not been forgotten ; and it is well known 
that he was the first to introduce cherries into 
Italy, which he had brought with him from Cerasus 
in Pontus. Lucullus was an enlightened patron of 
literature, and had from his earliest years devoted 
much attention to literary pursuits. He collected 
a valuable library, which was opened to the free 
use of the literary public ; and here he himself 
used to associate with the Greek philosophers and 
literati, and would enter warmly into their meta- 
physical and philosophical discussions. Hence the 
picture drawn by Cicero at the commencement of 
the Academics was probably to a certain extent 
taken from the reality. His constant companion 
from the time of his quaestorship had been An- 
tiochus of Ascalon, from whom he imbibed the 
precepts of the Academic school of philosophy, to 
which he continued through life to be attached. 
His patronage of the poet Archias is well known. 
He composed a history of the Marsic war in Greek. 
■—4. L. or M., son of the preceding and of Servilia, 
half-sister of M. Cato, was a mere child at his 
father's death. His education was superintended 
by Cato and Cicero. After Caesar's death, he 
joined the republican party, and fell at the battle 
of Philippi, 42,-5. M., brother of No. 3, was 
adopted by M. Terentius Varro, and consequently 
bore the names of M. Terentius Varro Lu- 
cullus. He fought under Sulla in Italj', 82; was 
curule aedile with his brother 79; praetor 77; and 
consul 73. After his consulship he obtained the 
province of Macedonia. He carried on war against 
the Dardanians and Bessi, and penetrated as far 
as the Danube. On his return to Rome he obtained 
a triumph, 71. He was a strong supporter of the 
aristocratical party. He pronounced the funeral 



6S4 LUCUMO. 
oration of his brother, but died before the com- 
mencement of the civil war, 49. 

Lucumo. [Tarquinius.] 

Ludias. [Lydias.] 

Lugdunensis Gallia. [Gallia.j 

Lugdunum (Lugdunensis). 1. {L,i/on), the 
chief town of Gallia Lugdunensis, situated at the 
foot of a hill at the confluence of the Arar {Saoiie) 
and the Rhodanus (Rhone), is said to have been 
founded by some fugitives from the town of Vienna, 
fiirther down the Rhone. In the year after 
Caesar's death (b. c. 43) Lugdunum was made a 
Roman colony by L. Munatius Plancus, and be- 
came under Augustus the capital of the province, 
and the residence of the Roman governor. Being 
situated on two navigable rivers, and being con- 
nected with the other parts of Gaul by roads, 
which met at this town as their central point, it 
soon became a wealthy and populous place, and is 
described by Strabo as the largest city in Gaul 
next to Narbo. It received many privileges from 
the emperor Claudius ; but it was burnt down in 
the reign of Nero. It was, however, soon rebuilt, 
and continued to be a place of great importanc<; 
till A. D. 197, when it was plundered and the 
greater part of it destroyed by the soldiers ol 
Septimius Severus, after his victory over his rival 
Albinus in the neighbourhood of the town. From 
this blow it never recovered, and was more and 
more thrown into the shade by Vienna. Lug- 
dunum possessed a vast aqueduct, of which the 
remains may still be traced for miles, a mint, and 
an imperial palace, in which Claudius was bom, 
and in which many of the other Roman emperors 
resided. At the tongue of land between the 
Rhone and the Arar stood an altar dedicated to 
Augustus by the different states of Gaul ; and 
here Caligula instituted contests in rhetoric, piiz-s 
being given to the victors, but the most ridiculous 
punishments inflicted on the vanquished. (Comp. 
Juv. i. 44.) Lugdunum is memorable in the his- 
tory of the Christian church as the seat of the 
bishopric of Irenaeus, and on account of the per- 
secutions which the Christians endured here in 
the 2nd and 3rd centuries. — 2. L. Batavorum 
(Le2/deti), the chief town of the Batavi. [Batavi.] 
— 3, Convenarum (St. Berlrand de Comminges), 
the chief town of the Convenae in AqTiitania. 

[CONVENAE.] 

Liaa. [Selene.] 

Lnna (Lunensis : Luni), an Etruscan towii, 
situated on the left bank of the Macra, about 4 
miles from the coast, originally formed part of 
Liguria, but became the most N.-ly city of Etmrin, 
when Augustus extended the boundaries of tlie 
latter country as far as the Macra. The town 
itself was never a place of importance, but it pos- 
sessed a large and commodious harbour at the 
mouth of the river, called Lunae Portus {Gidf of 
Spezzia). In B. c, 177 Luna was made a Roman 
colony, and 2000 Roman citizens were settled 
there. In the civil war between Caesar and 
Pompey it had sunk into utter decay, but was 
colonised a few years afterwards, Luna was cele- 
brated for its white marble, which now takes its 
name from the neighbouring town of Carrara. 
The quarries, from which this marble was obtained, 
appear not to have been worked before the time of 
Julius Caesar ; but it was extensively employed in 
the public buildings erected in the reign of Au- 
gustus. The wine and the cheeses of Luna also 



LUTETIA. 

j enjoyed a high reputation : some of these cheeses 
'are said to have weighed 1000 pounds. The rains 
of Luna are few and unimportant, consisting of 
the vestiges of an amphitheatre, fragments of 
columns, &c. 

Lunae Montes (rb t^s SeXi^i'Tjs opos), a range 
of mou;jtains, which some of the ancient geo- 
graphers believed to exist in the interior of Africa, 
covered with perpetual snow, and containing the 
sources of the Nile. Their actual existence is 
neither proved nor disproved. 

Luperca, or Lnpa, an ancient Italian divinity, 
the v/ife of Lupercus, who, in the shape of a she- 
wolf, performed the office of nurse to Romulus and 
Remus. In some accounts she is identified with 
;AccA Laurentia, the wife of Faustulus. 
I Lupercus, an ancient Italian divinity, who was 
v/oishipped by shepherds as the protector of their 
flocks against wolves. On the N. side of the Pala- 
tine hill there had been in ancient times a cave, 
jthe sanctuary of Lupercus, surrounded by a grove, 
I containing an altar of the god and his figure clad 
in a goat-skin, just as his priests, the Luperci. The 
Romans sometimes identified Lupercus with the 
Arcadian Pan, Respecting the festival celebrated 
in honour of Lupercus and his priests, the Luperci, 
see Did. of Ant. art, Lupercalia and Luperci. 
Lupia. [LuppiA.] 

Lupiae or Luppiae, a town in Calabria, be- 
tween Brundusium and Hydruntum. 

Lupodunum {LadenburgT)^ a town in Germany, 
on the river Nicer {Neckar). 

Luppia or Lupia {Lippe), a navigable river in 
the N. W. of Germany, which falls into the Rhine 
at Wesel in Westphalia^ and on which the Romans 
built a fortress of the same name. The river 
Eliso (Alme) was a tributary of the Luppia, and 
at the confluence of these 2 rivers was the fortress 
of Aliso. 

Lnpus, Eutilius. I. P., consul, with L.Julius 
Caesar, in B.C. 90, was defeated by theMarsi, and 
slain in battle. — 2. P., tribune of the plebs, 56, 
and a warm partisan of the aristocracy. He was 
praetor in 49, and was stationed at Terracina with 
3 cohorts. He afterwards crossed over to Greece. 
-=■3. Probably a son of the preceding, the author 
of a rhetorical treatise in 2 books, entitled De 
F/f/uris Sente?itiarum et Elocutionis, which appears 
to have been originally an abridgement of a work 
by Gorgias of Athens, one of the preceptors of 
young M, Cicero, but which has evidently \mder- 
gone many changes. Its chief value is derived 
from the numerous translations which it contains, 
of striking passages from the works of Greek orators 
now lost, — Edited by Ruhnken along with Aquila 
and Julius Rufiinianus, Lug, Bat. 1768, reprinted 
by Frotscher, Lips. 1831. 

Lurco, M, Aufidius, tribune of the plebs, B. c. 
61, the author of a law on bribery (deAmbitu). 
He was the maternal grandfather of the empress 
Livia, wife of Augustus. He was the first person 
in Rome Avho fattened peacocks for sale, and he 
derived a large income from this source. 

Luscinus, Fabricius, [Fabricius.] 

Liisitania, Lusitani. [Hispania.] 

Lusdnes, a tribe of the Celtiberi in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, near the sources of the Tagus. 

Lutatius Catulus. [Catulus.] 

Lutatius Cerco. [Cerco.J 

Lutetia, or, more commonly, Lutetia Pari- 
siorum iParis), the capital of the Parisii in 



LYCABETTUS. 



LYCIA. 



395 



Gallia Lugdunensis, was situated on an island in 
the Sequana (Seine), and was connected with the 
banks of the river by 2 wooden bridges. Under 
the emperors it became a place of importance, and 
the chief naval station on the Sequana. Here 
Julian was proclaimed emperor, A. D. 360. 

Lycabettus (AvKa€r)TT6s: St. George), a moun- 
tain in Attica, belonging to the range of Pentelicus, 
close to the walls of Athens on the N. E. of the 
city, and on the left of the road leading to Ma- 
rathon. It is commonly, but erroneously, supposed 
that the small hill N. of the Pnyx is Lycabettus, 
and that St. George is the ancient Anchesmus. 

Lycaeus (AuKaios), orLyceus, a lofty mountain 
in Arcadia, N. W, of Megalopolis, from the summit 
of which a great part of the country could be seen. 
It was one of the chief seats of the worship of 
Zens, who was hence surnamed Lycaeus. Here 
was a temple of this god; and here also was cele- 
brated the festival of the Lycaea {Did. of Ant. s. v.). 
Pan was likewise called Lycaeus, because he was 
bom and had a sanctuary on this mountain. 

Lycambes. [Archilochus.] 

Lycaon {AvKdwv), king of Arcadia, son of Pelas- 
gus by Meliboea or Cyllene. The traditions about 
Lycaon represent him in very different lights. 
Some describe him as the first civiliser of Arcadia, 
who built the town of Lycosura, and introduced 
the worship of Zeus Lycaeus. But he is more 
usually represented as an impious king, with a 
large number of sons as impious as himself. Zeus 
visited the earth in order to punish them. The god 
was recognised and worshipped by the Arcadian 
people. Lycaon resolved to murder him ; and in 
order to try if he were really a god, served before 
him a dish of human flesh. Zeus pushed away 
the table which bore the horrible food, and the 
place where this happened was afterwards called 
Trapezus. Lycaon and all his sons, with the ex- 
ception of the youngest (or eldest), Nyctimus, were 
killed by Zeus with a flash of lightning, or accord- 
ing to others, were changed into wolves. — Callisto, 
the daughter of Lycaon, is said to have been changed 
into the constellation of the Bear, whence she is 
called by the poets Lycaonis Arctos, Lycaonia Arctos, 
or Lycaonia Virgo, or by her patronymic Lycaonis. 

Lycaonia (AvKaop'ia: AvKcioves: part of ^am- 
man), a district of Asia Minor, assigned, under the 
Persian Empire, to the ^trapy of Cappadocia, but 
considered by the Greek and Roman geographers 
the S.E. part of Phrygia; bounded on the N. by 
Galatia, on the E. by Cappadocia, on the S. by 
Cilicia Aspera, on the S.W. by Isauria (which was 
sometimes reckoned as a part of it) and by Phrygia 
Paroreios, and on the N.W. by Great Phrygia. 
Its boundaries, however, varied much at different 
times. — It was a long narrow strip of country, its 
length extending in the direction of N.W. and 
S, E. ; Xenophon, who first mentions it, describes 
its width as extending E. of Iconium (its chief 
city) to the borders of Cappadocia, a distance of 30 
parasangs, about 110 miles. It forms a table land 
between the Taurus and the mountains of Phrygia, 
deficient in good water, but abounding in flocks of 
sheep. The people were, so far as can be traced, 
an aboriginal race, speaking a language which is 
mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles as a distinct 
dialect : they were warlike, and especially skilled 
in archery. After the overthrow of Antiochus the 
Great by the Romans, Lycaonia, which had be- 
longed successively to Persia and to Syria, Avas 



I partly assigned to Eumenes, and partly governed 
by native chieftains, the last of whom, Antipater, 
a contempory of Cicero, was conquered by Amyn- 
tas, king of Galatia, at whose death in b, c. 25 it 
passed, with Galatia, to the Romans, and was 
finally united to the province of Cappadocia. Ly- 
caonia was the chief scene of the labours of the 
Apostle Paul on his first mission to the Gentiles. 
(Acts, xiv.) 

Lyceum (to Avksioi/), the name of one of the 3 
ancient gymnasia at Athens, called after the temple 
of Apollo Lyceus, in its neighbourhood. It was 
situated S.E. of the city, outside the walls, and 
just above the river Ilissus. Here the Polemarch 
administered justice. It is celebrated as the place 
where Aristotle and the Peripatetics taught. 

Lyceus (AvKeios), a surname of Apollo, the 
meaning of which is not quite certain. Some derive 
it from KvKos, a wolf, so that it would mean " the 
wolf-slayer;" others from Xvkt], light, according to 
which it would mean "the giver of light;" and 
others again from the country of Lycia. 

Lychnitis. [Lychnidus.] 

Lychnidus, more rarely Lychnidmni or Lych- 
nis (Aux^iSoy, AvxviSiov^ Avx^^is: Avxt^i^ios; 
Achrita, Ochrida), a town of Illyricum, was the 
ancient capital of the Dessaretii, but was in the 
possession of the Romans as early as their war 
with king Gentius. It was situated in the interior 
of the coimtry, on a height on the N. bank of the 
lake Lyclinitis (Avxv7tis, or ij Avxpi^icc XI/ulvti), 
from which the river Drilo rises. The town was 
strongly fortified, and contained many springs 
within its walls. In the middle ages it was the 
residence of the Bulgarian kings, and v/as called 
Acliris or Achrita, whence its modem name. 

Lycia (AvKia : Avicios, Lycius : Meis), a small, 
but most interesting, district on the S. side of Asia 
Minor, jutting out into the Mediterranean in a 
form approaching to a rough semicircle, adjacent 
to parts of Caria and Pamphylia on the W. and E., 
and on the N. to the district of Cibyratis in Phry- 
gia, to which, under the Byzantine emperors, it 
was considered to belong. It was bounded on the 
N.W. by the little river Glaucus and the gulf of the 
same name, on the N.E. by the moimtain called 
Climax (the N. part of the same range as that 
called Solyma), and on the N. its natural boundary 
was the Taurus, but its limits in this direction were 
not strictly defined. The N. parts of Lycia and the 
district of Cibyratis form together a high table land, 
which is supported on the N. by the Taurus ; on the 
E. by the mountains called Solyma ( Taktalu-Dagh), 
which run from N. to S. along the E, coast of 
Lycia, far out into the sea, forming the S.E. pro- 
montory of Lycia, called Sacrum Pr. (C. Kheli- 
donia) ; the summit of this range is 7800 .feet 
high, and is covered with snow * : the S.W. and 
S. sides of this table land are formed by the range 
called Massicytus (Aktar Dagh), which runs S. E. 
from the E. side of the upper course of the river 
Xanthus : its summits are about 4000 feet high ; 
and its S. side descends towards the sea in a suc- 
cession of terraces, terminated by bold cliffs. The 
mountain system of Lycia is completed by the 
Cragus, v/hich fills up the space between the W. 
side of the Xanthus and the Gulf of Glaucus, and 
forms the S.W. promontory of Lycia : its summits 
are nearly 6000 feet high. The chief rivers are 

* According to many of the ancients the Taurus began 
at this range. 



396 



LYCIA. 



LYCOPHRON. 



the Xanthus {Eclien-Chai\ which has its sources 
in the table-land S. of the Taurus, nnd flows from 
N. to S. between the Cragus and Massicrtus. and 
the Limyrus, which flows from N. to S. between 
the Massicytus and the Soh-ma mountains. The 
Tallies of these and the smaller rivers, and the 
terraces above the sea in the S. of the country 
were fertile in com, wine, oil, and fruits, and the 
mountain slopes were clothed with splendid cedars, 
firs, and plane-trees : saffron also was one chief 
product of the land. The total length of the coast, 
from Tel missus on the W. to Phaselis on the E., 
including all windings, is estimated by Strabo at 
1720 stadia (172 geog. miles), while a straight 
line dra-nn across the country, as the chord of this 
arc, is about 80 geog. miles in length. The ge- 
neral geographical structure of the peninsula of 
Lycia, as connected with the rest of Asia Minor, 
bears no little resemblance to that of the peninsula 
of Asia Minor itself, as connected with the rest of 
Asia. According to the tradition preserved by He- 
rodotus, the most ancient name of the country was 
^lilyas (t? MiAi/as), and the earliest inhahitauts 
(probably of the Syro- Arabian race) were called 
]\Iilyae, and afterwards Solymi : subsequently the 
Termilae. from Crete, settled in the country : and 
lastly, the Athenian Lycus, the son of Pandion, 
fled from his brother Aegcus to Lycia, and gave 
his name to the country. Homer, who gives 
Lycia a prominent place in the Iliad, represents 
its chieftains, Glaucus and Sarpedon, as descended 
from the royal family of Argos (Aeolids) : he 
does not mention the name of Milyas ; and he 
speaks of the Solymi as a warlike race, inhabiting 
the mountains, against whom the Greek hero 
Bellerophontes is sent to fight, by his relative 
the king of Lycia, Besides the legend of Belle- 
rophon and the chimaera, Lycia is the scene of 
another popular Greek story, that of the Harpies 
and the daughters of Pandanis ; and memorials of 
both are preserved on the Lycian monuments now 
in the British Museum. On the whole, it is clear 
that Lycia was colonized by the Hellenic race (pro- 
bably from Crete) at a very early period, and that 
its historical inhabitants were Greeks, though with 
a mixture of native blood. The earlier names were 
preserved in the district in the N. of the country 
called Milyas, and in the mountains called Solyma, 
The Lycians always kept the reputation they have 
in Homer, as brave warriors. They and the Cili- 
cians were the only people W. of the Halys whom 
Croesus did not conquer, and they were the last 
•who resisted the Persians. [Xanthus.] Under 
the Persian empire they must have been a power- 
ful maritime people, as they furnished 50 ships to 
the fleet of Xerxes. After the ]Macedonian con- 
quest, Lycia formed part of the Syrian kingdom, 
from which it was taken by the Romans after their 
victory over Antiochus III. the Great, and given 
to the Rhodians. It was soon restored to inde- 
pendence, and formed a flourishing federation of 
cities, each having its ovax republican form of go- 
vernment, and the whole presided over by a chief 
magistrate, called KvKiapxn^. There was a federal 
council, composed of deputies from the 23 cities of 
the federation, in which the 6 chief cities. Xanthus, 
Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra, and Tlos, had 3 
votes each, certain lesser cities 2 each, and the 
rest 1 each : this assembly determined matters re- 
lating to the general government of the country, 
and elected the Lyciarches, aa well as the judges 



and the inferior magistrates. Internal dissensiona 
at length broke up this constitution, and the 
country was united by the emperor Claudius to the 
province of Pamphylia, from which it was again 
separated by Theodosius, who made it a separate 
province, with Myra for its capital. Its cities 
were numerous and flourishing (see the articles), 
and its people celebrated for their probity. Their 
cnstoms are said to have resembled those both of 
the Carians and of the Cretans. Respecting the 
works of art found by Mr. Fellows in Lycia, and 
now in the British Museum, see Xanthcs. 

Lycius {hxiKLos). L The Lycian, a surname of 
Apollo, who was worshipped in several places of 
Lycia, especially at Patara, where he had an oracle. 
Hence the Lyciae sories are the responses of the 
oracle at Patara (Virg. Aen. iv. 346). — 2. Of Eleu- 
therae, in Boeotia, a distinguished statuary, the dis- 
ciple or son of Myron, flourished about B.C. 428. 

Lycomedes (Auko/xtjStj?). 1. A king of the 
Dolopians, in the island of Scyros, near Euboea. 
It was to his court that Achilles was sent disguised 
as a maiden by his mother Thetis, who was anxious 
to prevent his going to the Trojan war. Here 
Achilles became by Deidamia, the daughter of 
Lycomedes, the father of Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus. 
Lycomedes treacherously killed Theseus by thrust- 
ing him down a rock. — 2. A celebrated Arcadian 
general, was a native of Mantinea and one of the 
chief founders of Megalopolis B. c. 370. He after- 
wards showed great jealous}- of Thebes, and formed 
a separate alliance between Athens and Arcadia, 
in 366. He was murdered in the same year on his 
return from Athens, by some Arcadian exiles. 

Lycon (Aukoi'). 1. An orator and demagogue 
at Athens, was one of the 3 accusers of Socrates 
and prepared the case against him. When the 
Athenians repented of their condemnation of So- 
crates, they put Meletus to death and banished 
Anytus and Lycon. — 2. Of Troas, a distinguished 
Peripatetic philosopher, and the disciple of Straton, 
whom he succeeded as the head of the Peripatetic 
school, B. c. 272. He held that post for more than 
44 years, and died at the age of 74. He enjoyed 
the patronage of Attains and Eunienes. He was 
celebrated for his eloquence and for his skill in 
educating boys. He vrrote on the boundaries of 
good and evil {De Fi?iibus). 

Lycophron {AvK6(ppav). 1. Younger son of 
Periander. tyrant of Corinth, by his wife ]Melissa. 
For details see Periander. — 2. A citizen of 
Pherae, where he put down the government of the 
nobles and established a tyranny about b. c. 405. 
He afterwards endeavoured to make himself master 
of the whole of Thessaly, and in 404 he defeated 
the Larissaeans and others of the Thessalians, who 
opposed him. He was probably the father of Jason 
of Pherae. — 3. A son, apparently, of Jason, and 
one of the brothers of Thebe, wife of Alexander, 
the tyrant of Pherae, in whose murder he took 
part together with his sister and his 2 brothers, 
Tisiphonus and Pitholaus, 367. On Alexander's 
death the power appears to have been wielded 
mainly by Tisiphonus, though Lycophron had an 
important share in the government. Lycophron 
succeeded to the supreme power on the death of 
Tisiphonus, but in 352 he was obliged to surrender 
Pherae to Philip, and withdraw from Thessaly.— 
4. A grammarian and poet, was a native of Chalcis 
in Euboea, and lived at Alexandria, under Ptolemy 
Philadelphus (b. c. 285 — 247), who entrusted to 



LYCOPOLIS. 



LYCURGUS. 



397 



him the arrangement of the works of the comic 
poets in the Alexandrian library. In the execu- 
tion of this commission Lycophron drew up an ex- 
tensive work on comedy. Nothing more is known 
of his life. Ovid {Ibis, 533) states that he was 
killed by an arrow. — As a poet, Lycophron ob- 
tained a place in the Tragic Pleiad. He also wrote 
a satyric drama. But the only one of his poems 
which has come down to us is the Casscmdra or 
Alexandra. This is neither a tragedy nor an epic 
pcem, but a long iambic monologue of 1474 verses, 
in which Cassandra is made to prophesy the fall of 
Troy, the adventures of the Grecian and Trojan 
heroes, with numerous other mythological and his- 
torical events, going back as early as the fables of 
lo and Europa, and ending with Alexander the 
Great. The work has no pretensions to poetical 
merit. It is simply a cumbrous store of traditional 
learning. Its obscurity is proverbial. Its author 
obtained the epithet of the Obscure (a-KoreivSs). 
Its stores of learning and its obscurity alike excited 
the efforts of the ancient grammarians, several of 
whom wrote commentaries on the poem. The only 
one of these works which survives, is the Scholia 
of Isaac and John Tzetzes, which are far more 
valuable than the poem itself. — The best editions 
are by Potter, Oxon. 1697, fol. ; Reichard, Lips. 
1788, 2 vols. 8vo. ; and Bachmann, Lips. 1828, 2 
vols. 8vo. 

Lycopolis (yj Avkwv ttoXis: Siout, Ru.), a city 
of Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, be- 
tween Hermopolis and Ptolemais, said to have 
derived its name from the circumstance, that an 
Aethiopian army was put to flight near it by a 
pack of wolves. 

Lycorea (AuKcJpeia : Au/cwpevs, AviccSpios, Av- 
KOjpetTTjy), an ancient town at the foot of Mt. Ly- 
corea {Liakura), which was the southern of the 2 
peaks of Mt. Parnassus. [Parnassus.] Hence 
Apollo derived the surname of Lycoreus. The 
town Lycorea is said to have been the residence 
of Deucalion, and Delphi is also reported to have 
been colonised by it. 

Lycoris. [Cytheris.] 

Lycortas (AvKopras), of Megalopolis, Avas the 
father of Polybius,the historian, and the close friend 
of Philopoemen, whose policy he always supported. 
He is first mentioned in B.C. 189, as one of the 
ambassadors sent to Rome ; and his name occurs 
for the last time in 168. 

Lycosiira (AvKoaovpa : AvKocrovpevs : Paleo- 
krambavos or SidMrokastro near Stala), a town in 
the S. of Arcadia, and on the N. W. slope of Mt. 
Lycaeus, and near the small river Plataniston, said 
by Pausanias to have been the most ancient town in 
Greece, and to have been founded by Lycaon, the 
son of Pelasgus. 

Lyctus (AvKTos : Avktios\ sometimes called 
Lyttus (AuTTos), an important town in the E. 
of Crete, S.E. of Cnossus, was situated on a height 
of Mt. Argaeus, 80 stadia from the coast. Its 
harbour was called Chersonesus. It was one of 
the most ancient cities in the island, and is men- 
tioned in the Iliad. It was generally considered 
to be a Spartan colony, and its inhabitants were 
celebrated for their bravery. At a later time it 
v/as conquered and destroyed by the Cnossians, 
but it was afterwards rebuilt, and was extant in 
the 7th century of our era. 

Lycurgus (AvKovpyos). 1. Son of Dryas, and 
king of the Edones in Thrace. He is famous for 



his persecution of Dionysus (Bacchus) and his 
worship in Thrace. Homer relates that, in order to 
escape from Lycurgus, Dionysus leaped into the 
sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis ; and 
that Zeus thereupon blinded the impious king, 
who died soon afterwards, hated by the immortal 
gods. This story has received many additions from 
later poets and mythographers. Some relate that 
Dionysus, on his expeditions, came to the kingdom 
of Lycurgus ; but was expelled by the impious 
king. Thereupon the god drove Lycurgus mad, in 
which condition he killed his son Dryas, and also 
hewed off one of his legs, supposing that he was 
cutting down vines. The country now produced no 
fruit ; and the oracle declaring that fertility should 
not be restored unless Lycurgus were killed, the 
Edonians carried him to mount Pangaeum, where 
he was torn to pieces by horses. According to 
Sophocles {Antig. 955), Lycurgus was entombed 
in a rock. — 2. King in Arcadia, son of Aleus and 
Neaera, brother of Cepheus and Auge, husband of 
Cleophile, Eurynome, or Antinoe, and father of An- 
caeus, Epochus, Amphidamas, and lasus. Lycurgus 
killed Are'ithous, who used to fight with a club. 
Lycurgus bequeathed this club to his slave Ereu- 
thalion, his sons having died before him. — 3. Son 
of Pronax and brother of Amphithea, the wife of 
Adrastus. He took part in the war of the Seven 
against Thebes, and fought with Amphiaraus. He 
is mentioned among those whom Aesculapius called 
to life again after their death.— 4. King of Nemea, 
son of Pheres and Periclymene, brother of Admetus, 
husband of Eurydice or Amphithea, and father of 
Opheltes. 

Lycurgus. 1. The Spartan legislator. Of his 
personal history we have no certain information ; 
and there are such discrepancies respecting him in 
the ancient writers, that many modern critics have 
denied his real existence altogether. The more ge- 
nerally received account about him was as follows : — 
Lycurgus was the son of Eunomus, king of Sparta, 
and brother of Polydectes. The latter succeeded 
his father as king of Sparta, and afterwards died, 
leaving his queen with child. The ambitious 
woman proposed to Lycurgus to destroy her off- 
spring if he would share the throne with her. He 
seemingly consented ; but when she had given 
birth to a son (Charilaus), he openly proclaimed 
him king; and as next of kin, acted as his guardian. 
But to avoid all suspicion of ambitious designs, with 
which the opposite party charged him, Lycurgus left 
Sparta, and set out on his celebrated travels, which 
have been magnified to a fabulous extent. He is 
said to have visited Crete, and there to have 
studied the wise laws of Minos. Next he went to 
Ionia and Egypt, and is reported to haA^e pene- 
trated into Libya, Iberia, and even India. In Ionia 
he is said to have met either with Homer himself, 
or at least with the Homeric poems, which he in- 
troduced into the mother country. The return of 
Lycurgus to Sparta was hailed by all parties. 
Sparta was in a state of anarchy and licentiousness, 
and he was considered as the man who alone could 
cure the growing diseases of the state. He under- 
took the task ; yet before he set to work, he 
strengthened himself with the authority of the 
Delphic oracle, and with a strong party of influential 
men at Sparta. The reform seems not to have been 
carried altogether peaceably. The new division of 
the land among the citizens must have violated 
many existing interests. But all opposition was over- 



398 LYCURGUS. 
borne, and the whole constitution, militarj- and civil, 
■vvas remodelled. After Lycurgus had obtained for 
his institutions an approving oracle of the national 
god of Delphi, he exacted a promise from the people 
not to make any alterations in his laws before his 
return. And now he left Sparta to finish his life 
in voluntary exile, in order that his countrymen 
might be bound by their oath to preserve his con- 
stitution inviolate for ever. Where and how he 
died nobody could tell. He vanished from the 
earth like a god, leaving no traces behind but his 
spirit; and he was honoured as a god at Sparta 
with a temple and yearly sacrifices down to the 
latest times. The date of Lycurgus is variously 
given, but it is impossible to place it later than 
B. c. 825. — Lycutgus was regarded through all 
subsequent ages as the legislator of Sparta, and 
therefore almost all the Spartan institutions were 
ascribed to him as their author. We therefore 
propose to give here a sketch of the Spartan insti- 
tution, referring for details to the Did. of Antiq. ; 
though we must not imagine that this constitution 
was entirely the work of Lycurgus. The Spartan 
constitution was of a mixed nature : the monarchi- 
cal principle was represented by the kings, the 
aristocracy by the senate, and the democratical 
element by the assembly of the people, and subse- 
quently by their representatives, the ephors. The 
kings had originally to perform the common func- 
tions of the kings of the heroic age. They were 
high priests, judges, and leaders in war ; but in 
all of these departments they were in course of 
time superseded more or less. As judges they re- 
tained only a particular branch of jurisdiction, that 
referring to the succession of property. As military 
commanders they were restricted and watched by 
commissioners sent by the senate; the functions of 
high priest were curtailed least, perhaps because 
least obnoxious, la compensation for the loss of 
power, the kings enjoyed great honours, both 
during their life and after their death. Still 
the principle of monarchy was very weak among 
the Spartans. — The powers of the senate were 
very important : they had the right of originating 
and discussing all measures before thej'- could be 
submitted to the decision of the popular assembly ; 
they had, in conjunction with the ephors, to watch 
over the due observance of the laws and institu- 
tions ; and they were judges in all criminal cases, 
without being bound by any written code. For aP 
this they were not responsible, holding their office 
for life. — But with all these powers, the elders 
formed no real aristocracy. They were not chosen 
either for property qualification or for noble birth. 
The senate was open to the poorest citizen, who, 
during 60 years, had been obedient to the laws and ' 
zealous in the performance of his duties. — The ' 
mass of the people, that is, the Spartans of pure ; 
Doric descent, formed the sovereign power of the 
state. The popular assembly consisted of cA'ery ' 
Spartan of 30 years of age, and of unblemished j 
character ; only those were excluded who had not 
the means of contributing their portion to the sj's- 
sitia. They met at stated times, to decide on all 
important questions brought before them, after a 
previous discussion in the senate. They had no 
right of amendment, but only that of simple approval 
or rejection, which was given in the rudest form 
possible, by shouting. The popular assembly, how- 1 
ever, had neither frequent nor very important oc- ! 
casions for directly exerting their sovereign power. I 



LYCURGUS. 

I Their chief activity consisted in delegating it ; 
j nence arose the importance of the ephors, who 
■were the representatives of the popular element of 
the constitution. The ephors answer in every 
characteristic feature to the Roman tribunes of the 
people. Their origin was lost in obscurity and in- 
significance ; but at the end they engrossed the 
whole power of the state. — With reference to their 
subjects, the few Spartans formed a most decided 
aristocracy. On the conquest of Peloponnesus by 
the Dorians, part of the ancient inhabitants of 
the country, under name of the Perioici, were 
allowed indeed to retain their personal liberty, but 
lost all civil rights, and were obliged to pay to the 
state a rent for the land that was left them. But 
a great part of the old inhabitants were reduced to 
a state of perfect slavery, different from that of the 
slaves of Athens and Rome, and more similar to 
the villanage of the feudal ages. These were called 
Helots. They were allotted vnih. patches of land, to 
individual members of the ruling class. They tilled 
the land, and paid a fixed rent to their masters, not, 
as the perioici, to the state. The number of these 
miserable creatures was large. They were treated 
with the utmost cruelty by the Spartans, and Avere 
frequently put to death by their oppressors. — The 
Spartans formed, as it were, an army of invaders in 
an enemy's countr}', their city was a camp, and 
every man a soldier. At Sparta, the citizen only 
existed for the state ; he had no interest but the 
state's, and no property but what belonged to the 
state. It was a fundamental principle of the con- 
stitution, that all citizens were entitled to the en- 
joyment of an equal portion of the common pro- 
perty. This was done in order to secure to the 
commonwealth a large number of citizens and sol- 
diers, free from labour for their sustenance, and 
able to devote their whole time to warlike exer- 
cises, in order thus to keep up the ascendancy of 
Sparta over her perioici and helots. The Spartans 
were to be warriors and nothing but warriors. 
Therefore, not only all mechanical labour was 
thought to degrade them ; not only was husbandry 
despised and neglected, and commerce prevented, 
or at least impeded, by prohibitive laws and by 
the use of iron money ; but also the nobler arts 
and sciences were so effectually stifled, that Sparta 
is a blank in the history of the arts and literature 
of Greece. The state took care of a Spartan from 
his cradle to his grave, and superintended his edu- 
cation in the minutest points. This was not con- 
fined to his youth, but extended throughout his 
whole life. The syssitia, or, as they were called 
at Sparta, phiditia, the common meals, may be re- 
garded as an educational institution ; for at these 
meals subjects of general interest were discussed 
and political questions debated. The youths and 
boys used to eat separately from the men, in their 
own divisions. — 2. A Lacedaemonian, who, though 
not of the royal blood, was chosen king, in B. c. 220, 
together with Agesipolis III., after the death of 
Cleomenes. It was not long before he deposed his 
colleague and made himself sole sovereign, though 
under the control of the Ephori. He carried on war 
against Philip V. of Macedon,and the Achaeans. He 
died about 210, and Machanidas then made himself 
tyrant. —3. An Attic orator, son of Lycophron, 
who belonged to the noble family of the Eteobu- 
tadae, was born at Athens, about B. c. 396. He 
was a disciple of Plato and Isocrates. In public 
life he was a warm supporter of the policy of Demo- 



LYCUS. 

fitlienes, and was universally admitted to be one of 
the most virtuous citizens and upright statesmen of 
his age. He was thrice appointed Tamias or ma- 
nager of the public revenue, and held tliis office 
each time for five years, beginning with 337. He 
discharged the duties of this office v/ith such abi- 
lity and integrity, that he raised the public reve- 
nue to the sum of 1200 talents. One of his laws 
enacted that bronze statues should be erected to 
Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and that 
copies of their tragedies should be preserved in the 
public archives. He often appeared as a successful 
accuser in the Athenian courts, but he himself was 
as often accused by others, though he always suc- 
ceeded in silencing his enemies. He died while 
holding the office of President of the theatre of 
Dionysus, in 323. A fragment of an inscription, 
containing an account of his administration of the 
finances, is still extant. There Avere 15 orations 
of Lycurgus extant in antiquity ; but only one has 
come down to us entire, the oration against Leo- 
crates, which was delivered in 330. The style is 
noble and grand, but neither elegant nor pleasing. 
J The oration is printed in the various collections of 

^ the Attic orators. [Demosthenes.] 

Lycus (Ay/cos). 1. Son of Poseidon and Ce- 

; laeno, who was transferred by his father to the 
islands of the blessed. By Alcyone, the sister of 
Celaeno, Poseidon begot Hyrieus, the father of the 

, following.— 2. Son of Hyrieus and Clonia, and bro- ; 

I ther of Nycteus. Polydorus, king of Thebes, mar-' 
ried the daughter of Nycteus, by whom he had a son 
Labdacus ; and on his death he left the government 
of Thebes and the guardianship of Labdacus to his 
father-in-law. Nycteus afterwards fell in battle 
against Epopeus, king of Sicyon, who had carried 
away his beautiful daughter Antiope. Lycus suc- 
ceeded his brother in the government of Thebes, and 
in the guardianship of Labdacus. He surrendered 
the kingdom to Labdacus when the latter had 
grown up. On the death of Labdacus soon after- 
wards, Lycus again succeeded to the government of 
Thebes, and undertook the guardianship of Laius,the 
son of Labdacus. Lycus marched against Epopeus, 
whom he put to death (according to other accounts 
Epopeus fell in the war with Nycteus), and he 
carried away Antiope to Thebes. She was treated 
with the greatest cruelty by Dirce, the wife of Lycus; 
in revenge for which her sons by Zeus, Amphion 
and Zethus, afterwards put to death both Lycus 
and Dirce. [Amphion.] — 3. Son of No. 2, or, 
according to others, son of Poseidon, was also king 
of Thebes. In the absence of Hercules, Lycus 
attempted to kill his wife Megara and her children, 
but was afterwards put to death by Hercules. — 
4. Son of Pandion, and brother of Aegeus, Nisus, 
and Pallas. He was expelled by Aegeus, and 
took refuge in the country of the Termili, which 
was called Lycia after him. He was honoured at 
Athens as a hero, and the Lyceum derived its 
name from him. He is said to have introduced 
the Eleusinian mysteries into Andania in Messenia. 
He is sometimes also described as an ancient 
prophet, and the family of the Lycomedae, at Athens, 
traced their name and origin from him, — 5. Son of 
Dascylus, and king of the Mariandynians, who 
received Hercules and the Argonauts with hospi- 
tality.— 6. Of Rhegium,the father, real or adoptive, 
of the poet Lycophron, was an historical writer in 
the time of Demetrius Phalereus. 

Lycus (AjJkos), the name of several rivers, which 



LYDIA. o-vL 

are said to be so called from the impetuosity of 
their current. L (Kilij), a little river of Bithynia, 
falling into the sea S. of Heraclea Pontica. — 2. 
{Germe?ieJi-Chai), a considerable river of Pontus, 
rising in the mountains on the N. of Armenia 
Minor, and flowing W. into the Iris at Eupatoria. 
—"3. {Choruk-Su)^a considerable river of Phrygia, 
flowing from E. to W. past Colossae and Lao- 
dicea into the Maeander. — 4. (Nahr-el-Kelb), a 
river of Phoenicia, falling into the sea N. of Bery- 
tus.— 6. {Great Zah or Ulu-Su)^ a river of As- 
syria, rising in the mountains on the S. of Armenia, 
and flowing S. W. into the Tigris, just below La- 
rissa {Nimrond). It is undoubtedly the same as 
the Zabatus of Xenophon. 

Lydda (ra AuSSa, 97 AuSStj : Lud), a toAvn of 
Palestine, S. E. of Joppa, and N. W. of Jerusalem, 
at the junction of several roads which lead from 
the sea-coast, was destroyed by the Romans in the 
Jewish War, but soon after rebuilt, and calM 
Diospolis. 

Lydia {AvUa : Av^Ss, Lydus), a district of Asia 
Minor, in the middle of the W. side of the penin- 
sula, between Mysia on the N. and Caria on the 
S., and between Phrygia on the E. and the 
Aegean Sea on the W. Its boundaries varied so 
much at different times, that they cannot be de- 
scribed with any approach to exactness till we 
come to the time of the Roman rule over W. Asia. 
At that time the N. boundary, towards Mysia, was 
the range of mountains which form the N. margin of 
the valley of the Hermus, called Sardene, a S. W. 
branch of the Phrygian Olympus : the E. boundary 
towards Phrygia was an imaginary line : and the 
S. boundary towards Caria was the river Maeander, 
or, according to some authorities, the range of 
mountains which, under the name of Messogis 
{Kastane Dagh) forms the N. margin of the valley 
of the Maeander, and is a N. W. prolongation of 
the Taurus. From the E. part of this range, in 
the S. E. corner of Lydia, another branches off to 
the N. W., and runs to the W. far out into the 
Aegean Sea, where it forms the peninsula opposite 
to the island of Chios. This chain, which is called 
Tmolus (Kisilja Musa Dagh), divides Lydia into 
2 unequal vallies ; of which the S. and smaller is 
watered by the river Cayster, and the N. forms 
the great plain of the Hermus : these vallies are 
very beautiful and fertile, and that of tlie Hermus 
especially is one of the most delicious regions of 
the earth. The E. part of Lydia, and the adjacent 
portion of Phrygia, about the upper course of the 
Hermus and its tributaries, is an elevated plain, 
showing traces of volcanic action, and hence called 
Catacecaumene (KaraKeKav/jLeur}). In the boun- 
daries of Lydia, as just described, the strip of 
coast belonging to Ionia is included, but the name 
is sometimes used in a narrower signification, so as 
to exclude Ionia. In early times the country had 
another name, Maeonia (Mrjoviii, Maiov'ia), by 
which alone it is known to Homer ; and this name 
was afterwards applied specifically to the E. and S. 
part of Lydia, and then, in contradistinction to it, 
the name Lydia was used for the N.W. part. In 
the mythical legends the common name of the 
people and country, Lydi and Lydia, is derived 
from Lydus, the son of Atys, the first king. The 
Lydians appear to have been a race closely con- 
nected with the Carians and the Mysians, with 
whom they observed a common worship in the 
temple of Zeus Carius at Mylasa : they also prac- 



400 



LYDIADES. 



LYNCESTIS. 



tiscd the worship of Cybele, and other Phrygian 
customs. Amidst the uncertainties of the early 
legends, it is clear that Lydia was a verj' early 
seat of Asiatic civilization, and that it exerted a 
verj- important influence on the Greeks. The Lydian 
monarchy, which was founded at Sardis, before the 
time of authentic histor}', grew up into an empire, 
under which the man}' diflferent tribes of Asia 
Minor "\V. of the river Halys were for the first 
time united. Tradition mentioned 3 dynasties of 
kings ; the Atyadae, which ended (according to 
the backward computations of chronologers) about 
B.C. 1221 ; the Heraclidae, which reigned 505 
years, down to 716 ; and the Mermnadae, 160 
years, down to 556. Only the last dynasty can 
be safely regarded as historical, and the fabulous 
element has a large place in the details of their 
history : their names and computed dates were : — 
(1) Gyges, B.C. 716—678 ; (2) Ardts, 678— 
629 ; (3) Sadyattes, 629—617 ; (4) Alyattes, 
617 — 560 ; (5) Croesus, 560 (or earlier) — 546 ; 
imder whose names an account is given of the rise 
of the Lydian empire in Asia Minor, and of its 
overthrow by the Persians under Cyrus. Under 
these kings, the Lydians appear to have been a 
highly civilised, industrious, and wealthy people, 
practising agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, 
and acquainted with various arts ; and exercising, 
through their intercourse with the Greeks of 
Ionia, an important influence on the progress of 
Greek civilisation. Among the inventions, or im- 
provements, which the Greeks are said to have de- 
rived from them, were the weaving and dyeing of 
fine fabrics ; various processes of metallurgy ; the 
use of gold and silver money, which the Lydians 
are said first to have coined, the former from the 
gold found on Tmolus and from the golden sands 
of the Pactolus ; and various metrical and musical 
improvements, especially the scale or mode of music 
called the Lydian, and the form of the lyre called 
the magadis. (See Diet, of Aniiq., Musica). The 
Lydians had also public games similar to those of 
the Greeks. Their high civilisation, however, was 
combined ^^•ith a lax morality, and, after the Persian 
conquest, when they were forbidden by Cyrus to 
carry arms, they sank gradually into a bye- word 
for effeminate luxuriousness, and their very name 
and language had almost entirely disappeared by 
the commencement of our era. Under the Persians, 
Lydia and Mysia formed the 2nd satrapy : after the 
Macedonian conquest, Lydia belonged first to the 
kings of Syria, and next (after the defeat of An- 
tiochus the Great by the Romans) to those of Per- 
gamus, and so passed, by the bequest of Attalus 
ill., to the Romans, under whom it formed part of 
the province of Asia. 

Lydiades (AwSjciStjs), a citizen of Megalopolis, 
who, though of an obscure family, raised himself 
to the sovereignty of his native city, about v.. c. 
244. In 284 he voluntarily abdicated the sove- 
reignty, and permitted Megalopolis to join the 
Achaean League as a free state. He was elected 
several times general of the Achaean League, and 
l)ecame a formidable rival to Aratus. He fell in 
l)attle against Cleomenes, 226. 

Lydias or Ludias (AvSi'as, Ion. At/SiTjs, Aou~ 
5:'os : Karasmak or Mavro?iero), a river in Ma- 
cedonia, rises in Eordaea, passes Edessa, and after 
flowing through the lake on which Pella is situ- 
ated, falls into the Axius, a short distance from 
the Thermaic gulf. In the upper part of its course 



it is called the Eordaean river ('EopSoT/cby tto- 
Tauhs) by Arrian. Herodotus (vii. 127) by 
mistake makes the Lydias unite with the Hali- 
acmon, the latter of which is W. of the former. 

Lydus (At'Sos), son of Atys and Callithea, and 
brother of Tyrrhenus, said to have been the mythi- 
cal ancestor of the Lydians. 

Lydus, Joannes Laurentius, was bom at Phi- 
ladelphia, in Lydia (whence he is called Lydus or 
the Lydian), in A. D. 490. He held various public 
offices, and lived to an advanced age. He wrote : 
1. Uepl _ur}vwu (rvyipacpri, De Mensihus Liber, of 
which there are two epitoraae, or summaries, and a 
fragment extant. 2. Ilepl apxooy k. t. A. De Magi- 
stratibus Reipublicae Romatiae. 3. Ylepl SioaTjueiwv, 
De Osteniis. The work De Mcnsibus is an histori- 
cal commentarv' on the Roman calendar, with an 
account of the various festivals, derived from a 
great number of authorities, most of which have 
perished. Of the two summaries of this curious 
work, the larger one is by an unknown hand, the 
shorter one by Maximus Planudes. The work 
De jMagistraiibus was thought to have perished, 
but was discovered by Villoison in the suburbs of 
Constantinople, in 1785. The best edition of these 
works is by Bekker, Bonn, 1837. 

Lygdamis {hvytayns). 1. Of Naxos, a dis- 
tinguished leader of the pop\ilar party of the island 
in the struggle with the oligarchy. He conquered 
the latter, and obtained therebj' the chief power in 
the state. He assisted Pisistratus in his third re- 
turn to Athens ; but during his absence his ene- 
mies seem to have got the upper hand again ; for 
Pisistratus afterwards subdued the island, and 
made Lygdamis tyrant of it, about B. c 540. In 
532 he assisted Polycrates in obtaining the tyranny 
of Samos. — 2. Father of Artemisia, queen of 
Halicamassus, the contemporary of Xerxes. — 3. 
Tyrant of Halicamassus, the son of Pisindelis, and 
the grandson of Artemisia. The historian Herodo- 
tus is said to have taken an active part in delivering 
his native city from the tyranny of this Lygdamis. 

Lygii or Ligii, an important people in Ger- 
many, between the Viadus {Oder) and the Vis- 
tula, in the modem Silesia and Fosen, were 
boimded by the Burgundiones on the N., the 
Goths on the E., the Bastamae and Osi on the 
W., and the Marsingi, Silingae and Semnones on 
the S. They were divided into several tribes, 
the chief of which were the Manimi, Duni, Elysii, 
Burii, Arii, Naharvali and Helveconae. They 
first appear in history as members of the great 
!Marcomannic league formed by Maroboduus in 
the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. In the 3rd 
century some of the Lygii migrated with the Bur- 
gundians W.-wards, and settled in the country 
bordering on the Rhine. 

Lyncestis (Auywrjo-Ti's), a district in the S. VT. 
of Macedonia, N. of the river Erigon, and upon 
the frontiers of Illyria. Its inhabitants, the Lyn- 
cestae, were lUyrians, and were originally an 
independent people, who were governed by their 
own princes, said to be descended from the family 
of the Bacchiadae. The Lyncestae appear to have 
become subject to Macedonia by a marriage be- 
tween the royal families of the 2 countries. The 
ancient capital of the country was Lyncns (rj 
AvyKos), though Heraclea at a later time be- 
came the chief to-s\'n in the district. Near Lyncus 
was a river, the waters of them are said to have 
been as intoxicating as wine. (Ov. Met. xv. 329.) 



LYNCEUS. 



LYSIAS. 



401 



Lynceus (AvyKeus). 1. 0ns of the £0 sons of 
Aegyptus, whose life was saved by his wife Hy- 
permnestra, when all his other brothers were 
murdered by the daughters of Danaus on their 
wedding night. [Aegyptus.] Danaus thereupon 
kept Hypermnestra in strict confinement, but was 
afterwards prevailed upon to give her to Lynceus, 
who succeeded him on the throne of Argos. Ac- 
cording to a different legend, Lynceus slew Danaus 
and all the sisters of Hypermnestra, in revenge for 
his brothers. Lynceus was succeeded as king of 
Argos by his son Abas. — 2. Son of Aphareus 
and Arene, and brother of Idas, was one of the 
Argonauts and famous for his keen sight. He is 
also mentioned among the Calydonian hunters, 
and was slain by Pollux. For details respecting 
his death, see p. 228, b. — 3. Of Samos, the dis- 
ciple of Theophrastus, and the brother of the his- 
torian Duris, was a contemporary of Menander, 
and his rival in comic poetry. He survived Me- 
nander, upon whom he wrote a book. He seems 
to have been more distinguished as a grammarian 
and historian than as a comic poet. 

Lyncus, king of Scythia, or, according to others, 
of Sicily, endeavoured to murder Triptolemu*, who 
came to him with the gifts of Ceres, but he was 
metamorphosed by the goddess into a lynx. 

Ljrrcea or Lyrceum (AvpKeia, AvpKeiou)^ a 
small town in Argolis, situated on a mountain of 
the same name. 

Lyrnessus (Avpvrja-cros)^ a town in the interior 
of Mysia, in Asia Minor, frequently mentioned by 
Homer : destroyed before the time of Strabo. 

Ly Sander (Avaaudpos), a Spartan, was of servile 
origin, or at least the offspring of a marriage 
between a freeman and a woman of inferior con- 
dition. He obtained the citizenship, and became 
one of the most distinguished of the Spartan 
generals and diplomatists. In B.C. 407, he was 
sent out to succeed Cratesippid^a in the command 
of the fleet, off the coasts of Asia Minor. He fixed 
Lis head-quarters at Ephesus, and soon obtained 
great influence, not only -with the Greek cities, 
but also with Cyrus, who supplied him with large 
sums of money to pay his sailors. Next year, 406, 
he was succeeded by Callicratidas. In one year 
the reputation and influence of Lysander had be- 
come so great, that Cyrus and the Spartan allies in 
Asia requested the Lacedaemonians to appoint 
Lysander again to the command of the fleet. The 
Lacedaemonian law, however, did not allow the 
office of admiral to be held twice by the same 
person ; and, accordingly, Aracus was sent out in 
405, as the nominal commander-in-chief, while 
Lysander, virtually invested with the supreme 
direction of affairs, had the title of vice-admiral 
(eTTio-ToAeus). In this year he brought the Pelo- 
ponnesian war to a conclusion, by the defeat and 
capture of the Athenian fleet off Aegos-potami. 
Only 8 Athenian ships made their escape under 
the command of Conon. He afterwards sailed to 
Athens, and in the spring of 404 the city capitu- 
lated ; the long walls and the fortifications of the 
Piraeus were destroyed, and an oligarchical form of 
government established, known by the name of the 
30 Tyrants. Lysander was now by far the most 
powerful man in Greece, and he displayed more 
than the usual pride and haughtiness which dis- 
tinguished the Spartan commanders in foreign 
countries. He was passionately fond of praise, 
and took care that his exploits should be celebrated 



by the most illustrious poets of his time. He 
always kept the poet Choerilus in his retinue ; and 
his praises were also sung by Antilochus, Anti- 
niachus of Colophon, and Niceratus of Heraclea. 
He was tlie first of the Greeks to whom Greek 
cities erected altars as to a god, offered sacrifices, 
and celebrated festivals. His power and ambition 
caused the Spartan government uneasiness, and ac- 
cordingl}- the Ephors recalled him from Asia Minor, 
to which he had again repaired, and for some years 
kept him without any public employment. On the 
death of Agis II. in 397, he secured the succession 
for Agesilaus, the brother of Agis, in opposition to 
Leotychides, the reputed son of the latter. He 
did not receive from Agesilaus the gratitude he had 
expected. He was one of the members of the 
council, 30 in number, which was appointed to 
accompany the new king in his expedition into 
Asia in 396. Agesilaus purposely thwarted all 
his designs, and refused all the favours which he 
asked. On his return to Sparta, Lysander resolved 
to bring about the change he had long meditated 
in the Spartan constitution, by abolishing heredi- 
tary royalty, and making the throne elective. He 
is said to have attempted to obtain the sanction of 
the gods in favour of his scheme, and to have tried 
in succession the oracles of Delphi, Dodona, and 
Zeus Ammon, but without success. He does not 
seem to have ventured upon any overt act, and his 
enterprise was cut short by his death in the follow- 
ing year. On the breaking out of the Boeotian 
war in 395, Lysander was placed at the head of 
one army, and the king Pausanias at the head of 
another. Lysander marched against Haliartus and 
perished in battle under the walls, 395. 

Lysandra {Avaai^Spa), daughter of Ptolemy 
Soter and Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater. 
She was married first to Alexander, the son of 
Cassander, king of Macedonia, and after his death 
to Agathocles, the son of Lysimachus. After the 
murder of her 2nd husband, B. c. 284 [Agatho- 
cles, No. 3], she fled to Asia, and besought as- 
sistance from Seleucus. The latter in consequence 
marched against Lysimachus, who was defeated 
and slain in battle 281. 

Lysanias (AvaravLas). 1. Tetrarch of Abilene, 
was put to death by Antony, to gratify Cleopatra, 
B. c. 36. — 2. A descendant of the last, who was 
tetrarch of Abilene at the time when our Saviour 
entered upon his ministry. (Luke, iii. 1.) 

Lysias (Avatas), an Attic orator, was bom at 
Athens, B. c. 458. He was the son of Cephalus, 
who Avas a native of Syracuse, and had taken up 
his abode at Athens, on the invitation of Pe- 
ricles. At the age of 15, Lysias and his brothers 
joined the Athenians who went as colonists ta 
Thurii in Italy, 443. He there completed his 
education under the instruction of two S3'racusans, 
Tisias and Nicias. He afterwards enjoyed great 
esteem among the Thurians, and seems to have 
taken part in the administration of the city. After 
the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily, he was ex- 
pelled by the Spartan party from Thurii, as a par- 
tisan of the Athenians. He now returned to. 
Athens, 411. During the rule of the 30 Ty- 
rants (404), he was looked upon as an enemy of 
the government, his large property was confiscated^ 
and he was thrown into prison ; but he escaped^ 
and took refuge at Megara. He joined Thrasy- 
bulus and the exiles, and in order to render them 
effectual assistance, he sacrificed all that remained 

D D 



4^2 LYSIMACHIA. 
of his fortune. He gave the patriots 2000 drachmas 
and 200 shields, and engaged a band of 300 mer- 
cenaries. Thrasybulus procured him the Athenian 
franchise, which he had not possessed hitherto, 
since he was the son of a foreigner ; but he Avas 
afterwards deprived of this right, because it had 
been conferred without a probuleuma. Henceforth 
he lived at Athens as an isoteles, occupying himself, 
as it appears, solely with writing judicial speeches 
for others, and died in 378, at the age of 80. — 
Lysias wrote a great number of orations ; and 
among those which were current under his name, 
the ancient critics reckoned 230 as genuine. Of 
these 35 only are extant ; and even some of these 
are incomplete, and others are probably spurious. 
Most of these orations were composed after his 
return from Thurii to Athens. The only one 
which he delivered himself is that against Erato- 
sthenes, 403. The language of Lysias is perfectly 
pure, and may be regarded as one of the best spe- 
cimens of the Attic idiom. All the ancient writers 
agreed that his orations Avere distinguished by 
grace and elegance. His style is always clear and 
lucid ; and his delineations of character striking 
and true to life. The orations of Lysias are con- 
tained in the collections of the Attic orators. [De- 
mosthenes.] The best separate editions are by 
Foertsch, Lips. 1829 : and by Franz, Monac. 1831. 

Lysimachia or -ea {Ava-ijuaxia, Avcn/xdxeLa : 
AvaifjLaxevs). 1. (Eksemil), an important town 
on the N. E. of the gulf of Melas, and on the 
isthmus connecting the Thracian Chersonesus with 
the mainland, was founded B. c. 309 by Lysi- 
machus, who removed to his new city the greater 
part of the inhabitants of the neighbouring town 
of Cardia. It was subsequently destroyed by the 
Tiiracians, but was restored by Antiochus the 
Great. Under the Romans it greatly declined ; 
but Justinian built a strong fortress on the spot, 
which he called Hexamilium {'E^afxiMop), doubt- 
less, from the width of the isthmus, under which 
name it is mentioned in the middle ages. — 
2. A town in the S. W. of Aetolia, near Pleuron, 
situated on a lake of the same name, which was 
more anciently called Hydra. 

Lysim8.clius {Ava-ifiaxos), king of Thrace, was 
a Macedonian by birth, and one of Alexander's ge- 
nerals, but of mean origin, his father Agathocles 
having been originally a Penest or serf in Sicily. 
He Avas early distinguished for his undaunted 
courage, as well as for his great activity and 
strength of body. We are told by Q. Curtius that 
Lysimachus, when hunting in Syria, had killed a 
lion of immense size single-handed ; and this cir- 
cumstance that writer regards as the origin of a 
fable gravely related by many authors, that on 
account of some offence, Lysimachus had been shut 
up by order of Alexander in the same den Avith a 
lion ; but though unarmed, had succeeded in de- 
stroying the animal, and was pardoned by the king 
in consideration of his courage. In the division of 
the provinces, after the death of Alexander (b. c. 
323), Thrace and the neighbouring countries as 
far as the Danube Avere assigned to Lysimachus. 
For some years he was actively engaged in war 
Avith the Avarlike barbarians that bordered his pro- 
vince on the N. At length, in 315, he joined the 
league Avhich Ptolemy, Seleucus, and "Cassander 
had fonned against Antigonus ; but he did not 
take any active part in the Avar for some time. In 
306 he took the title of king, Avhen it was as- 



LYSIPPUS/ 
sumed by Antigonus, Ptolem)', Seleucus, and Cas- 
sander. In 302 Lysimachus crossed over into 
Asia Minor to oppose Antigonus, Avhile Seleucus 
also advanced against the latter from the East. In 
301 Lysimachus and Seleucus effected a junction, 
and gained a decisive victory at Ipsus over Anti- 
gonus and his son Demetrius. Antigonus fell on 
the field, and Demetrius became a fugitive. The 
conquerors divided betAveen them the dominions of 
the vanquished ; and Lysimachus obtained for his 
share all that part of Asia Minor extending from 
the Hellespont and the Aegaean to the heart of 
Phrygia. In 291 Lysimachus crossed the Danube 
and penetrated into the heart of the country of 
the Getae ; but he was reduced to the greatest 
distress by Avant of pro\-isions, and Avas ultimately 
compelled to surrender with his Avhole army. Dro- 
michaetes, king of the Getae, treated him with the 
utmost generosit}', and restored him to liberty. In 
288 Lysimachus united Avith Ptolemy, Seleucus, and 
P}-rrhus, in a common league against Demetrius, 
who had for some years been in possession of Ma- 
cedonia, and Avas noAv preparing to march into 
Asia. Next j^ear, 287, Lysimachus and Pyrrhus 
invaded Macedonia. Demetrius was abandoned by 
his OAATi troops, and was compelled to seek safety in 
flight. Pyrrhus for a time obtained possession of 
the Macedonian throne, but he was expelled by 
Lysimachus in 286. Lysimachus was noAv in pos- 
session of all the dominions in Europe that had 
formed part of the Macedonian monarchy, as Avell 
as of the greater part of Asia Minor. He remained 
in undisturbed possession of these vast dominions 
till shortly before his death. His doAvnfall was 
occasioned by a dark domestic tragedy. His Avife 
Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy Soter, had long hated 
her step-son Agathocles, and at length, by false 
accusations, induced Lysimachus to put his son to 
death. This bloody deed alienated the minds of his 
subjects ; and many cities of Asia broke out into 
open revolt. Lysandra, the Avidow of Agathocles, 
fled Avith her children to the court of Seleucus, who 
forthwith iuA-aded the dominions of Lysimachus. 
The tAvo monarchs met in the plain of Corns (Co- 
rupedion) ; and Lysimachus fell in the battle that 
ensued, B. c. 281. He Avas in his 80th year at 
the time of his death. — Lysimachus founded Ly- 
simachia, on the Hellespont, and also enlarged and 
rebuilt many other cities. 

Lysimelia (7} AvcrifieXcia xifxvT]), a marsh near 
Syracuse in Sicily, probably the same as the marsh 
more anciently called Syraco from Avhich the town 
of Syracuse is said to haA^e derived its name. 

LysinSe (Ava-ivori : Agelan a toAvxi in Pi- 
sidia, S. of the lake Ascania. 

Lysippus (AucriTTTTos), of Sicyon, one of the 
most distinguished Greek statuaries, was a con- 
temporary of Alexander the Great. Originally a 
simple Avorkman in bronze {faber aerarim), he rose 
to the eminence Avhich he afterwards obtained by 
the direct study of nature. He rejected the last 
remains of the old conventional rules which the 
early artists folIoAved. In his imitation of nature 
the ideal appears almost to have vanished, or 
perhaps it should rather be said that he aimed to 
idealize merely human beauty. He made statues 
of gods, it is true ; but even in this field of art his 
favourite subject AA^as the human hero Hercules ; 
while his portraits seem to have been the chief 
foundation of his fame. The works of Lysippus 
are said to haA'e amounted to the enormous number 



LYSIS. 



MACEDONIA. 



403 



of 1500. They were almost all, if not all, in 
bronze ; in consequence of which, none of them are 
extant. He made statues of Alexander at all 
periods of life, and in many different positions. 
Alexander's edict is well known, that no one 
should paint him but Apelles, and no one make his 
statue but Lysippus. The most celebrated of these 
statues was that in which Alexander was represented 
with a lance, which was considered as a sort of 
companion to the picture of Alexander wielding a 
thunderbolt, by Apelles. 

Lysis (ACcTis), an eminent Pythagorean philo- 
sopher, who, driven out of Italy in the persecution 
of his sect, betook himself to Thebes, and became 
the teacher of Epaminondas, by whom he was 
held in the highest esteem. 

Lysis, a river of Caria, only mentioned by Livy 
(xxxviii. 15). 

Lysistratus, of Sicyon, the brother of Lysippus, 
was a statuary, and devoted himself to the making 
of portraits. He was the first who took a cast of 
the human face in gj'^psum ; and from this mould 
he produced copies by pouring into it melted wax. 

Lystra {rj Avarpa, to, Avarpa ; prob. Karadagh, 
Ru.), a city of Lycaonia, on the confines of Isauria, 
celebrated as one chief scene of the preaching of 
Paul and Barnabas. (^Acts, xiv.) 

M. 

Macae (Mo/cot). 1. A people on the E. coast 
of Arabia Felix, probably about Muscat.^ 2. An 
inland people of Libya, in the Regie Syrtica, that 
is, the part of N. Africa between the Syrtes. 

Macalla, a town on the E. coast of Bruttium, 
which was said to possess the tomb and a sanctuary 
of Philoctetes. 

Macar or Macareus (Mofcap or MaKapevs). 1. 
Son of Helios (or Crinacus) and Rhodos, fled from 
Rhodes to Lesbos after the murder of Tenages. — 
2. Son of Aeolus, who committed incest with his 
sister Canace. [Canace»] — 3. Son of Jason and 
Medea, also called Mermerus or Mormorus. 

Macaria (MaKapia), daughter of Hercules and 
Deianira. 

Macaria (MaKapia). 1. A poetical name of 
several islands, such as Lesbos, Rhodes, and Cy- 
prus. — 2. An island in the S. part of the Sinus 
Arabicus (Red Sea), off the coast of the Troglo- 
djtae. 

Maccabaei (MaKKogatot), the descendants of the 
family of the heroic Judas Maccabi or Maccabaeus, 
a surname which he obtained from his glorious 
victories. (From the Hebrew makJcab, "a hammer.") 
They were also called Asamonaei {'AaaixuuaToi)^ 
from Asamonaeus, or Chasmon, the great-grand- 
father of Mattathias, the father of Judas Macca- 
baeus, or, in a shorter form, Asmonaei or Hasmo- 
naei. This family first obtained distinction from 
the attempts which were made by Antiochus IV. 
Epiphanes, king of Syria, to root out the worship 
of J hovah, and introduce the Greek religion among 
the inhabitants of Judaea. Antiochus published 
an edict, which enjoined uniformity of worship 
throughout his dominions. At Modin, a town not 
far from Lydda, lived Mattathias, a man of the 
priestly line and of deep religious feeling, who had 
5 sons in the vigour of their days, John, Simon, 
Judas, Eleazar, and Jonathan. When the officer 
of the Syrian king visited Modin, to enforce 



obedience to the royal edict, Mattathias not only 
refused to desert the religion of his forefathers, but 
with his own hand struck dead the first renegade 
who attempted to offer sacrifice on the heathen 
altar. He then put to death the king's officer, and 
retired to the mountains with his 5 sons (b. c. 
167). Their numbers daily increased; and as 
opportunities occurred, they issued from their 
mountain fastnesses, cut off detachments of the 
Syrian army, destroyed heathen altars, and restored 
in many places the synagogues and the open 
worship of the Jewish religion. Within a few 
months the insurrection at Modin had grown into 
a war for national independence. But the toils of 
such a war were too much for the aged frame of 
Mattathias, who died in the 1st year of the revolt, 
leaving the conduct of it to Judas, his 3rd son. 1. 
Judas, who assumed the surname of Maccabaeus, 
as has been mentioned above, carried on the war 
with the same prudence and energy with which it 
had been commenced. After meeting with great 
success, he at length fell in battle against the forces 
of Demetrius I Soter, 160. He was succeeded in 
the command by his brother, — 2. Jonathan, who 
maintained the cause of Jewish independence with 
equal vigour and success, and became recognised 
as high- priest of the Jews. He was put to death 
by Tryphon, the minister of Antiochus VI., who 
treacherously got him into his power, 144. Jona- 
than was succeeded in the high-priesthood by his 
brother,— 3. Simon, who was the most fortunate of 
the sons of Mattathias, and under whose government 
the country became virtually independent of Syria. 
He was murdered by his son-in-law Ptolemy, the 
governor of Jericho, together with 2 of his sons, 
Judas and Mattathias, 135. His other son Joannes 
Hyrcanus escaped, and succeeded his father. — 4. 
Joannes Hjrrcanus I. was high-priest 135 — 106. 
He did not assume the title of king, but was to all 
intents and purposes an independent monarch. 
[Hyrcanus.] He was succeeded by his son 
Aristobulus I. — 5. Aristobulus I., was the first 
of the Maccabees who assumed the kingly title, 
which was henceforth borne by his successors. His 
reign lasted only a year 106 — 105. [Aristobulus.] 
He was succeeded by his brother,— 6. Alexander 
Jannaeus, who reigned 105 — 78. [Alexander, 
p. 35, a.] He was succeeded by his widow, —7. 
Alexandra, who appointed her son Hyrcanus II. 
to the priesthood, and held the supreme power 78 
— 69. On her death in the latter year her son,— 
8. Hyrcanus II., obtained the kingdom, 69, but 
was supplanted almost immediately afterwards by 
his brother, — 9. Aristobulus II., who obtained 
the throne 68. [Aristobulus.] For the re- 
mainder of the history of the house of the Macca- 
bees see Hyrcanus II. and Herodes I. 

Macedonia (MaKdZovia Ma/ceSoi/es), a country 
in Europe, N. of Greece, which is said to have 
derived its name from an ancient king Macedon, 
a son of Zeus and Thyia, a daughter of Deucalion. 
The name first occurs in Herodotus, but its more 
ancient form appears to have been Macetia (Ma- 
KSTLo) ; and accordingly the Macedonians are 
sometimes called Macetae. The country is said 
to have been originally named Emathia. The 
boundaries of Macedonia differed at different 
periods. In the time of Herodotus the name Mace- 
donis designated only the country to the S. and 
W. of the river Lydias. The boundaries of the 
ancient Macedonian monarchy, before the time of 

D D 2 



404 



MACEDONIA. 



:machaox. 



PWIip, the father of Alexander, were on the S. 
Olympus and the Cambunian mountains, which 
separated it from Thessaly and Epirus, on the E. 
the river Strymon, which separated it from Thrace, 
and on the N. and W. Illyria and Paconia, 
from which it was divided by no well defined 
limits. Macedonia was greatly enlarged by the 
conquests of Philip. He added to his kingdom 
Paeonia on the N., so that the mountains Scordus 
and Orbelus now separated it from Moesia ; a 
part of Thrace on the E. as far as the river Nestus, 
which Thracian district was usually called Mace- 
donia adjeda ; the peninsula Chalcidice on the S. ; 
and on the W. a part of Illyria, as far as the lake 
Lychnitis. On the conquest of the country by 
the Romans, B.C. 168, Macedonia was divided 
into 4 districts, which were quite independent of 
one another: — 1. The country between the Stry- 
mon and the Nestus, with a part of Thrace E. of 
the Nestus, as far as the Hebrus, and also in- 
cluding the territory of Heraclea Sintica and 
Bisaltice, W. of the Strymon ; the capital of this 
district was Amphipolis. 2. The country between 
the Strymon and the Axius, exclusive of those 
parts already named, but including Chalcidice ; 
the capital Thessalonica. 3. The country between 
the Axius and Peneus ; the capital Pella. 4. The 
mountainous country in the W. ; the capital Pela- 
gonia. After the conquest of the Achaeans, in 
14G, Macedonia was formed into a Roman pro- 
vince, and Thessaly and Illyria were incorporated 
with it ; but at the same time the district E. of the 
Nestus was again assigned to Thrace. The Roman 
province of Macedonia accordingly extended from 
the Aegaean to the Adriatic seas, and was bounded 
on the S. by the province of Achaia. It was 
originally governed by a proconsul ; it was made 
by Tiberius one of the provinces of the Caesar ; 
but it was restored to the senate by Claudius. 
— Macedonia may be described as a large plain, 
surrounded on 3 sides by lofty mountains. Through 
this plain, however, run many smaller ranges of 
mountains, between which are wide and fertile 
valleys, extending from the coast far into the in- 
terior. The chief mountains were Scordus, or 
ScARDUS, on the N.W. frontier, towards Illyria 
and Dardania ; further E. Orbelus and Scomius, 
Avhich separated it from Moesia ; and Rhodope, 
which extended from Scomius in a S.E. direction, 
forming the boundary between Macedonia and 
Thrace. On the S. frontier were the Cambunii 
MoNTES and Olympus. The chief rivers were 
in the direction of E. to W., the Nestus, the 
Strymon, the Axius, the largest of all, the 
LuDiAS or Lydias, and the Haliacmon. — The 
great bulk of the inhabitants of Macedonia con- 
sisted of Thracian and lUyrian tribes. At an 
early period some Greek tribes settled in the S. 
part of the country. They are said to have come 
from Argos, and to have been led by Gauanes, 
Aeropus, and Perdiccas, the 3 sons of Temenus, 
the Heraclid. Perdiccas, the youngest of the 
brothers, was looked upon as the founder of the 
Macedonian monarchy. A later tradition, how- 
ever, regarded Caranus, who was also a Heraclid 
from Argos, as the founder of the monarchy. 
These Greek settlers intermarried with the ori- 
ginal inhabitants of the country. The dialect 
which they spoke was akin to the Doric, but it 
contained many barbarous words and forms ; and 
the Macedonians were accordingly never regarded 



by the other Greeks as genuine Hellenes. More- 
over, it was only in the S. of Macedonia that the 
Greek language was spoken ; in the N. and N.W. 
of the country the Illyrian tribes continued to 
speak their own language and to preserve their 
ancient habits and customs. Very little is known 
of the history of Macedonia till the reign of 
Amyntas I., who was a contemporary of Darius 
Hystaspis ; but from that time their history is 
more or less intimately connected with that of 
Greece, till at length Philip, the father of Alex- 
ander the Great, became the virtual master of the 
whole of Greece. The conquests of Alexander 
extended the Macedonian supremacy over a great 
part of Asia ; and the Macedonian kings continued 
to exercise their sovereignty over Greece, till the 
conquest of Perseus by the Romans, 168, brought 
the Macedonian monarchy to a close. The details 
of the Macedonian history are given in the lives of 
the separate kings. 

Macella (Macellaro), a small fortified town in 
the W. of Sicily, S.E. of Segesta. 

Macer, Aemilius. 1. A Roman poet, a native of 
Verona, died in Asia, B. c. 16. He wrote a poem 
or poems upon birds, snakes, and medicinal plants,, 
in imitation, it would appear, of the Theriaca of 
Nicander. (Ov, Trist. iv. 10. 44.) The v/ork nov/ 
extant, entitled " Aemilius Macer de Herbarum 
Virtutibus," belongs to the middle ages. — 2. We 
must carefully distinguish from Aemilius Macer of 
Verona, a poet Macer, who wrote on the Trojan 
war, and Avho must have been alive in a. d. 12, 
since he is addressed by Ovid in that year (ex 
Pont. ii. 10. 2.) —3. A Roman jurist, who lived in 
the reign of Alexander Severus. He wrote several 
works, extracts from which are given in the Digest. 

Macer, Clodius, was governor of Africa at 
Nero's death a. d. 68, when he laid claim to the 
throne. He was murdered at the instigation of 
Galba by the procurator, Trebonius Garucianus. 

Macer, Licinius. [Licinius.] 

Macestus (Ma/cTjo'Tos: Simaul-Su, and lower 
Susugherli). a considerable river of Mysia, rises in 
the N.W. of Phrygia,and flows N. through Mysia 
into the Rhyndacus. It is probably the same river 
which Polybius (v. 77) calls Megistus {MiyLiXTos). 

Machaerus (Maxa'poGs : Maxajpi'rrjs), a strong 
border fortress in the S. of Peraea, in Palestine, 
on the confines of the Nabathaei : a stronghold of 
the Sicarii in the Jewish war. A tradition made 
it the place where John the Baptist was beheaded. 

Machanidas, tyrant of Lacedaemon, succeeded 
Lycurgus about B. c. 210. Like his predecessor, 
he had no hereditary title to the crown, but 
ruled by the swords of his mercenaries alone. He 
was defeated and slain in battle by Philopoemen, 
the general of the Achaean league in 207. 

Machaon (Maxawv), son of Aesculapius, was 
married to Anticlea, the daughter of Diodes, by 
whom he became the father of Gorgasus, Nicoma- 
chus, Alexanor, Sphyrus, and Polemocrates. To- 
gether with his brother Podalirius he went to Troy 
with 30 ships, commanding the men who came 
from Tricca, Ithome, and Oechalia. In this war 
he acted as the surgeon of the Greeks, and also 
distinguished himself in battle. He was himself 
wounded by Paris, but was carried from the field 
by Nestor. Later writers mention him as one of 
the Greek heroes who were concealed in the wooden 
horse, and he is said to have cured Philoctetes. 
He v.as killed by Eurypylus, the son of Teler 



mACIILYES. 



IMAEANDER. 



405 



phus, and he received divine honours at Gerenia, in 
Messenia, 

MacMyes (Max>*-wes), a people of Libya, near 
the Lotophagi, on the W. side of the lake Triton, 
in what was afterwards called Africa Propria. 

Machon (Maxw;'), of Corinth or Sicyon, a comic 
poet, flourished at Alexandria, where he gave in- 
structions respecting comedy to the grammarian 
Aristophanes of Bj'zo,ntium. 

Macistus or Macistum {Molkkxtos, MaKtarou : 
MaKL(TTios), an ancient town of Elis in Triphylia, 
N.E. of Lepreum, originally called Platanistus 
(TlKaTapicTTovs)^ and founded hy the Caucones. 

Macoraba {MaKopd§a: Mecca), a city in the 
W. of Arabia Felix ; probably the sacred city of 
the Arabs, even before the time of Mohammed, and 
the seat of the worship of Alitat or Alitta under 
the emblem of a meteoric stone. 

Macra {Magra), a small river rising in the 
Apennines and flowing into the Ligurian sea near 
Luna, which, from the time of Augustus, formed 
the boundary between Liguria and Etruria. 

Macrianus, one of the 30 tyrants, a distinguished 
general, who accompanied Valerian in his expe- 
dition against the Persians, a. d. 260. On the 
capture of that monarch, Macrianus was proclaimed 
emperor, together with his 2 sons Macrianus and 
Quietus. He assigned the management of affairs 
in the East to Quietus, and set out with the 
younger Macrianus for Italy. They were encoun- 
tered by Aureolus on the confines of Thrace and 
Illyria, defeated and slain, 262. Quietus was 
shortly afterwards slain in the East by Odenathus. 

Macri Campi. [Campi Macri.] 

Macrinus, M. Opilius Severus, Roman em- 
peror, April, A. B. 217 — June, 218. He was born 
at Caesarea in Mauretania, of humble parents, a.d. 
164, and rose at length to be praefect of the prae- 
torians under Caracalla. He accompanied Caracalla 
in his expedition against the Parthians, and was 
proclaimed emperor after the death of Caracalla, 
whom he had caused to be assassinated. He con- 
ferred the title of Caesar upon his son Diadume- 
nianus, and at the same time gained great popularity 
by repealing some obnoxious taxes. But in the 
course of the same year he was defeated with great 
loss by the Parthians, and was obliged to retire 
into SjTia. While here his soldiers, with whom 
he had become unpopular by enforcing among 
them order and discipline, were easily seduced from 
their allegiance, and proclaimed Elagabalus as 
emperor. With the troops which remained faithful 
to him, Macrinus marched against the usurper, 
but was defeated, and fled in disguise. He was 
shortly afterwards seized in Chalcedon, and put to 
death, after a reign of 14 months. 

Macro, Naevius Sertorius, a favourite of the 
emperor Tiberius, was employed to arrest the 
powerful Sejanus in A. D. 31. On the death of the 
latter he was made praefect of the praetorians, an 
office which he continued to hold for the remainder 
of Tiberius's reign and during the earlier part of 
Caligula's. Macro was as cruel as Sejanus. He 
laid informations ; he presided at the rack ; and he 
lent himself to the most savage caprices of Tiberius 
during the last and worst period of his government. 
During the lifetime of Tiberius he paid court to 
the young Caligula ; and he promoted an intrigue 
between his wife Ennia and the young prince. It 
was rumoured that Macro shortened the last mo- 
ments of Tiberius by stifling hira with the bedding 



as he recovered unexpectedly from a swoon. But 
Caligula soon became jealous of Macro, and com- 
pelled him to kill himself with his wife and 
children, 38. 

Macrobli (Mo/cpo'gioz, i. e. Long-lived), an 
Aethiopian people in Africa, placed by Herodotus 
(iii. 17) on the shores of the S. Ocean. It is in 
vain to attempt their accurate identification with 
any known people. 

Macrobius, the grammarian, whose full name 
was Ambrosius Aurelius Theodosius Macrohius. All 
we know about him is that he lived in the age of 
Honorius and Theodosius, that he was probably 
a Greek, and that he had a son named Eustathius. 
He states in the preface to his Saturnalia that 
Latin was to him a foreign tongue, and hence we 
may fairly conclude that he was a Greek by birth, 
more especially as we find numerous Greek idioms 
in his style. He was probably a pagan. His 
extant works are : — 1 . Saturnaliorum Conviviorum 
Lihri VII., consisting of a series of dissertations 
on history, mythology, criticism, and various points 
of antiquarian research, supposed to have been 
delivered during the holidays of the Saturnalia at 
the hoiise of Vettius Praetextatus, who was invested 
with the highest offices of state under Valentinian 
and Valens. The form of the work is avowedly 
copied from the dialogues of Plato, especially the 
Banquet : in substance it bears a strong resem- 
blance to the Noctes Atticae of A. Gellius. The 
1st book treats of the festivals of Satumus and 
Janus, of the Roman calendar, &c. The 2nd book 
commences with a collection of bon mots, ascribed 
to the most celebrated wits of antiquity ; to these 
are appended a series of essays on matters connected 
with the pleasures of the table. The 4 following 
books are devoted to criticisms on Virgil. The 7th 
book is of a more miscellaneous character than the 
preceding. — 2. Commeniarius ex Cicerone i7i Sorti- 
nium Scipionis, a tract much studied during the 
middle ages. The Dream of Scipio, contained in 
the 6th book of Cicero's De Republica is taken as 
a text, which suggests a succession of discourses 
on the physical constitution of the universe, accord- 
ing to the views of the New Platonists, together 
with notices of some of their peculiar tenets on 
mind as well as matter. — 3. De Differentiis et So- 
cietatihiis Graed Laiiniqiie Verhi, a treatise purely 
grammatical, of whicli only an abridgment is extant, 
compiled by a certain Joannes. — The best editions 
of the works of Macrobius are by Gronovius, Lug. 
Bat. 1670, and by Zeunius, Lips. 1774. 

Macrones [Mdicpwves), a powerful and warlike 
Caucasian people on the N.E. shore of the Pontus 
Euxinus. 

MactSrium (MaKTupiov : MaKTcop7vos), a town 
in the S. of Sicily, near Gela. 

Macynia {MuKvuia: MaKvv(vs), a town in the 
S. of Aetolia, near the mountain Taphiassus, E. of 
Calydon and the Evenus. 

Madianitae (Madiai/7Tai, Ma5ir]va7oi, Madirjvoi : 
0. T. Midianim), a powerful nomad people in the 
S. of Arabia Petraea, about the head of the Red 
Sea. They carried on a caravan trade between 
Arabia and Egypt, and were troublesome enemies 
of the Israelites until they were conquered by 
Gideon. They do not appear in history after the 
Babylonish captivity. 

Madytus (MdSvros : MadvTios : Maito), a sea- 
port town on the Thracian Chersonesus. 

Maeander (Motaj/Spos : Menderch or Meindc-r, 
i> D 3 



40G 



MAECENAS. 



MAECENAS. 



or Boyuk-Mendereli^ \. e. ilie Great Alcndcreli^ in 
contradistinction to ilie Little Mendereh, the ancient 
Cayster), has its source in the mountain called 
Aulocrenas, above Celaenae, in the S. of Phrygia, 
close to the source of the Mars\-as, which imme- 
diately joins it. [Celaexae.] It flows in a ge- 
neral W. direction, with various changes of direction, 
but on the whole with a slight inclination to the S. 
After leaving Phrygia, it flows parallel 1o ]\It. ]\Ies- 
sogis, on its S. side, forming the boundary between 
Lydia and Caria, and at last falls into the Icarian 
Sea between M^nis and Priene. Its whole length 
is above 170 geographical miles. The Maeander 
is deep, but narrow, and very turbid ; and there- 
fore not navigable far up. Its upper course lies 
chiefly through elevated plains, and partly in a deep 
rocky valley: its lower course, for the last 110 
miles, is through a beautiful wide plain, through 
which it flows in those numerous windings that 
have made its name a descriptive verb {to mean- 
der)^ and which it often inundates. The alteration 
made in the coast about its mouth by its alluvial 
deposit was observed by the ancients, and it has 
been continually going on. [See Latmicus Sinus 
and Miletus.] The tributaries of the Maeander 
were, on the right or N. side, the jMarsyas, Cludrus, 
Lethaeus, and Gaeson, and, on the left or S. side, 
the Obrimas, Lycus, Harpasus, and another Mar- 
syas. — As a god Maeander is described as the 
father of the njTnph Cyane, who was the mother 
of Caunus. Hence the latter is called by Ovid 
{Met. ix. 573) Maeandrius juvenis. 

Maecenas, C. Cilnius, was bom some time be- 
tween B. c. 73 and 63 ; and we learn from Horace 
{Carm. iv. 11) that bis birth-day was the 13th of 
April. His family, though belonging wholly to 
the equestrian order, was of high antiquity and 
honour, and traced its descent from the Lucumones 
of Etruria. His paternal ancestors the Cilni^ are 
mentioned by Livy (x. 3, 5) as having attained 
great power and v/ealth at Arretium about b. c. 301. 
The maternal branch of the family was likewise of 
Etruscan origin, and it was from them that the 
name of ^Maecenas was derived, it being customary 
among the Etruscans to assume the mother's as 
well as the father's name. It is in allusion to this 
circumstance that Horace {Sat. i. 6. 3) mentions 
both his avus viaiernus niqiie paternus as having 
been distinguished by commanding numerous le- 
gions ; a passage, by the way, from which we are 
not to infer that the ancestors of ^Maecenas liad 
ever led the Roman legions. Although it is un- 
known where ^Maecenas received his education, it 
must doubtless have been a careful one. We learn 
from Horace that he was versed both in Greek and 
Roman literature ; and his taste for literary pursuits 
was sho-rni, not only by his patronage of the most 
eminent poets of his time, but also by several per- 
formances of his own, both in verse and prose. It 
has been conjectured that he became acquainted 
with Augustus at Apollonia before the death of 
Julius Caesar ; but he is mentioned for the first 
time in b. c. 40, and from this year his name con- 
stantly occurs as one of the chief friends and 
ministers of Augustus. Thus we find him employed 
in B. c. 37, in negotiating ^dth Antony; and it was 
probably on this occasion that Horace accompanied 
him to Brundisium, a journey which he has de- 
scribed in the 5th satire of the 1st book. During 
the war with Antony, which was brought to a 
close by the battle of Actium. Maecenas remained 



at Rome, being entrusted with the administration 
of the civil affairs of Italy. During this time he 
suppressed the conspiracy of the younger Lcpidus. 
Maecenas was not present at the battle of Actium, 
as some critics have supposed; and the Istepode of 
Horace probably does not relate at all to Actium, 
but to the Sicilian expedition against Sext. Pom- 
peius. On the return of Augustus from Actium, 
^Maecenas enjoyed a greater share of his favour 
than ever, and in conjunction with Agrippa, had 
the management of all public aflkirs. It is related 
that Augustus at this time took counsel with 
Agrippa and Maecenas respecting the expediency 
of restoring the republic; that Agrippa advised 
him to pursue that course, but that Maecenas 
strongly urged him to establish the empire. For 
many years Maecenas continued to preserve the 
uninterrupted favour of Augustus ; but between 
B.C. 21 and 16, a coolness, to say the least, had 
sprung up between the emperor and his faithful 
minister, and after the latter year he retired en- 
tirely from public life. The cause of this estrange- 
ment is enveloped in doubt. Dion Cassius positiveh- 
attributes it to an intrigue carried on by Augustus 
with Terentia, Maeceneis's wife. Maecenas died 
B. c. 8, and was buried on the Esquiline. He left 
no children, and he bequeathed his propert}- to 
Augustus. — Maecenas had amassed an enormous 
fortune. He had purchased a tract of ground on 
the Esquiline hill, which had formerly served as a 
burial-place for the lower orders. (Hor. Sat. i. 8. 7.) 
Here he had planted a garden, and built a house, 
remarkable for its loftiness, on account of a tower 
by which it was surmounted, and from the top of 
which Nero is said to have afterwards contem- 
plated the burning of Rome. In this residence he 
seems to have passed the greater part of his time, 
and to have visited the country but seldom. His 
house was the rendezvous of all the wits of Rome; 
and whoever could contribute to the amusement of 
the company was alwaj's welcome to a seat at his 
table. But his really intimate friends consisted of 
the greatest geniuses and most learned men of 
Ptome; and if it was from his universal inclination 
towards men of talent that he obtained the repu- 
tation of a literary patron, it was by his friendship 
for such poets as Virgil and Horace that he de- 
served it. Virgil was indebted to him for the 
recovery of his farm, which had been appropriated 
by the soldiery in the division of lands, in b. c. 4 1 ; 
and it vras at the request of Maecenas that he 
undertook the Georgics, the most finished of all his 
poems. To Horace he was a still greater benefactor. 
He presented him v/ith the means of comfortable 
subsistence, a farm in the Sabine country. If the 
estate was but a moderate one, we learn from 
Horace himself that the bounty of Maecenas was 
regulated by his own contented views, and not by 
his patron's want of generosity. {Carm. ii. 18. 14, 
Carm. in. 16. 38.) — Of Maecenas's own literary 
productions only a few fragments exist. From 
these, however, and fi-om the notices which we 
find of his writings in ancient authors, we are led 
to think that we have not suffered any great loss 
by their destmction; for, although a good judge of 
literary merit in others, he does not appear to 
have been an author of much taste himself. In 
his way of life Maecenas was addicted to every 
species of luxury. We find several allusions in 
the ancient authors to the effeminacy of his dress. 
He was fond of theatrical entertainments, especially 



MAECIUS. 



MAERA. 



407 



pantomimes; as may be inferred from his patronage 
of Bathyllus, the celebrated dancer, who was a 
freedman of his. That moderation of character 
which led him to be content with his equestrian 
rank, probably arose from his love of ease and 
luxury, or it might have been the result of more 
prudent and political views. As a politician, the 
principal trait in his character was fidelity to his 
master, and the main end of all his cares v/as the 
consolidation of the empire. But at the same time 
he recommended Augvistus to put no check on the 
free expression of public opinion; and above all to 
avoid that cruelty, which, for so many years, had 
stained the Roman annals with blood. 

Maecius Tarpa. [Tarpa.] 

Maedica (MatSiK?]), the country of the Maedi, 
a powerful people in the W. of Thrace, on the W. 
bank of the Strymon, and the S. slope of Mt. 
Scomius. They frequenth' made inroads into the 
country of the Macedonians, till at length they 
were conquered by the latter people, and their 
land incorporated with Macedonia, of which it 
formed the N.E. district. 

Maelius, Sp.,the richest of the plebeian knights, 
employed his fortune in buying up corn in Etruria 
in the great famine at Rome in b. c. 440. This 
corn he sold to the poor at a small price, or distri- 
buted it gratuitously. Such liberality gained him 
the favour of the plebeians, but at the same time 
exposed him to the hatred of the ruling class. 
Accordingly in the following year he was accused 
of having formed a conspirac}^ for the purpose of 
seizing the kingly power. Thereupon Cincinnatus 
was appointed dictator, and C. Servilius Ahala, the 
master of the horse. Maelius was summoned to 
appear before the tribunal of the dictator ; but as 
he refused to go, Ahala, with an armed band 
cf patrician youths, rushed into the crowd, and 
slew him. His property was confiscated, and his 
house pulled down ; its vacant site, which was 
called the Aequimaelium, continued to subsequent 
ages a memorial of his fate. Later ages fully be- 
lieved the story of Maelius's conspirac}^, and Cicero 
repeatedly praises the glorious deed of Ahala. But 
his guilt is very doubtful. None of the alleged 
accomplices of Maelius were punished ; and Ahala 
Avas brought to trial, and only escaped con- 
demnation by a voluntary exile. 

Maenaca (Maim'/c?]), a town in the S. of His- 
pania Baetica on the coast, the most W.-ly colonj'- 
of the Phocaeans, 

Maenades (Matz/aSes), a name of the Bacchantes, 
from ixa'ivoixai, " to be mad," because they Avere 
frenzied in the worship of Dionysus or Bacchus. 

Maenalus {jh MaivaXov or MaivdKiov opus : 
Ro'inon), a mountain in Arcadia, which extended 
from Megalopolis to Tegea, was celebrated as the 
favourite haunt of the god Pan. From this moun- 
tain the surrounding country was called Maenalia 
[MaivaKia) ; and on the mountain was a town 
Maencdus. The momitain was so celebrated that 
the Roman poets frequently use the adjectives 
Maenalius and Maenalis as equivalent to Arcadian. 

Maenius. 1. C, consul, b. c. 338, with L. Fu- 
rius Camillus. The 2 consuls completed the subju- 
gation of Latium ; they were both rewarded with a 
triumph ; and equestrian statues were erected to 
their honour in the forum. The statue of Maenius 
was placed upon a column, which is spoken of by 
later writers, under the name of Columna Maenia^ 
and which appears to have stood near the end of 



the forum, on the Capitoline. Maenius was dictator 
in 320, and censor in 318. In his censorship he 
allowed balconies to be added to the various build- 
ings surrounding the forum, in order that the 
spectators might obtain more room for beholding 
the games which were exhibited in the forum; and 
these balconies were called after him Maejiiana 
(sc. aedific.ia). — 2. The proposer of the law, about 
286, which required the patres to give their sanc- 
tion to the election of the magistrates before they 
had been elected, or in other words to confer, or 
agree to confer, the imperium on the person v/hom 
the comitia should elect. 3. A contemporary cf 
Lucilius, was a great spendthrift, Avho squandered 
all his propertj", and afterwards supported himself 
by playing the buifoon. He possessed a house in 
the forum, which Cato in his censorship (184) 
purchased of him, for the purpose of building the 
basilica Porcia. Some of the scholiasts on Horace 
ridiculously relate, that when Maenius sold his 
house, he reserved for himself one column, the 
Columna Maenia, from which he built a balcony, 
that he might thence witness the games. The true 
origin of the Columna Maenia, and of the balconies 
called Maeniana, has been explained above. (Hor. 
Sat. i. 1.^101, i. 3. 21, Epid.'i. 15. 26.) 

Maenoba, a town in the S.E. of Hispania Bae- 
tica, near the coast, situated on a river of the same 
name, and 12 miles E. of Malaca. 

Maeon {Maioiv). 1. Son of Haemon of Thebes. 
He and Lycophontes were the leaders of the band 
that lay in ambush against Tydeus, in the war of 
the Seven against Thebes. Maeon was the only 
one whose life Avas spared by Tj'deus. Maeon in 
return buried Tydeus, when the latter was slain. 

2. Husband of Dindyme, the mother of Cybele. 

Maeonia. [Lydia.] 

Maeonides {MaiovL'8r\s\ i. e. Homer, either be- 
cause he was a son of Maeon, or because he was a 
native of Maeonia, the ancient name of Lydia. 
Hence he is also called Maeonms senex, and his 
poems the Maeoniae chariae, or Maeonium carmen, 
~ Maeonis, also occurs as a surname of Omphale, 
and of Arachne, because both were Lydians. 

Maeotae. [Maeotis Palus.] 

Mae5tis Palus (if Mai&ns Aifj-vT] : Sea of 
Jzov), an inland sea on the borders of Europe and 
Asia, N. of the Pontus Euxinus {Black Sea), Avith 
Avhich it com.municates by the Bosporus Cimme- 
Rius, Its form may be described roughly as a 
triangle, Avith its vertex at its N. E. extremity, 
Avhere it receives the AA^aters of the great river 
Tanais (Do?i) : it discharges its superfluous Avater 
bj a constant current into the Euxine. The an- 
cients had very vague notions of its true form and 
size : the earlier geographers thought that both it 
and the Caspian Sea Avere gulfs of the great N. 
Ocean. The Scythian tribes on its banks Avere 
called by the collective name of Maeotae or Maeo- 
tici (Maicorai, MaiwTiKOL). The sea had also the 
names of Cimmerium or Bosporicum Mare. Aeschy- 
lus (Prom. 731) applies the name of Maeotic Strait 
to the Cimmerian Bosporus (avAwv MaiwriKov). 

Maera (Maipa). 1. The dog of Icarius, the 
father of Erigone, [Icarius, No.1.]-=2. Daughter 
of Proetus and Antea, a companion of Artemis, by 
Avhom she Avas killed, after she had become by 
Zeus the mother of Locrus. Others state that she 
died a virgin. — 3. Daughter of Atlas, Avas married 
to Tegeates, the son of Lycaon. Her tomb was 
shoAvn both at Tegea and Mantinea in Arcadia, 

D D 4 



408 



MAESA. 



MAGNENTIUS. 



Maesa, Julia, sister-in-law of SeptimiusSeverus, 
aunt of Caracalla, and grandmother of Elagabalus 
and Alexander Sevcrus. She was a native of 
Emesa in Syria, and seems, after the elevation of 
Septimius Severus, the husband of her sister Julia 
]3omna, to have lived at the imperial court until 
the death of Caracalla, and to have accumulated 
great wealth. She contrived and executed the 
plot Avhich transferred the supreme power from 
]\Iacrinus to her grandson Elagabalus. When 
she foresaw the downfall of the latter, she prevailed 
on him to adopt his cousin Alexander Severus. 
B}' Severus she was always treated with the 
greatest respect ; she enjoyed the title of Augusta 
during her life, and received divine honours after 
her death. 

Maevius. [Bavius.] 

Magaba, a mountain in Galatia, 10 Roman 
miles E. of Ancyra. 

Magas (Ma7os),king of Cyrene, was a step-son 
of Ptolemy Soter, being the offspring of Berenice 
by a former marriage. He was a Macedonian by 
birth; and he seems to have accompanied his mother 
to Egypt, where he soon rose to a high place in the 
favour of Ptolemy. In B. c. 308 he was appointed 
by that monarch to the command of the expedition 
destined for the recovery of Cyrene after the death 
of Ophelias. The enterprise was completely suc- 
cessful, and Magas obtained from his step-father 
the government of the province. At first he ruled 
over the province only as a dependency of Egypt, 
but after the death of Ptolemy Soter he not only 
assumed the character of an independent monarch, 
but even made war on the king of Egypt. He 
married Apama, daughter of Antiochus Soter, by 
whom he had a daughter, Berenice, afterwards the 
wife of Ptolemy Euergetes. He died 258. 

Magdolum (MdySoXov, MdydcoXov : O.T.Mig- 
dol), a city of Lower Egypt, near the N. E. frontier, 
about 12 miles S. W. of Pelusium: where Pharaoh 
Necho defeated the Syrians, according to Hero- 
dotus (ii. 159). 

Magetobria {Molgte de Broie, on the Saone), 
a town on the W. frontiers of the Sequani, near 
which the Gauls were defeated by the Germans 
shortly before Caesar's arrival in Gaul. 

Magi (Ma7oi), the name of the order of priests 
and religious teachers among the Medes and Per- 
sians, is said to be derived from the Persian w^ord 
mag, mog, or mugJi, i. e. a priest. There is strong 
evidence that a class similar to the Magi, and in 
some cases bearing the same name, existed among 
other Eastern nations, especially the Chaldaeans of 
Babylon ; nor is it at all probable that either the 
Magi, or their religion, were of strictlj^ Median or 
Persian origin : but, in classical literature, they 
are presented to us almost exclusively in connection 
with Medo-Persian history. Herodotus represents 
them as one of the 6 tribes into which the Median 
people Avere divided. Under the Median empire, 
before the supremacy passed to the Persians, they 
were so closely connected with the throne, and had 
so great an influence in the state, that they evi- 
dently retained their position after the revolution ; 
and they had power enough to be almost successful 
in the attempt they made to overthrow the Persian 
dynasty after the death of Cambyses, by putting 
forward one of their own number as a pretender to 
the throne, alleging that he was Smerdis, the son 
of Cyrus, who had been put to death by his brother 
Cambyses. It is clear that this was a plot to re- 



store the jMedian supremacy ; but whether it arose 
from mere ambition, or from any diminution of the 
power of the Magi under the vigorous government 
of Cyrus, cannot be said with certainty. The de- 
feat of this Magian conspiracy by Darius the son 
of Hystaspes and the other Persian nobles was fol- 
lowed by a general massacre of the Magi, which was 
celebrated by an annual festival (ra Mayocpovta), 
during which no Magian was permitted to appear 
in public. Still their position as the only ministers 
of religion remained unaltered. The breaking up 
of the Persian empire m.ust have greatly altered 
their condition ; but they still continue to appear 
in history down to the time of the later Roman 
empire. The " wise men " who came from the 
East to Jerusalem at the time of our Saviour's 
birth were Magi {ixdyoi is their name in the ori- 
ginal. Matt. ii. 1). Simon, who had deceived the 
people of Samaria before Philip preached to them 
{Acts, viii.), and Elymas, who tried to hinder the 
conversion of Sergius Paulus at C}^rus {Acts, xiii.), 
are both called Magians ; but in these cases the 
words (j.dyos and ixayevwv are used in a secondary 
sense, for a person who pretends to the wisdom, or 
practises the arts, of the Magi. This use of the 
name occurs verj' early among the Greeks, and from 
it we get our word magic {-q /xayiK-fj, i, e. the art or 
science of tlie Magi). — The constitution of the Magi 
as an order is ascribed by tradition to Zoroastres, or 
Zoroaster as the Greeks and Romans called him, 
the Zarathustra of the Zendavesta (the sacred 
books of the ancient Persians), and the Zerdusht 
of the modern Persians ; but whether he was their 
founder, their reformer, or the mythical representa- 
tive of their unknown origin, cannot be decided. 
He is said to have restored the true knowledge of 
the supreme good principle (Ormuzd), and to have 
taught his worship to the Magi, whom he divided 
into 3 classes, learners, masters, and pei-fect scholars. 
They alone could teach the truths and perform the 
ceremonies of religion, foretell the future, interpret 
dreams and omens, and ascertain the will of 
Ormuzd by the arts of divination. They had 3 
chief methods of divination, by calling up the dead, 
by cups or dishes, and by waters. The forms of 
worship and divination Avere strictly defined, and 
were handed domi among the Magi by tradition. 
Like all early priesthoods, they seem to have been 
the sole possessors of all the science of their age. 
To be instructed in their learning was esteemed 
the highest of privileges, and was permitted, with 
rare exceptions, to none but the princes of the 
royal family. Their learning became celebrated 
at an earl}' period in Greece, by the name of ^ua- 
yeia, and was made the subject of speculation by 
the philosophers, whose knowledge of it seems, 
however, to have been very limited ; Avhile their 
high pretensions, and the tricks by which their 
knowledge of science enabled them to impose upon 
the ignorant, soon attached to their name among 
the Greeks and Romans that bad meaning which 
is still commonly connected with the words derived 
from it. — Besides being priests and men of learn- 
ing, the Magi appear to have discharged judicial 
functions. 

Magna Graecia. [Graecia.] 

Magna Mater. [Rhea.] 

Magnentius, Roman emperor in the West, 
A. D. 350 — 353, whose full name was Flavius 
Popilius Magnentius. He was a German by 
birth, and after serving as a common soldier was 



MAGNES. 



MAGONTIACUM. 



40.9 



eventually intrusted by Constan.s, the son of 
Constantine the Great, with the command of the 
Jovian and Herculian battalions who had replaced 
the ancient praetorian guards when the empire was 
remodelled by Diocletian. He availed himself of 
his position to organise a conspiracy against the 
weak and profligate Constans, who was put to 
death by his emissaries. Magnentius thereupon 
was acknowledged as emperor in all the Western 
provinces, except Illyria, where Vetranio had as- 
sumed the purple. Constantius hurried from the 
frontier of Persia to crush the usurpers. Vetranio 
submitted to Constantius at Sardica in December, 
350. Magnentius was first defeated by Con- 
stantius at the sanguinary battle of Mursa on the 
Drave, in the autumn of 351, and was obliged to 
fly into Gaul. He was defeated a second time in 
the passes of the Cottian Alps, and put an end to 
his own life about the middle of August, 353. 
Magnentius was a man of commanding stature and 
great bodily strength ; but not one spark of virtue 
relieved the blackness of his career as a sovereign. 
The power which he obtained by treachery'' and 
murder he maintained by extortion and cruelty. 

Magnes (Mdyvn^), one of the most important of 
the earlier Athenian comic poets of the old comedy, 
was a native of the demus of Icaria or Icarius, in 
Attica. He flourished B. c. 460, and onwards, 
and died at an advanced age, shortly before the 
representation of the Knights of Aristophanes, that 
is, in 423. (Aristoph. Equit. 524.) His plays con- 
tained a great deal of coarse buffoonery. 

Magnesia (Mayv-naia : Mdyu^s, pi. Mdyu-nres). 
1. The most E.-ly district of Thessaly, was a 
long narrow slip of country, extending from the 
Peneus on the N. to the Pagasaean gulf on the S., 
and bounded on the W. by the great Thessalian 
plain. It was a mountainous country, as it com- 
prehended the Mts. Ossa and Pelion. Its in- 
habitants, the Magnetes, are said to have founded 
the 2 cities in Asia mentioned below. — 2. M. ad. 
Sipylum (M. nphs ^nrvKcp or virh '2,nrv\cf : Ma- 
nissa, Ru.), a city in the N.W. of Lydia, in Asia 
Minor, at the foot of the N.W. declivity of Mt. 
Sipylus, and on the S. bank of the Hermus, is fa- 
mous in history as the scene of the victorj^ gained 
by the 2 Scipios over Antiochus the Great, which 
secured to the Romans the empire of the East, 
B. c. 190. After the Mithridatic war, the Romans 
made it a libera civitas. It suffered, with other 
cities of Asia Minor, from the great earthquake 
in the reign of Tiberius ; but it was still a place 
of importance in the 5th century. — 3. M. ad Mae- 
andrum (M. tj -n-phs Maidvdpco^ M. eVi MaidvdpCf} ; 
JneJc-bnzur, Ru.), a city in the S.W. of Lydia, in 
Asia Minor, was situated on the river Lethaeus, 
a N. tributary of the Maeander. It was destroyed 
by the Cimmerians (probably about b. c. 700) and 
rebuilt by colonists from Miletus, so that it became 
an Ionian city by race as well as position. It was 
one of the cities given to Themistocles by Arta- 
xerxes. It was celebrated for its temple of Ar- 
temis Leucophryene, one of most beautiful in Asia 
Minor, the ruins of which still exist. 

Magnopolis (Ma7z/o7roAis),orEupatoria Mag- 
nopolis, a city of Pontus, in Asia Minor, near the 
confluence of the rivers Lycus and Iris, begun by 
Mithridates Eupator and finished by Pompey, but 
probably destroyed before very long. 

MagO {Mdycou). 1. A Carthaginian, said to 
have been the founder of the military power of 



that city, by introducing a regular discipline and 
organisation into her armies. He flourished from 
B. c. 550 to 500, and was probably the father of 
Hasdrubal, who was slain in the battle against 
Gelo at Himera [Hamilcar, No. 1.] —2. Com- 
mander of the Carthaginian fleet under Himilco in 
the war against Dionysius, 396. When Himilco 
returned to Africa after the disastrous termination 
of the expedition, Mago appears to have been in- 
vested with the chief command in Sicily. He 
carried on the war with Dionysius, but in 392 Avas 
compelled to conclude a treaty of peace, by which 
he abandoned his allies the Sicilians to the power 
of Dionysius. In 383 he again invaded Sicily, but 
was defeated by Dionysius and slain in the battle. 
— 3. Commander of the Carthaginian army in Sicily 
in 344. He assisted Hicetas in the war against 
Timoleon; but becoming apprehensive of treachery, 
he sailed away to Carthage. Here he put an end 
to his own life, to avoid a worse fate at the hands 
of his countrymen, who, nevertheless crucified his 
lifeless body. —-4. Son of Hamilcar Barca, and 
youngest brother of the famous Plannibal. He 
accompanied Hannibal to Italy, and after the 
battle of Cannae (216) carried the news of this 
great victory to Carthage. But instead of returning 
to Italy, he was sent into Spain with a considerable 
force to the support of his other brother Hasdrubal, 
who was hard pressed by the 2 Scipios (215). He 
continued in this country for many years ; and 
after his brother Hasdrubal quitted Spain in 208, 
in order to march to the assistance of Hannibal in 
Italj^, the command in Spain devolved upon him 
and upon Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco. After their 
decisive defeat by Scipio at Silpia in 206, Mago 
retired to Gades, and subsequently passed the 
winter in the lesser of the Balearic islands, where 
the memory of his sojourn is still preserved, in the 
name of the celebrated harbour, Portus Magonis, 
or Fort Mahon. Early in the ensuing summer 
(205) Mago landed in Liguria, where he surprised 
the town of Genoa. Here he maintained himself 
for 2 years, but in 203 he was defeated with great 
loss in Cisalpine Gaul, by Quintilius Varus, and 
was himself severely wounded. Shortly afterwards 
he embarked his troops in order to return to Africa, 
but he died of his wound before reaching Africa. 
Cornelius Nepos, in opposition to all other autho- 
rities, represents Mago as surviving the battle of 
Zama, and says that he perished in a shipwreck, 
or was assassinated by his slaves. — - 5. Surnamed 
the Samnite, was one of the chief officers of Han- 
nibal in Italy, where he held for a considerable 
time the chief command in Bruttium. — 6. Com- 
mander of the garrison of New Carthage when that 
city was taken by Scipio Africanus, 209. Mago 
was sent a prisoner to Rome. — 7. A Carthaginian 
of uncertain date, who wrote a work upon agricul- 
ture in the Punic language, in 28 books. So great 
was the reputation of this work even at Rome, 
that after the destruction of Carthage, the senate 
ordered that it should be translated into Latin by 
competent persons, at the head of whom was D. 
Silanus. It was subsequently translated into Greek, 
though with some abridgment and alteration, by 
Cassius Dionysius of Utica. Mago's precepts on 
agricultural matters are continually cited by the 
Roman writers on those subjects in terms of the 
highest commendation. 

Magonis Portus. [Mago, No. 4.] 
Magontiacum. [Mogontiacum.] 



410 MAHARBAL. 

Maharbal (Madpgas), son of Himilco, and one 
of the most distinguished officers of Hannibal in 
the 2nd Punic war. He is first mentioned at the 
siege of Saguntura. After the battle of Cannae he 
urged Hannibal to push on at once with his cavalry 
upon Rome itself ; and on the refusal of his com- 
mander, he is said to have observed, that Hannibal 
knew indeed how to gain victories, but not how to 
7jLse them. 

Maia (Ma?a or Maids), daughter of Atlas and 
Pleione, was the eldest of the Pleiades, and the 
most beautiful of the 7 sisters. In a grotto of Mt. 
Cyllene in Arcadia she became by Zeus the mother 
of Hermes. Areas, the son of Zeus by Callisto, was 
given to her to be reared. [Pleiades.] — Maia was 
likewise the name of a divinity Avorshipped at Rome, 
who was also called Majesta. She is mentioned in 
connection with Vulcan, and Avas regarded by 
some as the wife of that god, though it seems for 
no other reason but because a priest of Vulcan 
offered a sacrifice to her on the 1st of May. In 
the popular superstition of later times she was 
identified with Maia, the daughter of Atlas. 

Majorianus, Julius Valerius, Roman emperor 
in the West, a. d. 457 — 461, was raised to the 
empire by Ricimer. His reign was chiefly occupied 
in making preparations to invade the Vandals in 
Africa ; but the immense fleet which he had col- 
lected for this purpose in the harbour of New 
Carthage in Spain was destroyed by the Vandals 
in 460. Thereupon he concluded a peace Avith 
Genseric. His activity and popularity excited 
the jealousy of Ricimer, who compelled him to 
abdicate and then put an end to his life. 

Majuma. [Constantia, No. 3.] 

Malaca (Malaga), an important tovrn on the 
coast of Hispania Baetica. and on a river of the 
same name {Guadahnedina), was founded by the 
Phoenicians, and has always been a flourishing 
place of commerce from the earliest times to the 
present day. 

Malalas. [Malelas.] 

Malanga {MaXdyya), a city of India, probably 
the modern Madras. 

Malchus (MaAxos), of Philadelphia in Syria, a 
Byzantine historian and rhetorician, wrote a history 
of the empire from A. d. 474 to 480, of Avhich Ave 
have some extracts, published along AA-ith Dexippus 
by Bekker and Niebuhr, Bonn, 1829. 

Malea (MaAea aKpa : C. Maria), the S. pro- 
montory of the island of Lesbos. 

Malea (MaAea or MaAeai : C. St. Angela or Malio 
di St. Angela), a promontory on the S.E. of Laconia, 
separating the Argolic and Laconic gulfs ; the 
passage round it Avas much dreaded hj sailors. 
Here Avas a temple of Apollo, who hence bore the 
surname Maledtes. 

Malelas, or Malalas, Joannes (ladw^qs 6 Ma- 
AeAa or MaAaAa), a native of Antioch, and a 
Byzantine historian, lived shortly after Justinian 
the Great. The word Malalas signifies in SAiiac 
an orator. He AATote a chronicle of universal his- 
tory from the creation of the Avorld to the reign of 
Justinian jnclusiA-e. Edited by Dindorf, Bonn, 1831. 

Malene {MaXrivq), a city of Mysia, only men- 
tioned by Herodotus (vi. 29). 

Maliacus Sinus (MaAia^os koKttgs: Bay of 
Zeitun), a narroAv bay in the S. of Thessaly, 
panning W. from the N. W. point of the island of 
Euboea, On one side of it is the pass of Tliermo- 
pylae. It derived its name from the Malienses, 



^LIMILIA. 

AA-ho dAvelt on its shores. It is sometimes called 
the Lamiacus Sinus, from the town of Lamia in its 
neighbourhood. 

Malls (BlaAiy yv,, Ionic and Att. MtjAJs yri : 
MaAieuy or M-qXievs, Maliensis), a district in the 
S, of Thessaly, on the shores of the Maliacus 
Sinus, and opposite the N.W. point of the island 
of Euboea. It extended as far as the pass of 
Thermopj'lae. Its inhabitants, the Malians, Avere 
Dorians, and belonged to the Amphictyonic league. 

Malli (MaAA-o:), an Indian people on both sides 
of the Hydraotes : their capital is supposed to 
have been on the site of the celebrated fortress of 
Mooltan. ■ 

Mallus (MaAAos), a very ancient city of Cilicia, 
on a hill a little E. of the mouth of the river Py- 
ramus, Avas said to have been founded at the time 
of the Trojan "War by Mopsus and Amphilochus. 
It had a port called Magarsa. 

Maluginensis, a celebrated patrician familj'- of 
the Cornelia gens in the early ages of the republic, 
the members of which frequently held the consul- 
ship. It disappears from historj'' before the time 
of the Samnite Avars. 

Malva. [MuLucHA.] 

Mgmaea, Julia, a native of Emesa in Syria, 
AA-as daughter of Julia Maesa, and mother of Alex- 
ander SeA'erus. She was a woman of integritj'- and 
virtue, and brought up her son with the utmost 
care. She was put to death by the soldiers along 
with her son, a. d. 235. 

Mamercus. 1. Son of king Numa, according to 
one tradition, and son of Mars and Silvia, according 
to another. — 2. Tyrant of Catana, when Timoleon 
landed in Sicily, b. c. 344. After his defeat by 
Timoleon he fled to Messana, and took refuge Avith 
Hippon, tyrant of that city. But Avhen Timoleon 
laid siege to Messana, Hippon took to flight, and 
Mamercus surrendered, stipulating only for a re- 
gular trial before the Syracusans. But as soon as 
he Avas brought into the assembly of the people 
there, he AA^as condemned by acclamation, and ex- 
ecuted like a common malefactor. 

Mamercus or Mamercinus, Aemilius, a dis- 
tinguished patrician familj'- AA^hich professed to 
derive its name from Mamercus in the reign of 
Numa. 1. L., thrice consul, nameh-, b. c. 484, 
478, 473. — 2. Tib., twice consul, 470 and 467. 
— 3. Mam,, thrice dictator, 437, 433, and 426. 
In his first dictatorship he carried on war against 
the Veientines and Fidenae. Lar Tolumnius, the 
king of Veii, is said to have been killed in single 
combat in this year by Cornelius Cossus. In his 
2nd dictatorship Aemilius carried a law limiting 
to 18 months the duration of the censorship, Avhich 
had formerly lasted for 5 j-ears. This measure 
was received with great approbation by the people; 
but the censors then in office Avere so enraged at 
it, that they removed him from his tribe, and re- 
duced him to the condition of an aerarian.— - 4. L., 
a distinguished general in the Samnite Avars, was 
tAvice consul 341 and 329, and once dictator 335. 
In his 2nd consulship he took Privernum, and 
hence received the surname of Privernas. 

Mamers, the Oscan name of the god Mars. 

Mamertini. [Messana.] 

Mamertium (Mamertini), a toAvn in Bruttium, 
of uncertain site, founded by a band of Samnites, 
who had left their mother country under the pro- 
tection of Mamers or Mars, to seek a new home. 

Mamilia Gens, plebeian, was originally a dis- 



MAMMULA. 

tinguished family in Tusculum. They traced their 
name and origin to Mamilia, the daughter of 
Telegonus, the founder of Tuscukim, and the son of 
"Ulysses and the goddess Circe. It was to a 
member of this family, Octavius Mamilius, that 
Tarquinius betrothed his daughter ; and on his 
expulsion from Rome, he took refuge v/ith his 
son-in-law, who, according to the beautiful lay 
preserved by Livy, roused the Latin people against 
the infant republic, and perished in the great battle 
at the lake Regillus. In b. c. 458, the Roman 
citizenship was given to L. Mamilius the dictator 
of Tusculum, because he had 2 years before marclied 
to the assistance of the city when it was attacked 
by Herdonius. The gens was divided into 3 fa- 
milies, Livietanus^ Turrinus^ and Vitulus^ but none 
of them became of much importance. 

Mammula, the name of a patrician family of 
the Cornelia gens, which never became of much 
importance in the state. 

Mamurms Veturms. [Veturius.] 
Mamurra, a Roman eques, born at Formiae, 
was the commander of the engineers {praefedus 
fabrum) in Julius Caesar's army in Gaul. He 
amassed great riches, the greater part of which, 
however, he owed to Caesar's liberality. He was 
the first person at Rome who covered all the walls 
of his house with layers of marble, and also the 
first, all of the columns in whose house were made 
of solid marble. He was violently attacked by 
Catullus in his poems, who called him decoctor 
Formiamis. Mamurra seems to have been alive in 
the time of Horace, Avho calls Formiae, in ridicule, 
Mamurrarum urhs {Sat. i. 5. 37), from which we 
may infer that his name had become a byword 
of contempt. 

Mancia, Helvius, a Roman orator, about b. c. 
90, who was remarkably ugh^, and Avhose name is 
recorded chiefly in consequence of a laugh being 
raised against him on account of his deformity by 
C. Julius Caesar Strabo, who was opposed to him 
on one occasion in some lawsuit. 

Mancinus, Hostilius. 1. A., was praetor ur- 
banus b. c. 180, and consul 170, when he had the 
conduct of the war against Perseus, king of Mace- 
donia. He remained in Greece for part of the 
next year (169) as proconsul 2. L., was legate 
of the consul L. Calpurnius Piso (148) in the siege 
of Carthage, in the 3rd Punic war. He was consul 
145.— ,3. C, consul 137, had the conduct of the 
war against Numantia. He was defeated by the 
Numantines, and purchased the safety of the re- 
mainder of his army by making a peace with the 
Numantines. The senate refused to recognise it, 
and went through the hypocritical ceremony of 
delivering him over to the enemy, by means of the 
fetiales. This was done with the consent of Man- 
cinus, but the enemy refused to accept him.^ On 
his return to Rome Mancinus took his seat in the 
senate, as heretofore, but Avas violently expelled 
from it by the tribune P. Rutilius, on the ground 
that he had lost his citizenship. As the enemy 
had not received him, it was a disputed question 
whether he was a citizen or not by the Jus Post- 
liminii (see Diet of Ant s. v. Postliminium)., but 
the better opinion was that he had lost his civic 
rights, and they were accordingly restored to him 
by a lex. 

Mandane. [Cyrus.] 

Mandonius. [Indibilis.] 

Mandrtipium, Mandropus, or Mandrupohs 



MANIA. 411 

{WiavopovToKis)^ a town in the S. of Phrygia, on 
the lake Caralitis. 

Maudubii, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, in 
the modern Burgundy, whose chief town was 
Alesia. 

Manduria (Mavhvpiov in Plut. : Casal Nuovo)^ 
a town in Calabria, on the road from Tarentum to 
Hydruntum, and near a small lake, which is said 
to have been always full to the edge, whatever 
water was added to or taken from it. Here 
Archidamus III., king of Sparta, was defeated 
and slain in battle by the Messapians and Luca- 
nians, b. c. 338. 

Manes, the general name by Avhich the Romans 
designated the souls of the departed ; but as it is 
a natural tendency to consider the souls of departed 
friends as blessed spirits, the Manes were regarded 
as gods, and were worshipped with divine honours. 
Hence on Roman sepulchres we find D. M. S., 
that is, Dh Manihus Sacrum. [Lares.] At cer- 
tain seasons, which were looked upon as sacred 
days {feriae denicales), sacrifices were offered to 
the spirits of ths departed. An annual festival, 
which belonged to all the Manes in general, Avas 
celebrated on the 19th of February, under the 
name of Feralia or Parentalia, because it was 
the duty of children and heirs to offer sacrifices to 
the shades of their parents and benefactors. 

Manetho {Mav^Qws or Mav^Qoov), an Egyptian 
priest of the town of Sebennytus, who lived in the 
reign of the first Ptolemy. He was the first 
Egyptian who gave in the Greek language an 
account of the religion and history of his country. 
He based his information upon the ancient Avorks 
of the Egyptians themselves, and more especially 
upon their sacred books. The work in Avhich he 
gave an account of the theology of the Egyptians 
and of the origin of the gods and the Avorld. bore 
the title of Twv ^vo-lkwv 'ETriTOfxr]. His historical 
work was entitled a History of Egypt. It was 
divided into 3 parts or books. The first contained 
the history of the country previous to the 30 
dynasties, or what may be termed the mythology 
of Egypt, and also of the first dynasties. The 2nd 
opened Avith the 11th, 12th, and concluded with 
the 19th dynasty. The 3rd gave the history of 
the remainining 11 dynasties, and concluded Avith 
an account of Nectanebus, the last of the native 
Egyptian kings. The Avork of Manetho is lost ; 
but a list of the dynasties is preserved in Julius 
Africanus and Eusebius (most correct in the 
Armenian version), Avho, hoAvever, has introduced 
various interpolations. According to the calculation 
of Manetho, the 30 dynasties, beginning Avith 
Menes, filled a period of 3555 years. The lists of 
the Egyptian kings and the duration of their 
several reigns Avere undoubtedly derived by him 
from genuine documents, and their correctness, so 
far as they are not interpolated, is said to be con- 
firmed by the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the 
monuments. There exists an astrological poem, 
entitled 'AiroT(:\€<Tfj.aTiKd, in 6 books, which bears 
the name of Manetho ; but this poem is spurious, 
and cannot have been Avritten before the 5th cen- 
tury of our era. j Edited by Axt and Rigler, 
Cologne, 1832. 

Mama, a formidable Italian, probably Etruscan, 
divinity of the lower Avorld, called the mother of 
the Manes or Lares. The festival of the Com- 
pitalia Avas celebrated as a propitiation to Mania 
in common with the Lares. 



412 



MAN I LI US. 



MARAT HESIUM. 



Manilla. 1. M., was consul b. c. 149, the 
first year of the 3rd Punic war, and carried on 
war against Carthage. He was celebrated as a 
jurist, and is one of the speakers in Cicero's De Re 
Publica (i. 12).— 2. C, tribune of the plebs, B.C. 
66, proposed the law, granting to Pompey the 
command of the war against Mithridates and 
Tigranes. and the government of the provinces of 
Asia, Cilicia, and Bithynia. This bill was warmly 
opposed by Q. Catulus, Q. Hortensius, and the 
leaders of the aristocratical part)', but was sup- 
ported by Cicero, in an ox'ation which has come 
down to us. At tlie end of his year Manilius was 
brought to trial by the aristocratical party, and 
was condemned ; but we do not know of what 
offence he was accused.— '3. Also called Manlius 
or Mallius, a Roman poet of uncertain age, but is 
conjectured to have lived in the tune of Augustus. 
He is the author of an astrological poem in 5 
books, entitled Astronomica. The stj-le of this 
poem is extremely faulty, being harsh and obscure, 
and abounding in repetitions and in forced meta- 
phors. But the author seems to have consulted 
the best authorities, and to have adopted their 
most sagacious views. The best edition is by 
Bentley, Lond. 17.39. 

Manlia Gens, an ancient and celebrated patri- 
cian gens at Rome. The chief families were those 
of AciDiNus, ToRQUATUs and Vulso. 

Manliana (MavXiava: Miliana, Ru.), a city of 
importance in Mauretania Caesariensis, where one 
of Pompey's sons died. 

M. Manlius, consul b. c. 392, took refuge in 
the Capitol when Rome was taken by the Gauls 
in 390. One night, when the Gauls endeavoured 
to ascend the Capitol, Manlius was roused from 
his sleep by the cackling of the geese ; collecting 
hastily a body of men, he succeeded in driving 
back the enemy, who had just reached the 
summit of the hill. From this heroic deed he 
is said to have received the surname of Capi- 
tolinus. In 385, he defended the cause of the 
plebeians, who were suffering severely from their 
debts and from the harsh and cruel treatment of 
their patrician creditors. The patricians accused 
him of aspiring to royal power, and he was thrown 
into prison by the dictator Cornelius Cossus, The 
plebeians put on mourning for their champion, and 
were ready to take up arms in his behalf. The 
patricians in alarm liberated Manlius ; but this 
act of concession only made him bolder, and he 
now did not scruple to instigate the plebeians to 
open violence. In the following j^ear the patricians 
charged him with high treason, and brought him 
before the people assembled in the campus 
Martius ; but as the Capitol which had once been 
saved by him could be seen from this place, the 
court Avas removed to the Poetelinian grove out- 
side the porta Nomentana. Here Manlius was 
condemned, and the tribunes threw him down the 
Tarpeian rock. The members of the Manlia gens 
accordingly resolved that none of them should ever 
bear in future the praenomen of Marcus, 

Mannus, a son of Tuisco, was regarded by the 
ancient Germans, along with his father, as the 
founders of their race. They further ascribed to 
Mannus 3 sons, from whom the 3 tribes of the 
In gaevones, Hermiones, and Istaevones derived 
their names. 

Mantiana Pains. [Arsissa Pal us.] 

Mantinea {MavTiyua Mavnvevs : Paleopoli), 



one of the most ancient and important toAvns in 
Arcadia, situated on the small river Ophis, near 
the centre of the E. frontier of the country. It is 
celebrated in history for the great battle fought 
under its walls between the Spartans and Thebans, 
in which Epaminondas fell, B. c. 362. According 
to tradition, Mantinea was founded by Mantineus, 
the son of Lycaon, but it was formed in reality 
out of the union of 4 or 5 hamlets. Till the 
foundation of Megalopolis, it was the largest city 
in Arcadia, and it long exercised a kind of su- 
premacy over the other Arcadian towns ; but in 
the Peloponnesian war the Spartans attacked the 
city, and destroyed it by turning the waters of 
the Ophis against its walls, which were built of 
bricks. After the battle of Leuctra the city re- 
covered its independence. At a later period it 
joined the Achaean league, but notwithstanding 
formed a close connection with its old enemy 
Sparta, in consequence of which it was severely 
punished by Aratus, who put to death its leading 
citizens and sold the rest of its inhabitants as 
slaves. It never recovered the effects of this 
blow. Its name was now changed into Antigonia^ 
in honour of Antigonus Doson, who had assisted 
Aratus in his campaign against the town. The 
emperor Hadrian restored to the place its ancient 
appellation, and rebuilt part of it in honour of his 
favourite Antinous, the Bithynian, who derived 
his family from Mantinea. 

Mantins (Maurios), son of Melampus, and 
brother of Antiphates. [Melampus.] 

Manto (Mavru^-ovs). 1. Daughter of the Theban 
soothsayer Tiresias, was herself prophetess of the 
Israenian Apollo at Thebes. After the capture of 
Thebes by the Epigoni, she was sent to Delphi 
with other captives, as an offering to Apollo, and 
there became the prophetess of this god. Apollo 
afterwards sent her and her companions to Asia, 
where they founded the sanctuary of Apollo near 
the place where the town of Colophon was after- 
wards built. Rhacius, a Cretan, who had settled 
there, married Manto, and became by her the 
father of Mopsus. According to Euripides, she 
had previously become the mother of Amphilochus 
and Tisiphone, by Alcmaeon, the leader of the 
Epigoni. Being a prophetess of Apollo, she is also 
called Daphne, i. e. the laurel virgin. — 2. Daugh- 
ter of Hercules, was likewise a prophetess, and 
the person from whom the town of Mantua re- 
ceived its name. (Virg. Aen. x. 199.) 

Mantua (Mantuanus : Alaniua), a town in 
Gallia Transpadana, on an island in the river 
Mincius, was not a place of importance, but is 
celebrated because Virgil, who was born at the 
neighbouring village of Andes, regarded Mantua 
as his birthplace. It was originally an Etruscan 
city, and is said to have derived its name from 
Manto, the daughter of Hercules. 

Maracanda (to MapaKavSa : Samarkand), the 
capital of the Persian province of Sogdiana, in the 
N. part of the country, was 70 stadia (7 geog. miles) 
in circuit. It was here that Alexander the Great 
killed his friend Clitus. 

Maraphii {Mapd(l)m), one of the 3 noblest 
tribes of the Persians, standing, with the Maspii, 
next in honour to the Pasargadae. 

Marathesium (Mapaerjaiov), a town on the 
coast of Ionia, between Ephesus and Neapolis : it 
belonged to the Samians, who exchanged it with 
the Ephesians for Neapolis, which lay nearer to their 



MARATHON. 



MARCELLUS. 



413 



island. The modern Scala Nova marks the site of 
one of these towns, but it is doubtful which. 

Marathon {yiapaQwv : Mapadwvios), a demus 
in Attica, belonging to the tribe Leontis, was si- 
tuated near a bay on the E. coast of Attica, 22 
miles from Athens by one road, and 26 miles by 
another. It originally belonged to the Attic tetra- 
polis, and is said to have derived its name from 
the hero Marathon. This hero, according to one 
account, was the son of Epopeus, king of Sicyon, 
who having been expelled from Peloponnesus by ; 
the violence of his father, settled in Attica ; while, 
according to another account, he was an Arcadian 
who took part in the expedition of the Tyndaridae 
against Attica, and devoted himself to death before 
the battle. The site of the ancient town of Mara- 
thon was probably not at the modern village of 
Marathon, but at a place called Vrana, a little 
to the S. of Marathon. Marathon was situated in 
a plain, which extends along the sea-shore, about 
6 miles in length, and from 3 miles to one mile 
and a half in breadth. It is surrounded on the 
other three sides by rocky hills and rugged moun- 
tains. Two marshes bound the extremity of the 
plain ; the northern is more than a square mile 
in extent, but the southern is much smaller, and is 
almost dry at the conclusion of the great heats. 
Through the centre of the plain runs a small 
brook. In this plain was fought the celebrated 
battle between the Persians and Athenians, b. c. 
490. The Persians were drawn up on the plain, 
and the Athenians on some portion of the high 
ground above the plain ; but the exact ground oc- 
cupied by the 2 armies cannot be identified, not- 
withstanding the investigations of modern tra- 
vellers. The tumulus, raised over the Athenians 
who fell in the battle, is still to be seen. 

Marathus (Mapa0os), an important city on the 
coast of Phoenicia, opposite to Aradus and near 
Antaradus : it was destroyed by the people of 
Aradus in the time of the Syrian king, Alexander 
Balas, a little before B. c. 150. 

Marcella. 1. Daughter of C. Marcellus and 
Octavia, the sister of Augustus. She was thrice 
married: 1st to M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who sepa- 
rated from her in B. c. 21, in order to marry Julia, 
the daughter of Augustus ; 2ndlyto Julus Antonius, 
the son of the triumvir, by whom she had a son 
Lucius ; Srdly to Sext. Appuleius, consul A. d. 14, 
by whom she had a daughter, Appuleia Varilia.— 
2. Wife of the poet Martial, to whom he has 
addressed 2 epigrams (xii. 21, 31). She was a 
native of Spain, and brought him as her dowry an 
estate. As Martial was married previously to 
Cleopatra, he espoused Marcella probably after his 
return to Spain about a. d. 96. 

Marcellinus, the author of the life of Thucy- 
dides. [Thucydides.] 

Marcellus, Claudius, an illustrious plebeian 
family. 1. M., celebrated as 5 times consul, and 
the conqueror of Syracuse. In his first consulship, 
B. c. 222, Marcellus and his colleague conquered 
the Insubrians in Cisalpine Gaul, and took their 
capital Mediolanum. Marcellus distinguished him- 
self by slaying in battle with his own hand Brito- 
martus or Viridomarus, the king of the enemy, 
whose spoils he afterwards dedicated as spoUa 
opima in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius. This 
was the 3rd and last instance in Roman history in 
which such an offering was made. — In 216 Mar- 
cellus was appointed praetor, and rendered impor- 



tant service to the Roman cause in the S. of Italy 
after the disastrous battle of Cannae. In 215 he 
remained in the S. of Italy, with the title of pro- 
consul. In the course of the same year he was 
elected consul in the place of Postumius Albinus, 
who had been killed in Cisalpine Gaul ; but as the 
senate declared that the omens were unfavourable, 
Marcellus resigned the consulship. In 214 Mar- 
cellus was consul a 3rd time, and still continued in 
the S, of Italy, where he carried on the war with 
abilit)', but without obtaining any decisive results. 
In the summer of this year he was sent into Sicily, 
since the party favourable to the Carthaginians had 
obtained the upper hand in many of the cities in 
the island. After taking Leontini, he proceeded 
to lay siege to Syracuse, both by sea and land. 
His attacks were vigorous ,and unremitting ; but 
though he brought many powerful military engines 
against the walls, these were rendered whollj^ un- 
availing by the superior skill and science of 'Archi- 
medes, who directed those of the besieged. Mar- 
cellus was at last compelled to give up all hopes of 
carrying the city by open force, and to turn the 
siege into a blockade. It was not till 212 that he 
obtained possession of the place. It was given up 
to plunder, and Archimedes was one of the inha- 
bitants slain by the Roman soldiers. The booty 
found in the captured city was immense ; and 
Marcellus also carried off many of the works of 
art with which the city had been adorned, to grace 
the temples at Rome. This was the first instance 
of a practice which afterwards became so general. 
In 210 he was consul a 4th time, and again had 
the conduct of the war against Hannibal. He 
fought a battle with the Carthaginian general near 
Numistro in Lucania, but without any decisive 
result. In 209 he retained the command of his 
army with the rank of proconsul. In 208 he was 
consul for the 5th time. He and his colleague 
were defeated by Hannibal near Venusia, and Mar- 
cellus himself was slain in the battle. He was- 
buried with all due honours by order of Hannibal. 
— Marcellus appears to have been a rude stern 
soldier, brave and daring to excess, but harsh, un- 
yielding, and cruel. The great praises bestowed 
upon Marcellus by the Roman historians are cer- 
tainly undeserved, and probably found their way 
into history from his funeral oration by his son, 
which was used as an authority by some of the 
earlier annalists. — 2. M., son of the preceding, 
accompanied his father as military tribune, in 208, 
and was present with him at the time of his death. 
In 204 he was tribune of the people ; in 200 curule 
aedile ; in 198 praetor ; and in 196 consul. In 
his consulship he carried on the war against the 
Insubrians and Boii in Cisalpine Gaul. He was 
censor in 189,-3. M,, consul 183, carried on the 
war against the Ligurians, — 4. M., son of No, 2, 
was thrice consul, 1st in 166, when he gained a 
victory over the Alpine tribes of the Gauls ; 2ndly 
in 1 55, when he defeated the Ligurians ; and 3rdly 
in 152, when he carried on the war against the 
Celtiberians in Spain. In 148 he was sent ambas- 
sador to Masinissa, king of Numidia, but was 
shipwrecked on the voyage, and perished, — 5, M., 
an intimate friend of Cicero, is first mentioned as 
curule aedile with P. Clodius in 56. He was 
consul in 51, and showed himself a bitter enemy 
to Caesar. Among other ways in which he dis- 
played his enmity, he caused a citizen of Comum 
to be scourged, in order to show his contempt for 



414 



MARCELLUS. 



MARCIA. 



the priyileges lately bestowed by Caesar upon that 
colony. But the animosity of Marcellus did not 
blind him to the imprudence of forcing on a Avar 
for whx-h his part}'- was unprepared ; and at the be- 
ginning of 49 he in vain suggested the necessity of 
making levies of troops, before any open steps were 
taken against Caesar. His advice was overruled, 
and he was among the first to fly from Rome and 
Italy. After the battle of Pharsalia (48) he aban- 
doned all thoughts of prolonging the contest, and 
withdrew to Mytilene, where he gave himself up 
to the pursuits of rhetoric and philosophy. Mar- 
cellus himself was unwilling to sue to the conqueror 
for forgiveness, but his friends at Rome were not 
backward in their exertions for that purpose. At 
length, in 46, in a full assembly of the senate, C. 
Marcellus, the cousin of the exile, threw himself at 
Caesar's feet to implore tbe pardon of his kinsman, 
and his example Avas followed by the whole body 
of the assembly. Caesar yielded to this demon- 
stration of opinion, and Marcellus Avas declared to 
be forgiven. Cicero thereupon returned thanks to 
Caesar, in the oration Pro Marcello, Avhich has 
come down to us. Marcellus set out on his return ; 
but he Avas murdered at the Piraeus, by one of his 
own attendants, P. Magius Chilo. — 6. C, brother 
of the preceding, was consul 49. He is constantly 
confounded Avith his cousin, C. Marcellus [No. 8], 
Avho Avas consul in 50. He accompanied his col- 
league, Lentulus, in his flight from Rome, and 
eventually crossed over to Greece. In the follow- 
ing year (48) he commanded part of Pompey's 
fleet ; but this is the last Ave hear of him. — 7. C, 
uncle of the 2 preceding, Avas praetor in 80, and 
afterwards succeeded M. Lepidus in the govern- 
ment of Sicily. His administration of the province 
is frequently praised by Cicero in his speeches 
against Verres, as affording the most striking con- 
trast to that of the accused. Marcellus himself was 
present on that occasion, as one of the judges of 
Verres. — 8. C, son of the preceding, and first 
cousin of M. Marcellus [No. 5], Avhom he succeeded 
in the consulship, 50. He enjoyed the friendship 
of Cicero from an early age, and attached himself 
to the party of Pompey, notwithstanding his con- 
nection with Caesar by his marriage Avith Octavia. 
In his consulship he was the advocate of all the 
most violent measures against Caesar ; but when 
the Avar actually broke out, he displayed the utmost 
timidity and helplessness. He could not make up 
his mind to join the Pompeian party in Greece ; 
and after much hesitation he at length determined 
to remain in Italy. He readily obtained the for- 
giveness of Caesar, and thus was able to intercede 
Avith the dictator in favour of his cousin, M. Mar- 
cellus [No. 5]. He must have lived till near the 
close of 41, as his AvidoAv, Octavia, was pregnant 
by him Avhen betrothed to Antony in the following 
year.— 9, M., son of the preceding and of Octavia, 
the daughter of C. Octavius and sister of Augustus, 
Avas bom in 43, As early as 39 he was betrothed 
in marriage to the daughter of Sex, Pompey ; but 
the marrrage never took place, as Pompey's death, 
in 35, removed the occasion for it, Augustus, Avho 
had probably destined the young Marcellus as his 
successor, adopted him as his son in 25, and at the 
same time gave him his daughter Julia in marriage. 
In 23 he Avas curule aedile, but in the autumn 
of the same year he was attacked by the disease of 
Avhich he died shortly after at Baiae, notAvith- 
standing all the skill and care of the celebrated 



physician Antonius Musa. He was in the 20th 
year of his age, and Avas thought to have given so 
much promise of future excellence, that his death 
was mourned as a public calamity ; and the grief 
of Augustus, as Avell as that of his mother Octavia, 
Avas for a time unbounded. Augustus himself pro- 
nounced the funeral oration over his remains, Avhich 
Avere deposited in the mausoleum lately erected for 
the Julian family. At a subsequent period (14) 
Augustus dedicated in liis name the magnificent 
theatre near the Forum Olitorium, of which the 
remains are still visible. But the most durable 
monument to the memory of Marcellus is to be 
found in the well-known passage of Virgil {Aen. vi. 
860 — 886), Avhich must have been recited to Au- 
gustus and Octavia before the end of 22. —10. M., 
called by Cicero, for distinction's sake, the father 
of Aeserninus {Brut. 36), served under Marius in 
Gaul in 102, and as one of the lieutenants of L. 
Julius Caesar in the Marsic Avar, 90.-11. M. 
Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus, son or grandson 
of No. 10, quaestor in Spain in 48, under Q. Cassius 
Longinus, look part in the mutiny of the soldiers 
against Cassius.— 12. P, Cornelius Lentulus Mar- 
cellinus, son of No. 10, must have been adopted 
by one of the Cornelii Lentuli. He was one 
of Pompey's lieutenants in the Avar against the 
pirates, B.C. 67. — 13. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus 
MarceUinus, son of the preceding, was praetor 59, 
after which he governed the province of Syria for 
nearly 2 years, and was consul 56, when he shoAved 
himself a friend of the aristocratical party, and op- 
posed all the measures of the triumvirate. 

Marcellus, Eprius, born of an obscure family 
at Capua, rose by his oratorical talents to distinction 
at Rome in the reigns of Claudius, Nero, and Ves- 
pasian. He was one of the principal delators under 
Nero, and accused many of the most distinguished 
men of his time. He was brought to trial in the 
reign of Vespasian, but was acquitted, and enjoyed 
the patronage and favour of this emperor as Avell. 
In A. D. 69, however, he was convicted of having 
taken part in the conspiracy of Alienus Caecina, 
and therefore put an end to his own life. 

Marcellus, Nonius, a Latin grammarian, the 
author of an important treatise, entitled De Com- 
pendiosa Doctrina per Litteras ad Filium, sometimes 
but erroneously called De Proprietate Serynonis. 
He must have lived betAveen the 2nd and 6th cen- 
turies of the Christian era. His work is divided 
into 18 chapters, but of these the first 12 are ia 
reality separate treatises on difi"erent grammatical 
subjects. The last 6 are in the style of the Ono- 
masticon of Julius Pollux, each containing a series 
of technical terms in some one department. The 
Avhole work contains numerous quotations from the 
earlier Latin Avriters. The best edition is by Ger- 
lach and Roth, Basil. 1842, 

Marcellus Sidetes, a native of Side in Pam- 
phylia, lived in the reigns of Hadrian and Antoni- 
nus Pius, A, D. 117 — 161. He wrote a long 
medical poem in Greek hexameter verse, consisting 
of 42 books, of Avhich 2 fragments remain, 

Marcellus, TJlpius, a jurist, lived under Anto- 
ninus Pius and M. Aurelius. He is often cited in 
the Digest. 

Marcia. 1. Wife of M. Regulus, who was taken 
prisoner by the Carthaginians. — 2. Wife of M. 
Cato Uticensis, daughter of L. Marcius Philippus, 
consul B. c. 56. It Avas about 56 that Cato is re- 
lated to have ceded her to his friend Q. Hortensius, 



MARCIA. 



MARDONIUS. 



416 



with the approbation of her father. She continued 
to live with Hortensius till the death of the latter, 
in 50, after which she returned to Cato. 3. Wife 
of Fahius Maximus, the friend of Augustus, learnt 
from her husband the secret visit of the emperor to 
his grandson Agrippa, and informed Livia of it, in 
consequence of which she became the cause of her 
husband's death, a. D. 13 or 14. She is mentioned 
on 2 or 3 occasions by Ovid.-— 4. Daughter of 
Cremutius Cordus. [Cord us.] —5. The favourite 
concubine of Commodus, organised the plot by 
which the emperor perished. [Commodus.] She 
subsequently became the wife of Eclectus, his 
chamberlain, also a conspirator, and was eventually 
put to death by Julianus, along with Laetus, who 
also had been actively engaged in the plot. 

Mama Gens, claimed to be descended from 
Ancus Marcius, the 4th king of Rome. [Ancus 
Marcius.] Hence one of its families subsequently 
assumed the name of Rex, and the heads of Numa 
Pompilius and Ancus Marcius were placed upon 
the coins of the Marcii. But notwithstanding these 
claims to such high antiquity, no patricians of this 
name, with the exception of Coriolanus, are men- 
tioned in the early history of the republic [Corio- 
lanus] ; and it was not till after the enactment 
of the Licinian laws that any member of the gens 
obtained the consulship. The names of the most 
distinguished families are Censorinus,Philippus, 
Rex, and Rutilus. 

Marciana, the sister of Trajan, and mother of 
Matidia, who was the mother of Sabina, the wife 
of the emperor Hadrian. 

Marcianopolis (MapKiavovTroXis)^ an important 
city in the interior of Moesia Inferior, W. of 
Odessus, founded by Trajan, and named, after his 
sister Marciana. It was situated on the high 
road from Constantinople to the Danube. It sub- 
sequently became the capital of the Bulgarians, 
who called it Pristhlava {npiad\d€a), whence its 
modern name PrestMaw, but the Greeks still call 
it Marcenopoli. 

Marcianus. 1. Emperor of the East a. d. 450 
— 457, Avas a native of Thrace or Illyricum, and 
served for many years as a common soldier in the 
imperial army. Of his early history we have only 
a few particulars ; but he had attained such dis- 
tinction at the death of Theodosius II. in 450, that 
the widow of the latter, the celebrated Pulcheria, 
offered her hand and the imperial title to Marcian, 
who thus became emperor of the East. Marcian 
was a man of resolution and bravery ; and when 
Attila sent to demand the tribute which the 
younger Theodosius had engaged to pay annually, 
the emperor sternly replied, " I have iron for Attila, 
but no gold." Attila swore vengeance ; but he 
first invaded the Western Empire, and his death, 
2 years afterwards, saved the East. In 451 Mar- 
cian assembled the council of Chalcedon, in which 
the doctrines of the Eutychians were condemned. 
He died in 457, and was succeeded by Leo.— 2. Of 
Heraclea in Pontus, a Greek geographer, of uncer- 
tain date, but who perhaps lived in the 5th century 
of the Christian era. He wrote a work in prose, 
entitled, " A Periplus of the External Sea, both 
eastern and western, and of the largest Islands in 
it." The External Sea he used in opposition to 
the Mediterranean. This Avork was in 2 books ; 
of which the former, on the E. and S. seas, has come 
down to us entire ; but of the latter, which treated 
of the W. and N. seas, we possess onh' the 3 last 



chapters on Africa, and a mutilated one on the 
distance from Rome to the principal cities in the 
Avorld. In this work he chiefly follows Ptolemy. 
He also made an epitome of the Periplus of Arte- 
mlodorus of Ephesus [Artemiodorus, No. 4], 
of which we possess the introduction, and the peri- 
plus of Pontus, Bithynia, and Paphlagonia. Mar- 
cianus likewise published an edition of Menippus 
with additions and corrections. [Menippus.] The 
works of Marcianus are edited by Hudson, in the ' 
Geograpld Graeci Minores, and separately by Hoff- 
mann, Marcian? Periplus, &c., Lips. 1841. 

Marcianus, Aelius, a Roman jurist, who lived 
under Caracalla and Alexander Severus. His 
works are frequently cited in the Digest. 

Marcianus Capella. [Capella.] 

Marcius, an Italian seer, whose prophetic verses 
{Carmina Marciana) were first discovered by M. 
Atilius, the praetor, in B.C. 213. They Avere 
written in Latin, and 2 extracts from them are 
given by Livy, one containing a prophecy of the 
defeat of the Romans at Cannae, and the 2nd, com- 
manding the institution of the Ludi Apollinares. 
The Marcian prophecies were subsequently pre- 
served in the Capitol with the Sibylline books. 
Some writers mention only one person of this name, 
but others speak of 2 brothers, the Marcii. 

Marcius. [Marcia Gens.] 

Marcomanni, that is, men of the mark or 
border, a powerful German people of the Suevic 
race, originally dwelt in the S.W. of Germany, 
between the Rhine and the Danube, on the banks 
of the Main ; but under the guidance of their 
chieftain Maroboduus, Avho had been brought up 
at the court of Augustus, they migrated into the 
land of the Boii, a Celtic race, who inhabited 
Bohemia and part of Bavaria. Here they settled 
after subduing the Boii, and founded a powerful 
kingdom, Avhich extended S. as far as the Danube. 
[Maroboduus.] At a later time, the Marco- 
manni, in conjunction with the Quadi and other 
German tribes, carried on a long and bloody war 
with the emperor M. Aurelius, which lasted 
during the greater part of his reign, and was only 
brought to a conclusion by his son Commodus 
purchasing peace of the barbarians as soon as he 
ascended the throne, A. D. 180. 

Mardene or Mardyene (MapSTji/T], Mapdvr]vri), 
a district of Persis, extending N. from Taocene to 
the W. frontier and to the sea-coast. It seems to 
have taken its name from some branch of the great 
people called Mardi or Amardi, who are found in 
various parts of W. and central Asia ; for example, 
in Armenia, Media, Margiana, and, under the 
same form of name as those in Persis, in Sogdiana. 

Mardi. [Amardi ; Mardene.] 

Mardonius {Map56vios),a distinguished Persian, 
was the son of Gobryas, and the son-in-laAV of 
Darius Hystaspis. In B. c. 492 he was sent by 
Darius, Avith a large armament, to punish Eretria 
and Athens for the aid they had given to the 
lonians. But his expedition Avas an entire failure. 
His fleet was destroyed by a storm off Mt. Athos, 
and the greater part of his land forces was destroyed 
on his passage through Macedonia, by the Brygians, 
a Thracian tribe. In consequence of his faiku-e he 
Avas superseded in the command by Datis and Ar- 
taphernes, 490. On the accession of Xerxes, Mar- 
donius Avas one of the chief instigators of the ex- 
pedition against Greece, with the government of 
Avhich he hoped to be invested after its conquest ; 



416 M ARB US. 

and he was appointed one of the generals of the land 
army. After the battle of Salamis (480), he be- 
came alarmed for the consequences of the advice he 
had given, and persuaded Xerxes to return home 
with the rest of the army, leaving 300,000 men 
imder his command for the subjugation of Greece. 
He was defeated in the following year (479), near 
Plataeae, by the combined Greek forces under the 
command of Pausanias, and was slain in the battle. 

Mardus. [Amardus.] 

Kardyene, MardyenL [Mardene.] 

Marea, -ea, -la (Ma/jeyj, Mapeia, Mapia' Ma- 
pe'JjTTis, Mareota : Mariouth, Ru.), a town of 
Lower Egypt, in the district of Mareotis, on the 
S. side of the lake Mareotis, at the mouth of a canal. 

Mareotis (MapeaTis). 1. Also called Mapeur-qs 
NouJs, a district of Lower Egypt, on the extreme 
N.AV., on the borders of the Libyae Nomos : it 
produced good wine. — 2. A to\ra in the interior 
of the Libyae Nomos, between the Oasis of Am- 
nion and the Oasis Minor. 

Mare5tis or Marea or (-ia) Lacus (tj Mapewns, 
Mapeia, Mapia Xifxvf] : Birket-Mariouth, or El- 
Kreit), a considerable lake in the N.W. of Lower 
Egj-pt, separated from the Mediterranean by the 
neck of land on which Alexandria stood, and sup- 
plied with water by the Canopic branch of the 
Nile, and by canals. It was less than .300 stadia 
(30 geog. miles) long, and more than 150 wide. 
It was surrounded with vines, palms, and papyrus. 
It served as the port of Alexandria for vessels na- 
vigating the Nile. 

Mares (MSpes), a people of Asia, on the N. 
coast of the Euxine, who served in the army of 
Xerxes, being equipped with helmets of wicker- 
work, leathern shields, and javelins. 

Maresa, Marescha (MapT^cra, Mapicra, yiapurad, 
Mapecrxa : prob. Ru. S. E. of Beit Jibtin), an 
ancient fortress of Palestine, in the S. of Judaea, of 
some importance in the history of the early kings 
of Judah and of the Maccabees. The Parthians 
had destroyed it before the time of Eusebius ; and 
it is probable that its ruins contributed to the erec- 
tion of the city of Eleutheropolis (SezY J'tfin'w), which 
■was afterwards built on the site of the ancient 
Baetogabra, '2 Roman miles N.W. of Maresa. 

Marescha. [Maresa.] 

Margiana (77 Mapyiavfi : the S. part of KJdva, 
S.W. part of BoTchara, and N, E. part of Khoras- 
san), a province of the ancient Persian empire, and 
afterwards of the Greco-Syiian, Parthian, and 
Persian kingdoms, in Central Asia, N. of the moun- 
tains called Sariphi (Ghoor), a part of the chain of 
tlie Indian Caucasus, which divided it from Aria ; 
and bounded on the E. by Bactriana, on the N. E. 
and N. by the river Oxus, which divided it from 
Sogdiana and Scythia, and on the W. by HjTcania. 
It received its name from the river Margus {Moor- 
ghah), which flows through it, from S. E. to N.W., 
and is lost in the sands of the Deseii of Khiva. 
On this river, near its termination, stood the ca- 
pital of the district, Antiochia Margiana {Mem). 
With the exception of the districts round this and 
the minor rivers, which produced excellent wine, 
the country was for the most part a sandy desert. 
Its chief inhabitants were the Derbices, Pami, 
Tapuri, and branches of the great tribes of the 
Massagetae, Dahae, and Mardi. The country be- 
came known to the Greeks by the expeditions of 
Alexander and Antiochus L, the first of whom 
founded, and the second rebuilt, Antiochia ; and the 



MARIUS. 

Romans of the age of Augustus obtained further 
information about it from the returned captives 
who had been taken by the Parthians and had re- 
sided at Antiochia. 

Margites. [Homerus, p. 328, a.] 

Margum or Margns, a fortified place in Moesia 
Superior, W. of Viminacium, situated on the river 
Margus (Moram) at its confluence with the Danube. 
Here Diocletian gained a decisive victory over 
Carinus. The river Margus, which is one of the 
most important of the southern tributaries of the 
Danube, rises in Mt. Orbelus. 

Margus. [Margiana.] 

Maria. [Marea, Mareotis.] 

Mariaba. [Saba.] 

Mariamma {M.apia.jxp.7]^ -id/uLT], -idfivr]), a city 
of Coele-Syria, some miles W. of Emesa, assigned 
by Alexander the Great to the territory of Aradus. 

Marianine. [Herodes.] 

Mariamne Turris, a tower at Jerusalem, built 
by Herod the Great. 

Marianae Fossae. [Fossa.] 

Mariandyni (MapiavSwoi), an ancient people 
of Asia Minor, on the N. coast, E. of the river 
Sangarius, in the N. E. part of Bithynia. With 
respect to their ethnical affinities, it seems doubtful 
whether they were connected with the Thracian 
tribes (the Thyni and Bithyni) on the W., or the 
Paphlagonians on the E. ; but the latter appears 
the more probable. 

Marianus Mons (Sierra Moreno), a mountain in 
Hispania Baetica, properly only a western oflFshoot 
of the Orospeda. The eastern part of it was called 
Saltus Castulonensis, and derived its name from 
the town of Castulo, 

Marica, a Latin nymph, the mother of Latinus 
by Faimus, was worshipped by the inhabitants of 
Mintumae in a grove on the river Liris. Hence 
the country round Mintumae is called by Horace 
iCarm. iii. 17. 7) Maricae litora. 

Marinus {Maplvos) 1. Of Tyre, a Greek 
geographer, who lived in the middle of the 2nd 
century of the Christian era, and was the imme- 
diate predecessor of Ptolemy. Marinus was un- 
doubtedly the founder of mathematical geography 
in antiquity ; and Ptolemy based his whole work 
upon that of Marinus. [Ptolemaeus.] The 
chief merit of Marinus was, that he put an end to 
the uncertainty that had hitherto prevailed re- 
specting the positions of places, by assigning to 
each its latitude and longitude. — 2. Of Flavia 
Neapolis, in Palestine, a philosopher and rheto- 
rician, was the pupil and successor of Proclus, 
whose life he wrote, a work which is still extant, 
edited by Boissonade, Lips. 1814. 

Marisus (Marosch), called Maris (Mdpis) by 
Herodotus, a river of Dacia, which, according to 
the ancient writers, falls into the Danube, but 
which in reality falls into the Theiss, and, along 
with this river, into the Danube. 

Maritima, a sea-port town of the Avatici, and a 
Roman colony in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Marius. 1. C, the celebrated Roman, who was 
7 times consul, was bom in B. c. 157, near Ar- 
pinum, of an obscure and humble family. His 
father's name was C. Marius, and his mother's 
Fulcinia ; and his parents, as well as Marius 
himself, were clients of the noble plebeian house 
of the Herennii. So indigent, indeed, is the family 
represented to have been, that young Marius is 
said to have worked as a common peasant for 



MEGARA. MESSENE. MYCENAE. NEMAUSUS. 




Gate of the Lions at Mycenae. Page 4G1. 




Tthoir.e, from tlie Stadium of Metsene. Page 441. 




Roman Aqueduct near Nemausu;. now called the Pont du Gard. Page 471. 

[To face p. 416. 



corns OF PERSONS. MAHCIANA— MITHRIDATES. 




I>Iasimianus II., Eoman Emperor, a. d. 305 — 311. 




Maximinus I., Roman Emperor, a. d. 235 —233. Page 424. 




jrausoUis, Kingof Caria, E. c. 3'" — 353. Page 423. i 

Maximtis Magnus, Roman Emperor, a.d. 383—388. Page 42G. 




MARIUS. 



MARIUS. 



417 



wagesj before he entered the ranks of the Roman 
armj. (Comp. Juv. viii, 246.) The meanness of 
his origin has probably been somewhat exag- 
gerated ; and at all events he distinguished him- 
self so much by his valour at the siege of Numantia 
in Spain (134), as to attract the notice of Scipio 
Africanus, who is said to have foretold his future 
greatness. His name does not occur again for 15 
years ; but in 119 he was elected tribune of the 
plebs, when he was 38 years of age. In this office 
he came forward as a popular leader, and proposed 
a law to give greater freedom to the people at the 
elections ; and when the senate attempted to over- 
awe him, he commanded one of his officers to 
carry the consul Metellus to prison. He now 
became a marked man, and the aristocracy op- 
posed him with all their might. He lost his 
election to the aedileship, and with difficulty 
obtained the praetorship ; but he acquired influ- 
ence and importance by his marriage with Julia, 
the sister of C. Julius Caesar, who was the father 
of the future ruler of Rome. In 109 Marius 
crossed over into Africa as legate of the consul 
Q. Metellus. Here, in the war against Jugurtha, 
the military genius of Marius had ample oppor- 
tunity of displaying itself, and he Avas soon re- 
garded as the most distinguished officer in the 
army. He also ingratiated himself with the 
soldiers, who praised him in the highest terms in 
their letters to their friends at Rome. His popu- 
larity became so great that he resolved to return 
to Rome, and become at once a candidate for the 
consulship ; but it was with great difficulty that 
he obtained from Metellus permission to leave 
Africa. On his arrival at Rome he was elected 
consul with an enthusiasm which bore down all 
opposition before it ; and he received from the 
people the province of Nuraidia, and the conduct 
of the war against Jugurtha (107). On his return 
to Numidia he carried on the war with great 
vigour ; and in the following year (106) .lugurtha 
was surrendered to him by the treachery of 
Bocchus, king of Mauretania. [Jugurtha.] Ma- 
rius sent his quaestor Sulla to receive the Nu- 
midian king from Bocchus. This circumstance 
sowed the seeds of the personal hatred which 
afterwards existed between Marius and Sulla, 
since the enemies of Marius claimed for Sulla the 
merit of bringing the war to a close by obtaining 
possession of the person of Jugurtha. Meantime 
Italy was threatened by a vast horde of barbarians, 
who had migrated from the N. of Germany. The 
2 leading nations of which they consisted were 
called Cimbri and Teutoni, the former of whom 
are supposed to have been Celts, and the latter 
Gauls. To these two great races were added the 
Ambrones, and some of the Swiss tribes, such as 
the Tigurini. The whole host is said to have con- 
tained 300,000 fighting men, besides a much 
larger number of women and children. They had 
defeated one Roman army after another, and it 
appeared that nothing could check their progress. 
The utmost alarm prevailed throughout Italy ; all 
party quarrels were hushed. Every one felt that 
Marius was the only man capable of saving the 
state, and he was accordingly elected consul a 
2nd time during his absence in Africa. Marius 
entered Rome in triumph on the 1st of January, 
104, the first day of his 2nd consulship. Mean- 
while, the threatened danger was for a while 
averted. Instead of crossing the Alps, the Cimbri 



Diarclied into Spain, v,-hich the}' ravaged for the 
next 2 or 3 years. But as the return of the bar- 
barians was constantly expected, Marius was elected 
consul a 3rd time in 103, and a 4th time in 102. 
In the latter of these years the Cimbri returned 
into Gaul. The barbarians now divided their 
forces. The Cimbri marched round the northern 
foot of tlie Alps, i)i order to enter Italy by the 
N. E., crossing the Tyrolese Alps by the defiles of 
Tridentum (Trent). The Teutoni and Ambrones, 
on the other hand, marched against Marius, who 
had taken up a position in a fortified camp on the 
Rhone. The decisive battle was fought near 
Aquae Sextiae (Aix). The carnage was dreadful. 
The whole nation was annihilated, for those who 
did not fall in the battle put an end to their own 
lives. The Cimbri, meantime, had forced their way 
into Italy. Marius was elected consul a 5th time 
(101), and joined the proconsul Catulus in the 
N. of Italy. The 2 generals gained a great victory 
over the enemy on a plain called the Campi Raudii, 
near Vercellae {Vercelli). The Cimbri met with 
the same fate as the Teutoni ; the whole nation 
was destroyed. Marius was received at Rome 
with unprecedented honours. He was hailed as 
the saviour of the state ; his name was coupled 
with the gods in the libations and at banquets, 
and he received the title of 3rd founder of Rome. 
Hitherto the career of Marius had been a glorious 
one ; but the remainder of his life is full of horrors, 
and brings out the worst features of his character. 
In order to secure the consulship a 6th time, he 
entered into close connection with two of the worst 
demagogues that ever appeared at Rome, Satur- 
ninus and Glaucia. He gained his object, and was 
consul a 6th time in 100. In this year he drove 
into exile his old enemy Metellus ; and shortly 
afterwards, when Saturn inus and Glaucia took up 
arms against the statp, Marius crushed the insur- 
rection by command of the senate. [Saturninus.] 
His conduct in this aifair was greatly blamed by 
the people, who looked upon him as a traitor to 
his former friends. For the next few years Marius 
took little part in public affairs. He possessed 
none of the qualifications which were necessary to 
maintain influence in the state during a time of 
peace, being an unlettered soldier, rude in manners, 
and arrogant in conduct. The Social war again 
called him into active service (90). He served as 
legate of the consul P. Rutilius Lupus ; and after 
the latter had fallen in battle, he defeated the Marsi 
in 2 successive engagements. Marius was now 
67, and his body had grown stout and unwieldy; 
but he was still as greedy of honour and dis- 
tinction as he had ever been. He had set his 
heart upon obtaining the command of the war 
against Mithridates, which the senate had be- 
stowed upon the consul Sulla at the end of the 
Social war (88). In order to gain his object, 
Marius allied himself to the tribune, P. Sulpicius 
Rufus, who brought forward a law for distributing 
the Italian allies, who had just obtained the Ro- 
man franchise, among all the Roman tribes. As 
those new citizens greatly exceeded the old citizens 
in number, they would of course be able to carry 
whatever they pleased in the comitia. The law- 
was carried notwithstanding the violent opposition 
of the consuls ; and the tribes, in which the new 
citizens now had the majority, appointed Marius 
to the command of the war against Mithridates. 
Sulla fled to his army, which was stationed at 



418 



MARIUS. 



MARON. 



Nola ; and when Marius sent thither 2 military 
tribunes, to take the command of the troops, Sulla 
not only refused to surrender the command, but 
marched upon Rome at the head of his army. 
Marius was now obliged to take to flight. After 
wandering along the coast of Latium, and encoun- 
tering terrible sufferings and priyations, which he 
bore with unflinching fortitude, he was at length 
taken prisoner in the marshes formed by the river 
Liris, near jMintumae. The magistrates of this 
place resolved to put him to death, in accordance 
Avith a command which Sulla had sent to all the 
to-\ATis in Italy. A Gallic or Cimbrian soldier un- 
dertook to carry their sentence into effect, and 
with a drawn sword entered the apartment where 
]Marius was confined. The part of the room in 
which Marius lay was in the shade ; and to the 
frightened barbarian the eyes of Marius seemed to 
dart out fire, and from the darkness a terrible 
voice exclaimed — " Man, durst thou murder C. 
Marius?" The barbarian immediately threw down 
his sword, and rushed out of the house. Straight- 
way there was a revnlsion of feeling among the 
inhabitants of Minturnae. They got ready a 
ship, and placed Marius on board. He reached 
Africa in safety, and landed at Carthage ; but 
he had scarcely put his foot on shore before the 
Roman governor sent an oflicer to bid him leave 
the country. This last blow almost unmanned 
Marius : his only reply was — " Tell the praetor 
that you have seen C. Marius a fugitive sit- 
ting on the ruins of Carthage." Soon afterwards 
Marius was joined by his son, and they took refuge 
in the island of Cercina. During this time a re- 
volution had taken place at Rome, in consequence 
of which Marius was enabled to return to Italy. 
The consul Cinna (87) who belonged to the Marian 
party, had been driven out of Rome by his colleague 
Octavius, and had subsequently been deprived by 
the senate of the consulate, Cinna collected an 
army, and resolved to recover his honours by force 
of arms. As soon as Marius heard of these changes 
he left Africa, and joined Cinna in Italy. Marius 
and Cinna now laid siege to Rome. The failure 
of proAnsions compelled the senate to yield, and 
Marius and Cinna entered Rome as conquerors. 
The most frightful scenes followed. The guards of 
Marius stabbed every one whom he did not salute, 
and the streets ran Avith the blood of the noblest of 
the Roman aristocracy. Among the victims of his 
vengeance, were the great orator M. Antonius and 
his former colleague Q. Catulus. Without going 
through the form of an election, jMarius and Cinna 
named themselves consuls for the following year 
(86). But he did not long enjoy the honour : he 
was now in his 71st year ; his body was worn out 
by the fatigues and sufferings he tiad recently un- 
dergone; and on the 18th day of his consulship he 
died of an attack of pleurisy, after 7 days' ill- 
ness. —2. C, the son of the preceding, but only 
by adoption. He followed in the footsteps of his 
father, and was equally distinguished by merciless 
severity against his enemies. He was consul in 
82, when he was 27 years of age. In this year 
he was defeated by Sulla near Sacriportus on 
the frontiers of Latimn, whereupon he took refuge 
in the strongly fortified town of Praeneste. Here 
he was besieged for some time ; but after Sulla's 
great victory at the CoUine gate of Rome over Pon- 
tius Telesinus, Marius put an end to his own life, 
after making an unsuccessful attempt to escape. — 



3. The false Marius. [Amatius.]— 4.M. Am'elius 
Marius, one of the 30 tyrants, was the 4th of the 
usurpers who in succession ruled Gaul, in defiance of 
Gallienus. He reigned only 2 or 3 days, but there 
are coins of his extant. — 5. Marius Celsus. 
[Celsus.] — 6. Marius Maximus, a Roman his- 
torian, who is repeatedly cited by the Augustan 
historians. He probably flourished under Alex- 
ander Severus, and appears to have written the 
biographies of the Roman emperors, beginning with 
Trajan and ending with Elagabalus. — 7. Marius 
Mercator, an ecclesiastical writer, distinguished as 
a zealous antagonist of the Pelagians and the Nes- 
torians. He appears to have commenced his literary 
career during the pontificate of Zosimus, A. D. 418, 
at Rome, and he afterwards repaired to Constan- 
tinople. Mercator seems undoubtedly to have been 
a la}-man, but we are ignorant of every circumstance 
connected with his origin and personal history. 
The Avorks of Mercator refer exclusively to the 
Pelagian and Nestorian heresies, and consist, for 
the most part, of passages extracted and translated 
from the chief Greek authorities. The best edition 
is by Baluze, Par. 1684. 

Marmarica (77 MapfxapLKri' Mapfiapidai: E. 
pciH of Tripoli and N.W.part of Egypt), a district 
of N. Africa, between Cyrenaica and Egypt, but 
by some ancient geographers reckoned as a part 
of Cyrenaica, and by others as a part of Egypt ; 
while others, again, call only the W. part of it, 
from the borders of Cyrenaica to the Catabathmus 
Magnus, by the name of Marmarica, and the E. 
part, from the Catabathmus Magnus to the Sinus 
Plinthinetes, Libyae Nomos. Inland it extended 
as far aS the Oasis of Ammon. It was, for the 
most part, a sandy desert, intersected with low 
ranges of hills. — Its inhabitants were called by 
the general name of Marmaridae. Their chief 
tribes were the Adyrmachidae and Giligammae, 
on the coast, and the Nasamones and Augilae, in 
the interior. 

Marmarium (Mapfidptou : Map/xapios : Mar^ 
mari), a place on the S. W. coast of Euboea, with 
a temple of Apollo Marmarius, and celebrated 
marble quarries, which belonged to Carystus. 

Maro, Virgilius, [Virgilius.] 

Marobodiius, the Latinised form of the German 
Marbod, king of the Marcomanni, was a Suevian 
by birth, and was bom about b. c. 18. He was 
sent in his boyhood with other hostages to Rome, 
where he attracted the notice of Augustus, and 
received a liberal education. After his return to 
his native country, he succeeded in establishing a 
powerful kingdom in central Germany, along the 
N. bank of the Danube, from Regensberg nearly 
to the borders of Hungary, and which stretched 
far into the interior. His power excited the jea- 
lousy of Augustus, who had determined to send a 
formidable army to invade his dominions ; but the 
revolt of the Pannonians and Dalmatians (a. d. 6) 
prevented the emperor from carrying his design 
into effect. Maroboduus eventually became an 
object of suspicion to the other German tribes, and 
was at length expelled from his dominions by 
Catualda, a chief of the Gothones, about A. d. 19. 
He took refuge in Italy, where Tiberius allowed 
him to remain, and he passed the remainder of his 
life at Ravenna. He died in 35 at the age of 53 
years. 

Maron (Mapwj/), son of Evanthes, and grandson 
i of Dionysus and Ajiadne, priest of Apollo at Maro- , 



MARONEa. 



MARSYAS. 



419 



nea in Thrace, He was the hero of sweet wme, and 
is mentioned among the companions of Dionysus. 

Maronea (Mapwi/Gia : Mapwj/etxTjs : Marogna)^ 
a town on the S. coast of Thrace, situated on the 
N. bank of the lake Ismaris and on the river 
Sthenas, more anciently called Ortagurea. It be- 
longed originally to the Cicones, but afterwards 
received colonists from Chios. It was celebrated for 
its excellent wine, which even Homer mentions. 

Marpessa {Map-Kiriaaa), daughter of Evenus and 
Alcippe. For details see Idas. 

Marpessa (Mapivriaaa), a mountain in Paros, 
from which the celebrated Parian marble was 
obtained. Hence Virgil (^Aen, vi. 471) speaks of 
Marpesia cautes. 

Marrucini, a brave and warlike people in Italy 
of the Sabellian race, occupying a narrow slip of 
country along the right bank of the river Aternus, 
and bounded on the N. by the Vestini, on the W. 
by the Peligni and Marsi, on the S. by the Fren- 
tani, and on the E. by the Adriatic sea. Their 
chief town was Teate, and at the mouth of the 
Aternus, tney possessed, in common with the Ve- 
stini, the seaport Aternum. Along with the 
Marsi, Peligni, and the other Sabellian tribes they 
fought against Rome; and together with them the}^ 
submitted to the Romans in B. c. 304, and con- 
cluded a peace with the republic. 

Marruvium or Maruvium. 1. {S. Benedetto), 
the chief town of the Marsi (who are therefore 
called gens Maruvia, Virg. Aen. vii. 750), situated 
on the E. bank of the lake Fucinus, and on the 
road between Corfinium and Alba Fucentia. — 2. 
(Morro), an ancient town of the Aborigines in the 
country of the Sabines, not to be confounded with 
the Marsic Marruvium. 

Mars, an ancient Roman god, who was at an 
early period identified by the Romans with the 
Greek Ares, or the god delighting in bloody war. 
[Ares.] The name of the god in the Sabine and 
Oscan was Mamers; and Mars itself is a contraction 
of Mavers or Mavors. Nest to Jupiter, Mars 
enjoyed the highest honours at Rome. He is 
frequently designated as father Mars, whence the 
forms Marspiter and Maspiter, analogous to Jupiter. 
Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus were the 3 tutelary 
divinities of Rome, to each of whom king Numa 
appointed a flamen. He was worshipped at Rome 
as the god of war, and war itself was frequently 
designated by the name of Mars. His priests, the 
Salii, danced in full armour, and the place dedicated 
to warlike exercises was called after his name 
{Campus MaHius). But being the father of the 
Romans, Mars was also the protector of the most 
honourable pursuit, i.e. agriculture; and under the 
name of Silvanus, he was worshipped as the guar- 
dian of cattle. Mars was also identified with Qui- 
rinus, who was the deity watching over the Roman 
citizens in their civil capacity as Quirites. Thus 
Mars appears under 3 aspects. As the warlike 
god, he was called Gradivus ; as the rustic god, he 
was called Silvanus ; while, in his relation to the 
state, he bore the name of Quirinus. His wife was 
called Neria or Neriene, the feminine of Nero, 
which in the Sabine language signified " strong." 
The wolf and the woodpecker (picus) were sacred 
to Mars. Numerous temples were dedicated to 
him at Rome, the most important of which was 
that outside the Porta Capena, on the Appian road, 
and that of Mars Ultor, which was built by 
Augustus in the forum. 



Marsi. 1. A brave and warlike people of the 
Sabellian race, dwelt in the centre of Italy, in the 
high land surrounded by the mountains of the 
Apennines, in which the lake Fucinus is situated. 
Along with their neighbours the Peligni, Marru- 
cini, &c., they concluded a peace with Rome, B. c. 
304. Their bravery was proverbial; and they were 
the prime movers of the celebrated war waged 
against Rome by the Socii or Italian allies in order 
to obtain the Roman franchise, and which is known 
by the name of the Marsic or Social war. Their 
chief toAvn was Marruvium. — The Marsi appear 
to have been acquainted Avith the medicinal pro- 
perties of several of the plants growing upon their 
mountains, and to have employed them as remedies 
against the bites of serpents, and in other cases. 
Hence they were regarded as magicians, and were 
said to be descended from a son of Circe. Others 
again derived their origin from the Phrygian Mar- 
syas, simply on account of the resemblance of the 
name. — 2. A people in Germany, appear to have 
dwelt originally on both banks of the Ems, and to 
have been only a tribe of the Cherusci, although 
Tacitus makes them one of the most ancient peoples 
in Germany. They joined the Cherusci in the war 
against the Romans, which terminated in the defeat 
of Varus, but they were subsequently driven into 
the interior of the country by Germanicus. 

Marsigni, a people in the S. E. of Germany, of 
Suevic extraction. 

Marsus, Domitius, a Roman poet of the Au- 
gustan age. He wrote poems of various kinds, but 
his epigrams were the most celebrated of his pro- 
ductions. Hence he is frequently mentioned by 
Martial, who speaks of him in terms of the highest 
admiration. He wrote a beautiful epitaph on 
TibuUus, which has come down to us. 

Marsyas (Mapa-vas). 1. A mythological per- 
sonage, connected with the earliest period of Greek 
music. He is variously called the son of Hyagnis, 
or of Oeagrus, or of Olympus. Some make him a 
satyr, others a peasant. All agree in placing him 
in Phrygia. The following is the outline of his 
story : — Athena having, while playing the flute, 
seen the reflection of herself in water, and observed 
the distortion of her features, threw away the 
instrument in disgust. It was picked up by Mar- 
syas, who no sooner began to blow through it, than 
the flute, having once been inspired by the breath 
of a goddess, emitted of its own accord the most 
beautiful strains. Elated by his success, Mars3^as 
was rash enough to challenge Apollo to a musical 
contest, the conditions of which were that the 
victor should do what he pleased with the van- 
quished. The Muses, or, according to others, the 
Nysaeans, were the umpires. Apollo played upon 
the cithara, and Marsyas upon the flute ; and it 
was not till the former added his voice to the 
music of his lyre that the contest was decided in 
his favour. As a just punishment for the pre- 
sumption of Marsyas, Apollo bound him to a tree, 
and flayed him alive. His blood was the source 
of the river Marsyas, and Apollo hung up his skin 
in the cave out of which that river flows. His 
flutes (for, according to some, the instrument on 
which he plaj'ed was the double flute) were carried 
by the river Marsyas into the Maeander, and again 
emerging in the Asopus, were thrown on land by 
it in the Sicyonian territory, and were dedicated 
to Apollo in his temple at Sicyon. The fable evi- 
dently refers to the struggle between the citharoedic 

E K 2 



420 



MARSYAS. 



MARTIALIS. 



and auloedic styles of music, of which the former 
was comiected witli the worship of Apollo among 
the Dorians, and the latter with the orgiastic rites 
of C3-bele in Phrygia. In the fora of ancient cities 
there was frequently placed a statue of Marsyas, 
which was probably intended to hold forth an 
example of the severe punishment of arrogant pre- 
sumption. The statue of Marsyas in the forum of 
Rome is well known by the allusions of Horace 
(Sat. i. 6. 120), Juvenal (ix. 1, 2), and Martial 
(ii. 64. 7). — 2. A Greek historian, was the son of 
Periander, a native of Pella in Macedonia, a con- 
temporary of Alexander, with whom he is said to 
have been educated. His principal work was a 
history of Macedonia, in 10 books, from the earliest 
times to the wars of Alexander. He also wrote 
other works, the titles of which are given by 
Suidas. «— 3. Of Philippi, commonly called the 
Younger, to distinguish him from the preceding, 
was also a Greek historian. The period at which 
he flourished is uncertain : the earliest writers by 
whom he is cited are Pliny and Athenaeus. 

Marsyas (Mapavas). 1. A small and rapid river 
of Phrygia, a tributary of the Maeander, took its 
rise, according to Xenophon, in the palace of the 
Persian kings at Celaenae, beneath the Acropolii^ 
and fell into the Maeander, outside' of the city. 
Pliny, however, states that its source was in the 
valley called Aulocrene, about 10 miles from 
Apamea Cibotus (which city was on or near the 
site of Celaenae), and that after a subterraneous 
course, it first came out to light at Apamea. Co- 
lonel Leake reconciles these statements by the na- 
tural explanation that the place where the river 
first broke forth from its subterraneous course, was 
regarded as its true origin. Tradition ascribed its 
name to the fable of Marsyas.— 2. {Cliinar-Chai)^ 
a considerable river of Caria, having its source in 
the district called Idrias, flowing N.W. and N. 
through the middle of Caria, past Stratonicea and 
Alabanda, and falling into the S. side of the 
IMaeander, nearly opposite to Tralles, — 3. In 
Syria, a small tributary of the Orontes, into Avhich 
it falls on the E. side, near Apamea. — 4. A name 
given to the extensive plain in Syria, through 
which the upper course of the Orontes flows, lying 
between the ranges of Casius and Lebanon, and 
reaching from Apamea on the N. to Laodicea ad 
Libanum on the S. 

Martialis. 1. M. Valerius, the epigrammatic 
poet, w^as bom at Bilbilis in Spain, in the 3rd year 
of Claudius, A. D. 43. He came to Rome in the 
13th year of Nero, 66; and after residing in the 
metropolis 35 years, he returned to the place of his 
birth, in the 3rd year of Trajan, 100. He lived 
there for upwards of 3 years at least, on the pro- 
perty of his wife, a lady named Marcella, whom 
he seems to have married after his return to Bilbilis. 
His death cannot have taken place before 104. 
His fame was extended and his books were eagerly 
sought for, not only in the city, but also in Gaul, 
Germany, and Britain ; he secured the patronage of 
the emperors Titus and Domitian, obtained by his 
influence the freedom of the state for several of his 
friends, and received for himself, although apparently 
without family, the privileges accorded to those who 
were the fathers of three children {jus trium libe- 
rorM??i), together with the rank of tribunus and the 
rights of the equestrian order. His circumstances 
appear to have been easy during his residence at 
Rome, for he had a mansion in the city whose 



situation he describes, and a suburban villa near 
Nomentum, to which he frequently alludes with 
pride. — The extant works of Martial consist of a 
collection of short poems, all included under the 
general appellation Epigrammata^ upwards of 1500 
in number, divided into 14 books. Those which 
form the 2 last books, usually distinguished re- 
spectivel}^ as Xenia and Apophoreia, amounting to 
350, consist of distichs, descriptive of a vast 
variety of small objects, chiefly articles of food or 
clothing, such as were usually sent as presents 
among friends during the Saturnalia, and on other 
festive occasions. In addition to the above, nearly 
all the printed copies include 33 epigrams, forming 
a book apart from the rest, which has been com- 
monly known as Liber de Spectaculis, because the 
contents relate to the shows exhibited by Titus 
and Domitian, but there is no ancient authority 
for the title. The diff"erent books were collected 
and published by the author, sometimes singly and 
sometimes several at one time. The Liber de 
Spectaculis and the first 9 books of the regular 
series involve a great number of historical allusions, 
extending from the games of Titus (80) down to 
the return of Domitian from the Sarmatian expe. 
dition, in January, 94. All these books were 
composed at Rome, except the 3rd, which was 
written during a tour in Gallia Togata. The 10th 
book Avas published twice : the first edition was 
given hastily to the world ; the second, that which 
we now read (x. 2), celebrates the arrival of 
Trajan at Rome, after his accession to the throne 
(99). The ] 1th book seems to have been published 
at Rome, early in 100, and at the close of the year 
he returned to Bilbilis. After keeping silence for 
3 years (xii. prooem.), the 12th book was despatched 
from Bilbilis to Rome (xii. 3, 18), and must there- 
fore be assigned to 104. Books xiii. and xiv., 
Xenii and ApopTioreta, were written chiefly under 
Domitian, although the composition may have been 
spread over the holidays of many years. It is well 
known that the word Epigram, which originally 
denoted simply aii inscription, was, in process of 
time, applied to any brief metrical efiusion, what- 
ever the subject might be, or whatever the form 
under which it was presented. Martial, however, 
first placed the epigram upon the narrow basis 
which it now occupies, and from his time the term 
has been in a great measure restricted to denote a 
short poem, in which all the thoughts and ex- 
pressions converge to one sharp point, which forms 
the termination of the piece. Martial's epigrams 
are distinguished singular fertility of imagination, 
prodigious flow of wit, and delicate felicity of 
language ; and from no source do we derive more 
copious information on the national customs and 
social habits of the Romans during the first cen- 
tury of the empire. But, however much we may- 
admire the genius of the author, we feel no respect 
for the character of the man. The servility of 
adulation with which he loads Domitian, proves 
that he was a courtier of the lowest class ; and 
his works are defiled by the most cold-blooded 
filth, too clearly denoting habitual impurity of 
thought, combined with habitual impurity of ex- 
pression. The best edition is by Schneidewinn, 
Grem. 1842. — 2. Gargilius, a Roman histo- 
rian, and a contemporary of Alexander Severus, 
who is cited by Vopiscus. There is extant a short 
fragment on veterinary surgery, bearing the name 
of Gargilius Martialis ; and Angelo Mai discovered 



MARTINI AN us. 



MASSA. 



421 



on a palimpsest in the royal library at Naples, part 
of a work De Uortis, also ascribed to Gargiliiis 
Martialis. But whether Gargilius Martialis the 
historian, Gargilius Martialis the horticulturist, 
and Gargilius Martialis the veterinarian, are all, or 
any two of them, the same, or all different per- 
sonages, cannot be determined. 

Martinianiis, was elevated to the dignity of 
Caesar, by Licinius, when he Avas making prepa- 
rations for the last struggle against Constantine. 
After the defeat of Licinius, Martinianus was put 
to death by Constantine, a. d. 328. 

Martius Campus. [Campus Martius.] 

Mart^TOpoiis (MaprvpoTToXis : Meia Farekhi), 
a city of Sophene, in Armenia Major, on the river 
Nymphus, a tributary of the Tigris ; under Justi- 
nian, a strong fortress, and the residence of the 
first Dux Armeniae. 

Maruilus, C. Epidius, tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 44, removed, in conjunction with his colleague 
L. Caesetius Flavus, the diadem which had been 
placed upon the statue of C. Julius Caesar, and 
attempted to bring to trial the persons who had 
saluted the dictator as king. Caesar, in conse- 
quence, deprived him of the tribunate, and expelled 
liim from the senate. 

Maruvium. [Marruvium.] 

Mascas (Mao-zcay, MaffKas : Wady-el-Seha)^ an 
E. tributary of the Euphrates, in Mesopotamia, 
mentioned only by Xenophon {Anah. i. 5), who 
describes it as surrounding the city of Corsote, 
and as being 35 parasangs from the Chaboras. It 
appears to be the same river as the Saocoras of 
Ptolemy. 

Mases {Mdcr-qs: MaarjTios)^ a town on the S. 
coast of Argolis, the harl)our of Hermione. 

Masinissa (Maaaavda-a-ns), king of the Nu- 
midians, was the son of Gala, king of the Massy- 
lians, the easternmost of the 2 great tribes into 
which the Numidians were at that time divided; 
but he was brought up at Carthage, where he ap- 
pears to have received an education superior to that 
usual among his countrymen. In B.C. 213 the 
Carthaginians persuaded Gala to declare war 
against Syphax, king of the neighbouring tribe of 
the Massaesylians, who had lately entered into an 
alliance with Rome. Masinissa was appointed hj 
his father to command the invading force, with 
which he attacked and totally defeated Syphax. 
In the next year (212) Masinissa crossed over into 
Spain, and supported the Carthaginian generals 
there with a large body of Numidian horse. He 
fought on the side of the Carthaginians for some 
years; but after their great defeat by Scipio in 206, 
he secretly promised the latter to support the 
Romans as soon as they should send an army into 
Africa. In his desertion of the Carthaginians he 
is said to have been also actuated by resentment 
against Hasdrubal, who had previously betrothed 
to him his beautiful daughter Sophonisba, but vio- 
lated his engagement, in order to bestow her hand 
upon Syphax. — During the absence of Masinissa 
in Spain, his father Gala had died, and the throne 
had been seized by an usurper ; but Masinissa on 
his return soon expelled the usurper and obtained 
possession of the kingdom. He was now attacked 
by Syphax and the Carthaginians, who were 
anxious to crush him before he could receive as- 
sistance from Rome. He was repeatedly defeated 
by Syphax and his generals, and with difficulty 
escaped falling into the hands of his enemies. But 



the arrival of Scipio in Africa (204) soon changed 
the posture of affairs. He instantly joined the 
Roman general, and rendered the most important 
services to him during the remainder of the war. 
He took a prominent part in the defeat of the 
combined forces of Syphax and Hasdrubal, and in 
conjunction with Laelius he reduced Cirta, the 
capital of Syphax. Among the captives that fell 
into their hands on this occasion was Sophonisba, 
the wife of Syphax, and the same who had been 
formerly promised in marriage to Masinissa himself. 
The story of his hasty marriage with her, and its 
tragical termination, is related elsewhere. [So- 
phonisba.] In the decisive battle of Zama (202), 
Masinissa commanded the cavalry of the right 
wing, and contributed in no small degree to the 
successful result of the day. On the conclusion of 
the final peace between Rome and Carthage, he 
was rewarded with the greater part of the terri- 
tories which had belonged to Syphax, in addition 
to his hereditary dominions. For the next 50 years 
Masinissa reigned in peace, though constantly 
making aggressions upon the Carthaginian territory. 
At length in 150 he declared open war against 
Carthage, and these hostilities led to the outbreak 
of the 3rd Punic war. Masinissa died in the 2nd 
year of the war, 148. From this time till the 
commencement of the 3rd Punic war there elapsed 
an interval of more than 50 years, during the 
whole of which period Masinissa continued to 
reign with undisputed authority over the countries 
thus subjected to his rule. On his deathbed he 
had sent for Scipio Africanus the younger, at that 
time serving in Africa as a military tribune, but 
he expired before his arrival, leaving it to the 
young officer to settle the affairs of his kingdom. 
He died at the advanced age of 90, having retained 
in an extraordinary degree iiis bodily strength and 
activity to the last, so that in the war against the 
Carthaginians, only 2 years before, he not only 
commanded his army in person, but was able to go 
through all his military exercises with the agility 
and vigour of a young man. His character has 
been extolled by the Roman writers far beyond 
his true merits. He possessed indeed unconquerable 
energy and fortitude ; but he was faithless to the 
Carthaginians as soon as fortune began to turn 
against them; and though he afterwards continued 
steady to the cause of the Romans, it was because 
he found it uniforml)' his interest to do so. He 
was the father of a very numerous family; but it 
appears that 3 only of his legitimate sons survived 
him, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa. Between 
these 3 the kingdom was portioned out by Scipio, 
according to the dying directions of the old king. 

Masius Mens (Vb Mdcnou 6pos : Karajeh Dagh), 
a mountain chain in the N. of Mesopotamia, be- 
tween the upper course of the Tigris and the 
Euphrates, running from the main chain of the 
Taurus S.E. along the border of Mygdonia. 

Maso, C. Papirius, consul b. c. 231, carried on 
war against the Corsicans, whom he subdued ; and 
from the booty obtained in this war, he dedicated a 
temple to Fons. Maso was the maternal grandfather 
of Scipio Africanus the younger, his daughter Pa- 
piria marrying Aemilius Paulus. 

Massa, Baebius, or Bebius, was accused by 
Pliny the younger and Herennius Senec'o, of plun- 
dering the province of Baetica, of whi.h he had 
been governor, a. d. 93. He was condenmed, but 
escaped punishment by the fri'-our of Domitian 

B E 3 



MASSAESYLI. 



MATISCO. 



and from this time he became one of the informers 
and favourites of the tj-rant. 

Massaesyli or -ii. [Mauretania: Numidia.] 
Massaga (to ^Idaaaya), the capital city of the 
Indian people Assaceni. 

Massagetae (Mao-o- 076x01), a wild and warlike 
people of Central Asia, in Scythia intra Imaiim, 
N. of the Jaxartes (the Araxes of Herodotus) 
and the /Sea of Aral, and on the peninsula between 
this lake and the Caspian. Their country corre- 
sponds to that of the Kirghiz Tartars in the N. of 
Independent Tartary. Some of the ancient geo- 
graphers give them a greater extent towards the 
S.E., and Herodotus appears to include under the 
name all the nomad tribes of Asia E. of the 
Caspian. They appear to have been of the Turko- 
man race ; their manners and customs resembled 
those of the Scythians in general ; but they had 
some peculiarities, such as the killing and eating 
of their aged people. Their chief appearance in 
ancient history is in connection with the expedi- 
tion undertaken against them by Cyrus the Great, 
in which C}nnis was defeated and slain. [Cyrus.] 

Massani (Macrcavoi), a people of India intra 
Gangem, on the lower course of the Indus, near 
the Island of Pattalene. 

Massicus Mons, a mountain in the N. W. of 
Campania near the frontiers of Latium, celebrated 
for its excellent wine, the produce of the vineyards 
on the southern slope of the mountain. The cele- 
brated Falernian wine came from the eastern side 
of this mountain. 

Massicytus or Massicytes (Mao-i/cwrTjs), one 
of the principal mountain chains of LvciA. 

Massilia (MacrcraAi'a : 'Nlacrcra'KiwTTis, Massili- 
ensis : Marseilles), a Greek city in Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, on the coast of the Mediterranean, in the 
country of the Salyes. It was situated on a pro- 
montory, which was connected with the mainland 
by a narrow isthmus, and was washed on 3 sides 
by the sea. Its excellent harbour, called Lacydon, 
was formed by a small inlet of the sea,, about half 
a mile long, and a quarter of a mile broad. This 
harbour had only a narrow opening, and before it 
lay an island, where ships had good anchorage. 
Massilia was founded by the Phocaeans of Asia 
Minor about B. c. 600, and soon became a very 
flourishing city. It extended its dominion over 
the barbarous tribes in its neighbourhood, and 
planted several colonies on the coast of Gaul and 
Spain, such as Antipolis, Nicaea and Empo- 
rium. Its naval power and commercial greatness 
Soon excited the jealousy of the Carthaginians, 
who made war upon the city, but the Massilians 
not only maintained their independence, but de- 
feated the Carthaginians in a sea-fight. At an 
early period they cultivated the friendship of the 
Romans, to whom they always continued faithful 
allies. Accordingly when the S. E. corner of Gaul 
was made a Roman province, the Romans allowed 
Massilia to retain its independence and its own 
constitution. This constitution was aristocratic. 
The city was governed by a senate of 600 persons 
called Timnchi. From these were selected 15 
presidents, v/ho formed a sort of committee for 
carrying on the ordinary business of the govern- 
ment, and 3 of these were intrusted Avith the 
executive power. The inhabitants retained the 
religious rites of their mother country, and they 
cultivated with especial reverence the" worship of 
the Ephesian Artemis or Diana. Massilia was for | 



many centuries one of the most important com- 
mercial cities in the ancient world. In the civil 
war between Caesar and Pompey (b. c. 49), it 
espoused the cause of the latter, but after a pro- 
tracted siege, in which it lost its fleet, it was obliged 
to submit to Caesar. From the effects of this blow 
it never fully recovered. Its inhabitants had long 
paid attention to literature and philosoph}' ; and 
under the early emperors it became one of the chief 
seats of learning, to which the sons of many illus- 
trious Romans resorted to complete their studies. 
— The modem Marseilles occupies the site of the 
ancient town, but contains no remains of ancient 
buildings. 

Massiva. 1. A Numidian, grandson of Gala, 
king of the Massylians, and nephew of Masinissa, 
whom he accompanied into Spain. — 2. Son of 
Gulussa, and grandson of Masinissa, was assassi- 
nated at Rome by order of Jugurtha, because he 
had put in his claim to the kingdom of Numidia. 
Massurius Sabinus. [Sabinus.] 
Massyli or -ii. [Mauretania : Numidia.] 
Mastanabal or Manastabal, the youngest of 
the 3 legitimate sons of Masinissa, between whom 
the kingdom of Numidia was divided by Scipio 
after the death of the aged king (b. c. 148). He 
died before his brother Micipsa, and left 2 sons, 
Jugurtha and Gauda. 

Mastaura (ra MaaTavpa: Mastaura-Kalesi, 
Ru.), a cityof Lydia on the borders of Caria, near 
Nysa. 

Mastramela, a town on the S. coast of Gallia 
Narbonensis, E. of the Rhone, and a lake of the 
same name, called by Mela Avatieorum stagnum. 

Mastusia. 1. The S. W. point of the Thracian 
Chersonesus, opposite Sigeum. — 3. A mountain of 
Lydia, on the S. slope of which Smyrna lay. 

Maternus, Curiatius, a Roman rhetorician and 
tragic poet, one of the speakers in the Dialogus de 
Oratorihus ascribed to Tacitus. 

Maternus Firmicus. [Firmicus.] 

Matho. 1. One of the leaders of the Cartha- 
ginian mercenaries in their war against Carthage, 
after the conclusion of the 1st Punic war, b. c. 241. 
He was eventually taken prisoner, and put to 
death. — 2. A pompous blustering advocate, ridi- 
culed by Juvenal and Martial. 

Matho, Pomponius. 1. M'., consul b. c. 233, 
carried on war against the Sardinians, whom he 
defeated. In 217 he was niagister equitum ; in 
216 praetor ; and in 215 propraetor in Cisalpine 
Gaul. — 2. M., brother of the preceding, consul 
231, also carried on war against the Sardinians. 
He was likewise praetor in 217. He died in 204. 
— 3. M., probably son of No. 2., aedile 206, and 
praetor 204, with Sicily as his province. 

Matiana (ManavT?, Manavoi^ -V^V, -rj^'o'i, 
Herod.), the S.W.-most district of Media Atropa- 
tene, along the mountains separating Media from 
Assyria, which were also called Matiani. The 
great salt lake of Spaura {Mariavii A'iixvt} : Lake 
of Urmi) was in this district. Herodotus also 
mentions a people on the Halys in Asia Minor by 
the name of Matieni. 

Matinus, a mountain in Apulia, running out 
into the sea, Avas one of the ofi'shoots of Mt. Gar- 
ganus, and is frequently mentioned by Horace in 
consequence of his being a native of Apulia. 

Matisco {Magon), a town of the Aedui in 
Gallia Lugdunensis on the Arar, and on the road 
from Lugdunum to Augustodunum. 



MATIUS. 



MAUSOLUS. 



423 



Matius Calvena, C, a Roman eques, and a 
friend of Caesar and Cicero. After Caesar's death 
he espoused the side of Octavianus, with whom he 
became very intimate. 

Matron (Mdrpcov), of Pitana, a celebrated 
writer of parodies upon Homer, probably lived a 
little before the time of Philip of Macedon. 

Matrona (Marae), a river in Gaul, which formed 
the boundary between Gallia Lugdunensis and 
Belgica, and which falls into the Sequana, a little 
S. of Parjs. 

Mattiaci, a people in Germany, who dwelt on the 
E. bank of the Rhine, between the Main and the 
Lahn, and were a branch of the Chatti. They 
were subdued by the Romans, who, in the reign 
of Claudius, had fortresses and silver-mines in their 
country. After the death of Nero they revolted 
against the Romans and took part with the Chatti 
and other German tribes in the siege of Mognnti- 
acum. From this time they disappear from history; 
and their country was subsequently inhabited by 
the Alemanni. Their chief towns were Aquae 
Mattia.cae (Wiesbaden), and Mattiacum (Marburg), 
which must not be confounded with Mattium, the 
capital of the Chatti. 

Mattium (Maden), the chief town of the Chatti, 
situated on the Adrana (Eder), was destroyed by 
Germanicus. 

Matiita, commonly called Mater Matuta, is 
usually considered as the goddess of the dawn of 
morning, and her name is considered to be con- 
nected with maturus or viatutinus. It seems, how- 
ever, to be well attested that Matuta was only a 
surname of Juno ; and it is probable that the 
name is connected with mater, so that Mater 
Matuta is an analogous expression with Hostus 
Hostilius, Faunus Fatuus, Aius Locutius, and 
others. Her festival, the Matralia, was celebrated 
on the 11th of June (Did. of Ant. art. Matralia). 
The Rom-ans identified Matuta with the Greek 
Leiicothea. A temple was dedicated to Matuta 
at Rome by king Servius, and was restored by the 
dictator Camillus, after the taking of Veii. There 
was also a temple of Matuta at Satricum. 

Mauretama or Mauritania (v Mavpovaia: 
MavpovcTLoi, MavpoL, Maiu-i), the W.-most of the 
principal divisions of N. Africa, lay between the 
Atlantic on the W., the Mediterranean on the N., 
Numidia on the E., and Gaetulia on the S. ; but 
the districts embraced under the names of Maure- 
tania and Numidia respectively were of very dif- 
ferent extent at different periods. The earliest 
known inhabitants of all N. Africa W. of the 
Syrtes were the Gaetulians, Avho were displaced 
and driven inland by peoples of Asiatic origin, 
who are found, in the earliest historical accounts, 
settled along the N. coast under various names ; 
their chief tribes being the Mauri or Maurusii, 
W. of the river Malva or Malucha (Muluia or 
Molialou) ; thence the Massaesylii to (or nearly 
to) the river Ampsaga ( Wady-el-Kebir), and the 
Massylii between the Ampsaga and the Tusca 
{Wady-Zain), the W. boundary of the Carthagi- 
nian territory. Of these people, the Mauri, who 
possessed a greater breadth of fertile country be- 
tween the Atlas and the coasts, seem to have ap- 
plied themselves more to the settled pursuits of 
agriculture than their kindred neighbours on the 
E., whose unsettled warlike habits were moreover 
confirmed by their greater exposure to the in- 
trusions of the Phoenician settlers. Hence arose 



a difference, which the Greeks marked by apply- 
ing the general name of No^aSes to the tribes 
between the Malva and the Tusca ; whence came 
the Roman names of Numidia for the district, and 
Numidae for its people. [Numidia.] Thus 
Mauretania was at first only the country W. of 
the Malva, and corresponded to the later district 
of Mauretania Tingitana, and to the modern em- 
pire of Marocco, except that the latter extends 
further S. ; the ancient boundary on the S. was 
the Atlas. The Romans first became acquainted 
with the country during the war with Jugurtha, 
B. c. 106 ; of their relations with it, till it became 
a Roman province, about 33, an account is given 
under Bocchus. During this period the kingdom 
of Mauretania had been increased by the addition 
of the W. part of Numidia, as far as Saldae, 
which Julius Caesar bestowed on Bogud, as a re- 
ward for his services in the African war. A new 
arrangement was made about 25, when Augustus 
gave Mauretania to Juba II., in exchange for his 
paternal kingdom of Numidia. Upon the murder 
of Juba's son, Ptolemaeus, by Caligula (a. d. 40), 
Mauretania became finally a Roman province, and 
was formally constituted as such by Claudius, 
who added to it nearly half of what was still left 
of Numidia, namely, as far as the Ampsaga, and 
divided it into 2 parts, of which the W. was called 
Tingitana, from its capital Tingis (7bi??^2er),and the 
E. Caesariensis from its capital Julia Caesarea (Zer- 
shell), the boundary between them being the river 
jMalva, the old limit of the kingdom of Bocchus I. 
The latter corresponded to the W. and central part 
of the modern regency (and now French colony) 
of Algiers. These " Mauretaniae duae " were 
governed by an equestrian procurator. In the 
later division of the empire under Diocletian and 
Constantine, the E. part of M. Caesariensis, from 
Saldae to the Ampsaga, was erected into a new 
province, and called M. Sitifensis from the inland 
town of Sitifi (Setif) ; at the same time the W. 
province, M. Tingitana, seems to have been placed 
under the same government as Spain, so that we 
still find mention of the " Mauretaniae duae," 
meaning now, however, Caesariensis and Sitifensis. 
From A. D. 429 to 534 Mauretania was in the 
hands of the Vandals, and in 650 and the follow- 
ing years it was conquered by the Arabs. Its 
ancient inhabitants still exist as powerful tribes in 
Marocco and Algier, under the names of Berbers, 
Scliillzis, Kalyles, and Tuarihs. Its chief physical 
features are described under Africa and Atlas. 
Under the later Roman emperors it was remark- 
able for the great number of its episcopal sees. 

Mauri. [Mauretania.] 

Mauricianus, Junius, a Roman jurist, lived 
under Antonius Pius (a. d, 138 — 161). His works 
are cited a few times in the Digest. 

Ma,uricus, Junius, an intimate friend of Pliny, 
was banished by Domitian, but recalled from exile 
by Nerva, 
" Mauritania. [Mauretania.] 

Maurus, Terentianus. [Terentianus.] 

Maurusii. [Mauretania.] 

Mausolus (MavaooXos or MavacrcaXos), king of 
Caria, was the eldest son of Hecatomnus, whom he 
succeeded in the sovereignty, b. c. 377. In 362 
he took part in the general revolt of the satraps 
against Artaxerxes Mnemon, and availed himself of 
that opportunity to extend his dominions. In 358 
he joined with the Rhodians and others in the 

E E 4 



424 



MAYORS. 



MAXIMINUS. 



war waged by them against the Athenians, known I 
by the name of the Social war. He died in 
353, leaving no children, and was succeeded by 
his wife and sister Artemisia. The extravagant 
grief of the latter for his death, and the honours 
she paid to his memory — especially by the erec- 
tion of the costly monument, which was called 
from him the Mausoleum — are related elsewhere. 
[Artemisia.] 
Mavors. [Mars.] 

Maxentms, Roman emperor a. d. 306 — 312, 
whose fall name was M. Aurelius Valerius Max- 
entius. Jle was the son of jMaximianus and Eu- 
tropia, and received in marriage the daughter of 
Galerius ; but he was passed over in the division 
of the empire which followed the abdication of his 
father and Diocletian in a. d. 305. Maxentius, 
however, did not tamely acquiesce in this arrange- 
ment, and, being supported by the praetorian troops, 
who had been recently deprived of their exclusive 
privileges, he was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 
306. He summoned his father, Maximianus, from 
his retirement in Lucania, who again assumed the 
purple. The military abilities of Maximianus were 
of great service to his son, who was of indolent and 
dissolute habits. Maximianus compelled the Caesar 
Severus, who had marched upom Rome, to retreat 
in haste to Ravenna, and soon afterwards put the 
latter to death when he had treacherously got him 
into his power (307). The emperor Galerius now 
marched in person against Rome, but Maximianus 
compelled him likewise to retreat. Maxentius, re- 
lieved from these imminent dangers, proceeded to 
disentangle himself from the control which his 
father sought to exercise, and succeeded in driving 
him from his court. Soon afterwards Maxentius 
crossed over to Africa, which he ravaged with fire 
and sword, because it had submitted to the inde- 
pendent authority of a certain Alexander. Upon 
his return to Rome Maxentius openly aspired to 
dominion over all the Western provinces ; and soon 
afterwards declared war against Constantine, alleg- 
ing, as a pretext, that the latter had put to death his 
father Maximianus. He began to make preparations 
to pass into Gaul ; but Constantine anticipated his 
movements, and invaded Italy. The struggle was 
brought to a close by the defeat of Maxentius at 
Saxa Rubra near Rome, October 27th, 31 2. Max- 
entius tried to escape over the Milvian bridge into 
Rome, but perished in the river. Maxentius is 
represented by all historians as a monster of ra- 
pacity, cruelty^ and lust. The only favoured class 
was the military, upon whom he depended for 
safety ; and in order to secure their devotion and 
to gratify his own passions, all his other subjects 
were made the victims of the most revolting li- 
centiousness, and ruined by the most grinding 
exactions. 

Masilua, a town in Hispania Baetica, where 
bricks were made so light as to swim upon water. 
See Calentusi. 

Maxima Caesariensis. [Britannia, p. 126.] 

Maximianopolis, previously called Porsulae, a 
town in Thrace on the Via Egnatia, E. of Abdera, 
probably the same place as the town called Mosy- 
nopolis (MoawovTToXLs) by the Byzantine witers. 

Maximianopolis (Ma^i]jLiavov7ro\is : 0. T. Hadad 
Rimmon), a city of Palestine, in the valley of 
Megiddo, a little to the S.W. of Megiddo. 

Maximianus. I. Roman emperor, a. d. 286 — 
S05, whose full name was M. Aurelius Valerius 



Maximianus. He was bom of humble parents in 
Pannonia, and had acquired such fame by hia 
services in the arm)-, that Diocletian selected this 
rough soldier for his colleague, as one whose abi- 
lities were likely to prove valuable in the disturbed 
state of public affairs, and accordingly created him 
first Caesar (285), and then Augustus (286), con- 
ferring at the same time the honorary appellation 
of Herculius, while he himself assumed that of 
Jovius. The subsequent history of Maximian has 
been fully detailed in former articles. [Diocle- 
TIANUS : CONSTANTINUS I.: Maxentius.] It 
is sufficient to relate here, that after having been 
reluctantly compelled to abdicate, at Milan (305), 
he was again invested with the imperial title by 
his son Maxentius, in the following year (306), 
to whom he rendered the most important services 
in the Avar with Severus and Galerius. Having 
been expelled from Rome shortly afterwards by 
his son, he took refuge in Gaul with Constantine, 
to whom he had previously given his daughter 
Fausta in marriage. Here he again attempted to 
resume the imperial throne, but was easily deposed 
by Constantine (308). Two years afterwards, he 
endeavoured to induce his daughter Fausta to de- 
stroy her husband, and was in consequence com- 
pelled by Constantine to put an end to his own 
life. — II., Roman emperor, a. d. 305 — 311» 
usually called Galerius. His full name was G-a- 
lerius Valerius Maximianus. He was born near 
Sardica in Dacia, and was the son of a shepherd. 
He rose from the ranks to the highest commands in 
the army, and was appointed Caesar by Diocletian, 
along with Constantius Chlorus, in 292. At the 
same time he was adopted by Diocletian, whose 
daughter Valeria he received in marriage, and Avas 
entrusted with the command of lllyria and Thrace. 
In 297 he undertook an expedition against the 
Persian monarch Narses, in which he was unsuc- 
cessful, but in the following year (298) he defeated 
Narses with great slaughter, and compelled him to 
conclude a peace. Upon the abdication of Dio- 
cletian and Maximian (305), Galerius became 
Augustus or emperor. In 307 he made an unsuc- 
cessful attempt to recover Italy, which had owned 
the authority of the usurper Maxentius. [Max- 
entius.] He died in 311, of the disgusting dis- 
ease, knowTi in modern times by the name of 
morbus pediculosus. He was a cruel persecutor 
of the Christians ; and it was at his instigation 
that Diocletian issued the fatal ordinance (303), 
which for so many years deluged the world with 
innocent blood. 

Maximinus. I., Roman emperor a. d. 235 — 
238. whose full name was C. Julius Verus Maxi- 
minus. He was born in a village on the confines 
of Thrace, of barbarian parentage, his father being 
a Goth, and his mother a German from the tribe 
of the Alani. Brought up as a shepherd, he at- 
tracted the attention of Septimius Severus, by his 
gigantic stature and marvellous feats of strength, 
and was permitted to enter the army. He even- 
tually rose to the highest rank in the service ; and 
on the murder of Alexander Severus by the mu- 
tinous troops in Gaul (235), he Avas proclaimed 
emperor. He immediately bestowed the title of 
Caesar on his son Alaximus. During the 3 years 
of his reign he carried on war against the Germans 
with success ; but his government w^as characterised 
bj'- a degree of oppression and sanguinary excess 
hitherto unexampled. The Roman world became 



MAXIMUS. 



MAXIMUS. 



425 



at lengtli tired of this monster. The senate and 
the provinces gladly acknowledged the 2 Gordiani, 
who had been proclaimed emperors in Africa ; and 
after their deatli the senate itself proclaimed Maxi- 
mus and Balbinus emperors (238). As soon as 
Maxiniinus heard of the elevation of the Gordians, 
he hastened from his winter-quarters as Sirmium. 
Having crossed the Alps he laid siege to Aquileia, 
and was there slain by his own soldiers along with 
his son Maximus, in April. The most extraordinary 
tales are related of the physical powers of Maxi- 
niinus, which seem to have been almost incre- 
dible. His height exceeded 8 feet. The circum- 
ference of his thumb was equal to that of a woman's 
wrist, so that the bracelet of his wife served him 
for a ring. It is said, that he Avas able single- 
handed to drag a loaded waggon, could with his 
fist knock out the grinders, and with a kick break 
the leg of a horse ; while his appetite was such, 
that in one day he could eat 40 pounds of meat, and 
drink an amphora of wine. — II., Roman emperor 
305 — 314, originally called Daza,and subsequently 
Galerius Valerius Maximinus. He Avas the 
nephew of Galerius by a sister, and in early life 
followed the occupation of a shepherd in his native 
Illyria. Having entered the army, he rose to the 
highest rank in the service ; and upon the abdi- 
cation of Diocletian in 305, he was adopted by 
Galerius and received the title of Caesar. In 308 
Galerius gave him the title of Augustus ; and on the 
death of the latter in 311, Maximinus and Licinius 
divided the East between them. In 313 Maximinus 
attacked the dominions of Licinius, who had gone to 
Milan, for the purpose of receiving in marriage the 
sister of Constantine. He was, however, defeated by 
Licinius near Heraclea, and fled to Tarsus, where he 
soon after died. Maximinus possessed no military 
talents. He owed his elevation to his family con- 
nection. He surpassed all his contemporaries in the 
profligacy of his private life, in the general cruelty 
of his administration, and in the furious hatred with 
which he persecuted the Christians. 

Maximus. 1. Of Ephesus or Smyrna, one of the 
teachers of the emperor Julian, to whom he was 
introduced by Aedesius. Maximus was a philoso- 
pher of the New Platonic school, and, like many 
others of that school, both believed in and practised 
magic. It is said that Julian through his persuasion 
was induced to abjure Christianity. On the ac- 
cession of Julian, Maximus was held in high 
honour at the court, and accompanied the emperor 
on his fatal expedition against the Persians, which 
he had prophesied would be successful. In 364 he 
was accused of having caused by sorcery the illness 
of the emperors Valens and Valentinian, and was 
thrown into prison, where he was exposed to cruel 
tortures. He owed his liberation to the philosopher 
Themistius. In 371 Maximus was accused of 
taking part in a conspiracy against Valens, and was 
put to death. — 3. Of Epirus, or perhaps of By- 
zantium, was also an instructor of the emperor 
Julian in philosophy and heathen theology. He 
wrote in Greek, De insolubilibus Oppositionibus, 
published by H. Stephanus, Paris, 1554, appended 
to the edition of Dionysius Halicarnassus, as well 
as other works. 

Maximus, Fabius. — 1. Q. Fabius Maximus 
Rullianus, was the son of M. Fabius Ambustus, 
consul B. c. 360. Fabius was master of the horse 
to the dictator L. Papirius Cursor in 325, whose 
anger he incurred by giving battle to the Samnites 



during the dictator's absence, and contrary to his 
orders. Victory availed Fabius nothing in excul- 
pation. A hasty flight to Rome, where the senate, 
the people, and his aged father interceded for him 
with Papirius, barely rescued his life, but could 
not avert his degradation from office. In 322 
Fabius obtained his first consulship. It was the 
2nd year of the 2nd Samnite Avar, and Fabius Avas 
the most eminent of the Roman generals in that 
long and arduous struggle for the empire of Italy. 
Yet nearly all authentic traces are lost of the seat 
and circumstances of his numerous campaigns. His 
defeats have been suppressed or extenuated ; and 
the achievements of others ascribed to him alone. 
In 315 he Avas dictator, and Avas completely de- 
feated by the Samnites at Lautulae. In 310 he 
was consul for the 2nd time, and carried on the 
Avar against the Etruscans. In 308 he Avas consul 
a 3rd time, and is said to have defeated the Sam- 
nites and Umbrians. He Avas censor in 304, Avhen 
he seems to have confined the libertini to the 4 
city tribes, and to have increased the political im- 
portance of the equites. In 297 he Avas consul for 
the 5th time, and in 296 for the 6th time. In the 
latter year he commanded at the great battle of 
Sentinum, Avhen the combined armies of the Sam- 
nites, Gauls, Etruscans, and Umbrians, Avere de- 
feated by the Romans. — 2. Q. Fabius Maximus 
Gurges, or the Glutton, from the dissoluteness of 
his youth, son of the last. His mature manhood 
atoned for his early irregularities. He Avas consul 
292, and Avas completely defeated by the Pentrian 
Samnites. He escaped degradation from the con- 
sulate, only through his father's offer to serve as 
his lieutenant for the remainder of the Avar. In a 
2nd battle the consul retrieved his reputation, and 
was reAvarded Avith a triumph of which the most 
remarkable feature Avas old Fabius riding beside 
his son's chariot. He Avas consul the 2nd time 276. 
Shortly afterwards he Avent as legatus from the 
senate to Ptolem}'- Philadelphus, king of Egypt. 
He Avas consul a 3rd time, 265. — 3. Q. Fabius 
Maximus, Avith the agnomens Verrucosus, from a 
Avart on his upper lip, Ovicula, or the Lamb, from 
the mildness or apathy of his temper, and Cunc- 
tator, from his caution in war, Avas grandson of 
Fabius Gurges. He Avas consul for the 1st time 
233, Avhen Liguria Avas his province ; censor 230; 
consul a 2nd time 228; opposed the agrarian law 
of C. Flaminius 227; Avas dictator for holding the 
comitia in 221 ; and in 218 was legatus from the 
senate to Carthage, to demand reparation for the 
attack on Saguntum. In 217, immediately after 
the defeat at Thrasymenus, Fabius was appointed 
dictator. From this period, so long as the Avar Avith 
Hannibal was merely defensive, Fabius became 
the leading man at Rome. On taking the field he 
laid doAvn a simple and immutable plan of action. 
He avoided all direct encounter Avith the enemj'-; 
moved his camp from highland to highland, Avhere 
the Numidian horse and Spanish infantry could 
not folloAV him ; Avatched Hannibal's movements 
Avith unrelaxing vigilance, and cut off his stragglers 
and foragers. His enclosure of Hannibal in one of 
the upland A-alleys between Cales and the Vultur- 
nus, and the Carthaginian's adroit escape by 
driving oxen with blazing faggots fixed to their horns, 
up the hill-sides, are well-knoAvn facts. But at 
Rome and in his OAA'n camp the caution of Fabius 
Avas misinterpreted; and the people in consequence 
I divided the command between him and M. Miau- 



426 



MAXIMUS. 



MEDEA. 



cius Ruflis, his master of the horse. Minucius was 
speedily entrapped, and would have been destroyed 
by Hannibal, had not Fabius generously hastened 
to his rescue. Fabius was consul for the 3rd time 
in 215, and for the 4th time in 214. In 213 he 
served as legatus to his own son, Q. Fabius, consul 
in that year, and an anecdote is preserved which 
exemplifies tlie strictness of the Roman discipline. 
On entering the camp at Suessula, Fabius advanced 
on horseback to greet his son. He was passing 
the lictors when the consul sternly bade him dis- 
mount. " My son," exclaimed the elder Fabius 
alighting, " I wished to see whether you would 
remember that you Avere consul." Fabius was 
consul for the 5th time in 209, in which year he 
retook Tarentum. In the closing years of the 2nd 
Punic war Fabius appears to less advantage. The 
war had become aggressive under a new race of 
generals. Fabius disapproved of the new tactics; he 
dreaded the political supremacy of Scipio, and was 
his uncompromising opponent in his scheme of in- 
vading Africa. He died in 203. -=-4. Q. Fabius 
Maximus, elder son of the preceding, was praetor 
214 and consul 213. He was legatus to the consul 
M. Livius Salinator 207. He died soon after this 
period, and his funeral oration was pronounced by 
his father.— 5. Q. Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, 
was by birth the eldest son of L. Aemilius Paulus, 
the conqueror of Perseus, and Avas adopted by 
No, 3. Fabius served under his father (Aemilius) 
in the Macedonian war, 168, and was despatched 
by him to Rome with the news of his victory at 
Pydna. He was praetor in Sicily 149 — 148, and 
consul in 145. Spain was his province, where he 
encountered, and at length defeated Viriathus. 
Fabius was the pupil and patron of the historian 
Polybius.— 6. Q. Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus, 
son of the last. He was consul 121 ; and he derived 
his surname from the victory which he gained in 
this year over the Allobroges and their ally, Bitui- 
tus, king of the Arverni in Gaul. He Avas censor 
in 108. He was an orator and a man of letters. 
— 7. Q. Fabius Maximus Servilianus, Avas 
adopted from the gens Servilia, by No. 5. He Avas 
uterine brother of Cn. Servilius Caepio, consul in 
141. He himself Avas consul in 142, Avhen he 
carried on Avar with Viriathus. 

Maximus, Magnus Clemens, Roman emperor, 
A. D. 383—388, in Gaul, Britain, and Spain, Avas 
a native of Spain. He AA^as proclaimed emperor by 
the legions in Britain in 383, and forthwith crossed 
over to Gaul to oppose Gratian, Avho Avas defeated 
by Maximus, and Avas shortly afterwards put to 
death. Theodosius found it expedient to recognise 
Maximus as emperor of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, 
in order to secure Valentinian in the possession of 
Italy. Maximus however aspired to the undivided 
empire of the West, and accordingly in 387 he 
invaded Italy at the head of a formidable army. 
Valentinian Avas unable to resist him, and fled to 
Theodosius in the East. Theodosius forthwith 
prepared to avenge his colleague. In 388 he forced 
his Avay through the Noric Alps, Avhich had been 
guarded by the troops of Maximus, and shortly 
afterwards took the city of Aquileia by storm and 
there put Maximus to death. Victor, the son of 
Maximus, Avas defeated and slain in Gaul by Ar- 
bogates, the general of Theodosius. 

Maximus, Petronius, Roman emperor, a.d. 
455, belonged to a noble Roman family, and en- 
joyed some of the highest offices of state under 



Honorius and Valentinian III. In consequence of 
the violence offered to his wife by Valentinian, 
Maximus formed a conspiracy against this emperor, 
Avho Avas assassinated, and Maximus himself pro- 
claimed emperor in his stead. His reign however 
lasted only 2 or 3 months. Having forced Eudoxia, 
the AvidoAv of Valentinian, to marry him, she re- 
solved to avenge the death of her former husband, 
and accordingly Genseric was invited to invade 
Italy. When Genseric landed at the mouth of 
the Tiber, Maximus prepared to fly from Rome, 
but Avas slain by a band of Burgundian mercena- 
ries, commanded by some old officers of Valentinian. 

Maximus Planudes. [Planudes.] 

Maximus Tyrius, a native of Tyre, a Greek 
rhetorician and Platonic philosopher, lived during 
the reigns of the Antonines and of Commodus. 
Some writers suppose that he Avas one of the tutors 
of M. Aurelius; but it is more probable that he 
Avas a different person from Claudius Maximus, 
the Stoic, Avho was the tutor of this emperor. 
Maximus Tyrius appears to have spent the greater 
part of his life in Greece, but he visited Rome 
once or tAvice. There are extant 41 Dissertations 
(A^aAe|6is or Ao-yoi) of Maximus Tyrius on theo- 
logical, ethical, and other philosophical subjects, 
Avritten in an easy and pleasing style, but not 
characterised by much depth of thought. The best 
edition is by Reiske, Lips. 1774 — 5, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Maximus, Valerius. [Valerius.] 

Maxula. [Ades.] 

Maxyes (Md|i;€j), a people of N. Africa, on 
the coast of the Lesser Syrtis, on the W. bank of 
the river Triton, who claimed descent from the 
Trojans. They allowed their hair to grow only 
on the left side of the head, and they painted their 
bodies Avith vermilion ; customs still preserved by 
some tribes in the same regions. 

Mazaca. [Caesarea, No, 1.] 

Mazara {MaQdpa: Ma^apoouos : Mazzara), a 
town on the W. coast of Sicily, situated on a river 
of the same name, between Lilybaeum and Selinus, 
and founded by the latter city, was taken by the 
Romans in the 1st Punic Avar. 

Mazices (Maff/ces), a people of N. Africa, in 
Mauretania Caesariensis, on the S. slope of M. 
Zalacus. They, as Avell as the Maxyes, are 
thought to be the ancestors of the Amazirglis. 

Mecybema (Mr]Kv§€pva : Mr]Kv€ipua7os : Molivo), 
a town of Macedonia inChalcidice,atthe head of the 
Toronaic gulf, E, of Olynthus, of A\-hich it was the 
seaport. From this town part of the Toronaic 
gulf was subsequently called Sinus Mecybernaeus. 

Medaba (Mi^Saga), a city of Peraea in Palestine. 

Medama, Medma, or Mesma, a Greek toAvn on 
the W. coast of Bruttium, founded by the Locrians, 
with a celebrated fountain and a harbour, called 
Emporium. 

Medaura, Ad Medera, or Amedera {Ayedrah, 
Ra.), a flourishing city of N. Africa, on the 
borders of Numidia and Byzacena, between Lares 
and Theveste ; a Roman colony ; and the birth- 
place of Appuleius. 

Medea (MTjSeja), daughter of Aeetes, king of 
Colchis, by the Oceanid Idyia, or, according to 
others, by Hecate, the daughter of Perses. She 
was celebrated for her skill in magic. The prin- 
cipal parts of her story are given under Absyr- 
Tus, Argonautae, and Jason. It is sufficient 
to state here that, Avhen Jason came to Colchis to 
fetch the golden fleece, she fell in love Avith the 



MEDEON. 



MEDIOLANUM. 



427 



hero, assisted him in accomplishing the object for 
which he had visited Colchis, and afterwards fled 
with him as his Avife to Greece ; that having been 
deserted by Jason for the youthful daughter of 
Creon, king of Corinth, she took fearful vengeance 
upon her faithless spouse by murdering the two 
children which she had had by him, and by de- 
stroying his young wife by a poisoned garment ; 
and that she then fled to Athens in a chariot drawn 
by winged dragons. So far her story has been re- 
lated elsewhere. At Athens she is said to have 
married king Aegeus, or to have been beloved by 
Sisyphus. Zeus himself is said to have sued for 
her, but in vain, because Medea dreaded the anger 
of Hera ; and the latter rewarded her by promis- 
ing immortality to her children. Her children are, 
according to some accounts, Mermerus, Pheres, or 
Thessalus, Alcimenes, and Tisander ; according to 
others, she had 7 sons and 7 daughters, while 
others mention only 2 children, Medus (some call 
him Polyxenus) and Eriopis, or one son Argus. 
Respecting her flight from Corinth, there are diff"e- 
rent traditions. Some say, as we remarked above, 
that she fled to Athens and married Aegeus, but 
when it was discovered that she had laid snares for 
Theseus, she escaped and went to Asia, the inha- 
bitants of which were called after her Medes. 
Others relate that she first fled from Corinth to 
Hercules at Thebes, who had promised her his as- 
sistance while yet in Colchis, in case of Jason being 
unfaithful to her. She cured Hercules, who was 
seized with madness ; and as he could not aff'ord 
her the assistance he had promised, she went to 
Athens. She is said to have given birth to her son 
Medus after her arrival in Asia, where she had 
married a king ; whereas others state that her son 
Medus accompanied her from Athens to Colchis, 
where her son slew Perses, and restored her father 
Aeetes to his kingdom. The restoration of Aeetes, 
however, is attributed by some to Jason, who ac- 
companied Medea to Colchis. At length Medea 
is said to have become immortal, to have been ho- 
noured with divine worship, and to have married 
Achilles in Elysium. 

Medeon (MeSeoSi/: MeZecavios). 1. Or Medion 
{Katuna), a town in the interior of Acarnania, near 
the road which led from Limnaea to Stratos. — - 2. 
A town on the coast of Phocis near Anticyra, de- 
stroyed in the sacred war, and never rebuilt. »-» 3. 
An ancient town in Boeotia, mentioned by Homer, 
situated at the foot of Mt. Phoenicus, near Onches- 
tus and the lake Copais. "=-« 4. A town of the La- 
beates in Dalmatia, near Scodra. 

Media (•^ MTjSfa : MtjSos, Medus), an important 
country of W. Asia, occupying the extreme W. of 
the great table-land of Iran, and lying between 
Armenia on the N. and N.W., Assyria and Su- 
siana on the W. and S.W., Persis on the S., the 
great desert of Aria on the E., and Parthia, 
Hyrcania, and the Caspian on the N.E. Its 
boundaries were, on the N. the Araxes, on the 
W. and S.W. the range of mountains called 
Zagros and Parachoatras {Mts. of Kurdistan and 
Louristan)^ which divided it from the Tigris and 
Euphrates valley, on the E. the Desert, and on 
tlie N.E. the Caspii Montes {Elhurz M.), the 
country between which and the Caspian, though 
reckoned as a part of Media, Avas possessed by 
the Gelae, Mardi, and other independent tribes. 
Media thus corresponded nearly to the modern 
province of Irak-Ajemi. It was for the most part 



a fertile country, producing wine, figs, oranges 
and citrons, and honey, and supporting an excel- 
lent breed of horses. It was well peopled, and 
was altogether one of the most important provinces 
of the ancient Persian empire. After the Mace- 
donian conquest, it was divided into 2 parts, 
Great Media (77 fxeydXr) MtjSi'k), and Atropatene. 
[Atropatene.] The earliest history of Media 
is involved in much obscurity. Herodotus and 
Ctesias (in Diodorus) give different chronologies 
for its early kings. Ctesias makes Arbaces the 
founder of the monarchy, about B. c. 842, and 
reckons 8 kings from him to the overthrow of the 
kingdom by Cyrus. Herodotus reckons only 4 kings 
of Media, namely: 1. Deioces, B.C. 710 — 657 ; 
2. Phraortes, 657—635 ; 3. Cyaxares, 635 
— 595 ; 4. Astyages, 595 — 560. The last king 
was dethroned by a revolution, which trans- 
ferred the supremacy to the Persians, who had 
formerly been the subordinate people in the united 
Medo-Persian empire. [Cyrus.] The Medes made 
more than one attempt to regain their supremacy ; 
the usurpation of the Magian Pseudo-Smerdis 
was no doubt such an attempt [Magi] ; and an- 
other occurred in the reign of Darius II., when 
the Medes revolted, but were soon subdued (b.c. 
408). With the rest of the Persian Empire, 
Media fell under the power of Alexander ; it next 
formed a part of the kingdom of the Seleucidae, 
from whom it was conquered by the Parthians, in 
the 2nd century B. c, from which time it belonged 
to the Parthian, and then to the later Persian 
empire. The people of Media were a branch of 
the Indo -Germanic family, and nearly allied to 
the Persians ; their language was a dialect of the 
Zend, and their religion the Magian. They called 
themselves Arii, which, like the native name of 
the Persians (Artaei) means noble. They were 
divided, according to Herodotus, into 6 tribes, the 
Buzae, Parataceni, Struchates, Arizanti, Budii, and 
Magi. In the early period of their history, they 
were eminent warriors, especially as horse-archers ; 
but the long prevalence of peace, wealth, and luxury 
reduced them to a by- word for effeminancy. — It 
is important to notice the use of the names Medus 
and Medi by the Roman poets, for the nations of 
Asia E. of the Tigris in general, and the Parthians 
in particular. 

Mediae Murus (t^> Mr^Slas KaXovfxevov Te?xos), 
an artificial wall, which ran from the Euphrates 
to the Tigris, at the point where they approach 
nearest, a little above 33° N. lat. and divided 
Mesopotamia from Babylonia. It is described by 
Xenophon (Anab. ii. 4), as being 20 parasangs 
long, 100 feet high, and 20 thick, and as built 
of baked bricks, cemented with asphalt. Its erec- 
tion was ascribed to Semiramis, and hence it was 
also called rh Xeixipd/JLLdos diareix^o'iJ.a. 

Mediolanum (Mediolanensis), more frequently 
called by Greek writers Medioiamum (MeSioAa- 
piov), the name of several cities founded by the 
Celts. 1. (Milan), the capital of the Insubres in 
Gallia Transpadana, was situated in an extensive 
plain between the rivers Ticinus and Addua. It 
was taken by the Romans B. c. 222, and afterwards 
became both a municipium and a colony. On the 
new division of the empire made by Diocletian, it 
became the residence of his colleague Maximianus, 
and continued to be the usual residence of the em- 
perors of the West, till the irruption of Attila, who 
took and plundered the town, induced them to 



428 



MEDIOMATRICI. 



MEGALOPOLIS. 



transfer the seat of crovernment to the more strongly 
fortified town of Ravenna. MedioLanum was at 
tliis time one of the first cities of the empire ; it 
possessed an imperial mint, and was the seat of an 
archbishopric. It is celebrated in ecclesiastical 
history as the see of St. Ambrose. On the fall of 
the Western empire, it became the residence of 
Theodoric the Great and the capital of the Ostro- 
gothic kingdom, and surpassed even Rome itself in 
populousness and prosperity. It received a fearful 
blow in A. D. 539, when, in consequence of having 
sided with Belisarius, it was taken by the Goths 
under Vitiges, a great part of it destroyed, and its 
inhabitants put to the sword. It how^ever gradually 
recovered from the effects of this blow, and was a 
place of importance under the Lombards, Avhose ca- 
pital, however, was Pavia. The modern Milan con- 
tains no remains of antiquity, with the exception of 
16 handsome fluted pillars near the church of S. 
Lorenzo. ~ 2. (Saintes), a town of the Santones 
in Aquitania, N. E. of the mouth of the Garumna ; 
subsequently called Santones after the people, 
whence its modern name. 3. (Chateau Meillan)^ 
a town of the Bituriges Cubi in Aquitania, N. E. 
of the to\\Ti. last mentioned. ~ 4. {Evreux\ a town 
of the Aulerci Eburovices in the N. of Gallia Lug- 
Qunensis, S. of the Sequana, on the road from 
Rotomagus to Lutetia Parisiorum ; subsequently 
called Civitas Ebroicorum, whence its modern name. 
— 5. A town of the Segusiani in the S. of Gallia 
Lugdunensis. — > 6. A town in Gallia Belgica, on 
the road from Colonia Trajana to Colonia Agrippina. 

Mediomatrici, a people in the S.E. of Gallia 
Belgica on the Mosella, S. of the Treviri. Their 
territory originally extended to the Rhine, but in 
the time of Augustus they had been driven from 
the banks of this river by the Vangiones, Nemetes, 
and other German tribes. Their chief town was 
Divodurum (Meiz). 

Mediterraneum Mare. [Internum Mare,] 

Meditrina, a Roman divinity of the art of heal- 
ing, in whose honour the festival of the Meditrinalia 
was celebrated in the month of October. (Did. of 
Ant. art JMeditrinalia.') 

Medma. [Medama.] 

Medoacus or Mediiacus, a river in Venetia in 
the N. of Italy, formed by the union of 2 rivers, 
the Medoacus Major (Brenta) and Medoacus Mi- 
nor (BaccJiifflioJie), which falls into the Adriatic 
sea near Edron, the harbour of Patavium. 

Medobriga (Marcao, on the frontiers of Por- 
tugal), a town in Lusitania, on the road from Eme- 
rita to Scalabis. 

Medocus. [Amadocus.] 

Medon {M45ccv). 1. Son of Oileus, and brother 
of the lesser Ajax, fought against Troy, and was 
slain by Aeneas. — 2. Son of Codrus. [Codrus.] 

Mediili, a people in Aquitania on the coast of 
the Ocean, S. of the mouth of the Garumna, in the 
modem Medoc. There were excellent oysters 
found on their shores. 

Medulli, a people on the E. frontier of Gallia 
Narbonensis and in the Maritime Alps, in whose 
country the Druentia (Durance) and Duria (Doiia 
Minor) took their rise. 

Medullia (Medulilnus : St. Angela), a colony 
of Alba, in the land of the Sabines, was situated 
between the Tiber and the Anio, in the neighbour- 
hood of Corniculum and Ameriola. Tarquinius 
Priscus incorporated their territory with the Roman 
State. 



Medullinus, Furius, an ancient patrician family 
at Rome, the members of which held the highest 
offices of state in the early times of the republic. 

Medullus, a mountain in HispaniaTarraconensis, 
near the Minius. 

Medus, a son of Medea. [Medea.] 

Medus (MrjSos), a small river of Persis, flowing 
from the confines of Media, and falling into the 
Araxes (Bend-Emir) near Persepolis. 

Medusa. [Gorgones.] 

Megabazus or Megabyzus. 1. One of the 7 
Persian nobles who conspired against the Magian 
Smerdis, B.C. 521. Darius left him behind with 
an army in Europe, when he himself recrossed the 
Hellespont, on his return from Scythia, 506. Me- 
gabazus subdued Perinthus and the other cities on 
the Hellespont and along the coast of Thrace, — 2. 
Son of Zopynis, and grandson of the above, was 
one of the commanders in the army of Xerxes, 480. 
He afterwards commanded the army sent against 
the Athenians in Egypt, 458. 

Megacles (MeyaK\^s). 1. A name borne by 
several of the Athenian family of the Alcmaeonidae. 
The most important of these was the jNIegacles 
who put to death Cylon and his adherents, after 
they had taken refuge at the altar of Athena, B. c. 
612. [Cylon.] — 2. A Syracusan, brother of Dion, 
and brother-in-law of the elder Dionysius. He 
accompanied Dion in his flight from Syracuse, 358, 
and afterwards returned with him to Sicily. 

Megaera. [EuxAienides.] 

Megalia or Megaris, a small island in the 
Tyrrhene sea, opposite Neapolis. 

Megalopolis (t) M^ydKr] ttoXls, MeyaXoiroXis : 
MeyaXoTroXiTris). 1. (Sinano or Sinanu), the most 
recent, but the most important of the cities of Ar- 
cadia, was founded on the advice of Epaminondas, 
after the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371, and was 
formed out of the inhabitants of 38 villages. It 
was situated in the district Maenalia, near the 
frontiers of Messenia, on the river Helisson, vv'hich 
flowed through the city, dividing it into nearly 2 
equal parts. It stood on the site of the ancient 
towTi Orestion or Orestia ; was 50 stadia (6 miles) 
in circumference ; and contained, when it was be- 
sieged by Polysperchon, about 15,000 men capable 
of bearing arms, which would give us a population 
of about 70,000 inhabitants. Megalopolis was for a 
time subject to the Macedonians ; but soon after the 
death of Alexander the Great, it was governed by 
a series of native tyrants, the last of Avhom, Ly- 
diades, voluntarily resigned the government, and 
united the city to the Achaean league, b. c, 234. 
It became in consequence opposed to Sparta, and 
was taken and plundered by Cleomenes, who either 
killed or drove into banishment all its inhabitants, 
and destroyed a great part of the city, 222. After 
the battle of Sellasia in the following year, it was 
restored by Philopoemen, who again collected its 
inhabitants ; but it never recovered its former pros- 
perity, and gradually sunk into insignificance. 
Philopoemen and the historian Polybius were 
natives of Megalopolis. The ruins of its theatre, 
once the largest in Greece, are the only remains 
of the ancient town to be seen in the village of 
Sinano. 2. A town in Caria. [ Aphrodisias.] 
— 3. A town in Pontus. [Sebastia.1 — 4. A 
town in the N. of Africa, Avas a Carthaginian city 
in the interior of Byzacena, in a beautiful situa- 
tion ; it was taken and destroyed by the troops of 
Agathocies. 



MEGAN IRA. 



MEGIDDO. 



429 



Meganira {Meydveipa), wife of Celeus, usually 
called Metanira. 

Megapenthes (Meyaivevd-ns). 1. Son of Proe- 
tus, father of Anaxagoras and Iphianira, and king 
of Argos. He exchanged his dominion for that of 
Perseus, so that the latter received Tiryns instead 
of Argos. — 2. Son of Menelaus by an Aetolian 
slave, Pieris or Teridae. Menelaus brought about 
a marriage between Megapenthes and a daughter 
of Alector. According to a Rhodian tradition, 
Megapenthes, after the deathi of his father, ex- 
pelled Helen from Argos, who thereupon fled to 
Polyxo at Rhodes. 

Megara (Meydpa), daughter of Creon, king of 
Thebes, and wife of Hercules. See p. 308. 

Megara (ra Mey apa, in Lat. Megara, -ae, and 
pi. Megara, -orum : Meyapeus, Megarensis). 1. 
(Megara), the capital of Megaris, was situated 
8 stadia (1 mile) from the sea opposite the island 
Salamis, about 26 miles from Athens and 31 miles 
from Corinth. It consisted of 3 parts: 1. The 
ancient Pelasgian citadel, called Caria, said to have 
been built by Car, the son of Phoroneus, which 
was situated on a hill N. W. of the later cit3\ 
This citadel contained the ancient and celebrated 
Megaron {fxeyapov) or temple of Demeter, from 
which the town is supposed to have derived its 
name, 2. The modern citadel, situated on a lower 
hill to the S.W. of the preceding, and called Alca- 
thous, from its reputed founder Alcathous, son of 
Pelops. 3. The town properly so called, situated 
at the foot of the two citadels, said to have been 
founded by the Pelopidae under Alcathous, and 
subsequently enlarged by a Doric colony under 
Alethes and Athemenes at the time of Codrus. It 
appears to have been originally called PolicJine 
(TloXixvyi). The town contained many public 
buildings which are described at length by Pausa- 
nias. Its seaport was Nisaea (NicraLo), which 
was connected with Megara by 2 walls, 8 stadia in 
length, built by the Athenians when they had 
possession of Megara, B.C. 461 — 445. Nisaea is 
said to have been built by Nisus, the son of Pan- 
dion ; and the inhabitants of Megara are some- 
times called Nisaean Megarians (ot Niaaloi Me- 
yapels) to distinguish them from the Hyblaean 
Megarians (ol 'T§Ka7oi Meyapels) in Sicily. In 
front of Nisaea lay the small island Minoa (Mluooa), 
which added greatly to the security of the harbour. 
— In the most ancient times Megara and the sur- 
rounding country was inhabited by Leleges. It 
subsequently became annexed to Attica ; and Me- 
garis formed one of the 4 ancient divisions of 
Attica. It was next conquered by the Dorians, 
and was for a time subject to Corinth ; but it 
finally asserted its independence, and rapidly be- 
came a wealthy and powerful city. To none of 
these events can any date be assigned with cer- 
tainty. Its power at an early period is attested by 
the flourishing colonies which it founded, of which 
Selymbria, Chalcedon, and Byzantium, and the 
Hyblaean Megara in Sicily, were the most import- 
ant. Its navy was a match for that of Athens, 
with which it contested the island of Salamis ; and 
it was not till after a long struggle that the Athe- 
nians succeeded in obtaining possession of this 
island. The government was originally an aristo- 
cracy as in most of the Doric cities ; but Theagenes, 
who put himself ar the head of the popular party, 
obtained the supreme power about b. c. 620. Thea- 
genes was afterwards expelled ; and a democratical 



form of government established. After the Persian 
wars, Megara was for some time at war with Co- 
rinth, and was thus led to form an alliance with 
Athens, and to receive an Athenian garrison into 
the city, 461 ; but the oligarchical party havhig 
got the upper hand the Athenians were expelled, 
441. Megara is not often mentioned after this 
period. It was taken and its walls destroyed by- 
Demetrius Poliorcetes ; it was taken again by the 
Romans under Q. Metellus ; and in the time of 
Augustus it had ceased to be a place of importance. 
— Megara is celebrated in the history of philosophy, 
as the seat of a philosophical school, usually called 
the^ Megarian, which was founded by Euclid, a 
native of the city, and a disciple of Socrates. 
[EucLiDES, No. 2.] — There are no remains of 
any importance of the ancient city of Megara. — 
2. A town in Sicily on the E. coast, N. of Syracuse, 
founded by Dorians from Megara in Greece, b. c. 
728, on the site of a small town Hybla, and hence 
called Megara Hyblaea, and its inhabitants Me- 
garenses Hyblaei (MeyapeTs ^T€\a7oL). From the 
time of Gelon it belonged to Syracuse. It was 
taken and plundered by the Romans in the 2nd 
Punic war, and from that time sunk into insignifi- 
cance, but it is still mentioned by Cicero under the 
name of Megaris. 

Megareus (Meyapevs), son of Onchestus, also 
called a son of Poseidon and Oenope, of Hippo- 
menes, of Apollo, or of Aegeus. He was a brother 
of Abrote, the wife of Nisus, king of Megara, and 
the father of Evippus, Timalcus, Hippomenes, and 
Evaechme. Megara is said to have derived its name 
from him. 

Megaris (77 Meyapis or ?} MeyapiK^^ sc. 7^), a 
small district in Greece between the Corinthian and 
Saronic gulfs, originally reckoned part of Hellas 
proper, but subsequently included in the Pelopon- 
nesus It was bounded on the N. by Boeotia, on 
the E. and N. E. by Attica, and on the S. by the 
territory of Corinth. It contained about 143 
square miles. The country was very mountainous ; 
and its only plain was the one in which the city of 
Megara was situated. It was separated from Boeotia 
by Mt. Cithaeron, and from Attica by the moun- 
tains called the Horns (ra /cepara) on account of 
their 2 projecting summits. The Geranean moun- 
tains extended through the greater part of the 
country, and formed its S. boundary towards Co- 
rinth. There were 2 roads through these moun- 
tains from Corinth, one called the Scironian pass, 
which ran along the Saronic gulf, passed by Crom- 
myon and Megara, and was the direct road from 
Corinth to Athens ; the other ran along the Corin- 
thian gulf, passed by Geranea and Pegae, and was 
the road from. Corinth into Boeotia. The onl}^ town 
of importance in Megaris was its capital Megara. 
[Megara.] 

Megasthenes (Meyacreevris), a Greek writer, 
who was sent by Seleucus Nicator as ambassador 
to Sandracottus, king of the Prasii, where he re- 
sided some time. He wrote a Avork on India, in 
4 books, entitled Indica (rd 'ivSiKa), to which 
later Greek writers were chiefly indebted for their 
accounts of the country. 

Meges (Me77js), son of Phyleus, and grandson 
of Augeas, was one of the suitors of Helen, and led 
his bands from Dulichium and the Echinades 
against Troy. 

Megiddo (Ma76§5w, Mayedw : Leji^un ?), a consi- 
I derable city of Palestine, on the river Kiahon, in 



430 



MEGISTANI. 



MELANIPPIDES. 



a vallej' of the same name, whicli formed a part 
of the great plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon, on the 
confines of Galilee and Samaria. It was a resi- 
dence of the Canaanitish kings before the conquest 
of Palestine by the Jews. It was fortified by 
Solomon. It was probabh' the same place which 
was called Legio under the Romans. 

Megistani, a people of Armenia, in the district 
of Sophene, near the Euphrates. 

Mela, river. [Mella.] 

Mela, Fabius, a Roman jurist, who is often 
cited in the Digest, probabl}- lived in the time of 
Antoninus Pius. 

Mela, or Mella, M. Annaeus, the youngest son 
of M. Annaeus Seneca, the rhetorician, and bro- 
ther of L. Seneca the philosopher, and Gallio. By 
his wife Acilia he had at least one son, the cele- 
brated Lucan. After Lucan's death, a.d. 65, Mela 
laid claim to his property ; and as he was rich, he 
was accused of being privy to Piso's conspiracy, 
and anticipated a certain sentence by suicide. 

Mela, Pomponius, the first Roman author who 
composed a formal treatise upon Geography, was a 
native of Spain, and probably flourished under the 
emperor Claudius. His work is entitled De Situ 
Orhis Lihri III. It contains a brief description of 
the whole world as known to the Romans. The 
text is often corrupt, but the stj'le is simple, and 
the Latinity is pure ; and although every thing is 
compressed within the narrowest limits, we find 
the monotony of the catalogue occasionally diver- 
sified by animated and pleasing pictures. The best 
edition is by Tzschuckius, 7 parts, 8vo. Lips. 1 807. 

Melaena Acra (77 Mi\aiva &Kpa). 1. {Kara 
Bur?iu, which means the same as the Greek name, 
i. e. the Black Cape), the N.W. promontory of the 
great peninsula of Ionia : formed by Mt. Mimas ; 
celebrated for the millstones hewn from it. — 2. 
(C. St. Nicolo), the N.W. promontory of the island 
of Chios. — 3. {Kara Burnu) a promontory of 
Bithynia, a little E. of the Bosporus, between the 
rivers Rhebas and Artanes ; also called KaKiuaKpov 
and BiQvv'ias aKpov. 

Melaenae (JAeXaivai : MeAaii/eus). 1. OrMe- 
laeneae (MeAatveat), a town in the W. of Arcadia 
t)n the Alpheus, N.W. of Buphagium, and S. E. of 
JEeraea.— 2. A demus in Attica, on the frontiers 
of Boeotia, belonging to the tribe Antiochis. 

Melambium (MeAafigtov), a to\vn of Thessaly 
in Pelasgiotis, belonging to the territory of Scotussa. 

Melampus (MeAa,u7rous). 1. Son of Amythaon 
by Idomene, or, according to others, by Aglaia or 
Rhodope, and a brother of Bias. He was looked 
upon by the ancients as the first mortal who had 
been endowed with prophetic powers, as the per- 
Eon who first practised the medical art, and who 
established the worship of Dionysus in Greece. 
He is said to have been married to Iphianassa 
(others call her Iphianira or Cyrianassa), by whom 
he became the father of Mantius and Antiphates. 
Abas, Bias, Manto, and Pronoe are also named by 
some writers as his children. Before his house 
there stood an oak tree containing a serpent's nest. 
The old serpents were killed by his servants, but 
Melampus took care of the young ones and fed 
them carefully. One daj-, w'hen he was asleep, 
they cleaned his ears with their tongues. On his 
■waking he perceived, to his astonishment, that he 
now imderstood the language of birds, and that 
with their assistance he could foretell the future. 
In addition to this he acquired the power of pro- 



phesying from the victims that Avere offered to 
the gods ; and, after having an interview with 
Apollo on the banks of the Alpheus, he became a 
most renowned soothsayer. During his residence 
at Pylos his brother Bias was one of the suitors 
for the hand of Pero, the daughter of Neleus. 
The latter promised his daughter to the man who 
should bring him the oxon of Iphiclus, which were 
guarded by a dog whom neither man nor animal 
could approach. Melampus undertook the task of 
procuring the oxen for his brother, although he 
knew that the thief would be caught and kept in 
imprisonment for a year, after which he was to come 
into possession of the oxen. Things turned out as he 
had said ; Melampus was thrown into prison, and 
in his captivity he learned from the wood- worms 
that the building in which he was imprisoned 
would soon break down. He accordingly demanded 
to be let out, and as Phylacus and Iphiclus thus 
became acquainted Avith his prophetic powers, they 
asked him in what manner Iphiclus, who had no 
children, was to become father. Melampus, on the 
suggestion of a vulture, advised Iphiclus to take 
the rust from the knife with which Phylacus had 
once cut his son, and drink it in water during ten 
daj's. This was done, and Iphiclus became the 
father of Podarces. Melampus now received the 
oxen as a reward for his good services, drove them 
to Pylos, and thus gained Pero for his brother. 
Afterwards Melampus obtained possession of a 
third of the kingdom of Argos in the following 
manner : — In the reign of Anaxagoras, king of 
Argos, the women of the kingdom were seized 
with madness, and roamed about the country in a 
frantic state. Melampus cured them of their frenzy, 
on condition that he and his brother Bias should 
receive an equal share with Anaxagoras in the 
kingdom of Argos. Melampus and Bias married 
the two daughters of Proetus, and ruled over two- 
thirds of Argos. — 2. The author of 2 little Greek 
works stiU extant, entitled Divinatio ex Palpita~ 
tione and De Naevis Oleaceis in Corpore. He lived 
probably in the 3rd century b. c. at Alexandria. 
Both the works are full of superstitions and absur- 
dities. Edited hj Franz, in his Scriptores Physio- 
gnomiae Veteres, Altenburg, 1780. 

Melanchlaeni {MeXd'yx^°-<-voi), a people in the 
N. of Sarmatia Asiatica, about the upper course 
of the river Tanais (Don), resembling the Sc3^hian8 
in manners, though, of a different race. Their 
Greek name was derived from their dai'k clothing. 

Melanippe (MeAaftTTTTTj), daughter of Chiron, 
also called Evippe. Being with child by Aeolus, 
she fled to mount Pelion ; and in order that her 
condition might not become knowTi, she prayed 
to be metamorphosed into a mare. Artemis granted 
her prayer, and in the form of a horse she was 
placed among the stars. Another account describes 
her metamorphosis as a punishment for having 
despised Artemis or for having divulged the coun- 
sels of the gods, 

Melanippides (MeAaj/iTTTrt'STjs), of Melos, a cele- 
brated lyric poet in the department of the dithy- 
ramb. He flourished about B.C. 440, and lived 
for some time at the court of Perdiccas, of Mace- 
donia, and there died. His high reputation as a 
poet is intimated by Xenophon, who makes Aris- 
todemus give him the first place among dithyram- 
bic poets, by the side of Homer, Sophocles, Poly- 
cletus, and Zeuxis, as the chief masters in their 
respective arts ; and by Plutarch, who mentions 



MELANIPPUS. 



MELEAGER. 



431 



him, v/ith Simonides and Euripides, as among the 
most distinguished masters of music. Several 
verses of his poetry are still preserved. See Bergk, 
Potit. Lyr. Graee. pp. 847 — 850. Some writers, 
following the authority of Suidas, make 2 poets of 
this name. 

Melanippus (MeAai^iTrTros), son of Astacus of 
Thebes, who, in the attack of the Seven on his 
native city, slew Tydeus and Mecisteus. His 
tomb was shown in the neighbourhood of Thebes 
on the road to Chalcis. 

Melanogaetiili. [Gaetulia.] 

Melanthms {M^xdvQios). 1. Also called Me- 
lantheus, son of Dolius, was a goat-herd of Ulysses, 
who sided with the suitors of Penelope, and was 
killed by Ulysses.— 2. An Athenian tragic poet, of 
whom little is known beyond the attacks made on 
him by Aristophanes and the other comic poets. 
The most important passage respecting him is in the 
Peace of Aristophanes (796, &c.). He was cele- 
brated for his wit, of which several specimens are 
preserved by Plutarch.— 3. Or Melanthus, an 
eminent Greek painter of the Sicyonian school, 
was contemporary with Apelles (b. c. 332), with 
whom he studied under Pamphilus. He was one 
of the best colourist of all the Greek painters. 

MelantMus {M^KdvOios^ prob. Meiet-Irma), a 
river of Pontus, in Asia Minor, E. of the Prom. 
Jasonium ; the boundary between Pontus Pole- 
moniacus and Pontus Cappadocius. 

Melanthus or MelantMus (MeXavOos), one of 
the Nelidae, and king of Messenia, whence he was 
driven out by the Heraclidae, on their conquest of 
the Peloponnesus ; and, following the instructions 
of the Delphic oracle, took refuge in Attica. In a 
war between the Athenians and Boeotians, Xan- 
thus, the Boeotian king, challenged Thymoetes, 
king of Athens and the last of the Thesidae, to 
single combat. Thymoetes declined the challenge 
on the ground of age and infirmity. So ran the 
story, which strove afterwards to disguise the 
violent change of dynasty ; and Melanthus under- 
took it on condition of being rewarded with the 
throne in the event of success. He slew Xanthus, 
and became king, to the exclusion of the Thesidae. 
According to Pausanias, the conqueror of Xanthus 
was Andropompus, the father of Melanthus ; ac- 
cording to Aristotle, it was Codrus, his son. 

Melas (Me'Aas)., the name of several rivers, whose 
waters were of a dark colour. 1. (Mauro Nero or 
Mauro Potamo), a small river in Boeotia, which 
rises 7 stadia N. of Orchomenus, becomes navigable 
almost from its source, flows between Orchomenus 
and Aspledon, and loses the greater part of its 
waters in the marshes connected with lake Copais. 
A small portion of its waters fell in ancient times 
into the river Cephissus. — 2. A river of Thessaly 
in the district Malis, flows near Heraclea and 
Trachis, and falls into the Maliac gulf. — 3. A 
river of Thessaly in Phthiotis, falls into the Api- 
danus. — 4. A river of Thrace, flows first S.W., 
then N.W., and falls N. of Cardia into the Melas 
Sinus. — 5. A river in the N. E. of Sicily, which 
flows into the sea between Mylae and Naulochus, 
through excellent meadows, in which the oxen of 
the sun are said to have fed. —6. (Manaugat- 
Su), a navigable river, 50 stadia (5 geog. miles) 
E. of Side, was the boundary between Pamphylia 
and Cilicia. — 7. (Kara-Su, i. e. the Black River), 
in Cappadocia, rises in M. Argaeus, flows past 
Mazaca, and, after forming a succession of morasses, 



falls into the Halys, and not (as Strabo says) into 
the Euphrates. 

Melas Sinus (MeAas ko'Atto? : Gulf of Saros)^ 
a gulf of the Aegaean sea, between the coast of 
Thrace on the N.W. and the Thracian Chersone- 
sus on the S. E., into which the river Melas flows. 

Meldi or Meldae, a people in Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis on the borders of Belgica, and upon the 
river Sequana {Seine), in Avhose territory Caesar 
built 40 ships for his expedition against Britain. 

Meleager (MeAeaypo?). 1. Son of Oeneus and 
Althaea, the daughter of Thestius, husband of 
Cleopatra, and father of Polydora. Others call 
him a son of Ares and Althaea. He was one of 
the most famous Aetolian heroes of Calydon, and 
distinguished himself by his skill in throwing the 
javelin. He took part in the Argonautic expe- 
dition. On his return home, the fields of Calydon 
were laid waste by a monstrous boar, which Arte- 
mis had sent against the country as a punishment, 
because Oeneus, the king of the place, once neg- 
lected to offer up a sacrifice to the goddess. No 
one dared encounter the terrible animal, till at 
length Meleager, with a band of other heroes, 
went out to hunt the boar. He slew the animal ; 
but the Calydonians and Curetes quarrelled about 
the head and hide, and at length waged open war 
against each other. The Calydonians were always 
victorious, so long as Meleager went out with 
them. But when his mother Althaea pronounced 
a curse upon him, enraged at the death of her 
brother who had fallen in the fight, Meleager 
stayed at home with his wife Cleopatra. The 
Curetes now began to press Calydon very hard. It 
was in vain that the old men of the town made 
him the most brilliant promises if he would again 
join in the fight, and that his father, his sisters, 
and his mother supplicated him. At length, how- 
ever, he yielded to the prayers of his wife, Cleo- 
patra : he put the Curetes to flight, but he never 
returned home, for the Erinnys, who had heard 
the curse of his mother, overtook him. . Such is 
the more ancient form of the legend, as we find it 
in Homer. {II. ix. 527, seq.) In the later tra- 
ditions Meleager collects the heroes from all parts 
of Greece to join him in the hunt. Among others 
was the fair maiden Atalanta ; but the heroes 
refused to hunt with her, imtil Meleager, who was 
in love with her, overcame their opposition. Ata- 
lanta gave the animal the first wound, which was 
at length slain by Meleager. He presented the 
hide to Atalanta, but the sons of Thestius took it 
from her, whereupon Meleager in a rage slew 
them. This, however, was the cause of his own 
death which came to pass in the following way« 
When he was 7 days old the Moerae appeared, 
declaring that the boy would die as soon as the 
piece of wood which was burning on the hearth shovdd 
be consumed. Althaea, upon hearing this, extin- 
guished the firebrand, and concealed it in a chest. 
Meleager himself became invulnerable ; but after 
he had killed the brothers of his mother, she 
lighted the piece of wood, and Meleager died. 
Althaea, too late repenting of what she had done, 
put an end to her life ; and Cleopatra died of 
grief. The sisters of Meleager wept unceasingly 
after his death, until Artemis changed them into 
guinea-hens (/xeAea7pi'§es), Avhich were transferred 
to the island of Leros. Even in this condition 
they mourned during a certain part of the y^ar for 
their brother. Two of them, Gorge and De'ianira, 



432 



MELETUS. 



through the mediation of Dionysus, were not meta- 
morphosed.— 2. Son of Neoptolemus, a Macedo- 
nian officer in the service of Alexander the Great. 
After the death of Alexander the Great (b.c. 323) 
Meleager resisted the claims of Perdiccas to the 
regency, and was eventually associated with the 
latter in this office. Shortly afterwards, however, 
be was put to death by order of Perdiccas. — 
8. Son of Eucrates, the celebrated writer and col- 
lector of epigrams, was a native of Gadara in Pa- 
lestine, and lived about B. c. 60. There are 131 
of his epigrams in the Greek Anthology, WTitten 
in a good Greek style, though somewhat affected, 
and distinguished by sophistic acumen and amatory 
fancy. An account of his collection of epigrams is 
given under Plaxudes. 

Meletus or Melitns (M.4\r]Tos: Me\iTos), an 
■obscure tragic poet, but notorious as one of the 
accusers of Socrates, was an Athenian, of the Pit- 
thean demus. He is represented by Plato and 
Aristophanes and their scholiasts as a frigid and 
licentious poet, and a worthless and profligate man. 
In the accusation of Socrates it was Meletus who 
laid the indictment before the Archon Basileus ; but 
in reality he was the most insignificant of the 
accusers ; and according to one account he was 
bribed by Anytus and Lycon to take part in the 
affair. Soon after the death of Socrates, the Athe- ; 
nians repented of their injustice, and Meletus was ^ 
stoned to death as one of the authors of their folly, j 

Melia (MeAi'a), a nymph, daughter of Oceanus, j 
became by Inachus the mother of Phoroneus and. 
Aegialeus or Pegeus ; and by Silenus the mother \ 
■of the centaur, Pholus ; and by Poseidon of Amy- 
ous. She was carried off by Apollo, and became 
hj him the mother of Ismenius, and of the seer ' 
Tenerus. She was worshipped in the Ismenium, | 
the sanctuary of Apollo, near Thebes. In the 
plural form, the JSIeliae or ]\[eliades (MeXiai. ; 
MeAtaSes) are the nymphs, who, along with the I 
Gigantes and Erimiyes, sprang from the drops of ! 
blood that fell from Uranus and were received by \ 
■Gaea. The nymphs that nursed Zeus are likewise 
called Meliae. 

Mellboea (MeAt'goia : MeAtooeyj). 1. A town on 
the coast of Thessaly in ISIagnesia, between Mt. 
Ossa and Mt. Pelion, is said to have been built by 
!Magnes, and to have been named Meliboea in 
honour of his wife. It is mentioned by Homer as 
belonging to the dominions of Philoctetes, who is 
hence called by Virgil (Aen. iii. 401) duo: Meli- 
hoeus. It was celebrated for its purple dye. (Lu- 
cret. ii. 499 ; Virg. Aen. v. 251.)— .2.' A small 
island at the mouth of the river Orontes in Syria. 

Melicertes. [Palaemon.] 

Melissa (MeAtcrcra). 1. A nymph said to have 
discovered the use of honey, and from whom bees 
were believed to have received their name [fj-eXicx- 
<rai). There can be no doubt, however, that the 
name really came from /xeXi, honey, and was 
hence given to nymphs. According to some tra- 
ditions bees were nymphs metamorphosed. Hence 
the nymphs who fed the infant Zeus with honey 
are called Melissae. — 2. The name of priestesses 
in general, but more especiallj- of the priestesses of 
Demejer, Persephone, Apollo, and Artemis. — 
3. "Wife of Periander, tyrant of Corinth, and 
daughter of P^ ^cles, tj-ranf of Epidaurus, was slain 
by hor husband. [Periander.] 

Melissus {MeALcraos). 1. Of Samos, a Greek 
philosopher, the son of Ithagenes, was, according to 



MELTTENE. 

the common account, the commander of the fleet 
opposed to Pericles. B.C. 440. But he is not men- 
tioned by Thucydides, and ought probably to be 
placed much earlier, as he is said to have been 
connected with Heraclitus, and to have been a 
disciple of Parmenides. It appears from the frag~ 
ments of his work, which was ■m-itten in prose, 
and in the Ionic dialect, that he adopted the doc- 
trines of the Eleatics. — 2. A Latin grammarian 
and a comic poet, was a freedman of Maecenas, 
and was entrusted by Augustus with the arrange- 
ment of the library in the portico of Octavia. 

Melita or Melite (MeAiTT? : MeXiTa7os, Meli- 
tensis). 1. (MaUa), an island in the Mediterranean 
sea, situated 58 miles from the nearest point of 
Sicily, and 179 miles from the nearest point of 
Africa. Its greatest length is 17^ miles, and its 
greatest breadth 9\ miles. The island was first 
colonised by the Phoenicians, who used it as a 
place of refuge for their ships, on accoimt of its 
excellent harbours. It afterwards passed into the 
hands of the Carthaginians, but was taken pos- 
session of by the Romans in the 2nd Punic war, 
and annexed to the province of Sicily. The Romans 
however appear to have neglected the island, and 
it is mentioned by Cicero as a frequent resort of 
pirates. It contained a to-wn of the same name 
founded by the Carthaginians, and 2 celebrated 
temples, one of Juno on a promontory near the 
town, and another of Hercules in the S. E. of the 
island. It is celebrated in sacred history as the 
island on ■v\4iich the Apostle Paul was shipwrecked; 
though some wTiters erroneously suppose that the 
apostle was shipwrecked on the island of the same 
name off the lUyrian coast. The inhabitants ma- 
nufactured fine cloth, which was in much request 
at Rome. They also exported a considerable 
quantity of honey ; and from this island, according 
to some authorities, came the cattdi Melitaei, the 
favourite lapdogs of the Roman ladies, though 
other writers make them come from the island off 
the Illyrian coast. — 2. (Meleda). a small island in 
the Adriatic sea off the coast of lUyria (Dalmatia), 
N. W. of Epidaurus. — 3. A demus in Attica, 
which also formed part of the city of Athens, was 
situated S. of the inner Ceramicus, and probably 
included the hill of the Museum. It was said to 
have derived its name from a nymph Melite, with 
whom Hercules was in love, and it therefore con- 
tained a temple of this god. One of the gates of 
Athens was called the Melitian gate, because it 
led to this demus. [See p. 103, a.] —4. A lake 
in Aetolia near the mouth of the Achelous, be- 
longing to the territory of the town Oeniadae. 

MeUtaea, Melitea or Melitia (MeAirai'a, Me- 
Xireia, MeAtrta : MeAtratevs), a town of Thessaly 
in Phthiotis, on the N. slope of Mt. Othrys, and 
near the river Enipeus. It is said to have been 
called Pyrrha in more ancient times, and the 
sepulchre of Hellen was shown in its market-place. 

Melite (MeAtT?]), a nymph, one of the Nereides, 
a daughter of Nereus and Doris. 

Melitene (MeAtrTjfTj), a district of Armenia 
Minor, between the Anti-Taurus and the Eu- 
phrates, celebrated for its fertility, and especially 
for its fruit-trees, oil, and wine. It possessed no 
great to-wn until the 1st century of our era, when 
a city, also called Melitene (now Mcdatiyali) was 
built on a tributary of the Euphrates, and near 
that river itself, probably on the sire of a very 
ancient fort. This became a place of considerable 



MAESYAS. MEDEA. MELEAGEK. 




Marsyas. (Osterley, Denk. der alt. Kunst, Meleager. 

part 2, tav. 14. ) Page 419. (From a Painting at Pompeii.) Page 431. 




Altliaea and the Fates. (Zoega, Bassirilievi, tav. 46.) Page 431. 




Medea and her Children. Medea boiling a Earn in order to persuade the daughters 

CMuseo Borbonico, vol. 5, tav. S3.) Page 427. of Pelias to put him to death. (From a Vase in tlie 

Mritish Museum.) See art. JASOif, p. 853. 

iTofacep. 432. 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. MARONEA — METAPONTUM. 





MELITO. 



MEMNON. 



433 



importance ; the centre of several roads ; tlie sta- 
tion, under Titus, of the r2th legion ; and, in the 
later division of the provinces, the capital of 
Armenia Secunda. In a. d. 577, it was the scene 
of a victory gained by the Romans over the 
Persians under Chosroes I. 

Mellto (MeAiTO)!/), a Christian writer of consi- 
derable eminence, was bishop of Sardes in the 
reign of M. Aurelius, to whom he presented an 
Apology for the Christians. Of his numerous 
works only fragments are extant. 

Mella or Mela (Mella), a river in Gallia Trans- 
padana, Avhich flows by Brixia and falls into the 
Ollius (Oglio). 

Mellaria. 1. A town of the Bastuli in Hispania 
Baetica between Belon and Calpe, on the road 
from Gades to Malaca. ■— 2. A town in the same 
province, considerably N. of the former, on the 
road from Corduba to Emerita. 

Melodunum {Mdim), a town of the Senones in 
Gallia Lugdunensis, on an island of the Sequana 
{Seine), and on the road from Agendicum to Lutetia 
Parisiorum. 

Melos (MtjAos: MrjXios: Milo)^ an island in 
the Aegaean sea, and the most W.-ly of the group 
of the Cyclades, whence it was called Zepliyria by 
Aristotle. It is about 70 miles N. of the coast of 
Crete, and 65 E. of the coast of Peloponnesus. 
Its length is about 14 miles from E. to W., and its 
breadth about 8 miles. It contains on the N. a 
deep bay, which forms an excellent harbour, and 
on which was situated a town, bearing the same 
name as the island. The island is of volcanic 
origin ; it contains hot springs, and mines of sul- 
phur and alum. Its soil is very fertile, and it 
produced in antiquity, as it does at present, abun- 
dance of corn, oil, wine, &c. It was first colonised 
by the Phoenicians, who are said to have called it 
Byblus or ByUis, after the Phoenician town Byblus. 
It was afterwards colonised by Lacedaemonians, or 
at least by Dorians ; and consequently in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war it embraced the side of Sparta. In 
B. c. 426 the Athenians made an unsuccessful 
attack upon the island ; but in 416 they obtained 
possession of the town after a siege of several 
months, whereupon they killed all the adult males, 
sold the women and children as slaves, and peopled 
the island by an Athenian colonj". — Melos was the 
birthplace of Diagoras, the atheist, whence Aristo- 
phanes calls Socrates also the Melian. 

Melpomene (MeA-TrofteVr?), i. e. the singing 
goddess, one of the 9 Muses, who presided over 
Traged3^ See Musae. 

Memini, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, on the 
W. bank of the Durentia, whose chief town was 
Carpentoracte {Carpentras). 

Memmia Gens, a plebeian house at Rome, 
whose members do not occur in history before b. c. 
173, but who pretended to be descended from the 
Trojan Mnestheus. (Virg. Aen. v. 117.) 

Memmius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs B.C. Ill, 
was an ardent opponent of the oligarchical party 
at Rome during the Jugurthine war. Among the 
nobles impeached by Memmius were L. Calpurnius 
Bestia and M. Aemilius Scaurus. Memmius was 
slain by the mob of Saturninus and Glaucia, while 
a candidate for the consulship in 100. — 2. C. 
Memmius Gemellus, tribune of the plebs 66, cu- 
rule aedile 60, and praetor 58. He belonged at that 
time to the Senatorian party, since he impeached 
P. Vatinius, opposed P. Clodius, and was yehe- 



ment in his invectives against Julius Caesar. But- 
before he competed for the consulship, 54, he had 
been reconciled to Caesar, who supported him 
with all his interest. Memmius, however, again 
offended Caesar revealing a certain coalition 
with his opponents at the comitia. He was im- 
peached for ambitus, and, receiving no aid from 
Caesar, withdrew from Rome to Mytilene, where 
he v\'as living in the j-ear of Cicero's proconsulate. 
Memmius married Fausta, a daughter of the dictator 
Sulla, whom he divorced after having by her at 
least one son C. Memmius. [No. 3.] He was 
eminent both in literature and in eloquence. Lu- 
cretius dedicated his poem, De Rerum Natura, to 
him. He was a man of profligate character, and 
wrote indecent poems. — 3. C. Memmius, son of 
the preceding, was tribune of the plebs 54, when 
he prosecuted A. Gabinius for malversation in his 
province of Syria, and Domitius Calvinus for am- 
bitus at his consular comitia. Memmius was step- 
son of T. Annius Milo who married his mother 
Fausta after her divorce. He was consul suffectus 
34. — 4. P. Memmius Eegulus, consul suffectus 
A. D. 31, afterwards praefect of Macedonia and 
Achaia. He was the husband of LoUia Paulina, 
and Avas compelled by Caligula to divorce her. 

Memnon (Me>j/wi/). 1. The beautiful son of Ti- 
thonus and Eos (Aurora), and brother of Enmthion. 
He is rarely mentioned by Homer, and must be re- 
garded essentially as a post-Homeric hero. Accord- 
ing to these later traditions, he Avas a prince of the 
Ethiopians, who came to the assistance of his uncle 
Priam, for Tithonus and Priam were half-brothers, 
being both sons of Laomedon by different mothers. 
Respecting his expedition to Troy there are dif- 
ferent legends. According to some Memnon the 
Ethiopian first went to Egypt, thence to Susa, and 
thence to Troy. At Susa, Avhich had been founded 
\)j Tithonus, Memnon built the acropolis, which 
was called after him the Memnonium. According, 
to others Tithonus was the governor of a Persian 
province, and the favourite of Teutamus ; and 
Memnon obtained the command of a large host of 
Ethiopians and Susans to succour Priam. Memnon 
came to the war in armour made for him by 
Hephaestus. He slew Antilochus, the son of 
Nestor, but was himself slain by Achilles, after a 
long and fierce combat. While the two heroes 
were fighting, Zeus weighed their fates, and the 
scale containing Memnon's sank. His mother 
was inconsolable at his death. She wept for 
him every morning ; and the dew-drops of the 
morning are the tears of Eos, To soothe the grief 
of his mother, Zeus caused a number of birds to 
issue out of the funeral pile, on which the body of 
Memnon was burning, which, after flying thrice 
around the burning pile, divided into two separate 
bodies, which fought so fiercely, that half of them 
fell down upon the ashes of the hero, and thus 
formed a funeral sacrifice for him. These birds 
were called Memnonides, and according to a storj^ 
current on the Hellespont, they visited every year 
the tomb of the hero. At the entreaties of Eos, 
Zeus conferred immortality upon Memnon. At a 
comparatively late period, the Greeks gave the 
name of Memnon to the colossal statue in the 
neighbourhood of Thebes, which was said to give 
forth a sound like the snapping asunder of a chord, 
when it was struck by the first rays of the rising 
sun. Although the Greeks gave this name to the 
statue, they were well aware that the Egyptians 

p v" 



434 



MEMNONIUM. 



MENANDER. 



did net call the statue Memnon, but Amenophis. 
This figure was made of black stone, in a sitting 
posture, with its feet close together, and the hands 
leaning on the seat. Several very ingenious con- 
jectures have been propounded respecting the al- 
leged meaning of the so-called statue of IMemnon, 
Some have asserted that it served for astronomical 
purposes, and others that it had reference to the 
mystic worship of the sun and light, but there can 
be little doubt that the statue represented nothing 
else than the Egyptian king Amenophis. — 2. A 
native of Rhodes, joined Artabazus, satrap of 
Lower Phrygia, who had married his sister, in his 
revolt against Darius Ochus. When fortune de- 
serted the insurgents they fled to the court of 
Philip. Mentor, the brother of Memnon, being 
high in favour with Darius, interceded on behalf 
of Artabazus and Memnon, who were pardoned 
and again received into favour. On the death of 
Mentor, Memnon, who possessed great military 
skill and experience, succeeded him in his autho- 
rity, which extended over all the W. coast of Asia 
Minor (about B. c. 336). When Alexander in- 
vaded Asia, Memnon defended Halicarnassus 
against Alexander, until it was no longer possible 
to hold out. He then collected an army and a 
fleet, with the design of carrying the war into 
Greece, but died at Mytilene in 333, before he 
could carry his plan into execution. His death 
was an irreparable loss to the Persian cause ; for 
several Greek states were prepared to join him, 
had he carried the war into Greece. — 3. A native 
of Heraclea Pontica, wrote a large work on the 
history of that city. Of how many books it con- 
sisted we do not know. Photius had read from 
the 9th to the 1 6th inclusive, of which portion he 
has made a tolerably copious abstract. The first 
8 books he had not read, and he speaks of other 
books after the 16th. The 9th book began with 
an account of the tyrant Clearchus, the disciple of 
Plato and Isocrates, and the 16th book came 
down to the time of Julius Caesar, after the latter 
had obtained the supreme power. The work was 
probably written in the time of Augustus, and 
certainly not later than the time of Hadrian or 
the Antonines. The Excerpta of Photius are 
published separately, by Orelli, Lips. 1816. 

Menmonium and -ia (MenvSveiou, Mefxu6u€La), 
were names applied by the Greeks to certain very 
ancient buildings and monuments in Egypt and 
A-sia, which they supposed to have been erected 
by or in honour of Memnon. 1. The most cele- 
brated of these was a great temple at Thebes, de- 
scribed hj Strabo, and commonly identified by 
modern travellers Avith the magnificent ruins of 
the temple of Remeses the Great, at W. Thebes, 
or, as it is usually called, the tomb of Osymandyas, 
from its agreement with the description of that 
monument given by Diodorus. There are, how- 
ever, strong grounds for supposing that the true 
Memnonium, described by Strabo, stood behind 
the 2 colossal sitting statues on the plain of 
Thebes, one of which is clearly the celebrated 
vocal statue of Memnon, and that it has entirely 
disappeared. — 2. [Abydos, No. 2.] — 3. The 
citadel of Susa Avas so called, and its erection 
was ascribed to the Memnon who appears in the 
legends of the Trojan war ; but there is no reason 
to suppose that this connection of Memnon with 
the Persian capital existed before the Persian con- 
guest of Egypt. 



Memphis (Me/jLcpis, Mevcp : 0. T. Moph : Me/*. 

(p'lTTjs, Memphites : Menf and Metrahenny^ Ru.), 
a great city of Egypt, second in importance only 
to Thebes, after the fall of which it became the 
capital of the whole country, a position which it 
had previously shared Avith Thebes. It was of 
unknown antiquity, its foundation being ascribed 
to Menes. It stood on the left (W.) bank of the 
Nile, about 10 miles above the pyramids of JizeJi^ 
near the N. limit of the Heptanomis, or Middle 
EgA^pt, a nome of Avhich (Mefxcp'iTrjs) was named 
after the city. It was connected by canals with 
the lakes of Moeris and Mareotis, and was the 
great centre of the commerce of Egypt until the 
Persian conquest (b. c. 524), when Cambyses par- 
tially destroyed the city. After the foundation of 
Alexandria, it sank into insignificance, and wag 
finally destroyed at the Arab conquest in the 7th 
century. In the time of its splendour it is said to 
haA'e been 150 stadia in circumference, and half a 
day's journey in every direction. Of the splendid 
buildings Avith Avhich it Avas adorned, the chief 
Avere the palace of the Pharaohs ; the temple- 
palace of the god-bull Apis ; the temple of Serapis, 
Avith its avenue of sphinxes, noAv covered by the 
sand of the desert ; and the temple of Hephaes- 
tus, the Egyptian Phtha, of whose worship Mem- 
phis Avas the chief seat. The ruins of this temple, 
and of other buildings, still cover a large portion 
of the plain between the Nile and the W. range 
of hills which skirt its valley. 

Menaenum or Menae (Menenius Cic, Menani- 
nus Plin., but on coins Menaenus : Mineo), a tOAvn 
on the E. coast of Sicily, S. of Hybla, the birth- 
place and residence of the Sicel chief Ducetius, 
Avho Avas long a formidable enemy of the Greek 
cities in Sicily. [Ducetius.] On his fall the 
town lost all its importance. 

Menalippus. [Melanippus.] 

Menander (Mevavdpos), of Athens, the most 
distinguished poet of the New Comedy, was 
the son of Diopithes and Hegesistrate, and flou- 
rished in the time of the successors of Alexander. 
He Avas born b. c, 342. His father, Diopithes, 
commanded the Athenian forces on the Hellespont 
in the year of his son's birth. Alexis, the comic 
poet, Avas the uncle of Menander, on the father's 
side ; and we may naturally suppose that the 
young Menander derived from his uncle his taste 
for the comic drama, and Avas instructed by him 
in its rules of composition. His character must 
have been greatly influenced by his intimacy with 
Theophrastus and Epicurus, of whom the former 
Avas his teacher and the latter his intimate friend. 
His taste and sympathies Avere altogether with 
the philosophy of Epicurus ; and in an epigram he 
declared that " as Themistocles rescued Greece 
from slavery, so Epicurus from unreason." From 
Theophrastus, on the other hand, he must have 
derived much of that skill in the discrimination of 
character Avhich we so much admire in the Cha- 
racteres of the philosopher, and v/hich formed the 
great charm of the comedies of Menander. His 
master's attention to external elegance and comfort 
he not only imitated, but, as AA-as natural in a man 
of an elegant person, a joyous spirit, and a serene 
and easy temper, he carried it to the extreme of 
luxury and efi'eminacy. The moral character of 
Menander is defended by modern Avriters against 
the aspersions of Suidas and others. Thus much 
is certain, that his comedies contain nothing of- 



MENAPIA. 



MENEDEMUS. 



435 



fensive, at least to the taste of liis own and the 
following ages, none of the purest, it must be ad- 
mitted, as they were frequently acted at private 
banquets. Of the actual events of his life we 
know but little. He enjoyed the friendship of 
Demetrius Phalereus, whose attention was first 
drawn to him by admiration of his works. Ptolemy, 
the son of Lagus, was also one of his admirers ; 
and he invited the poet to his court at Alexandria ; 
but Menander seems to have declined the proffered 
honour He died at Athens B.C. 291, at the age 
of 52, and is said to have been dro-\vned while 
swimming in the harbour of Piraeus. Notwith- 
standing Menander's fame as a poet, his public 
dramatic career was not eminently successful ; for, 
though he composed upwards of 100 comedies, he 
only gained the prize 8 times. His preference for 
elegant exhibitions of character above coarse jest- 
ing may have been the reason why he was not so 
great a favourite with the common people as his 
principal rival, Philemon, who is said, moreover, 
to have used unfair means of gaining popularity. 
Menander appears to have borne the popular ne- 
glect very lightly, in the consciousness of his su- 
periority ; and once, when he happened to meet 
Philemon, he is said to have asked him, " Pray, 
Philemon, do not you blush when you gain a 
victory over me ? " The neglect of Menander 's 
contemporaries has been amply compensated by 
his posthumous fame. His comedies retained their 
place on the stage down to the time of Plutarch, 
and the unanimous consent of antiquity placed 
him at the head of the New Comedy, and on an 
equality with the great masters of the various 
kinds of poetry. His comedies were imitated by 
the Roman dramatists, particularly by Terence, 
who Avas little more than a translator of Menander. 
But we cannot form, from any one play of Terence, 
a fair notion of the corresponding play of Menander, 
as the Roman poet frequently compressed two of 
Menander's plays into one. It was this mixing 
up of different plays that Caesar pointed to by the 
phrase O dimidiate Menander^ in the epigram 
which he wrote upon Terence. Of Menander's 
comedies only fragments are extant. The best 
edition of them is by Meineke, in his Fragmenta 
Comicorum Graecorum^ Berol. 1841. 

Menapia (Mej/aTrla), a city of Bactriana, on 
the river Zariaspis. 

Menapii, a powerful people in the N. of Gallia 
Belgica, originally dwelt on both banks of the 
Rhine, but were afterwards driven out of their 
possessions on the right bank by the Usipetes and 
Tenchteri, and inhabited only the left bank near 
its mouth, and W. of the Mosa. Their country 
was covered with forests and swamps. They had a 
fortress on the Mosa called Castellum Menapiorum 
{Kessel). 

Menas (Mt/i/Ss), also called Menodorus (Mtjvo- 
5wpos) by Appian, a freedman of Pompey the 
Great, was one of the principal commanders of the 
fleet of Sext. Pompey in his war against Octavian 
and Antony, b. c. 40. In 39 he tried in vain to 
dissuade his master from concluding a peace with 
Octavian and Antony ; and, at an entertainment 
given to them by Sextus on board his ship at 
Misenum, Menas suggested to him to cut the 
cables of the vessel, and, rmming it out to sea, 
despatch both his rivals. The treacherous pro- 
posal, however, was rejected by Pompey. On 
the breaking out of the war again in 38, Menas 



deserted Pompey and went over to Octavian. In 
36 he returned to his old master's service ; but in 
the course of the same year he again played the 
deserter, and joined Octavian. In 35 he accom- 
panied Octavian, in the Pannonian campaign, and 
was slain at the siege of Siscia. According to the 
old scholiasts, this Menas is the person so vehe- 
mently attacked by Horace in his 4th epode. This 
statement has been called in question by many 
modem commentators ; but their arguments are far 
from satisfactory. 

Mende or Mendae (MeVS??, Meu5a7os), a town on 
the W. coast of the Macedonian peninsula Pellene 
and on the Thermaic gulf, was a colony of the 
Eretrians, and was celebrated for its wine. It was 
for some time a place of considerable importance, 
but was ruined by the foimdation of Cassandrea. 

Mendes (Mez/?rjs: MevdijaLos: Ru. near Ma- 
tarieh), a considerable city of the Delta of Egypt, 
on the S. side of the lake of Tanis (Menzaleh), 
and on the bank of one of the lesser arms of the 
Nile, named after it Meud-fjaLou arSfA-a : the chief 
seat of the worship of Mendes. 

Menecles (MeveKXrjs). 1. Of Barce in Cyrene, 
an historian of uncertain date. — 2. Of Alabanda, 
a celebrated rhetorician. He and his brother Hie- 
rocles taught rhetoric at Rhodes, where the orator 
M. Antonius heard them, about B.C. 94. 

Menecrates (Meve/cpdTTjs). 1. A Syracusan 
physician at the court of Philip, king of Macedon, 
B.C. 359 — 336. He made himself ridiculous by 
calling himself "Jupiter," and assuming divine 
honours. There is a tale that he was invited one 
day by Philip to a magnificent entertainment, 
where the other guests were sumptuously fed, 
while he himself had nothing but incense and liba- 
tions, as not being subject to the human infirmity 
of hunger. He was at first pleased with his re- 
ception, but afterwards perceiving the joke, and 
finding that no more substantial food was offered 
him, he left the party in disgust. — 2. Tiherius 
Claudius Menecrates, a physician mentioned by 
Galen, composed more than 150 medical works, of 
which only a few fragments remain. 

Menedemus {Mev45ri[Mos), a Greek philosopher, 
was a native of Eretria, and though of noble birth 
was poor, and worked for a livelihood either as a 
builder or as a tent-maker. According to one 
story he seized the opportunity afforded by his 
being sent on some military service to Megara to 
hear Plato, and abandoned the army to addict 
himself to philosophy ; but it may be questioned 
whether he was old enough to have heard Plato 
before the death of the latter. According to an- 
other story, he and his friend Asclepiades got 
their livelihood as millers, working during the 
night, that they might have leisure for philo- 
sophy in the day. The 2 friends afterwards 
became disciples of Stilpo at Megara. From 
Megara they went to Elis, and placed themselves 
under the instruction of some disciples of Phaedo. 
On his return to Eretria Menedemus established a 
school of philosophy, which was called the Ere- 
trian. He did not, however, confine himself to 
philosophical pursuits, but took an active part in 
the political affairs of his native city, and came to 
be the leading man in the state. He went on 
various embassies to Lysimachus, Demetrius, and 
others ; but being suspected of the treacherous in- 
tention of betraying Eretria into the power of 
Antigonus, he quitted his native city secretly, and 

p F 2 



MENELAI. 

took refuge with Antigonus in Asia. Here lie 
starved himself to death in the 74th year of his 
age, probably about u.c. 277. Of the philosophy 
of M'.Miedonuis little is known, except that it closely 
resembled that of the Megarian school. [Eu- 
CLIDES, No. 2.] 

Menelai, or -us, Portus (NleueXdios A/^tjj/, Me- 
veAaos : J\farsa-7'aiifjrouk, or Tias-el- Milhr 9) , ViW 
ancient city on the coast of Marmarica, in N. 
Africa, founded, according to tradition, by Meiie- 
hius. It is remarkable in history as the place 
where Agesilaus died. 

Menelaium (Me/'eAai'oi/), a mountain in Laconia, 
S. E. of Sparta near Therapne, on whicli the he- 
rouni of Menelaus was situated, the foundations of 
which temple were discovered in the year 1834. 

Menelaus (Mei/e'Aaos, Mei^eAews, or Mei/eAas). 
1. Son of Plisthenes or Atreus, and younger brother 
of Agamemnon. His early life is related under 
Agamemnon. He was king of Lacedaemon. 
and married to the beautiful Helen, by whom 
he became the father of Hermione. When 
Helen had been carried off by Paris, Menel.nis 
and Ulysses sailed to Troy in order to demand her 
restitution. Menelaus was hospitably treated by 
Antcnor, but the journey was of no avail ; and the 
Trojan Antimachus even advised his fellow-citizens 
to kill Menelaus and Ulysses. Thereupon Mene- 
laus and his brother Agamemnon resolved to march 
against Troy with all the forces that Greece could 
muster. Agamemnon was chosen the commander- 
in-chief. In the Trojan war Menelaus was under 
the special protection of Hera and Athena, and 
distinguished himself by his bravery in battle. He 
killed many illustrious Trojans, and would have slain 
Paris also in single combat, had not the latter been 
carried off by Aphrodite in a cloud. Menelaus 
was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden 
horse ; and as soon as Troy was taken he and 
Ulysses hastened to the house of Deiphobus, who 
had married Helen after the death of Paris, and 
put him to death in a barbarous manner. Mene- 
laus is said to have been secretly introduced into 
the chamber of Deiphobus by Helen, who thus be- 
came reconciled to her former husband. He was 
among the first that sailed away from Troy, ac- 
companied by his wife Helen and Nestor ; but he 
Avas 8 j^ears wandering about the shores of the 
Mediterranean, before he reached home. He ar- 
rived at Sparta on the very day on which Orestes 
was engaged in burying Clytaemnestra and Aegis- 
thus. Henceforward he lived with Helen at Sparta 
in peace and wealth, and his palace shone in its 
splendour like the sun or the moon. When Te!e- 
machus visited Sparta to inquire after his father, 
Menelaus was solemnising the marriage of his 
daughter Hermione with Neoptolemus, and of his 
son Megapenthes with a daughter of Alector. In 
the Homeric poems Menelaus is described as a 
man of an athletic figure ; he spoke little, but what 
he said was always impressive ; he was brave and 
courageous, but milder than Agamemnon, intelli- 
gent and hospitable. According to the prophecy 
of Proteus in the Odyssey, Menelaus and Ileleii 
were not to die, but the gods were to conduct them 
to Elysium. According to a later tradition, hr 
and Helen went to the Taurians, where they wei e 
sacrificed by Iphigenia to Artemis. Menelaus was 
Worshipped as a hero at Therapne, where his tomb 
and that of Helen were shown. Respecting tlie 
tale that Helen never went to Troy, but was de- 



MENINX. 

tained in Egypt, see Helena.— 2. Son of Lagus, 

and brother of Ptolemy Soter, held possession of 
Cyprus for his brother, but was defeati>d and driven 
out of the island by Demetrius Poliorcetes, b. c, 
30G. — 3. A Greek mathematician, a native of 
Alexandria, the author of an extant treatise in 3 
books, on the Sphere. He made some astrono- 
mical observations at Rome in the 1st year of the 
emperor Trajan, a. d. 98, 

Menelaus (Me/^eAaosj, a city of Lower Egypt, 
on tlie Canopic branch of the Nile, named after 
the brother of Ptolemy the son of Lagus. It 
was made the capital of the district between the 
lakes of Moeria and Mareotis {vQjj.h<i MeveAa'hvs). 

Menenius Lanatus. 1. Agrippa, consul, b. c. 
50.'i, conquered the Sabines. It was owing to his me- 
diation that the first great rupture between the pa- 
tricians and plebeians, when the latter seceded to the 
Sacred Mount, was brought to a happy and peaceful 
termination in 493 ; and it was upon this occa- 
sion he is said to have related to the plebeians his 
well-known fable of the belly and its members.— 
2. T., consul 477, was defeated by the Etruscans. 
He had previously allowed the Fabii to be de- 
stroyed by the Etruscans, although he might have 
assisted them with his army. For this act of 
treachery he was brought to trial b)' the tribunes 
and condemned to pay a fine. He took his punish- 
ment so much to heart, that he shut himself up in 
his house and died of grief. 

Mines (MtjVtjj), first king of Egypt, according 
to the traditions of the Egyptians themselves. 
Herodotus records of him that he built Memphis 
on a piece of ground which he had rescued from 
the river by turning it from its former course, and 
erected therein a magnificent temple to Hephaestus 
(Pthah). Diodorus tells us that he introduced 
into Egypt the worship of the gods and the prac- 
tice of sacrifices, as well as a more elegant and 
luxurious style of living. That he was a con- 
queror, like other founders of kingdoms, we learn 
from an extract from Manetho preserved by Eu- 
sebius. By Marsham and others he has been iden- 
tified with the Mizraim of Scripture. According to 
some accounts he was killed by a hippopotamus. 

Menesthei Portus {Puerto de S. Maria), a 
harbour in Hispania Baetica, not far from Gades, 
with an oracle of Menestheus, who is said in some 
legends to have settled in Spain. 

Menestheus (Mej/ea-eeus). 1. Son of Peteus, 
an Athenian king, who led the Athenians against 
Troy, and surpassed all other mortals in arranging 
the war- steeds and men for battle. With the 
assistance of the Tyndarids, he is said to have 
driven Theseus from his kingdom. — 2. Son of 
Iphicrates, the famous Athenian general, by the 
daughter of Cotys, king of Thrace. He married 
the daughter of Timotheus ; and in 356 was chosen 
commander in the Social war, his father and his 
father-in-law being appointed to aid him with 
tlieir counsel and experience. They were all three 
impeached by their colleague, Chares, for alleged 
misconduct and treachery in the campaign ; but 
Iphicrates and Menestheus were acquitted. 

Meninx or Lotophagitis, aft. Girba (M^r/7|, 
Aa)T0f/)a7iT/s, AccTocpdycov vrjaos : Jerbali), a con- 
siderable island, close to the coast of Africa Pro- 
pria, at the S.E. extremity of the Lesser Syrtis, 
with 2 cities, Meninx {Me^iaz) on the N.E., and 
Girba, or Gerra, on the S.W. It was the birth- 
place of the emperors Vibius Gallus and Volusianua. 



MENIPPE. 

Menippe (Mei/Lmrr]), daughter of Orion and 
sister of Metioche. These 2 sisters put themselves 
to death of their own accord in order to propitiate 
the 2 Erinnyes, who had visited Aonia with a 
plague. They were metamorphosed by Persephone 
and Hades into comets, and the Aonians erected 
to them a sanctuary near Orchomenos. 

Menippus {Meunnros), a cynic philosopher, and 
originally a slave, was a native of Gadara in C'oele- 
Syria. He seems to have been a hearer of Dio- 
genes, and flourished about B. c. GO. He amassed 
great wealth as a usurer ('nfMepodaveiffriis), but 
was cheated out of it all, and committed suicide. 
We are told that he wrote nothing serious, but 
that his books were full of jests ; whence it would 
appear that he was one of those cynic philosophers 
who threw all their teaching into a satirical form. 
In this character he is several times introduced b\' 
Lucian. His works are now entirely lost; but 
Ave have considerable fragments of Varro's Salurae 
Menippeae^ written in imitation of Menippus. 

Mennis, a city of Adiabene, in Assyria, only 
mentioned by Curtius (v. 1). 

Menodotus (Mtvi/oSotos), a physician of Nico- 
media in Bithynia, who was a pupil of Antiochus, 
of Laodicea, and tutor to Herodotus of Tarsus ; he 
belonged to the medical sect of the Empirici, and 
lived probably about the beginning of the 2nd 
century after Christ. 

Menoeceus (Mei/oaceus). 1. A Theban, grand- 
son of Pentheus, and father of Hipponome, Jocasta, 
and Creon. — 2. Grandson of the former, and son 
of Creon. He put an end to his life because Tire- 
sias bad declared that his death would bring vic- 
tory to his country, when the 7 Argive heroes 
marched against Thebes. His tomb was shown at 
Thebes near the Neitian gate. 

Menoetius (Mej/otVios). 1. Son of lapetus and 
Clymene or Asia, and brother of Atlas, Prome- 
theus, and Epimetheus. He was killed by Zeus 
with a flash of lightning, in the battle with the 
Titans, and was hurled into Tartarus. — 2. Son of 
Actor and Aegina, husband of Polymele or Sthe- 
nele, and father of Patroclus, who is hence called 
Menoetiades. After Patroclus had slain the son of 
Amphidamas, Menoetius fled with him to Peleus 
in Phthia, and had him educated there. 

Menon (MeVwj/), a Thessalian adventurer, was 
one of the generals of the Greek mercenaries in the 
army of Cvrus the Younger when the latter 
marched into Upper Asia against his brother Ar- 
taxerxes, B.C. 401. After the death of Cyrus he 
■was apprehended along -with, the other Greek gene- 
rals by Tissaphernes, and was put to death by 
lingering tortures, which lasted for a whole 3'ear. 
His character is drawn in the blackest colours by 
Xenophon. He is the same as the Menon introduced 
in the dialogue of Plato, which bears his name. 

Mens, a personification of mind, worshipped by 
the Romans. She had a sanctuarj- on the Capitol ; 
and the object of her worship was, that the citizens 
might always be guided by a right spirit. 

Mentesa (Mentesanus). 1. Sumamed Bastia, 
a town of the Oretani in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
on the road from Castulo to Carthago Nova. — 2. 
A small town of the Bastuli in the S. of Hispania 
Baetica. 

Mentor (Mevrwp). 1. Son of Alcimus and a 
faithful friend of Ulysses, frequently mentioned in 
the Odyssey. — 2. A Greek of Rhodes, who, with 
his brother Memnon, rendered active assistance to 



MEROBAUDES. 4i7 
Artabazus. When the latter found himself com- 
pelled to take refuge at the court of Philip, Mentor 
entered the service of Nectanabis, king of Egypt 
He was sent to the assistance of Tennes, king of 
Sidon, in his revolt against Darius Ochus ; and 
when Tennes went over to the Persians, Mentor 
was taken into the service of Darius. He rose 
rapidly in the favour of Darius, and eventually 
received a fatrapy, including all the v/estern coast 
of Asia Minor, iiis influence with Darius enabled 
him to procure the pardon of his brother Memnon. 
He died in possession of his satrapy, and was 
succeeded by his brother Memnon. [Me.mnox.] — 
3. Tiie most celebrated silver-chaser among the 
Greeks, who must have flourished before b. c. 356. 
His works were vases and cups, which were most 
highly prized by the Romans. 

Mercurii Promontorium. [Hermaeu.m.] 
Merciirius, a Roman divinity of commerce and 
gain. The character of the god is clear from his 
name, which is connected with rnerx and mcrcari. 
A temple was built to him as early as B. c. 496 
near the Circus Maximus ; an altar of the god 
existed near the Porta Capena, by the side of a 
well; and in later times a temple seems to have 
been built on the same spot. Under the name of 
the ill-willed {malevolus), he had a statue in what 
was called the vicus soLrius, or the sober street, in 
which no shops were allowed to be kept, and milk 
was offered to him there instead of wine. This 
statue had a purse in its hand, to indicate his func- 
tions. His festival was celebrated on the 25th of 
May, and chiefly by merchants, who also visited the 
well near the Porta Capena, to which magic powers 
were ascribed ; and with water from that well they 
used to sprinkle themselves and their merchandise, 
that they might be purified, and yield a large 
profit. The Romans of later times identified Mer- 
curius, the patron of merchants and tradespeople, 
with the Greek Hermes, and transferred all the 
attributes and myths of the latter to tlie former. 
The Fetiales, however, never recognised tie iden- 
tity ; and instead of the caduceus used a sacred 
branch as the emblem of peace. The resemblance 
between Mercurius and Hermes is indeed very 
slight; and their identification is a proof of the 
thoughtless manner in v/hich the Romans acted in 
this respect. [Hermes.] 
Mercurius Trismegistus. [Hermes Tris- 

MEGISTUS.] 

Meriones (M-npiSuris), a Cretan hero, son of 
Molus, who, conjointly with Idomeneus, led the 
Cretans in 80 ships against Troy. He v/as one of 
the bravest heroes in the Trojan war, and usually 
acted together with his friend Idomeneus. Later 
traditions relate, that on his way homeward he 
was thrown on the coast of Sicily, where he was 
received by the Cretans who had settled there; 
whereas, according to others, he returned safely to 
Crete, and was buried and worshipped as a hero, 
together v.-ith Idomeneus, at Cnossus. 

Mermerus (Me'p/xepos). 1. Son of Jason and 
ZMedea, also called Macareus or Monnorus, was 
murdered, together with his brother Pheres, by 
his mother at Corinth.— 2. Son of Pheres, and 
grandson of Jason and Medea. 

Mermessus or Myrmessus (MepjUT/o-o-o's, Mup- 
ixrjacros), also written Marmessus and Marpessus, 
a t0A\Ti of Mysia, in the territory of Lampsacus, 
not far from Polichna ; the native place of a sibyl. 

Merobaudes, Flavins, a general and a poet, 
K F 3 



438 



MERGE. 



jMESPILA. 



whose ments are recorded in an inscription on the 
base of a statue dug up in the Ulpian forum at 
Rome in the year ] 812 or 1813. We learn from 
the inscription that the statue was erected in 
A. D. 435. Some fragments of the poems of Mero- 
baudes were discovered by Niebuhr upon a palimp- 
sest belonging to the monastery of St, Gall, and 
were published by him at Bonn, 1 823. 

Meroe (Mepor) : pts. of NvJiia and Sennar)^ the 
island, so-called, and almost an island in reality, 
formed by the rivers Astapus {Blue Nile) and 
Astaboras (Atbarah), and the portion of the Nile 
between their mouths, was a district of Ethiopia. 
Its capital, also called Meroe, stood near the N. 
point of the island, on the E. bank of the Nile, 
below the modem S/iendi/, where the plain, near 
the village of Assour, is covered with ruins of 
temples, pyramids, and other works, in a style 
closely resembling the Egyptian. Standing in a 
fertile district, rich in timber and minerals, at 
the foot of the highlands of Abyssinia^ and at the 
junction of 2 great rivers, Meroe became at a very 
early period a chief emporium for the trade be- 
tween Eg}'pt, N. Africa, Ethiopia, Arabia, and 
India, and the capital of a powerful state. The 
government was a hierarchical monarchy, entirely 
in the hands of a ruling caste of priests, who chose 
a king from among themselves, bound him to 
govern according to their laws, and put him to 
death when they chose ; until king Ergamenes 
(about B. c. 300) threw off the yoke of the priests, 
whom he massacred, and converted his kingdom 
into an absolute monarchy. The priests of Meroe 
were closely connected in origin and customs with 
those of Eg}-pt ; and, according to some traditions, 
the latter sprang from the former, and they from 
India ; but the settlement of this point involves 
an important ethnical question, which lies beyond 
the limits of this book. For further details re- 
specting the kingdom of Meroe, see Aethiopia. 
Meroe had a celebrated oracle of Aramon. 

Merom Lacus. [Semechoxitis.] 

Merope (Mept^Trr?). 1. One of the Heliades or 
sisters of Phaethon.— 2. Daughter of Atlas, one of 
the Pleiades, and wife of Sisyphus of Corinth, by 
whom she became the mother of Glaucus. In the 
constellation of the Pleiades she is the 7th and the 
least visible star, because she is ashamed of having 
had intercourse with a mortal man. — 3. Daughter 
of Cypselus, wife of Cresphontes, and mother of 
Aepytus, For details, see Ai!;pytus. 

Merops fMepoil/). 1. King of the island of Cos, 
husband of the n}Tnph Ethemea, and father of 
Eumelus. His wife v/as killed by Artemis, because 
she had neglected to worship that goddess. Me- 
rops, in order to rejoin his wife, wished to make 
away with himself, but Hera changed him into an 
sagle, whom she placed among the stars.— 2. King 
of the Ethiopians, by whose wife, Clymene, Helios 
became the father of Phaethon. — 3. King of 
Rhyndacus, on the Hellespont, also called Macar 
or Macareus, was a celebrated soothsayer, and 
father of Clite, Arisbe, Amphius, and Adrastus. 

Merula, L. Cornelius, was flamen dialis, and, 
on the deposition of L. Cinna in B. c. 87, was 
elected consul in his place. On the capture of 
Rome by Marius and Cinna at the close of the 
same year, Merula put an end to his own life, in 
order to escape the hands of the executioner. 

Mesambria (Meaa/jL^piTj : Bushehr), a peninsula 
on the coast of Persis, near the river Padargus. 



Meschela (Meo-xeXo : prob. near Bonah), a large 
city on the coast of N. Africa, said to have been 
founded by Greeks returning from the Trojan 
war. It was taken by Eumachus, the lieutenant 
of Agathocles. 

Mesembria (Meo-Tj/igpi'a, Herod. Meca/n^ptT] ; 
Mea7)iLL€pLav6s). 1, (Missivria or Messuri), a ce- 
lebrated town of Thrace on the Pontus Euxinus. 
and at the foot of Mt. Haemus, founded by the 
inhabitants of Chalcedon and Byzantium in the 
time of Darius Hystaspis, and hence called a colony 
of Megara, since those 2 towns were founded by 
the Megarians. — 2. A town in Thrace, but of 
much less importance, on the coast of the Aegaean 
sea, and in the territory- of the Ciconeg, near the 
mouth of the Lissus, and the most W.-ly of the 
Samothracian settlements on the mainland. 

Mesene (Meo-Tjv^, i, e. Midland)^ a name given 
to that part of Babylonia which consisted of the 
great island formed by the Euphrates, the Tigris, 
and the Royal Canal ; and contained, therefore, 
the greater part of Babylonia. 

Mesoa or Messoa. [Sparta.] 

Mesogis. [Messogis.] 

Mes6m.edes (Mecro/ATjSTjs), a lyric and epigram- 
matic poet under Hadrian and the Antonines, was a 
native of Crete, and a freedman of Hadrian, whose 
favourite Antinous he celebrated in a poem. A 
salary, which he had received from Hadrian, was 
diminished by Antoninus Pius. Three poems of 
his are preserved in the Greek Anthology. 

Mesopotamia ( M^croTvorafji'ia, Miar] ruv irora- 
jj-wv : 0. T. Aram Naharaim, i. e. Syria between the 
Rivers: LXX. M€cro7roTaij.'ia 2vp'ias : Al-Jesira, i.e. 
Tfie Island), a district of W. Asia, named from 
its position betv/een the Euphrates and the Tigris, 
of which rivers the former divided it from Syria 
and Arabia on the W., the latter from Assyria on 
the E.: on the N. it was separated from Ajrmenia 
by a branch of the Taurus, called Masius, and on 
the S. from Babylonia, by the Median Wall. The 
name was first used by the Greeks in the time of 
the Seleucidae. In earlier times the country was 
reckoned a part, sometimes of Syria, and some- 
times of AssjTia. Nor in the division of the 
Persian empire was it recognised as a distinct 
country, but it belonged to the satrapy of Baby- 
lonia. Excepting the mountainous region on the 
N. and N.E. formed by the chain of Masius, 
and its prolongation parallel to the Tigris, the 
country formed a vast plain, broken by few hills, 
well watered by rivers and canals, and very fer- 
tile, except in the S. part, which was more like 
the Arabian Desert, on the opposite side of the 
Euphrates. Besides com, and fruits, and spices 
(e. g. the arnomum), it produced fine timber, and 
supported large herds of cattle ; in the S., or desert 
part, there were numerous wild animals, such as 
wild asses, gazelles, ostriches, and lions. Its chief 
mineral products were naphtha and jet. The N. 
part of Mesopotamia was divided into the districts 
of Mygdonia and Osroexe. It belonged suc- 
cessively to the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, 
Macedonian, Syro-Grecian, Parthian, and later 
Persian empires. In a wider sense, the name is 
sometimes applied to the whole coxmtry between 
the Euphrates and the Ti;.'ris. 

Mespila {rj Mecr7ri\a : Ru. at Kouyounjik, opp. 
to Mosul, Layard : others give different sites for 
it), a city of Assyria, on the E. side of the Tigris, 
which X'enophon {Anab. iii. 4) mentions as having 



MESSA. 



MESSALA. 



439 



been formerly a great city, inhabited by Modes, 
T)ut in his time fallen to decay. It had a wall 6 
parasangs in circuit, composed of 2 parts ; namely, 
a base 50 feet thick and 50 high, of polished stone 
full of shells (the limestone of the country), upon 
which was built a brick wall 50 feet thick and 100 
high. It had served, according to tradition, as 
the refuge for the Median queen, when the Per- 
sians overthrew the empire of the Medes, and it 
resisted all the efforts of the Persian king to take 
it, until a thunder storm frightened the inhabitants 
into a surrender. 

Messa (Meo-tra, MeVcTT? : Mezapo)^ a town and 
harbour in Laconia near C. Taenarum. 

Messabatene or -ice (MecrcTaSaTr^p'r], Meaaa- 
SaTiKTi : MecrrragaTaj), a small district on the S.E, 
margin of the Tigris and Euphrates valley, on the 
borders of Media, Persis, and Susiana, reckoned 
sometimes to Persis and sometimes to Susiana. 
The name seems to be derived from the mountain 
passes in the district. 

Messala or Messalla, the name of a distin- 
guished family of the Valeria gens at Rome. They 
appear for the first time on the consular Fasti in 
B. c. 263, and for the last in A. D. 506. — 1. M'. 
Valerius Maximus Corvinus Messala, was con- 
sul B. c. 263, and, in conjunction with his colleague 
M. Otacilius, carried on the war with success 
against the Carthaginians in Sicily. The 2 consuls 
concluded a peace with Hieron. In consequence 
of his relieving Messana he obtained the cognomen 
of Messala. His triumph was distinguished by 
two remarkable monuments of his victory — b}^ a 
pictorial representation of a battle with the Sici- 
lian and Punic armies, which he placed in the 
Curia Hostilia, and by a sun-dial (Horologium), 
from the booty of Catana, which was set np on a 
column behind the rostra, in the forum. Messala 
was censor in 252. — 2. M. Valerius Messala, 
consul 226. — 3. M.Valerius Messala, praetor 
peregrinus 194, and consul 188, when he had the 
province of Liguria. — 4. M. Valerius Messala, 
consul 161, and censor 154. — 5. M. Valerius 
Messala Niger, praetor 63 ; consul 61 ; and censor 
55. He belonged to the aristocratical party. He 
married a sister of the orator Q. Hortensius, by 
whom he had at least one son. 6. M. Valerius 
Messala, son of the preceding; consul 53; be- 
longed, like his father, to the aristocratical party ; 
but in consequence probably of his enmity to 
Pompej^, he joined Caesar in the civil war, and 
served under him in Africa. He was in high 
repute for his skill in augury, on which science he 
wrote. — 7. M. Valerius Messala Corvinus, son 
of the preceding, was partly educated at Athens, 
where probably began his intimacy with Horace 
and L. Bibulus. After Caesar's death (44) he 
joined the republican party, and attached himself 
especially to Cassius, whom, long after, when he 
had become the friend of Augustus, he was accus- 
tomed to call "my general." Messala was pro- 
scribed ; but since his kinsmen proved his absence 
from Ptome at the time of Caesar's assassination, 
the triumvirs erased his nam.e from the list, and 
offered him security for his person and propert}-. 
Messala, however, rejected their offers, followed 
Cassius into Asia, and at Philippi, in the first 
day's battle, timied Augustus's flank, stormed his 
camp, and narrowly missed taking him prisoner. 
After the death of Brutus and Cassius, Messala, 
with a numerous body of fugitives, took refuge 



In the island of Thasos. His followers, though 
defeated, were not disorganised, and offered him 
the command. But he induced them to accept 
honourable terms from Antony, to whom he at- 
tached himself until Cleopatra's influence made 
his ruin certain and easy to be foreseen. Mes- 
sala then again changed his party, and served 
Augustus effectivelj'- in Sicily, 36 ; against the 
Salassians, a mountain tribe lying between the 
Graian and the Pennine Alps, 34 ; and at Actium, 
31. A decree of the senate had abrogated An- 
tony's consulship for 31, and Messala was ap- 
pointed to the vacant place. He was proconsul of 
Aquitania in 28 — 27, and obtained a triumph for 
his reduction of that province. Shortly before or 
immediately after his administration of Aquitania, 
Messala held a prefecture in Asia Minor. He was 
deputed by the senate, probably in 30, to greet 
Augustus with the title of " Pater Patriae and 
the opening of his address on that occasion is pre- 
served by Suetonius. During the disturbances at 
the comitia in 27, Augustus nominated Messala to 
the revived office of warden of the city ; but he 
resigned it in a few days. Messala soon after- 
wards withdrew from all public employments ex- 
cept his augurship, to which Augustus nad specially 
appointed him, although, at the time of his admis- 
sion, there was no vacancy in the augural college. 
About 2 years before his death, which happened 
about the middle of Augustus's reign, b. c. 3 — a. d. 3, 
Messala's memory failed him, and he often could not 
recall his own name. His tomb was of remarkable 
splendour. Messala was as much distinguished in 
the literarj^ as in the political world of Rome. He 
was a patron of learning and the arts, and was 
himself an historian, a poet, a grammarian, and an 
orator. He wrote commentaries on the civil wars 
after Caesar's death, and a genealogical work, De 
Romanis Familiis. The treatise, however, De 
Progenie Aurjusti, which sometimes accompanies 
Eutropius and the minor Roman historians, is the 
forgery of a much later age. Messala's poems 
were of a satirical or even licentious character. 
His writings as a grammarian were numerous and 
minute, comprising treatises on collocation and 
lexicography, and on the powers and uses of single 
letters. His eloquence reflected the character of 
his age. More smooth and correct than vigorous 
or original, he persuaded rather 'than convinced, 
and conciliated rather than persuaded. His health 
was feeble, and the prooemia of his speeches gene- 
rally pleaded indisposition and solicited indulgence. 
He mostly took the defendant's side, and was fre- 
quently associated in causes with C. Asiiiius Pollio. 
He recommended and practised translation from 
the Greek orators ; and his version of the Pliryne 
of Hyperides was thought to exhibit remarkable 
skill in either language. His political eminence, 
the wealth he inherited or acquired in the civil 
wars, and the favour of Antony and Augustus, 
rendered Messala one of the principal persons of 
his age, and an effective patron of its literature. 
His friendship for Horace and his intimacy with 
Tibullus are well known. In the elegies of the 
latter poet, the name of Messala is continually 
introduced. The dedication of the Ciris, a doubt- 
ful work, is not sufficient proof of his friendship 
with Virgil ; but the companion of " Plotius and 
Varius, of Maecenas and Octavius" (Hor. Sat. i. 
10. 81), cannot well have been unknown to the 
author of the Eclogues and Georgics. He directed 

p F 4 



440 



ME5SALIXA. 



Ovid's early studies (ex Pont. iv. 16), and Tiberius 
sought his acquaintance iu early manhood, and 
took him for his model in eloquence. — 8. M. Va- 
lerius Messala Barbatus Appianus, T\-as consul 
B.C. 12. and died in his year of olBce, He was 
the father (or grandfather) of the empress Mes- 
salina. — 9. L. Valerius Messala Volesus, consul 
A. D. 5, and afterwards proconsul of Asia, where 
his cruelties drew on him the anger of Augustus 
and a condemnatory decree from the senate.— 
10. L. Vipstanus Messala, legionarj- tribune in 
Vespasian's army, a. d. 70, was brother of Aqui- 
lius Regulus, the notorioas delator in Domitian's 
reign. He is one of Tacitus' authorities for the 
history of the civil wars after Galba's death, and a 
principal interlocutor in the dialogue De Oratoribus, 
ascribed to Tacitus. 

Messalina, 1. Statilia, granddaughter of T. 
Statilius Taurus, cos. a. d. 11, was the 3rd wife of 
the emperor Nero, who married her in a. d. 66. 
She had previously espoused Atticus Vestinus, 
M-hom Nero put to death without accusation or 
trial, merely that he might marry Messalina. — 2. 
Valeria, daughter of M. Valerius Messala Bar- 
batus and of Doraitia Lepida, was the 3rd wife of 
the emperor Claudius. She married Claudius, to 
whom she was previously related, before his ac- 
cession to the empire. Her profligacy and licen- 
tiousness were notorious; and the absence of virtue 
was not concealed by a lingering, sense of shame or 
even by a specious veil of decorum. She was as 
cruel as she was profligate; and many members of 
the most illustrious families of Rome were sacrificed 
to her fears or her hatred. She long exercised an 
unbounded empire over her weak husband, who 
alone was ignorant of her infidelities. For some 
time she was supported in her career of crime by 
the freedmen of Claudius; but when Narcissus, the 
most pov/erful of the emperor's freedmen, perceived 
that he should probably fall a victim to Messalina's 
intrigues, he determined to get rid of her. The 
insane folly of Messalina furnished the means of 
her o^vn destruction. Having conceived a violent 
passion for a handsome Roman youth, C. Silius, 
she publicly married him with all the rites of a 
legal connubium during the absence of Claudius at 
Ostia, A. D, 48. Narcissus persuaded the emperor 
that Silius and JMessalina would not have dared 
such an outrage had they not determmed also to 
deprive him of empire and life. Claudius wavered 
long, and at length Narcissus himself issued Mes- 
salina's death-warrant. She was put to death by 
a tribune of the guards in the gardens of Lu- 
cullus. 

Messana (Metra-a^a Dor., Meaawv : Mecrcrci'tos: 
Messi?ia), a celebrated town on the N. E. coast of 
Sicily, on the straits separating Italy from this 
island, which are here about 4 miles broad. The 
Romans called the town Messana, according to its 
Doric pronunciation, but Messe?ie vras its more 
usual name among the Greeks. It was originally 
a town of the Siceli, and was called Zancle 
(ZayKATj), or a sickle, on account of the shape of 
its harbour, which is formed by a singular curve 
of sand and shells. The first Greek colonists 
were, according to Thucydides, pirates from the 
Chalcidian to-rni of Cumae in Italy, who were 
joined by Chalcidians from Euboea, and, according 
to Strabo, by Naxians ; but these 2 accounts are not 
contradictory, for since Naxos in Sicily was also a 
colony from Chalcis, we may easily suppose that the 



MESSAPIUM. 

Naxians joined the other Chalcidians in the foun- 
dation of the town. Zancle soon became so powerful 
that it founded the town of Himen, about B. c. 648. 
After the capture of !Miletus by the Persians, the 
inhabitants of Zancle invited the lonians, who had 
been expelled from their native country, to settle on 
their "beautiful coast" (kcAtj ct/cTrj, Herod, vi. 22.); 
and a number of Samians and other Ionic Greeks 
accepted their ofi"er. On landing in the S. of Italy, 
thej were persuaded by Anaxilas, tyrant of Rhe- 
gium, to take possession of Zancle during the 
absence of Scythes, the tyrant of the city, who was 
engaged in the siege of some other Sicilian town. 
But their treacherj' was soon punished; for Anaxi- 
las himself shortly afterwards drove the Samians 
out of Zancle, and made himself master of the 
town, the name of which he changed into Messana 
or Messene, both because he was himself a Messe- 
nian, and because he transferred to the place a 
body of Messenians from Rhegium. Anaxilas died 
476; and about 10 years afterwards (466) his sons 
were driven out of Messana and Rhegium, and 
republican governments established in these cities. 
Messana now enjoyed great prosperity for several 
years, and in consequence of its excellent harbour 
and advantageous position, it became a place of 
great commercial importance. But in 396 it was 
taken by the Carthaginians, who destroyed the 
town because they saw that they should be imable 
to maintain so distant a possession against the 
power of Dionysius of Syracuse. Dionysius began 
to rebuild it in the same year, and besides collecting 
the remains of the former population, he added a 
number of Locrians, Messenians, and others, so 
that its inhabitants were of a very mixed kind. 
After the banishment of the younger Dionysius, 
Messana was for a short time free, but it fell into 
-the power of Agathocles about 312. Among the 
mercenaries of this tyrant were a number of Ma- 
mertini, an Oscan people from Campania, who had 
been sent from heme under the protection of the 
god Mamers or !Mars to seek their fortune in other 
lands. These ]\Iamertini were quartered in Mes- 
sana ; and after the death of Agathocles (282) 
they made themselves masters of the to-wn, killed 
the male inhabitants, and took possession of their 
wives, their children, and their propert}'. The 
to-rni was now called Mamertina, and the inha- 
bitants Mamertini; but its ancient name of 
]\Iessana continued to be in more general use. The 
new inhabitants could not lay aside their old pre- 
datory habits, and in consequence became involved 
in a war with Hieron of Sj'racuse, who defeated 
them in several battles, and would probably have 
conquered the torni, had not the Carthaginians 
come in to the aid of the Mamertini, and, under 
the pretext of assisting them, taken possession of 
their citadel. The Mamertini had at the same 
time applied to the Romans for help, who gladly 
availed themselves of the opportunity to obtain a 
footing in Sicily. Thus Messana was the imme- 
diate cause of the 1st Punic war, 264. The Ma- 
mertini expelled the Carthaginian garrison, and 
received the Romans, in whose power Messana 
remained till the latest times. There are scarcely 
any remains of the ancient city a* Mpssina. 

Messapia (Meo-o-aTn'a). 1. The Greek name of 
Calabria. — 2. (^^essag?^a), a town in Calabria, 
between Uria and Brundusium. 

Messapium (t^ Mea-a-dirtov opos), a mouijtain 
in Boeotia on the E. coast, near the town AnthedoDj 



MESSAPUS. 



MESYLA. 



441 



from Avliich Messapus is said to have sailed to the 
S. of Italy. 

Messapus (MeVo-aTros), a Boeotian, from whom 
Messapia in the S. of Italy was believed to have 
derived its name. 

Messene {MeaaT]ur])^ daughter of Triopas, and 
wife of Polycaon, whom she induced to take pos- 
session of the country which was called after her, 
Messenia. She is also said to have introduced 
there the worship of Zeus and the mysteries of the 
great goddess of Eleusis. 

Messene {Meaaijur] : MecrarjvLos). 1. {Mavro- 
viaii), the later capital of Messenia, was founded 
by Epaminondas B. c. 369, and completed and for- 
tified within the space of 85 days. It was situated 
at the foot of the steep hill of Ithome, which was 
so celebrated as a fortress in the history of the 
Messenian wars, and which now formed the acro- 
polis of the new city. Messene was one of the 
most strongly fortified cities of Greece. It was 
surrounded by massive walls built entirelj'^ of stone 
and flanked with numerous lowers. There are still 
considerable remains of some of these towers, as 
well as the foundations of the walls, and of several 
public buildings. They are described by a modern 
traveller as "built of the most regular kind of 
masonry, and formed of large stones fitted together 
with great accuracy." The northern gate of the 
city is also extant, and opens into a circular court, 
62 feet in diameter. The city was supplied with 
water from a fountain called Clepsydra, which is 
still a fine spring, from which the modern village 
of Mavromati derives its name, meaning Black 
Spring, or literally, Black Eye. — 2. See Messana. 

Messenia {M-eaarivia: 'M.ecrcrTjuios), a country in 
Peloponnesus, bounded on the E. by Laconia, on 
the N. by Elis and Arcadia, and on the S. and W. 
by the sea. It was separated from Laconia by Mt. 
Taygetus: but part of the W. slope of Taygetus 
belonged to Laconia; and it is difficult to determine 
the exact boundaries between the 2 countries, as 
they were different at different periods. In the 
most ancient times the river Nedon formed the 
boundary between Messenia and Laconia towards 
the sea ; but Pausanias places the frontier line 
further E. at a woody hollow called Choerius, 20 
stadia S. of Abia. The river Neda formed the N. 
frontier between Messenia and Elis. The area of 
Messenia is about 1162 square miles. It was for 
the most part a mountainous country, and contained 
only 2 plains of any extent, in the N. the plain of 
Stenyclerus, and in the S. a still larger plain, 
through which the Pamisus flowed, and which 
was called Macaria or the Blessed, on account of 
its great fertility. There were, however, many 
smaller valleys among the mountains ; and the 
country was much less rugged and far more pro- 
ductive than the neighbouring Laconia. Hence 
Messenia is described by Pausanias as the most 
fertile country in Peloponnesus ; and it is praised 
by Euripides on account of its climate, which was 
neither too cold in winter nor too hot in summer. 
The most ancient inhabitants of Messenia were 
Leleges, intermingled with Argives. According to 
tradition Polycaon, the younger son of Lelex, 
married the Argive Messene, a daughter of Triopas, 
and named the country Messene in honour of his 
wife. This is the name by which it is called in 
Homer, who does not use the form Messenia. 
Five generations afterwards Aeolians settled in 
the country, under the guidance of Perieres, a son 



of Aeolus. His son Aphareus gave a home to 
Neleus, who had been driven out of Thessaly, and 
who founded the town of Pylos, which became the 
capital of an independent sovereignty. For a long 
time there was properly no Messenian kingdom. 
The western part of the land belonged to the 
dominions of the Neleid princes of Pylos, of whom 
Nestor was the most celebrated, and the eastern 
to the Lacedaemonian monarchy. Thus it appears 
to have remained till the conquest of Peloponnesus 
by the Dorians, when Messenia fell to the share of 
Cresphontes, who destroyed the kingdom of Pylos, 
and united the whole country under his sway. 
The ruling class were now Dorians, and they con- 
tinued to speak the purest Doric down to the latest 
times. The Spartans soon coveted the more fertile 
territory of their brother Dorians ; and after many 
disputes between the 2 nations, and various inroads 
into each other's territories, open war at length 
broke out. This war, called the 1st Messenian 
war, lasted 20 years, b. c. 743 — 723; and notwith- 
standing the gallant resistance of the Messenian 
king, Aristodemus, the Messenians were obliged to 
submit to the Spartans after the capture of their 
fortress Ithome, and to become their subjects. 
[Aristodemus.] After bearing the yoke 38 years, 
the Messenians again took up arms under their 
heroic leader Aristomenes. [Aristomenes.] The 
2nd Messenian war lasted 17 years, B.C. 685 — 
668, and terminated with the conquest of Ira and 
the complete subjugation of the country. Most of 
the Messenians emigrated to foreign countries, and 
those who remained behind were reduced to the 
condition of Helots or serfs. In this state they 
remained till 464, when the Messenians and other 
Helots took advantage of the devastation occasioned 
by the great earthquake at Sparta, to rise against 
their oppressors. This 3rd Messenian war lasted 
10 years, 464 — 455, and ended by the Messenians 
surrendering Ithome to the Spartans on condition 
of their being allowed a free departure from Pelo- 
ponnesus. They settled at Naupactus on the 
Corinthian gulf opposite Peloponnesus, which town 
the Athenians had lately taken from the Locri 
Ozolae, and gladly granted to such deadly enemies 
of Sparta. At the conclusion of the Peloponnesian 
war (404), the unfortunate Messenians were obliged 
to leave Naupactus and take refuge in Italy, Sicily, 
and other coimtries ; but when the supremacy of 
Sparta was overthrown by the battle of Leuctra, 
Epaminondas resolved to restore the independence 
of Messenia. He accordingly gathered together 
the Messenian exiles from the various lands in 
Avhich they were scattered ; and in the summer of 
369 he founded the town of Messene at the foot 
of Mt. Ithome. [Messene.] Messenia w^as never 
again subdued by the Spartans, and it maintained 
its independence till the conquest of the Achaeans 
and the rest of Greece by the Romans, 146. 

Mestleta (Meo-rATjTa), a city of Iberia, in Asia, 
probably ofi the river Cyrus. 

Mestra (MijaTpa), daughter of Erysichthon, and 
granddaughter of Triopas, whence she is called 
Triopeis by Ovid. She was sold by her hungry 
father, that he might obtain the means of satisfying 
his hunger. In order to escape from slavery, she 
pra^^ed to Poseidon, who loved her, and who con- 
ferred upon her the power of metamorphosing her- 
self whenever she was sold. 

Mesyla, a town of Pontus, in Asia Minor, 
the road from Tavium to Comana. 



442 METAGONITIS. 

Metagonitis (MeraywuiTis : M6Ta7coj/iTai, Me- 
tagonitae), a name applied to the N. coast of 
Mauretania Tingitana (Marocco), between the 
Fretnm Gaditanum and the river Mulucha ; derived 
probabl}' from the Carthaginian colonies (/uera- 
yoSvia) settled along it. There was at some point 
of this coast a promontory called Metagonium or 
Metagonites, probably the same as Russadir (/?as- 
ud-Dii\ or C. Tres Foveas). 

Metagonium. [Metagonitis.] 

MetaUinum or Metellinum (Metallinensis : 
Medellin), a Roman colony in Lusitania on the 
Anas, not far from Augusta Emerita. 

Metanira (Meraz/eipa), wife of Celeus, and 
mother of Triptolemus, received Deraeter on her 
arrival in Attica. Pausanias calls her Meganaera. 
For details see Celeus. 

Metaplirastes, Symeon (Su^uewv 6 Meratppda: 
TTjs), a celebrated Byzantine writer, lived in the 
9th rjid 10th centuries, and held many high offices 
at the Byzantine court. His surname Metaphrastes 
was given to him on account of his having composed 
a celebrated paraphrase of the lives of the saints. 
Besides his other Avorks, he wrote a Byzantine 
history, entitled Annales, beginning with the em- 
peror Leo Armenus, A. D. 813, and finishing with 
Romanus, the son of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 
963. Edited by Bekker, Bonn, 1838. 

Metapontium called Metapontum by the Ro- 
mans (M^rairduTiov : MeraTrf^z/Tioy, Metapontlnus : 
Torre di Mare)., a celebrated Greek city in the S. 
of Itah^, on the Tarentine gulf, and on the E. coast 
of Lucania, is said to have been originally called 
Metabum [MeraSov). There were various tradi- 
tions respecting its foundation, all of which point 
to its high antiquity, but from which we cannot 
gather any certain information on the subject. It 
is said to have been afterwards destroyed by the 
Samnites, and to have been repeopled by a colony 
of Achaeans, who had been invited for that purpose 
by the inhabitants of Sybaris. Hence it is called 
by Livy an Achaean town, and is regarded by 
some writers as a colony from Sybaris. It fell into 
the hands of the Romans with the other Greek 
cities in the S. of Italy in the war against Pyrrhus; 
but it revolted to Hannibal after the battle of 
Cannae. From the time of the 2nd Punic war it 
disappears from history, and was in ruins in the 
time of Pausanias. 

Metaurum. [Metaurus, No. 2.] 

Metaurus. 1. {Metaro), a small river in Umbria, 
flowing into the Adriatic sea, but rendered memo- 
rable by the defeat and death of Hasdrubal, the 
brother of Hannibal, on its banks, B. c. 207. — 2. 
{Marro), a river on the E. coast of Bruttium, at 
whose mouth Avas the town of Metaurum. 

Metella. [Caecilia.] 

Metellus, a distinguished plebeian family of the 
Caecilia gens at Rome. 1. L. Caecilius Metellus, 
consul B.C. 251, carried on the war in Sicily 
against the Carthaginians. In the following year 
he gained a great victory over Hasdrubal, the 
Carthaginian general. The elephants which he 
took in this battle were exhibited in his triumph 
at Rome. Metellus was consul a 2nd time 
in 249, and was elected pontifex maximus in 
243, and held this dignity for 22 j'ears. He 
must, therefore, have died shortly before the com- 
mencement of the 2nd Punic war. In 241 he 
rescued the Palladium when the temple of Vesta 
was on fire, but lost his sight in consequence. He 



METELLUS. 

was dictator in 224, for the purpose of holding the 
coraitia. — 2. Q. Caecilius MeteUus, son of the 
preceding, was plebeian aedile 209 ; curule aedile 
208; served in the army of the consul Claudius 
Nero 207, and was one of the legates sent to Rome 
to convey the joyful news of the defeat and death 
of Hasdrubal; and was consul Avith L. Veturius 
Philo, 206. In his consulship he and his colleague 
carried on the Avar against Hannibal in Bruttium, 
Avhere he remained as proconsul during the follow- 
ing year. In 205 he Avas dictator for the purpose 
of holding the comitia. Metellus survived the 2nd 
Punic Avar many years, and Avas employed in 
seA-eral public commissions. — 3. Q. Caecilius Me- 
tellus Macedonicus, son of the last, Avas praetor 
148, and carried on Avar in Macedonia against the 
usurper Andriscus, Avhom he defeated and took 
prisoner. He next turned his arms against the 
Achaeans, Avhom he defeated at the beginning 
of 146. On his return to Rome in 146, he 
triumphed, and received the surname of Mace- 
donicus. Metellus Avas consul in 143, and received 
the province of Nearer Spain, where he carried on 
the Avar with success for 2 years against the Celti- 
beri. He AA'as succeeded by Q. Pompeius in 141. 
Metellus Avas censor 131. He died 115, full of 
years and honours. He is frequently quoted by 
the ancient Avriters as an extraordinary instance of 
human felicity. He had filled all the highest 
offices of the state with reputation and glory, and 
AA^as carried to the funeral pile by 4 sons, 3 of 
Avhom had obtained the consulship in his lifetime, 
Avhile the 4th Avas a candidate for the office at the 
time of his death. — 4. L. Caecilius Metellus 
Calvus, brother of the last, consul 142. — 5. Q. 
Caecilius MeteUus Balearicus, eldest son of 
No. 3, Avas consul 123, Avhen he subdued the in- 
habitants of the Balearic islands, and received in 
consequence the surname of Balearicus. He was 
censor 120. — 6. L. Caecilius Metellus Diade- 
matus, 2nd son of No. 3, has been frequently 
confounded Avith Metellus Dalmaticus, consul 1 19 
[No. 9.]. Metellus Diadematus receiA'ed the latter 
surname from his Avearing for a long time a bandage 
round his forehead, in consequence of an ulcer. 
He Avas consul 11 7. -—7. M. Caecilius Metellus, 
3rd son of No. 3, Avas consul 115, the year in 
Avhich his father died. In 114 he AA-as sent into 
Sardinia as proconsul, and suppressed an insurrec- 
tion in the island, in consequence of Avhich he 
obtained a triumph in 1 1 3 on the same day as his 
brother Caprarius. — 8. C. Caecilius Metellus 
Caprarius, 4th son of No. 3. The origin of his 
surname is quite uncertain. He AA'as consul 113, 
and carried on Avar in Macedonia against the 
Thracians, whom he subdued. He obtained a 
triumph in consequence in the same year and on 
the same day Avith his brother Marcus. He Avas 
censor 102 Avith his cousin Metellus Numidicus.— 
9. L. Caecilius MeteUus Dalmaticus, elder son 
of No. 4, and frequently confounded, as has been 
already remarked, AA'ith Diadematus [No. 5], 
AA'as consul 1 19, when he subdued the Dalmatians, 
and obtained in consequence the surname Dalma- 
ticus. He Avas censor with Cn. Domitius Aheno- 
barbus in 115; and he was also pontifex maximus. 
He AA'as alive in 100, when he is mentioned as one 
of the senators of high rank, Avho took up arms 
against Saturninus. — 10. Q. Caecilius MeteUus 
Numidicus, younger son of No. 4, Avas one of the 
most distinguished members of his family. The 



METELLUS. 

character of Metellus stood very high among his 
contemporaries ; in an age of growing corruption 
his personal integrity remained unsullied ; and he 
was distinguished for his abilities in war and peace. 
He was one of the chief leaders of the aristocratical 
party at Rome. He was consul 109, and carried 
on the war against Jugurtha in Numidia with 
great success. [Jugurtha.] He remained in 
Numidia during the following year as proconsul ; 
hut as he was unable to bring the war to a con- 
clusion, his legate C. Marius industriously circulated 
reports in the camp and the city that Metellus de- 
signedly protracted the war, for the purpose of 
continuing in the command. These rumours had 
the desired effect. Marius was raised to the con- 
sulship, Numidia was assigned to him as his 
province, and Metellus saw the honour of finishing 
the war cnatched from his grasp. [Marius. ] On 
his return to Rome in 107 he was received with 
the greatest honour. He celebrated a splendid 
triumph, ftiid received the surname of Numidicus. 
In 102 he was censor with his cousin Metellus 
Caprarius. In 100 the tribune Saturninus and 
Marius resolved to ruin Metellus. Saturninus 
proposed an agrarian law, to which he added the 
clause, that the senate should swear obedience to 
it within 5 days after its enactment, and that 
whosoever should refuse to do so should be expelled 
the senate, and pay a heavy fine. Metellus re- 
fused to take the oath, and was therefore expelled 
the senate ; but Saturninus, not content with this, 
brought forward a bill to punish him with exile. 
The friends of Metellus were ready to take up 
arms in his defence ; but Metellus quitted the citj'-, 
and retired to Rhodes, where he bore his mis- 
fortune with great calmness. He was however 
recalled to Rome in the following year (99) on the 
proposition of the tribune Q. Calidius. The orations 
of Metellus are spoken of with praise by Cicero, 
and they continued to be read with admiration in 
the time of Fronto. — 11. Q. Caecilius Metellus 
Nepos, son of Balearicus [No. 5], and grandson 
of Macedonicus [No. 3], appears to have received 
the surname of Nepos, because he was the eldest 
grandson of the latter. Metellus Nepos exerted 
himself in obtaining the recall of his kinsman Me- 
tellus Numidicus from banishment in 99, and was 
consul in 98, with T. Didius. In this j-ear the 2 
consuls carried the lex Caecilia Didia. — 12. Q. 
Caecilius Metellus Pius, son of Numidicus 
[No. 10], received the surname of Pius on account 
of the love which he displayed for his father when 
he besought the people to recall him from banish- 
ment in 99. He was praetor 89, and was one of 
the commanders in the Marsic or Social war. He 
was still in arms in 87, prosecuting the war against 
the Samnites, when Marius landed in Italy and 
joined the consul Cinna. The senate, in alarm, 
summoned Metellus to Rome; but as he was unable 
to defend the city against Marius and Cinna, he 
crossed over to Africa. After remaining in Africa 
3 years he returned to Italy, and joined Sulla, 
who also returned to Italy in 83. In the war 
which followed against the Marian party, Metellus 
was one of the most successful of Sulla's generals, 
and gained several important victories both in 
Umbria, and in Cisalpine Gaul. In 80, Metellus 
was consul with Sulla himself; and in the following 
year (79), he went as proconsul into Spain, in 
order to prosecute the war against Sertorius, who 
adhered to the Marian party. Here he remained 



METELLUS. 



443 



for the next 8 years, and found it so difficult to 
obtain any advantages over Sertorius, that the 
senate sent Pompey to his assistance with procon- 
sular power and another army. Sertorius, how- 
ever, was a match for them both, and would pro- 
bably- have continued to defy all the eftbrts of 
Metellus and Pompey, if he had not been murdered 
by Perperna and his friends in 72. [Sertorius.] 
Metellus was pontifex maxiraus, and, as he was 
succeeded in this dignity by Julius Caesar in 63, 
he must have died either in this year or at the end 
of the preceding. ~ 13. Q. Caecilius Metellus 
jCeler, elder son of Nepos [No. 11.]. In 66 he 
'served as legate in the army of Pompey in Asia; 
' and was praetor in 63, the year in v/hich Cicero 
was consul. During his year of office he afforded 
warm and efficient support to the aristocratical 
part}-. He prevented the condemnation of C. Ra- 
birius by removing the military flag from the 
Janiculum. He co-operated with Cicero in opposing 
the schemes of Catiline ; and, when the latter left 
the city to make war upon the republic, Metellus 
had the charge of the Picentine and Senonian dis- 
tricts. By blocking up the passes he prevented 
Catiline from crossing the Apennines and pene- 
trating into Gaul, and thus compelled him to turn 
round and face Antonius, who was marching against 
him from Etruria. In the following year, 62, 
Metellus went with the title of proconsul into the 
province of Cisalpine Gaul, which Cicero had re- 
linquished because he was unwilling to leave the 
city. In 60, Metellus was consul with L. Afranius, 
and opposed all the efforts of his colleague to obtain 
the ratification of Pompey's acts in Asia, and an 
assignment of lands for his soldiers. He died in 
59, and it was suspected that he had been poisoned 
by his wife Clodia, with whom he lived on the 
most unhappy terms, and who was a woman of the 
utmost profligacy. — 14. Q. Caecilius Metellus 
Kepos, younger son of the elder Nepos [No. 11.]. 
He served as legate of Pompey in the war against 
the pirates and in Asia from 67 to 64. He re- 
turned to Rome in 63 in order to become a candi- 
date for the tribunate, that he might thereby favour 
the views of Pompey. His election was opposed 
by the aristocracy, but without success. His year 
of office was a stormy one. One of his first acts 
in entering upon his office on the 10th of De- 
cember, 63, was a violent attack upon Cicero. He 
maintained that the man who had condemned 
Roman citizens without a hearing ought not to be 
heard himself, and accordingly prevented Cicero 
from addressing the people on the last day of his 
consulship, and only allowed him to take the usual 
oath, whereupon Cicero swore that he had saved 
the state. In the following year (62) Metellus 
brought forward a bill to summon Pompej-, v/ith 
his army, to Rome, in order to restore peace, but 
on the day on which the bill was to be read, the 
two parties came to open blows; and Metellus was 
obliged to take to flight. He repaired to Pompey, 
with whom he returned to Rome in 61. He was 
praetor in 60, and consul in 57 with P. Lentulus 
Spinther. Notwithstanding his previous enmity 
with Cicero, he did not oppose his recall from 
exile. In 56 Metellus administered the province 
of Nearer Spain, where he carried on war against 
the Vaccaei. He died in 55. Metellus did not 
adhere strictly to the political principles of his 
family. He did not support the aristocracy, like 
his brother; nor, on the other hand, can he be said 



444 



METELLUS. 



METIS. 



to have been a leader of the deraocracv. He was 
in fact little more than a servant of Pompey, and 
according to his bidding at one time onposed, and 
at another supported Cicero. —15, Q. Caecilius 
Metellus Pius Scipio, the adopted son of Metellus 
Pius [No. 12.]. He was the son of P. Scipio 
Nasica, praetor 94. Hence his name is given in 
various forms. Sometimes he is called P. Scipio 
Nasica, sometimes Q. Metellus Scipio, and some- 
times simply Scipio or Metellus. He was tribune 
of the plebs in 59, and was a candidate for the con- 
sulship along with Plautius Hypsaeus and Milo in 
53. He was supported by the Clodian mob, since 
he was opposed to Milo, but in consequence of the 
disturbances in the city, the comitia could not be 
held for the election of consuls. After the murder 
of Clodius at the beginning of 52, Pompey was 
elected sole consul. In the course of the same 
year Pompey married Cornelia, the daughter of 
Scipio, and on the 1st of August he made his 
father-in-law his colleague in the consulship. Scipio 
showed his gratitude by nsing every eifort to 
destroy the power of Caesar and strengthen that 
of Pompey. He took an active part in all the 
proceedings, which led to the breaking out of the 
civil war in 49 ; and in the division of the provinces, 
made am.ong the Pompeian party, he obtained 
Syria to which he hastened without delay. After 
plundering the province in the most unmerciful 
manner, he crossed over into Greece in 48 to join 
Pompey. He commanded the centre of the Pom- 
peian army at the battle of Pharsalia. After the 
loss of the battle he fled, first to Corcyra and then 
to Africa, where he received the chief command of 
the Pomneian troops. He was defeated by Caesar 
at the decisive battle of Thapsus in 46. He at- 
tempted to escape by sea, but his squadron having 
been overpowered by P. Sittius, he put an end to 
his own life. Metellus Scipio never exhibited any 
proofs of striking abilities either in war or in 
peace. In public, he showed himself cruel, vin- 
dictive, and oppressive ; in private, he was mean, 
avaricious, and licentious, even beyond most of 
his contemporaries. — 16. Q. Caecilius Metellus 
Creticus, was consul 69, and carried on war against 
Crete, v,-hich he subdued in the course of 3 years. 
He returned to Rome in 66, but was unable to 
obtain a triumph in consequence of the opposition 
of Pompey, to whom he had refused to surrender 
his coTnmand in Crete, which Pompey had claimed 
in virtue of the Gabinian law, which had given 
him the supreme command in the whole of the 
Mediterranean. Metellus, however, would not 
relinquish his claim to a triumph, and accordingly 
resolved to wait in the neighbourhood of the city 
till more favourable circumstances. He was still 
before the city in 63, when the conspiracy of 
Catiline broke out. He was sent into Apulia to 
prevent an apprehended rising of the slaves ; and 
in the following year, 62, after the death of Cati- 
line, he was at length permitted to make his 
triumphal entrance into Rome, and received the 
surname of Creticus. ^Metellus, as was to be ex- 
pected, joined the aristocracy in their opposition 
to Pompey, and succeeded in preventing the latter 
from obtainin? the ratification of his acts in Asia. 
—17. L. Caecilius Metellus, brother of the last, 
was praetor 71, and as propraetor succeeded Verres 
in the government of Sicily in 70. He defeated 
the pirates, and compelled them to leave the island. 
His administration is praised by Cicero; but he 



nevertheless attempted, in conjunction with his 
brothers, to shield Verres from justice. He was 
consul 68 with Q. Marcins Rex, but died at the 
beginning of the year.— 18. M. Caecilius Metellus, 

brother of the 2 last, was praetor 69, in the same 
year that his eldest brother was consul. The lot 
gave him the presidency in the court de pecnniis 
repetuTulis, and Verres was very anxious that his 
trial should come on before Metellus. — 19. L. 
Caecilius Metellus Creticus, was tribune of the 
plebs, 49, and a warm supporter of the aristocracy. 
He did not fly from Rome with Pompey and the 
rest of his party ; and he attempted to prevent Caesar 
from taking possession of the sacred treasury, and 
only gave way upon being threatened with death. 
Methana. [Methone, No. 4.] 
Metharme (Meedpu-n), daughter of king Pyg- 
malion, and wife of Cinyras. See Cixyras. 

Methone (Meddovri MeOwvaTos). 1. Or Mothone 
(yioQwvT): Modon), a io-vm. at the S. W. corner of 
Messenia, with an excellent harbour, protected 
firom the sea by a reef of rocks, of which the largest 
was called Mothon. The ancients regarded Me- 
thone as the Pedasus of Homer. After the conquest 
of Messenia, it became one of the Lacedaemonian 
harbours, and is mentioned as such in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. The emperor Trajan conferred 
several privileges upon the city. — 2. {Eleuthero- 
khori ), a Greek town in Macedonia on the Thermaic 
gulf, 40 stadia N. E. of Pydna, was founded by 
the Eretrians, and is celebrated from Philip having 
lost an eye at the siege of the place. After its 
capture by Philip it was destroyed, but was sub- 
sequently rebuilt, and is mentioned by Strabo as 
one of the towns of Macedonia. — 3. A tovvTi'in 
Thessaly mentioned by Homer, but does not occur 
in historical times. The ancients placed it in 
Magnesia. — 4. Or Methana (fiU6ava : Metliana 
or Mitone ), an ancient iow[\ in Argolis, situated on 
a peninsula of the same name, opposite the island 
of Aegina. The peninsula runs a considerable way 
into the sea, and is connected with the mainland 
by a narrow isthmus, lying between the towns of 
Troezen and Epidaurus. The town of Methana 
lay at the foot of a mountain of volcanic origin. 

Methora (MeOopa, M68ovpa 7] Tuv &€a>i/ : Ma- 
tra, the sacred city of Krishna), a city of India 
intra Gangem, on the river Jomanes {Jumna), was 
a great seat of the worship of the Indian god 
v;hom the Greeks identified with Hercules. 

Methydrium, (MefiySpioj/ : M€0t;5ptei;sj,a town 
in central Arcadia, 170 stadia N. of Megalopolis. 

Methymna (■^ MrjdvfjLva, Mefuui/a, the former 
generally in the best T:\Titers ; also on coins the 
Aeolic form MdOv/xva : MrtdviMvaios, 'yiedvfj.valos : 
Molivo), the second city of Lesbos, stood at the 
north extremity of the island, and had a good 
harbour. It was the birthplace of the musician 
and dithyrambic poet Arion, and of the historian 
Hellanicus. The celebrated Lesbian wine grew 
I in its neighbourhood. In the Peloponnesian war 
j it remained faithful to Athens, even during the 
i great Lesbian revolt [Mytilene] : afterwards it 
: was sacked by the Spartans (b. c. 406) and never 
i quite recovered its prosperity. 
! Metion (M.7]t'ici3v), son of Erechtheus and Praxi- 
: thea, and husband of Alcippe. His sons, the 
, Metionidae, expelled their cousin Pandion from 
\ his kingdom of Athens, but wfrre themselves after- 
i Vr-ards expelled by the sons of Pandion. 
I Metis (M'OTis), the personification of prudence. 



METIUS. 



MICIPSA. 



445 



is described as a dauojhter of Oceanus and Tethys, 
and the 1st wife of Zeus. Afraid lest she should 
give birth to a child wiser and more powerful than 
himself, Zeus devoured her in the first month of 
her pregnancy. Afterwards he gave birth to 
Athena, who sprang from his head. [See p. 101, a.] 
Metius. [Mettius.] 

Meton (M4twv), an astronomer of Athens, who, 
in conjunction with Euctemon, introduced the 
cycle of 1.9 years, by which he adjusted the course 
of the sun and moon, since he had observed that 
235 lunar months correspond very nearly to 19 
solar years. The commencement of this cycle has 
been placed B. c. 432. We have no details of 
Meton's life, with the exception that his father's 
name was Pausanias, and that he feigned insanity 
to avoid sailing for Sicily in the ill-fated expe- 
dition of which he is stated to have had an evil 
presentiment. 

Metrodorus (Mr)Tp6dwpos). 1. Of Cos, son of 
Epicharmus, and grandson of Thyrsus. Like 
several of that family, he addicted himself partly 
to the study of the Pythagorean philosophy, partly 
to the science of medicine. He wrote a treatise 
upon the works of Epicharmus. He flourished 
about B.C. 460. — 2. Of Lampsacus, a contempo- 
rary and friend of Anaxagoras. He wrote on 
Homer, the leading feature of his system of inter- 
pretation being that the deities and stories in 
Homer were to be understood as allegorical modes 
of representing physical powers and phenomena. 
He died 464.— "3. Of Chios, a disciple of Demo- 
critus, or, according to other accounts, of Nessus 
of Chios, flourished about 330. He was a phi- 
losopher of considerable reputation, and professed 
the doctrine of the sceptics in their fullest sense. 
He also studied, if he did not practise, medi- 
cine, on which he Avrote a good deal. He was 
the instructor of Hippocrates and Anaxarchus. 
■— 4. A native of Lampsacus or Athens, was the 
most distinguished of the disciples of Epicurus, 
with whom he lived on terms of the closest friend- 
ship. He died 277, in the 53rd year of his age, 
7 years before Epicurus, who would have appointed 
him his successor had he survived him. The phi- 
losophy of Metrodorus appears to have been of a 
more grossly sensual kind than that of Epicurus. 
Perfect happiness, according to Cicero's account, 
he made to consist in having a well-constituted 
body. He found fault with his brother Timocrates 
for not admitting that the belly Avas the test and 
measure of every thing that pertained to a happy 
life. He Avas the author of several works, quoted 
by the ancient writers. — 5. Of Scepsis, a philo- 
sopher, who Avas raised to a position of great in- 
fluence and trust by Mithridates Eupator, being 
appointed supreme judge without appeal even to 
the king. Subsequently he Avas led to desert his 
allegiance, Avhen sent by Mithridates on an em- 
bassy to Tigranes, king of Armenia. Tigranes 
sent him back to Mithridates, but he died on the 
road. According to some accounts he was de- 
spatched by order of the king ; according to others 
he died of disease. He is frequently mentioned 
hy Cicero ; he seems to have been particularly 
celebrated for his powers of memory. In conse- 
quence of his hostility to the Romans he was sur- 
named the Roma7i-hater. — 6. Of Stratonice in 
Caria, was at first a disciple of the school of Epi- 
curus, but afterwards attached himself to Car- 
neades. He flourished about 110. 



Metropolis (MTyrpoTroAis). 1. The most an- 
cient capital of Phrygia, but in historical times 
an inconsiderable place. Its position is doubtful. 
Some identify it Avith Afioum-Kara-Hisar near 
the centre of Great Phrygia, Avhich agrees Avell 
enough Avith the position of the Campus Metro- 
politanus of Livy (xxxviii. 15), Avhile others find 
it in the ruins at Pismesh-Kalessi in the N. of 
Phrygia, and suppose a second Metropolis in the 
S., as that to Avhich the Campus Metropolitanus 
belonged. — 2. In Lydia (Turbali, Ru.), a city 
in the plain of the Cayster, between Ephesus 
and Smyrna, 120 stadia from the former and 200 
from the latter. — There Avere other cities of Asia 
so called ; but they are either unimportant, or 
better knoAvn by other names, such as Ancyra, 
Bostra, Caesarea in Palestine, F.dessa, and others".— 
3. (Kasiri), a toAvn of Thessaly in Histiaeotis, near 
the Peneus, and betAveen Gomphi and Pharsalus, 
formed by the union of several small towns, to 
Avhich Ithome also belonged. — 4. A town of 
Acarnania in the district Amphilochia, betAveen the 
Ambracian gulf and the river Achelous. 

Metroiiin aft. Aulia (MTjrpwo;/, on coins M^rpoy, 
AuAi'a, AvXaia), a city of Bithynia. 

Mettius or Metms. 1. Curtius. [Curtius.] 
— 2. Fuffetius, dictator of Alba in the reign of 
Tullus Hostilius, third king of Rome. After the 
combat betAveen the Horatii and Curiatii had de- 
termined the supremacy of the Romans, Mettius 
Avas summoned to aid them in a Avar Avith Fidenae 
and the Veientines. On the field of battle Mettius 
dreAv off his Albans to the hills, and aAvaited the 
issue of the battle. On the folloAving day the 
Albans Avere all deprived of their arms, and Met- 
tius himself, as the punishment of his treachery, 
Avas torn asunder by chariots driven in opposite 
directions. 

Metulum, the chief town of the lapydes in 
Illyricum, was near the frontiers of Libuinia, and 
was situated on 2 peaks of a steep mountain. 
Augustus nearly lost his life in reducing this place, 
the inhabitants of Avhich fought against him with 
the most desperate courage. 

Mevania (Mevanas, atis : Beragna), an ancieryt 
city in the interior of Umbria on the river Tinea, 
was situated on the road from Rome to Ancona in 
a very fertile country, and Avas celebrated for its- 
breed of beautiful Avhite oxen. It AA'as a strongly 
fortified place, though its Avails were built only of 
brick. According to some accounts Propertius was 
a native of this place. 

Mezentius (Meo-eVrtos), king of the Tyrrhe- 
nians or Etruscans, at Caere or Agylla, was ex- 
pelled by his subjects on account of his cruelty, 
and took refuge Avith Turnus, king of the Rutu- 
lians, whom he assisted in the Avar against Aeneas 
and the Trojans. Mezentius and his son Lausus- 
Avere slain in battle by Aeneas. This is the ac- 
count of Virgil. Livy and Dionysius, hoAvever, 
say nothing about the expulsion of Mezentius from 
Caere, but represent him as an ally of Tiu-nus, and 
relate that Aeneas disappeared during the battle 
against the Rutulians and Etruscans at Lanuvium. 
Dionysius adds, that Ascanius was besieged by 
Mezentius and Lausus ; that the besieged in a 
sally by night sleAV Lausus, and then concluded a 
peace Avith Mezentius, who from henceforth con- 
tinued to be their ally. 

Micipsa (Mz/ci'if/as), king of Numidia, the eldest 
of the sons of Masinissa. After the death of the 



446 



MICON. 



MILETUS. 



latter (b. c. 148), the sovereign power was divided 
by Scipio between Micipsa and his two brothers, 
Gulussa and Mastanabal, in such a manner that 
the possession of Cirta, the capital of Nnmidia, 
together with the financial administration of the 
kingdom, fell to the share of Micipsa. It was not 
long, however, before the death of both his brothers 
left him in possession of the undivided sovereignty 
of Numidia, which he held from that time without 
interruption till his death. He died in 118, leav- 
ing the kingdom to his 2 sons, Adherbal and 
Hiempsal, and their adopted brother Jugurtha. 

Micon (Mlkwu), of Athens, son of Phanochus, 
was a very distinguished painter and statuar}-, 
contemporary with Polygnotus, about B. c. 460. 

Midaeum (MiSdeiov), a city of Phrj-gia Epicte- 
tus, between Dorj^laeum and Pessinus ; the place 
where Sextus Pompeius was captured by the 
troops of Antony, B. c. 35. 

Midas (MrSay), son of Gordius and Cj'bele, is 
said to have been a wealthy but effeminate king 
of Phrygia, a pupil of Orpheus, and a great patron 
of the worship of Dionysus. His wealth is alluded 
to in a story connected with his childhood, for it is 
said that while a child, ants carried grains of wheat 
into his mouth, to indicate that one day he should 
be the richest of all mortals. Midas was intro- 
duced into the Satyric drama of the Greeks, and 
was represented with the ears of a satyr, which 
were afterwards lengthened into the ears of an 
ass. He is said to have built the town of Ancyra, 
and as king of Phrygia he is called Berecynthius 
lieros (Ov. Met. xi. 1 06). There are several stories 
connected ■R'ith Midas, of which the following are 
the most celebrated. 1. Silenus, the companion 
and teacher of Dionysus, had gone astray in a 
state of intoxication, and was caught by country 
people in the rose gardens of Midas. He was 
boimd with Avreaths of flowers and led before the 
king. These gardens were in Macedonia, near 
Moimt Bermion or Bromion, where Midas was king 
of the Briges, with whom he afterwards emigrated to 
Asia, where their name was changed into Pliryges. 
Midas received Silenus kindly ; and, after treating 
him with hospitality, he led him back to Dionysus, 
who allowed Midas to ask a favour of him. Midas in 
his folly desired that all things which he touched 
should be changed into gold. The request was 
granted ; but as even the food which he touched 
became gold, he implored the god to take his 
favoiir back. Dionysus accordingly ordered him 
to bathe in the source of Pactolus near Mount 
Tmolus. This bath saved Midas, but the river 
from that time had an abundance of gold in its 
sand — 2. Midas, who was himself related to the 
race of SatjTs, once had a visit from a Satyr, who 
indulged in all kinds of jokes at the king's ex- 
pence. Thereupon Midas mixed wine in a well ; 
and when the SatjT had drimk of it, he fell asleep 
and was caught. This well of Midas was at dif- 
ferent times assigned to different localities. Xeno- 
phon {Anah. i. 2. § 13) places it in the neighboxir- 
hood of Thymbrium and Tyraeum, and Pausanias 
at Ancyra. — 3. Once when Pan and Apollo were 
engaged in a musical contest on the flute and lyre, 
Midas was chosen to decide between them. The 
king decided in favour of Pan, whereupon Apollo 
changed his ears into those of an ass. Midas 
contrived to conceal them under his Phrygian cap, 
but the servant who used to cut his hair discovered i 
them. The secret so mucli harassed this man, | 



I that as he could not betray it to a human being, 
he dug a hole in the earth, and whispered into it, 
" King Midas has ass's ears." He then filled the 
hole up again, and his heart was released. But on 
the same spot a reed grew up, which in its whis- 
pers betrayed the secret. Midas is said to have 
killed himself by drinking the blood of an ox. 

Midea or Mi'dea (Mi'Seia, MiSe'o : MtSearTjs), a 
to^vn in Argolis, of uncertain site, is said to have 
been originally called Persepolis, because it had 
been fortified by Perseus. It was destroj'ed by 
the Argives. 

Midianitae. [Madianitae]. 

Midias ( Mei5tas), an Athenian of wealth and 
influence, was a violent enemy of Demosthenes, 
the orator. In b. c, 354 Midias assaulted De- 
mosthenes when he was discharging the duties of 
Choregus, during the celebration of the great Dio- 
nysia. Demosthenes brought an accusation against 
Midias ; but the speech, which he wrote for the 
occasion, and which is extant, was never published, 
since Demosthenes dropped the accusation, in con- 
sequence of his receiving the sum of 30 minae. 

Mieza (M/e^a: Mtefeus), a town of Macedonia 
in Eraathia, S.W. of Pella, and not far from the 
frontiers of Thessaly. 

Milamoii (M6iAa^'tW), son of Amphidamas, 
and husband of Atalanta. For details, see Ata- 

LAXTA. 

Miletopolis (MtA7jT<{7roAts : Muhalick, or Ha- 
mamli? Ru.), a city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, 
at the confluence of the river Rhyndacus and 
Macestus, and somewhat E. of the lake which 
was named after it, Lacus Miletopolitis (Mt\7j- 
tqttoXItis X'lfivrj : Lake of Manilas). This lake, 
which was also called ArtjTiia, lies some miles 
W. of the larger lake of Apollonia {Abidlionte). 

Miletopolis. [Borysthenes]. 

Miletus (Mi'Xtjtos), son of Apollo and Aria of 
Crete. Being beloved by Minos and Sarpedon, he 
attached himself to the latter, and fled from Minos 
to Asia, where he built the city of Miletus. Ovid 
{Met. ix. 442) calls him a son of Apollo and Deione, 
and hence Deionides. 

Miletus (MiXtjto J, Dor. MiXaros : M/Atjo-ios, and 
on inscriptions, Mei\i]crLos: MUesius), one of the 
greatest cities of Asia Minor, belonged terri- 
torially to Caria and politically to Ionia, being 
the S.-most of the 12 cities of the Ionian con- 
federacy. It is mentioned by Homer as a Carian 
city ; and one of its early names, Lelegeis, is 
a sign that the Leleges also formed a part of 
its population. Its first Greek colonists were 
said to have been Cretans who were expelled 
by Minos ; the next were led to it by Neleua 
at the time of the so-called Ionic migration. Its 
name was derived from the mythical leader of 
the Cretan colonists, Miletus : it was also called 
Pityusa (Uirvuva-a), and Anactoria {'AvaKTop'ia). 
The city stood upon the S. headland of the Sinus 
Latmicus, opposite to the mouth of the Maeander, 
and possessed 4 distinct harbours, protected by a 
group of islets, called Lade, Dromiscus, and Perne. 
The city wall enclosed two distinct towns, called 
the outer and the inner ; the latter, which was 
also called Old Miletus, stood upon an eminence 
overhanging the sea, and was of great strength. 
Its territory extended on both sides of the Mae- 
1 ander, as far apparently as the promontories of 
Mycale on the N. and Posidium on the S. It 
I was rich in flocks ; and the city was celebrated 



MILICHUS. 



MILO. 



447 



for its -woollen fabrics, the Milesia vellera. At a 
very early period it became a great maritime state, 
extending its commerce throughout the Mediter- 
ranean, and even beyond the Pillars of Hercules, 
but more especially in the direction of the Euxine, 
along the shore of which the Milesians planted 
several important colonies, such as Cyzicus, Sinope, 
Abydos, Istropolis, Tomi, Olbia or Borysthenes, 
Apollonia, Odessus, and Panticapaeum. Nau- 
cratis in Egypt was also a colony of Miletus. It 
also occupies a high place in the early history 
of Greek literature, as the birthplace of the phi- 
losophers Thales, Anaximander, and Anaxime- 
nes, and of the historians Cadmus and Heca- 
taeus. After the rise of the Lydian monarchy, 
Miletus, by its naval strength, resisted the attacks 
of Alyattes and Sadyattes for 1 1 years, but fell be- 
fore Croesus, whose success may perhaps be ascribed 
to the intestine factions which for a long period 
weakened the city. With the rest of Ionia, it was 
conquered by Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, in 
B. c. 557 ; and under the dominion of the Persians 
it still retained its prosperity till the great Ionian 
revolt, of which Miletus was the centre [Arista- 
GORAS, HiSTiAEUs], and after the suppression of 
which it was destroyed by the Persians (b. c. 
494). It recovered sufficient importance to oppose 
a vain resistance to Alexander the Great, which 
brought upon it a second ruin. Under the Roman 
empire it still appears as a place of some conse- 
quence, until its final destruction by the Tiu-ks. 
— Its ruins are difficult to discover, on account of 
the great change made in the coast by the river 
Maeander. [Maeander.] They are usually 
supposed to be those at the wretched village of 
Palatia, on the S. bank of the Mendereh, a little 
above its present mouth ; but Forbiger has shown 
that these are more probably the ruins of Myus, 
and that those of Miletus are buried in a lake 
formed by the Mendereh at the foot of Mt. 
Latmus. 

Milichus, a Phoenician god, represented as the 
son of a satyr and of the nymph Myrlce, and with 
horns on his head. (Sil. Ital. iii. 103.) 

Milickus (Mei'Aixos), a small river in Achaia, 
which flowed by the town of Patrae, and is said 
to have been originally called Amilichus {'A/j-d- 
Aixos) on account of the human victims sacrificed 
on its banks to Artemis. 

Milo or Milon (MtAwj/). 1. Of Crotona, son of 
Diotimus, an athlete, famous for his extraordinary 
bodily strength. He was 6 times victor in wrestling 
at the Olympic games, and as often at the Py- 
thian ; but having entered the lists at Olympia a 
7th time, he was worsted by the superior agility 
of his adversary. By these successes he obtained 
great distinction among his countrymen, so that he 
Avas even appointed to command the army which 
defeated the Sybarites, b. c. 511. Many stories 
are related by ancient writers of Milo's extraordi- 
nary feats of strength ; such as his carrj-ing a 
heifer of four years old on his shoulders through 
the stadium at Olympia, and afterwards eating 
the whole of it in a single day. The mode of his 
death is thus related : as he was passing through 
a forest when enfeebled by age, he saw the trunk 
of a tree which had been partially split open by 
woodcutters, and attempted to rend it further, but 
the wood closed upon his hands, and thus held 
him fast, in which state he Avas attacked and de- 
voured by wolves. — 2. A general in the service 



of Pyrrhus king of Epirus, who sent him forward 
with a body of troops to garrison the citadel of 
Tarentum, previous to his own arrival in Italy. 
When Pyrrhus finally quitted that country and 
withdrew into Epirus, he still left Milo in charge 
of the citadel of Tarentum, together with his son 
Helenus. — 3. T. Annius Milo Papinianus, was 
the son of C. Papius Celsus and Annia, and was 
adopted by his maternal grandfather T. Annius 
Luscus. He was born at Lanuvium, of which place 
he was in b. c. 53 dictator or chief magistrate. Milo 
was a man of a daring and unscrupulous character ; 
and as he was deeply in debt, he resolved to ob- 
tain a wealthy province. For this purpose he 
connected himself with the aristocracy. As tribune 
of the plebs, b. c. 57, he took an active part in 
obtaining Cicero's recall from exile, and from this 
time he carried on a fierce and memorable contest 
Avith P. Clodius. In 53 Milo was candidate for 
the consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship of 
the ensuing year. Each of the candidates kept a 
gang of gladiators, and there were frequent combats 
between the rival ruffians in the streets of Rome. 
At length, on the 20th of January, 52, Milo and 
Clodius met apparently by accident at Bovillae on 
the Appian road. An aifray ensued between their 
followers, in which Clodius was slain. At Rome 
such tumults followed upon the burial of Clodius, 
that Pompey was appointed sole consul in order to 
restore order to the state. Pompey immediately 
brought forward various laws in connection with 
the late disturbances. As soon as these were 
passed, Milo was formally accused. All Pompey's 
influence was directed against him ; but Milo was 
not without hope, since the higher aristocracy, 
from jealousy of Pompey, supported him, and 
Cicero undertook his defence. His trial opened 
on the 4th of April, 52. He was impeached on 
3 counts — de Vi, de Ambitu^ or bribery, and de 
Sodalitiis, or illegal interference with the freedom of 
elections. L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, a consular, 
was appointed quaesitor by a special law of Pom- 
pey's, and all Rome and thousands of spectators 
from Italy thronged the forum and its avenues. 
But Milo's chances of acquittal were wholly marred 
by the virulence of his adversaries, who insulted 
and obstructed the witnesses, the process, and 
the conductors of the defence. Pompey availed 
himself of these disorders to line the forum and its 
encompassing hills with soldiers. Cicero was in- 
timidated, and Milo was condemned. Had he even 
been acquitted on the 1st count, de Vi, the two 
other charges of bribery and conspiracy awaited 
him. He therefore went into exile. Cicero, who 
could not deliver, re- wrote and expanded the de- 
fence of Milo — the extant oration — and sent it 
to him at Marseilles. Milo remarked, " I am glad 
this was not spoken, since I must have been ac- 
quitted, and then had never known the delicate 
flavour of these Marseilles-mullets." Caesar re- 
fused to recall Milo from exile in 49, when he 
permitted many of the other exiles to return. In 
the following year (48) M. Caelius, the praetor, 
had, during Caesar's absence, promulgated a bill 
for the adjustment of debts. Needing desperate 
allies, Caeliiis accordingly invited Milo to Italy, 
as the fittest tool for his purposes. At the head 
of a band of criminals and run-away slaves, Milo 
appeared in the S. of Italy, but was opposed by 
the praetor Q. Pedius, and slain under the walla 
of an obscure fort in the district of Thurii. Milo, 



448 



MILTIADES. 



in 57, married Fausta, a daughter of the dictator 
Sulla. She proved a faithless wife, and Sallust, 
the historian, was soundly scourged by Milo for 
an intrigue with her. 

Miltiades (MiKndSrjs). 1. Son of Cypselus, 
was a man of considerable distinction in Athens in 
the time of Pisistratus. The Doloncians, a Thra- 
cian tribe dwelling in the Chersonesus, being hard 
pressed in war b}' the Absinthians, applied to the 
Delphic oracle for advice, and were directed to 
admit a colony led by the man who should be the 
first to entertain them after they left the temple. 
This was Miltiades, who, eager to escape from the 
rule of Pisistratus, gladly took the lead of a colony 
under the sanction of the oracle, and became 
tjTant of the Chersonesus, which he fortified by a 
wall built across its isthmus. In a war witVi the 
people of Lampsacus he was taken prisoner, but 
was set at liberty on the demand of Croesus. He 
died without leaving any children, and his sove- 
reignty passed into the hands of Stesagoras, the son 
of his half-brother Cimon. Sacrifices and games 
were instituted in his honour, in which no Lamp- 
sacene was suffered to take part. —2. Son of Cimon 
and brother of Stesagoras, became tyrant of the 
Chersonesus on the death of the latter, being sent 
out by Pisistratus from Athens to take possession 
of the vacant inheritance. By a stratagem he got 
the chief men of the Chersonesus into his power 
and threw them into prison, and took a force of 
mercenaries into his pay. In order to strengthen 
his position still more, he married Hegesipyla, the 
daughter of a Thracian prince named Olorus. He 
joined Darius Hystaspis on his expedition against 
the Scythians, and was left with the other Greeks 
in charge of the bridge over the Danube. "When 
the appointed time had expired, and Darius had 
not returned, Miltiades recommended the Greeks 
to destroy the bridge and leave Darius to his fate. 
Some time after the expedition of Darius an inroad 
of the Scythians drove Miltiades from his posses- 
sions ; but after the enemy had retired the Dolon- 
cians brought him back. It appears to have been 
between this period and his withdrawal to Athens, 
that ^Miltiades conquered and expelled the Pelas- 
gian inhabitants of Lemnos and Imbros and sub- 
jected the islands to the dominion of Attica. 
Lem.nos and Imbros belonged to the Persian do- 
minions ; and it is probable that this encroach- 
ment on the Persian possessions was the cause 
which drew upon Miltiades the hostility of Darius, 
and led him to fiy from the Chersonesus, when the 
Phoenician fleet approached, after the subjugation 
of Ionia. Miltiades reached Athens in safety, but 
his eldest son Metiochus fell into the hands of the 
Persians. At Athens Miltiades was arraigned, as 
being amenable to the penalties enacted against 
tyranny, but v/as acquitted. When Attica was 
threatened with invasion by the Persians under 
Datis and Artaphemes, Miltiades was chosen one 
of the ten generals. Miltiades by his arguments 
induced the polemarch Callimachus to give the 
casting vote in favour of risking a battle with the 
enemy, the opinions of the ten generals being 
equally divided. Miltiades waited till his turn 
came, and then drew his army up in battle array 
on the ever memorable field of Marathon. [Ma- 
rathon.] After the defeat of the Persians Mil- 
tiades endeavoured to urge the Athenians to mea- 
sures of retaliation, and induced them to entrust to 
him an armament of 70 ships, without knowing the 



purpose for which they were designed. He pro- 
ceeded to attack the island of Paros, for the pur- 
pose of gratifying a private enmity. His attacks, 
however, were unsuccessful ; and after receiving a 
dangerous hurt in the leg, while penetrating into a 
I sacred enclosure on some superstitious errand, he 
i was compelled to raise the siege and return to 
Athens, where he was impeached by Xanthippus 
for having deceived the people. His wound had 
turned into a gangrene, and being unable to plead 
his cause in person, he was brought into court on 
a couch, his brother Tisagoras conducting his de- 
fence for him. He was condemned ; but on the 
ground of his services to the state the penalty was 
commuted to a fine of 50 talents, the cost of the 
equipment of the armament. Being unable to pay 
this, he was thrown into prison, where he not long 
after died of his wound. The fine v/as subsequently 
paid by his son Cimon. 

Milvius Pons. [Roma.] 

Milyas MiAvds : MiXvai, Milyae), was origi- 
nally the name of all Lycia ; but it was afterwards 
applied to the high table land in the N. of Lycia, 
between the Cadiius and the Taurus, and extend- 
ing considerably into Pisidia. Its people seem to 
have been the descendants of the original inhabit- 
ants of Lycia. It contained a city of the same 
name. After the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 
the Romans gave it to Eumenes, king of Pergamus, 
but its real government seems to have been in the 
hands of Pisidian princes. 

Mimallon (Mi/xaWwu), the Macedonian name 
of the Bacchantes, or, according to others, of Bac- 
chic Amazons. Ovid (Ars Am. i. 541) uses the 
form Mimallonides. 

Mimas (Mi'/^as), a giant, said to have been 
killed by Ares, or by Zeus, with a flash of light- 
ning. The island of Prochyte, near Sicily, was 
believed to rest upon his body. 

Minmermus (MiiJ.vepiJ.os), a celebrated elegiac 
poet, was generally called a Colophonian, but was 
properly a native of Smyrna, and was descended 
from those Colophonians who reconquered Smyrna 
from the Aeolians. He flourished from about 
B. c. 634 to 600. He was a contemporary of 
Solon, who, in an extant fragment of one of his 
poems, addresses him as still living. Only a 
few fragments of the compositions of Mimnermus 
have come do\vn to us. They belong chiefly to 
a poem entitled Nanno, and are addressed to the 
flute-player of that name. The compositions of 
Mimnermus form an epoch in the histor}^ of elegiac 
poetry. Before his time the elegj had been de- 
voted chiefly either to warlike or national, or to 
convivial and joyous subjects. Archilochus had, 
indeed, occasionally employed the elegy for strains 
of lamentation, but Mimnermus was the first who 
systematically made it the vehicle for plaintive, 
mournful, and erotic strains. The instability of 
human happiness, the helplessness of man, the 
cares and miseries to which life is exposed, the 
brief season that man has to enjoy himself in, the 
wretchedness of old age, are plaintively dwelt 
upon by him, while love is held up as the only 
consolation that men possess, life not being worth 
having when it can no longer be enjoyed. The 
latter topic was most frequently dwelt upon, and 
as an erotic poet he was held in high estimation in 
antiquity. (Hor. EpisL ii. 2. 100.) The fragments 
are published separately by Bach, Lips. 1826. 

Minaei (Mivaloi), one of the chief peoples of 



MOIRAE OR THE FATES. THE MUSES. 




THE MUSES. NIOBE. 




MINAS. 



MINOS. 



449 



Arabia, dwelt on the W. coast of Arabia Felix, 
and in the interior of the peninsula, and carried 
on a large trade in spices, incense, and the other 
products of the land. 

Minas Sabbatha (MeiVay ^a§arOd), a fort in 
Babylonia, built in the time of the later Roman 
empire, on the site of Seleucia, which the Romans 
had destroyed. 

Mincius (Mincio), a river in Gallia Transpa- 
dana, flows through the lake Benacus (Lago di 
Garda)^ and falls into the Po, a little below Mantua. 

Mindarus (Mii'Sopos), a Lacedaemonian, suc- 
ceeded Astyochus in the command of the Lacedae- 
monian fleet, B. c. 4n. He was defeated and slain 
in battle by the Athenians near Cyzicus in the 
following year. 

Minerva, called Athena by the Greeks. The 
Greek goddess is spoken of in a separate article, 
[Athena.] Minerva was one of the great Ro- 
man divinities. Her name seems to be of the 
same root as viens ; and she is accordingly the 
thinking, calculating, and inventive power per- 
sonified. Jupiter was the 1st, Juno the 2nd, and 
Minerva the 3rd in the number of the Capitoline 
divinities. Tarquin, the son of Demaratus, was 
believed to have united the 3 divinities in one 
common temple, and hence, when repasts were 
prepared for the gods, these 3 always went toge- 
ther. She was the daughter of Jupiter, and is 
said to have sometimes wielded the thunderbolts of 
her father. As Minerva was a virgin divinity, 
and her father the supreme god, the Romans easily 
identified her with the Greek Athena, and accord- 
ingly all the attributes of Athena were gradually 
transferred to the Roman Minerva. But we con- 
fine ourselves at present to those Avhich were 
peculiar to the Roman goddess. Being a maiden 
goddess, her sacrifices consisted of calves which 
had not borne the yoke. She is said to have in- 
vented numbers ; and it is added that the law 
respecting the driving in of the annual nail was 
for this reason attached to the temple of Minerva. 
She was worshipped as the patroness of all the 
arts and trades, and at her festival she was parti- 
cularly invoked by all who desired to distinguish 
themselves in any art or craft, such as painting, 
poetry, the art of teaching, medicine, dyeing, spin- 
ning, weaving, and the like. This character of the 
goddess may be perceived also from the proverbs 
" to do a thing pingui Minerva,'''' i. e. to do a thing 
in an awkward or clumsy manner ; and sus Mi- 
nervam, of a stupid person Avho presumed to set 
right an intelligent one. Minerva, however, was 
the patroness, not only of females, on whom she 
conferred skill in sewing, spinning, weaving, &c., 
but she also guided men in the dangers of war, 
where victory is gained by cunning, prudence, 
courage, and perseverance. Hence she was repre- 
sented with a helmet, shield, and a coat of mail ; 
and the booty made in war was frequently dedi- 
cated to her. Minerva was further believed to be 
the inventor of musical instruments, especially 
wind instruments, the use of which was very im- 
portant in religious worship, and which were ac- 
cordingly subjected to a sort of purification every 
year on the last day of the festival of Minerva. 
This festival lasted 5 days, from the 19th to the 
23rd of March, and was called Qz«'w9Ma<rMs, because 
it began on the 5th day after the ides of the month. 
This number of days was not accidental, for we 
are told that the number 5 was sacred to Minerva. 



The most ancient temple of Minerva at Rome was 
probably that on the Capitol ; another existed on the 
Aventine; and she had a chapel at the foot of the 
Caelian hill, where she bore the surname of Capta. 

Minervae Arx or Minervium {Castro), a liill 
on the coast of Calabria, where Aeneas is said to 
have landed. 

Minervae Promontorium {Punla della Campa- 
nella or della Minerva), a rocky promontory in 
Campania, running out a long way into the sea, G 
miles S.E. of SiuTcntum, on whose summit was a 
temple of Minerva, which was said to have been 
built by Ulysses, and which was still standing in 
the time of Seneca. Here the Sirens are reported 
to have dwelt. The Greeks regarded it as the 
N.W. boundary of Oenotria. 

Minio (Migno7ie), a small river in Etruria, 
Avhich rises near Satrium, and falls into the Tyr- 
rhene sea between Graviscae and Centura Cellae. 

Minius (Minho), a river in the N.W. of Spain, 
rises in the Cantabrian mountains in the N. of 
Gallaecia, and falls into the ocean. It was also 
called Baenis, and derived its name of Minius 
from the minium or vermilion carried down by its 
waters. 

Minoa (Miva>a). 1. A small island in the Saronic 
gulf, off the coast of Megaris, and opposite a pro- 
montory of the same name, was united to the 
mainland by a bridge, and formed, with the pro- 
montory, the harbour of Nisaea. [See p. 429.] 

— 2. A town on the E. coast of Laconia, and on 
a promontory of the same name, N.E. of Epidau- 
riis Limera. — 3. A town on the W. part of the 
N. coast of Crete, between the promontories Dre- 
panum and Psacum.—- 4. A town on the E. part 
of the N. coast of Crete, belonging to the territory 
of Lyctus, and situated on the narrowest part of 
the island.— 5. A town in Sicily. See Heraclea 

MiNOA. 

Minos (Mivocs). 1. Son of Zeus and Europa, 
brother of Rhadamanthus, Avas the king and legis- 
lator of Crete. After his death he became one of 
the judges of the shades in Hades. He was the 
father of Deucalion and Ariadne ; and, according 
to Apollodorus, the brother of Sarpedon. Some 
traditions relate that Minos married Itone, daugh- 
ter of Lyctius, by whom he had a son, Lycastus, 
and that the latter became, by Ida, the daughter 
of Corybas, the father of another Minos. But it 
should be observed, that Homer and Hesiod know 
only of one Minos, the ruler of Cnossus, and the 
son and friend of Zeus ; and that they relate nearly 
the same things about him which later traditions 
assign to a second Minos, the grandson of the 
former. In this case, as in many other mythical 
traditions, a rationalistic criticism attempted to 
solve contradictions and difficulties in the stories 
about a person, by assuming that the contradictory 
accounts must refer to two different personages. 

— 2. Grandson of the former, and a son of Ly- 
castus and Ida, was likewise a king and law- 
giver of Crete. He is described as the husband of 
Pasiphae, a daughter of Helios ; and as the father 
of Catreus, Deucalion, Glaucus, Androgens, Acalle, 
Xenodice, Ariadne, and Phaedra. After the death 
of Asterius, Minos aimed at the supremacy of 
Crete, and declared that it Avas destined to him by 
the gods ; in proof of which, he asserted that the 
gods always answered his prayers. Accordingly, 
as he was offering up a sacrifice to Poseidon, he 
prayed that a bull might come forth from the sea, 

a 13 



450 



MINOTvVUIlUS. 



MINYAS. 



and promised to sacrifice the animal. The bull 
appeared, and Minos became king of Crete. 
(Others say that Minos disputed the government 
with his brother, Sarpedon, and conquered.) But 
Minos, who admired the beauty of the bull, did 
not sacrifice him, and substituted another in his 
place. Poseidon therefore rendered the bull furious, 
and made Pasiphaii conceive a passion for the 
animal. Daedalus enabled Pasiphae to gratify 
her passion, and she became by the bull the 
mother of the Minotaurus, a monster with a 
human body and a bull's head, or, according to 
others, with a bull's body and a human head. 
The monster was kept in the labyrinth at Cnossus, 
constxucted by Daedalus. Daedalus fled from 
Crete to escape the wrath of Minos and took re- 
fuge in Sicily. Minos followed him to Sicily, 
and was there slain by Cocalus and his daughters. 
— Minos is further said to have divided Crete into 
3 parts, and to have ruled 9 years. The Cretans 
traced their legal and political institutions to 
Minos. He is said to have been instructed in the 
art of lawgiving by Zeus himself ; and the Spartan, 
Lycurgus, was believed to have taken the legis- 
lation of Minos as his model. In his time Crete 
was a powerful maritime state ; and Minos not 
only checked the piratical pursuits of his contem- 
poraries, but made himself master of the Greek 
islands of the Aegean. The most ancient legends 
describe Minos as a just and wise law-giver, 
whereas the later accounts represent him as an 
unjust and cruel tyrant. In order to avenge the 
wrong done to his son Androgeus [Androgeus] 
at Athens, he made war against the Athenians 
and Megarians. He subdued Megara, and com- 
pelled the Athenians either every year or every 9 
years, to send him as a tribute 7 youths and 7 
maidens, who were devoured in the labyrinth by 
the Minotaurus. The monster was slain by 
Theseus. 

Minotaurus. [Minos.] 

Mintlia (MiV^Tj), a daughter of Cocytus, beloved 
by Hades, was metamorphosed by Demeter or 
Persephone into a plant called after her miniJm, 
or mint. In the neighbourhood of Pylos there was 
a hill called after her, and at its foot there was a 
temple of Pluto, and a grove of Demeter. 

Minthe (Mji/flrj : Vunuka), a mountain of Elis 
in Triphylia, near Pylos. 

Miuturnae (Minturnensis : Trajetta), an im- 
portant town in Latiura, on the frontiers of Cam- 
pania, was situated on the Appia Via, and on 
both banks of the Liris, and near the mouth of 
this river. It was an ancient town of the Ausones 
or Aurunci, but surrendered to the Komans of its 
own accord, and received a Roman colony b. c. 
296. It was subsequently recolonised by Julius 
Caesar. In its neighbourhood Avas a grove sacred 
to the nymph Marica, and also extensive marshes 
{Paludes Mintumenses), formed by the overflowing 
of the river Liris, in which Marius was taken 
prisoner. [See p. 418, a.] The neighbourhood of 
Minturnae produced good wine. There are the 
ruins of an amphitheatre and of an aqueduct at the 
modern Trajeita. 

Minucianus (MivovKiav6s). 1. A Greek rhe- 
torician, was a contemporary of the celebrated 
rhetorician Hermogenes of Tarsus (fl. a. B. 170), 
Avith whom he was at variance.-— 2. An Athenian, 
the son of Nicagoras, was also a Greek rhetorician, 
and lived in the reign of Gallienus (a. d. 260 — 



268). He was the author of several rhetorical 
works, and a portion of his Texvn p-qropiK-f] is ex- 
tant, and is published in the 9th volume of Walz's 
lihetores Graeci. | 
Minucms Augurinus. [Augurinus,] 
Iffinucius Basilus. ( Basil us.] J 
Minucms Rufus. 1. M., consul b. c. 221, when I 
he carried on war against the Istrians. In 217 
he was magister equitum to the dictator Q. Fabius 
Maximus. The cautious policy of Fabius dis- 
pleased Minucius ; and accordingly when Fabius 
was called away to Rome, Minucius disobeyed 
the positive commands of the dictator, and risked 
a battle with a portion of Hannibal's troops. He 
was fortunate enough to gain a victory ; in conse- 
quence of which he became so popular at Rome, 
that a bill was passed, giving him equal military 
power with the dictator. The Roman army was 
now divided, and each portion encamped separately 
under its own general. Anxious for distinction, 
iMinucius eagerly accepted a battle which was of- 
fered him by Hannibal, but was defeated, and his 
troops were only saved from total destruction by 
the timely arrival of Fabius, with all his forces. 
Thereupon Minucius generously acknowledged his 
error, gave up his separate command, and placed 
himself again under the authority of the dictator. 
He fell at the battle of Cannae in the following 
year. -—2. Q,., plebeian aedile 201, praetor 200, 
and consul 197, when he carried on war against 
the Boii with success. In 189 he was one of the 
10 commissioners sent into Asia after the conquest 
of Antiochus the Great ; and in 183 he was one of 
the 3 ambassadors sent into Gaul.— 3. M., praetor 
197. — 4. M., tribune of the plebs 121, brought 
forward a bill to repeal the laws of C. Gracchus. 
This Marcus Minucius and his brother Quintus 
are mentioned as arbiters between the inhabitants 
of Genua and the Viturii, in a very interesting in- 
scription, which was discovered in the year 1506, 
about 10 miles from the modern city of Genoa.— 
5. Q,., consul 110, obtained Macedonia as his 
province, carried on war with success against the 
barbarians in Thrace, and triumphed on his return 
to Rome. He perpetuated the memory of his 
triumph by building the Porticus Minucia, near 
the Circus Flaminius. 
Minucius Felix. [Felix.] 
Minyae (Mivvai), an ancient Greek race, who 
originally dwelt in Thessaly. lolcos, in Thessaly, 
was one of their most ancient seats. Their an- 
cestral hero, Minyas, is said to have migrated from 
Thessaly into the N. of Boeotia, and there to have 
established the empire of the Minyae, with the ca- 
pital of Orchomenos. [Orchomenos.] As the 
greater part of the Argonauts were descended from 
the Minyae, they are themselves called Minyae. The 
descendants of the Argonauts founded a colony in 
Lemnos, called Minyae. Thence they proceeded 
to Elis Triphylia, and to the island of Thera. 

Minyas (Mjvuas), son of Chryses, and the 
ancestral hero of the race of the Minyae. The 
accounts of his genealogy vary very much in the 
different traditions, for some call him a son of 
Orchomenus or Eteocles, others of Poseidon, Aleus, 
Ares, Sisyphus, or Halmus. He is further called 
the husband of Tritogenia, Clytodora, or Phano- 
syra. Orchomenus, Presbon, Athamas, Diochthon- 
das, Eteoclymene, Periclymene, Leucippe, Arsinoe, 
and Alcathoe or Alcithoe, are mentioned as his 
children. His tomb was shown at Orchomenos 



MIROBRIGA. 



MITHRIDATES. 



451 



m Boeotia. A daughter of Miuyas was called 
Minyeias {-adis) or Mineis (-idis). (See Ov. 3'Iei. 
iv. 1. 32.) 

Mirobriga. 1. A town of the Celtici in Lusi- 
tania, on the coast of the ocean. — 2. A Roman 
municipium in the territory of the Turduli, in 
Hispania Baetica, on the road from Emerita to 
Caesaraugusta. 

Misenum (Purda di Misem), a promontory in 
Campania, S. of Cumae, said to have derived its 
name from Misenus, the companion and trumpeter 
of Aeneas, who was di'owned and buried here. 
The bay formed by this promontory was converted 
by Augustus into an excellent harbour, and was 
made the principal station of the Roman fleet on 
the Tyrrhene sea. A town sprung up around the 
harbour, and here the admiral of the fleet usually 
resided. The inhabitants were called Misenates 
and Misenenses. The Roman nobles had pre- 
viously built villas on the coast. Here was the 
villa of C. Marius, which was purchased by Lu- 
cullus, and which afterwards passed into the hands 
of the emperor Tiberius, who died at this place. 

Misitheus, the father-in-law of the emperor 
Gordian III., who married his daughter Sabinia 
Tranquillina in A. D. 241. Misitheus was a man 
of learning, virtue, and ability. He was appointed 
by his son-in-law praefect of the praetorians, and 
effected many important reforms in the royal 
household. He accompanied Gordian in his expe- 
dition against the Persians, whom he defeated ; 
but in the course of this war he was cut off either 
by disease, or by the treachery of his successor 
Philippus, 243. 

Mithras {Mi6pas), the god of the sun among 
the Persians. About the time of the Roman em- 
perors his worship was introduced at Rome, and 
thence spread over all parts of the empire. The 
god is commonly represented as a handsome youth, 
wearing the Phrygian cap and attire, and kneeling 
on a bull which is thrown on the ground, and 
whose throat he is cutting. The bull is at the 
same time attacked by a dog, a serpent, and a 
scorpion. This group appears frequently among 
ancient works of art, and a fine specimen is pre- 
served in the British Museum. 

Mithridates or Mithradates (MiepMrris or 
Mi0pa5aTT7s),a common name among theMedesand 
Persians, derived from Mitra or Mithra, the Per- 
sian name for the sun, and the root da, signifying 
"to give." Mithridates would therefore mean, 
" given by the sun." 1. 1. King, or, more properly, 
satrap of Pontus, was son of Ariobarzanes I., and 
was succeeded by Ariobarzanes II., about b. c. 
363. The kings of Pontus claimed to be lineally 
descended from one of the 7 Persians who had 
conspired against the Magi, and who was subse- 
quently established by Darius Hystaspis in the 
government of the countries bordering on the 
Euxine sea. Very little is known of their history 
until after the fall of the Persian empire. — 2. II. 
King of Pontus (337 — 302), succeeded his father 
Ariobarzanes IL, and was the founder of the in- 
dependent kingdom of Pontus. After the death 
of Alexander the Great, he was for a time subject 
to Antigonus ; but during the war between the 
successors of Alexander, he succeeded in establish- 
ing his independence. He died at the age of 84. 
— 3. III. King of Pontus (302—266), son and 
successor of the preceding. He enlarged his pa- 
ternal dominions by the acquisition of great part 



of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Ariobarzanes III. — 4. IV. 
King of Pontus (about 240 — 190), son and suc- 
cessor of Ariobarzanes III. He gave his daughter 
Laodice in marriage to Antiochus III. He was 
succeeded by his son Pharnaces I. — 5. V. King 
of Pontus (about 156—120), surnamed Euer- 
getes, son and successor of Pharnaces L He was 
the first of the kings of Pontus who made an 
alliance with the Romans, whom he assisted in 
the 3rd Pimic war and in the war against Aristo- 
nicus (131 — 129). He was assassinated at Sinope 
by a conspiracy among his own immediate at- 
tendants. — 6. VL King of Pontus (120—63), 
surnamed Eupator, also Dionysus, but more 
commonly the Great, was the son and successor 
of the preceding, and was only 11 years old at 
the period of his accession. We have very imper- 
fect information concerning the earlier years of his 
reign, and much of what has been transmitted to 
us wears a very suspicious aspect. We are told 
that immediately on ascending the throne he found 
himself assailed by the designs of his guardians, 
but that he succeeded in eluding all their machina- 
tions, partly by displaying a courage and address 
in Avarlike exercises beyond his years, partly by 
the use of antidotes against poison, to which he 
began thus early to accustom himself. In order 
to evade the designs formed against his life, he 
also devoted much of his time to hunting, and 
took refuge in the remotest and most unfrequented 
regions, under pretence of pursuing the pleasures 
of the chase. Whatever truth there may be in 
these accounts, it is certain that when he attained 
to manhood, he was not only endowed with con- 
summate skill in all martial exercises, and pos- 
sessed of a bodily frame inured to all hardships, 
as well as a spirit to brave every danger, but his 
naturally vigorous intellect had been improved by 
careful culture. As a boy he had been brought 
up at Sinope, where he had probably received the 
elements of a Greek education ; and so powerful 
was his memorj^, that he is said to have learnt not 
less than 25 languages, and to have been able in 
the days of his greatest power to transact business 
with the deputies of every tribe subject to his rule 
in their own peculiar dialect. The first steps of 
his career were marked by blood. He is said to 
have murdered his mother, to whom a share in 
the royal authority had been left by Mithridates 
Euergetes ; and this was followed by the assas- 
sination of his brother. In the early part of his 
reign he subdued the barbarian tribes between the 
Euxine and the confines of Armenia, including 
the whole of Colchis and the province called Lesser 
Armenia, and even extended his conquests beyond 
the Caucasus. He assisted Parisades, king of the 
Bosporus, against the Sarmatians and Roxolani, 
and rendered the whole of the Tauric Chersonese 
tributary to his kingdom. After the death of 
Parisades, the kingdom of Bosporus itself was in- 
corporated with his dominions. He was now in 
possession of such great power, that he began to 
deem himself equal to a contest with Rome itself. 
Many causes of dissension had already arisen 
between them, but Mithridates had hitherto sub- 
mitted to the mandates of Rome. Even after 
expelling Ariobarzanes from Cappadocia, and Nico- 
medes from Bithynia in 90, he offered no resist- 
ance to the Romans when they restored these 
monarchs to their kingdom.. But v/hen Nico- 

GG 2 



452 



MITII III DATES. 



MITHRIDATES. 



medes, urged by the Roman legates, invaded the 
territories of Mithridates, the latter made prepara- 
tions for immediate hostilities. His success was 
rapid and striking. In 88, he drove Ariobarzanes 
out of Cappadocia, and Nicomedes out of Bithynia, 
defeated the Roman generals who had supported the 
latter, made himself master of Phrygia and Galatia, 
and at last of the Roman province of Asia. During 
the winter he issued the sanguinary order to all the 
cities of Asia to put to death, on the same day, all 
the Roman and Italian citizens who were to be 
found within their walls. So hateful had the 
Romans rendered themselves, that these commands 
were obeyed with alacrity by almost all the cities 
of Asia, and 80,000 Romans and Italians are said 
to have perished in this fearful massacre. Mean- 
time Sulla had received the command of the war 
against Mithridates, and crossed over into Greece 
in 87. ^Mithridates, however, had resolved not to 
await the Romans in Asia, but had already sent 
his general Archelaus into Greece, at the head of 
a powerful army. The war proved unfavourable 
to the king. Archelaus was twice defeated by Sulla 
with immense loss, near Chaeronea and Orchomenos 
in Boeotia (86). About the same time Mithridates 
was himself defeated in Asia by Fimbria. [Fim- 
bria.] These disasters led him to sue for peace, 
which Sulla was willing to grant, because he was 
anxious to return to Italy, which was entirely in the 
hands of his enemies. Mithridates consented to 
abandon all his conquests in Asia, to pay a sum of 
2000 talents, and to surrender to the Romans a fleet 
of 70 ships. Thus terminated the 1st Mithridatic 
war (84). — Shortly afterwards Murena, who had 
been left in command of Asia by Sulla, invaded 
the dominions of Mithridates (83), under the flimsy 
pretext that the king had not yet evacuated the 
whole of Cappadocia. In the following year (82) 
Murena renewed his hostile incursions, but was de- 
feated by Mithridates on the banks of the river 
Halys. But shortly afterwards Murena received 
peremptory orders from Sulla to desist from hostili- 
ties ; in consequence of which peace was again re- 
stored. This is usually called the 2nd Mithridatic 
war. — Mithridates, however, was well aware that 
the peace between him and Rome was in fact a 
mere suspension of hostilities ; and that the repub- 
lic would never suffer the massacre of her citizens 
in Asia to remain ultimately unpunished. No 
fonnal treaty was ever concluded between Mithri- 
dates and the Roman senate ; and the king had in 
vain endeavoured to obtain the ratification of the 
terms agreed on between him and Sulla. The 
death of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia, at the 
beginning of 74, brought matters to a crisis. That 
monarch left his dominions by will to the Roman 
people ; and Bithynia was accordingly declared a 
Roman province : but Mithridates asserted that 
the late king had left a legitimate son by his wife 
Nysa, whose pretensions he immediately prepared 
to support by his arms. He had employed the 
last few years in forming a powerful army, armed 
and disciplined in the Roman manner ; and he 
now took the field with 120,000 foot soldiers, 
16,000 horse, and a vast number of barbarian 
auxiliaries. This was the commencement of the 3rd 
JVIithridatic war. The two Roman consuls, Lucullus 
and Cotta, were unable to oppose his first irruption. 
He traversed Bithynia without encountering any 
resistance ; and when at length Cotta ventured to 
give him battle under the walls of Chalcedon, the j 



consul was totally defeated both by sea and land. 
^Mithridates then proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus 
both by sea and land. Lucullus marched to the relief 
of the city, cut off the king's supplies, and even- 
tually compelled him to raise the siege, early in 
73. On his retreat Mithridates suffered great loss, 
and eventually took refuge in Pontus. Hither 
Lucullus followed him in the next year. The new 
army, vrhich the king had collected, was entirely 
defeated by the Roman general ; and Mithridates, 
despairing of opposing the farther progress of Lucul- 
lus, took refuge in the dominions of his son-in-law 
Tigranes, the king of Armenia. Tigranes at first 
showed no disposition to attempt the restoration of 
his father-in-law ; but being offended at the haughty 
conduct of Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus had 
sent to demand the surrender of Mithridates, the 
Armenian king not only refused this request, but de- 
termined to prepare for war with the Romans. Ac- 
cordingly in 69 Lucullus marched into Armenia, de- 
feated Tigranes and Mithridates near Tigranocerta, 
and in the next year (68) again defeated the allied 
monarchs near Artaxata. The Roman general 
then turned aside into Mesopotamia, and laid siege 
to Nisibis. Here the Roman soldiers broke out into 
open mutiny, and demanded to be led home ; and 
Lucullus was obliged to raise the siege, and return 
to Asia Minor. Meanwhile Mithridates had 
taken advantage of the absence of Lucullus to in- 
vade Pontus at the head of a large arm}-. He de- 
feated Fabius and Triarius, to whom the defence of 
Pontus had been committed ; and when Lucullus 
returned to Pontus, he was unable to resume the 
offensive in consequence of the mutinous spirit of 
his own soldiers. Mithridates was thus able be- 
fore the close of 67 to regain possession of the 
greater part of his hereditary dominions. In the 
following year (66) the conduct of the war was 
entrusted to Pompey. Hostilities were resumed 
with greater vigour than ever. Mithridates was 
obliged to retire before the Romans, but was sur- 
prised and defeated by Pompey ; and as Tigranes 
now refused to admit him into his dominions, he 
resolved to plunge with his small army into the 
heart of Colchis, and thence make his way to the 
Palus Maeotis and the Cimmerian Bosporus. Ar- 
duous as this enterprise appeared it was success- 
fully accomplished ; and he at length established 
himself without opposition at Panticapaeum, the 
capital of Bosporus. He had now nothing to fear 
from the pursuit of Pompey, who turned his arms 
first against Tigranes, and afterwards against Syria. 
Unable to obtain peace from Pompey, except he 
would come in person to make his submission, 
Mithridates conceived the daring project of march- 
ing round the N. and "VY. coasts of the Euxine, 
through the wild tribes of the Sarmatians and 
Getae, and having gathered round his standard all 
these barbarian nations, to penetrate into Italy 
itself. But meanwhile disaffection had made rapid 
progress among his followers. His son Pharnaces 
at length openly rebelled against him. He was 
joined both by the whole array and the citizens of 
Panticapaeum, who unanimously proclaimed him 
king ; and Mithridates, who had taken refuge in 
a strong tower, saw that no choice remained to him 
but death or captivity. Hereupon he took poison, 
which he constantly carried with him ; but his 
constitution had been so long inured to antidotes, 
that it did not produce the desired effect, and he 
was compelled to call in the assistance of one of 



MITHRIDATIS. 



MOABITIS. 



453 



his Gaulish mercenaries to despatch him with his 
sword. He died in 63. His body was sent by 
Pharnaces to Pompey at Amisus, as a token of his 
submission ; but the conqueror caused it to be in- 
terred with regal honours in the sepulchre of his 
forefathers at Sinope. He was G8 or 69 years old 
at the time of his death, and had reigned 57 years, 
of which 25 had been occupied, with only a few 
brief intervals, in one continued struggle against 
the Roman power. The estimation in which he 
was held by his adversaries is the strongest testi- 
mony to his great abilities : Cicero calls him the 
greatest of all kings after Alexander, and in an- 
other passage says that he was a more formidable 
opponent than anj' other monarch whom the Ro- 
man arms had yet encountered.— 7. Kings of Par- 
thia. [Arsaces, 6, 9, 13.] — 8. Of Pergamus, son 
of Menodotus ; but his mother having had an 
amour with jMithridates the Great, lie was gene- 
rally looked upon as in reality the son of that 
monarch. The king himself bestowed great care 
on his education ; and he appears as early as 64 to 
have exercised the chief control over the aflfairs 
of his native city. At a subsequent period he 
served under Julius Caesar in the Alexandrian war 
(48) ; and after the defeat of Pharnaces in the 
following year (47), Caesar bestowed upon Mithri- j 
dates the kingdom of the Bosporus, and also the { 
tetrarchy of the Galatians. But the kingdom of i 
the Bosporus still remained to be won, for Asan- ' 
der, who had revolted against Pharnaces, was in i 
fact master of the whole country, and Mithridates 
having attempted to expel Asander, was defeated 
and slain. 

Mitliridatis Regio (MLepiSdrov x«^'p«), a dis- 
trict of Sarmatia Asiatica, on the "W. side of the 
river Rha (Wo/ga), so called because it was the 
place of refuge of the last Mithridates, in the reign 
of Claudius. 

Mitylene. [Mytilene.] 

Mnaseas (Mvaaeas), of Patara in Lycia, not of 
Patrae in Achaia, was a pupil of Eratosthenes, 
and a grammarian of considerable celebrity. He 
Avrote 2 works, one of a chorographical description, ' 
entitled Penplus {nepiirXous), and the other a : 
collection of oracles given at Delphi. 

Mneme (Mfrnj-T]), i. e. memory, one of the 3 
Muses who were in early times worshipped at 
Ascra in Boeotia. There seems to have been also 
a tradition that Mneme was the mother of the 
Muses, for Ovid [Met. v. 268) calls them Mnemo- 
nides ; unless this be only an abridged form for 
the daughters of Mnemosyne. [Musae.] 

Mnemosyne {Mvrjtj.oavi'r]), i. e. memor}-, daugh- 
ter of Uranus, and one of the Titanides, became 
by Zeus the mother of the Muses. 

Mnesarchus (Mvricrcipxos). 1. Son of Euphron 
or Euthyphron, and father of Pythagoras. He was 
generally believed not to have been of purely 
Greek origin. According to some accounts, he be- 
longed to the Tyrrhenians of Lemnos and Imbros, 
and is said to liave been an engraver of rings. 
According to other accounts, the name of the father \ 
of Pythagoras was ^Marmacns, whose father Hip- 
pasus came from Phlius. — 2, Grandson of the 
preceding, and son of Pythagoras and Theano. 
According to some accounts he succeeded Aristaeus 
as president of the Pythagorean school. — 3. A 
Stoic philosopher, a disciple of Panaetius, flourished 
about B.C. 110, and taught at Athens. Among 
his pupils was Antiochus of Ascalon. 



Mnesicles (MfnaLKXris), one of the great Athe- 
nian artists of the age of Pericles, was the architect 
of the Propijlaea of the Acropolis, the building of 
which occupied 5 years, b. c. 437 — 433. It is 
said that, during the progress of the work, he fell 
from the summit of the building, and was supposed 
to be mortally injured, but was cured by a herb 
which Athena showed to Pericles in a dream. 

Mnesitheus (VlvqcriBtos)^ a physician, was a 
native of Athens, and lived probably in the 4th 
century B. c, as he is quoted by the comic poet 
Alexis. He enjoyed a great reputation, and is 
frequently mentioned by Galen, and others. 

Mnester (MvtjVttjp), a celebrated pantomime 
actor in the reigns of Caligula and Claudius, was 
also one of the lovers of the empress Messalina, 
and was put to death upon the ruin of the latter. 

Mnestheus, a Trojan, who accompanied Aeneas 
to Italy, and is said to have been the ancestral 
hero of the Memmii. 

M5abitis (Maja§(Tts, Mo'ga: 'yiaaShai^ Moii • 
bltae : 0. T. Moab. for both country and people), 
a district of Arabia Petraea, E. of the Dead Sea^ 
from the river Arnon {Wady-d-Mojib^ the bound- 
ary between Palestine and Arabia) on the N., to 
Zoar, near the S. end of the Dead Sea, on the S., 
between the Amorites on the N., the Midianites 
on the E., and the Edomites on the S., that is, be- 
fore the Israelitish conquest of Canaan. At an 
earlier period, the country of Moab had extended 
N. -wards, beyond the N. end of the Dead Sea, 
and along the E. bank of the Jordan, as far as the 
river Jabbok, but it had been wrested from them 
by the Amorites. The plains E. of the Jordan 
were, however, still called the plains of Moab. The 
Moabites were left imdisturbecl by the Israelites on 
their march to Canaan ; but Balak, king of Moab, 
through fear of the Israelites, did what he could 
to harm them, first by his vain attempt to induce 
the prophet Balaam to curse the people whom a 
divine impulse forced him to bless, and then by 
seducing them to worship Baal-peor. Hence the 
hereditary enmity between the Israelites and 
Moabites, and the threatenings denounced against 
Moab by t!ie Hebrew prophets. In the time of 
the Judges they subdued the S. part of the Jewish 
territory, with the assistance of the Ammonites 
and Amalekites, and held it for 18 years (Judges 
iii. 12 foil.). They w^ere conquered by David, after 
the partition of whose kingdom they belonged to 
the kingdom of Israel. They revolted after the 
death of Ahab (b.c. 896) and appear to have be- 
come virtually independent ; and after the 1 
tribes had been carried into captivity, the Moabites 
seem to have recovered the N. part of their ori- 
ginal territory. They were subdued by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, with other nations bordering on Pales- 
tine, very soon after the Babylonian conquest of 
Judaea, after which they scarcely appear as a dis- 
tinct nation, but, after a few references to them, 
they disappear in the general name of the Arabians. 
The name Moabitis. however, was still applied to 
the district of Arabia, between the Arnon (the S. 
frontier of Peraea, or Palestine E. of the Jordan), 
and the Nabathaei, in the mountains of Seir. The 
Moabites were a kindred race with the Hebrews, 
being descended from Moab, the son of Lot. 
They worshipped Baal-Peor and Chemosh with 
most licentious rites, and they sometimes offered 
human sacrifices. Their government was monarchi- 
cal. They were originally a pastoral people ; but 

G G 3 



454 MODESTIXLS. 
the excessi-re fertility ^^f tlieir couiitr}-, which is a | 
n^i'iiBtain'^.ris *r^i iuceioected with rich valleys and 
numerous streams, led them to diligence and success , 
in agric'iiiiire. The frequent ruins of towns and ' 
traces of paved roads, which still cover the face of 
the country, show how populous aud prosperous it 
was. The" chief city, Ar or Kaobath-Moab, att. 
Areopolis (iiaiia, Ilu.), was nbout 25 miles S. of 
the Avnon. 

Modestinus, Heramiius, a Roman jurist, and a 
pupil of Ulpian, flourished in the reigns of Alex- 
ander Severus, Maximiuus and the Gordians, a. d. 
•222 — 244. He taught law to the younger Masi- 
minus. Though Modestinus is the latest of the 
great Roman jurists, he ranks among the most 
distinguished. There are 345 excerpts in the Digest 
from his writings, the titles of which show the 
extent and variety of his labours. 

Modestus, a military writer, the author of a 
Libellus de Voeabulis Rei Miluaris, addressed to 
the emperor Tacitus, a. e. 275. It is very brici, 
and presents no features of interest. Printed in all 
the chief collections of Scriptores de Be Militari. 

Modicia {Mo7iza), a town in Gallia Transpa- 
dana, on the river Lambrus, N. of Mediolanum 
{Mila7i), where Theodoric built a palace, and 
Theodolinda. queen of the Langobards, a splendid 
church, which still contains many of the precious 
gifts of this queen. 

Modin (MoSeii', -eeh, or Lslfi), a little village 
on a mountain N. of Lydda or Diospolis. on the 
extreme N."\V. of Judaea, celebrated as the native 
place of the [Maccabaean family. Its exact site is 
uncertain. 

Moenus, Moenis, Haenus, or Menus (Mai?i), 
a river in Germany, which rises in the Sudeti 
Montes, flows through the territory of the Her- 
munduri and the Agri decumates of the Romans, 
and falls into the Rhine opposite Mogontiacum. 

Moeris or Myris (MoTpjs, Mvpis), a king of 
Egypt, who, Herodotus tells us, reigned some 900 
years before his ovm. visit to that country, which 
seems to have been about B. c. 450. We hear of 
Moeris that he formed the lake known by his name, 
and joined it by a canal to the Nile, in order to 
receive the waters of the river when they were 
superabundant, and to supply the defect when they 
did not rise sufficiently. In the lake he built 2 
pyramids on each of which was a stone statue, 
seated on a throne, and intended to represent him- 
self and his wife. 

Moeris (MoTdis), commonly called Moeris Atti- 
cista, a distinguished grammarian, the author of a 
work still extant, entitled Ae|ety 'ArTLKa'i, though 
the title varies somewhat in different manuscripts. 
Of the personal history- of the author nothing is 
knowTL He is conjectured to have lived about 
the end of the 2nd century after Christ. His 
treatise is a sort of comparison of the Attic with 
other Greek dialects ; consisting of a list of Attic 
words and expressions, which are illustrated by 
those of other dialects, especially the common Greek. 
Edited by Pierson, Lugd. Bat. 1759. 

Moeris Lacus (Molpios or MoipiSos Xiavrj : 
BirM-d-Kcronn'). a great lake on the W. side of 
the Nile, in Middle Egypt, used for the reception 
and subsequent distribution of a part of the over- 
flow of the Nile. It was believed by the ancients 
to have been dug by king Moeris ; but it is really 
a natural, and not an artificial lake. 

Moero (Matpw), or Myro (Mupa), a poetess of 



MOIR.^. 

Bvzantiuin, wnV of Andromachus surnamed Philo- 
lo^us, HUQ mother of the grammarian and tragic 
poet Homems. lived about b. c. 300. She Avrote 
epic, elegiac, and lyric poems. 

Moerocles (MoipoKKris), an Athenian orator, a 
native of Salamis, was a conteiiioorar of Demo- 
sthenes, and like him an opponent of i'hiiip and 
Alexander. 

Moesia, called by tlie Greeks Mysia (Muo-z'o, 
also M. 7} iu EupdoTTT), to distinguish it from Mysia 
in Asia>, a country of Europe, was bounded' on 
the S. by M. Haemus, whicii separated it from 
Thrace, and by M. Orbelus and Scordus, which 
separated it from Macedonia, on the "W. by M. 
Scordus and the rivers Drinus and SaN-us, which 
separated it from Illyricum and Pannonia, on the 
N. by the Danube, which separated it from Dacia, 
.ind on the E. by the Pontus Euxinus, thus corre- 
sponding to the present Service and Bulgaria. 
This country- was subdued in the reign of Augus- 
tus, but does not appear to have been formally 
constituted a Roman province till the commence- 
ment of the reign of Tiberius. It was originally 
only one province, but was afterwards formed into 
2 provinces (probably after the conquest of Dacia 
by Trajan), called Moesia Superior and Moesia 
Inferior, the former being the western, and the 
latter the eastern half of the country, and sepa- 
rated from each other by the river Cebrus or 
Ciabrus, a tributary of the Danube. A^'hen Au- 
relian surrendered Dacia to the barbarians, and 
removed the inhabitants of that pro\-ince to tho 
S. of the Danube, the middle part of Moesia 
was called Dacia Aureliani ; and this new pro- 
vince was divided into Dacia Ripe?isis, the dis- 
trict along the Danube, and Dacia Interior, the 
district S. of the latter as far as the frontiers of 
Macedonia. In the reign of Valens, some of 
the Goths crossed the Danube and settled in 
Moesia. These Goths are sometimes called Moeso- 
Goths, and it was for their use that Ulphilas 
translated the Scriptures into Gothic about the 
middle of the 4th century. The original inhabit- 
ants of the country, called Moesi by the Romans, 
and Mysi (yivaoi) by the Greeks, were a Thracian 
race, and were divided into several tribes, such as 
the Triballi. Peccini, &c. 

Mogontiacum, Mognntiacum or Magontia- 
cum {Mainz or Jfai/ence), a to-s\-n on the left bank 
of the Rhine, opposite the mouth of the river 
Moenus (Main), was situated in the territory of 
the Vangiones, and was subsequently the capital 
of the province of Germania Prima. It was a 
Roman municipium, and was foimded, or at least 
enlarged and fortified, by Drusiis. It was always 
occupied by a strong Roman garrison, and con- 
tinued to the downfall of the empire to be one of 
the chief Roman fortresses on the Rhine. 

Moirae {Molpai) called Parcae by the Romans, 
the Fates. Moira properly signifies " a share," 
and as a personification " the deity who assigns to 
every man his fate or his share." Homer usually 
speaks of one ^loira, and only once mentions the 
JMoirae in the plural. (//. xxiv, 29.) In his 
poems Moira is fate personified, which, at the 
birth of man, spins out the thread of his future life, 
follows his steps, and directs the consequences of 
his actions according to the counsel of the gods. 
But the personification of his Moira is not complete; 
for he mentions no particular appearance of the 
goddess, no attributes, and no parentage. His 



i 



MOLIONE. 



MOMUS. 



455 



Moira is therefore quite synonymous with Aisa 
(Alaa). — In Hesiod the personification of the 
Moirae is complete. He calls them daughters of 
Zeus and Themis, and makes them 3 in number, 
viz. Clotho, or the spinning fate ; Lachesis, or the 
one Avho assigns to man his fate ; and Atropos, or 
the fate that cannot be avoided. Later %yriters 
differ in their genealogy of the Moirae from that 
of Hesiod; thus tliey are called children of Erebus 
and Night, of Cronos and Night, of Ge and 
Oceanus, or lastly of Ananke or Necessity. — ^The 
character and nature of the Moirae are differently 
described at different times and by different 
authors. Sometimes they appear as divinities of 
fate in the strict sense of the term, and sometimes 
only as allegorical divinities of the duration of hu- 
man life. — In the former character they take care 
that the fate assigned to every being by eternal 
laws may take its course without obstruction ; and 
Zeus, as Avell as the other gods and men, must 
submit to them. They assign to the ErinuA-es, 
who inflict the punishment for evil deeds, their 
proper functions ; and with them they direct fate 
according to the laws of necessity, whence they are 
sometimes called the sisters of the Erinnyes. These 
grave and mighty goddesses were represented by 
the earliest artists Avith staffs or sceptres, the 
symbol of dominion. — The Moirae, as the divinities 
of the duration of human life, Avhich is determined 
by the two points of birth and of death, are con- 
ceiA-ed either as goddesses of birth or as goddesses 
of death, and hence their number was 2, as at 
Delphi, and Avas subsequently increased to 3. The 
distribution of the functions among the 3 Avas not 
strictly observed, for Ave sometimes find all 3 de- 
scribed as spinning, although this should be the 
function of Clotho alone, Avho is moreover often 
mentioned alone as the representative of all. As 
goddesses of birth, AA'ho spin the thread of the be- 
ginning of life, and even prophesy the fate of the 
newly born, they are mentioned along Avith Ilithyia, 
Avho is called their companion. The symbol Avith 
Avhich the}', or rather Clotho alone, are represented 
to indicate this function, is a spindle, and the idea 
implied in it AA-as carried out so far, that sometimes 
we read of their breaking or cutting off the thread 
when life is to end. Being goddesses of fate, they 
must necessarily know the future, Avhich at times 
they reA^eal, and thus become prophetic divinities. 
As goddesses of death, thej^ appear together Avith 
the Keres and the infernal Erinnyes, Avith whom 
they are even confounded. For the same reason 
they, along Avith the Charites, lead Persephone out 
of the lower world into the regions of light. The 
A-arious epithets Avhich poets apply to the Moirae 
generally refer to the severity, inflexibilit)-, and 
sternness of fate. They had sanctuaries in many 
parts of Greece. The poets sometimes describe 
them as aged and hideous Avomen, and eA-en as 
lame, to indicate the slow march of fate ; but in 
Avorks of art they are represented as grave maidens, 
Avith different attributes, viz., Clotho Avith a spindle 
or a roll (the book of fate) ; Lachesis pointing Avith 
a staff to the globe ; and Atropos Avith a pair of 
scales, or a sim-dial, or a cutting instrument. 

Molione. [Moliones.] 

Moliones or Molionidae (MoAi'ovey, MoXiove, 
MoKLovidai), that is, Euiytus and Cteatus, so 
called after their m.other Molione. They are also 
called Actoridae or Actoridne {'AKTopiwue) after 
their reputed father Actor, the husband of Molione, 



though they AA'ere generally regarded as the sons 
of Poseidon. According to a late tradition, they 
Avere born out of an egg ; and it is further stated, 
that their bodies grew together, so that they had 
only one body, but 2 heads, 4 arms, and 4 legs. 
Homer mentions none of these extraordinary cir- 
cumstances ; and, according to him, the Moliones, 
Avhen yet boys, took part in an expedition of the 
Epeans against Neleus and the Pylians. They 
are represented as nephews of Augeas, king of the 
Epeans. When Hercules marched against Augeas, 
the latter entrusted the conduct of the Avar to the 
Moliones ; but as Hercules Avas taken ill, he con- 
cluded peace Avith Augeas, whereupon his army 
Avas attacked and defeated by the Molionidae. In 
order to take vengeance, he afterwards slew them 
near Cleonae, on the frontiers of Argolis, Avhen they 
had been sent from Elis to sacrifice at the Isthmian 
games, on behalf of the town. — The Moliones are 
mentioned as conquerors of Nestor in the chariot 
race, and as having taken part in the Calydonian 
hunt. Cteatus Avas the father of Amphimachus by 
Theronice ; and Eurytus, of Thalpius by Theraphone. 
Their sons Amphimachus and Thalpius led the 
Epeans to Troy. 

Molo, surname of Apollonius, the rhetorician of 
Rhodes. [Apollonius, No. 2.] 

Molochath. [Mulucha.] 

Molossi (MoAocro-ot), a people in Epirus, who 
inhabited a narroAv slip of countrA^, called after 
them Molossia (MoKoaaia) or Molossis, Avhich 
extended from the Aous, along the W. bank of 
the Arachthu?. as far as the Ambracian gulf. The 
Molossi Avere a Greek people, Avho claimed descent 
from Molossus, the son of Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) 
and Andromache, and are said to have emigrated 
from Thessaly into Epirus, under the guidance of 
Pyrrhus himself. In their new abodes they inter- 
mingled Avith the original inhabitants of the land 
and Avith the neighbouring Illyrian tribes, in con- 
sequence of Avhich they Avere regarded by the 
other Greeks as half barbarians. Thej* Avere, 
however, by far the most poAverful people in 
Epirus, and their kings gradually extended their 
dominion over the Avhole of the coimtrj-. The 
first of their kings, Aviio took the title of king of 
Epirus, AA-as Alexander, who perished in Italy 
B. c. 326. [Epirus.] The ancient capital of the 
Molossi AA-as Passaron, but Ambracia after- 
Avards became their chief town, and the residence 
of their kings. The Molossian hounds were cele- 
brated in antiquity, and Avere much prized for 
hunting. 

Molycrium (MoXvKpeLov, also MoXuKpeia, Mo- 
XvKp'ia : yiokvKpios, MoXvKpievs, MoXvKpu.7os), a 
town in the most S.-ly part of Aetolia, at the en- 
trance of the Corinthian gulf, gave the name of 
Rhiura Molycrium {'Pbu MoXvKpLou) to the neigh- 
bouring promontory of Antirrhium. It was founded 
by the Corinthians, but A\-as afterwards taken pos- 
session of by tlie Aetolians. 

Momempliis (Mc6iJ.efj.<pLs : Panouf-KM, or Ma- 
nouf-el-Seffii, i. e. Loiver Memplds), the capital of 
the Nomos Momemphites in LoAver Egypt, stood 
on the E. side of the lake Mareotis. 

Momus (Mw^uos), the god of mockery and cen- 
sure, is not mentioned by Homer, but is called in 
Hesiod the son of night. Thus he is said to haA'e 
censured in the man formed by Hephaestus, that 
a little door had not been left in his breast, so as 
to enable one to look into his secret thoughts. 

6 G 4 



45C MON.\. 

Mona {Anglesey), an island off the coast of the 
Ordovices in Britain, was one of the chief seats of 
the Driiitl>. It was invaded by Suetonius Pauli- 
nus A. D. 61, and was conquered by Agricola, 78. 
Caesar (2?. G. v. 13), erroneously describes this 
island as half way between Britannia and Hi- 
bernia. Hence it has been supposed by some 
critics that the Mona of Caesar is the hie of Man ; 
but it is more probable that he received a false 
report respecting the real position of Mona, espe- 
cially since all other ancient ^Titers give the name 
of Mona to the Isle of Anglesey;, and the name of 
the latter island is likely to have been mentioned 
to Caesar on account of its celebrity in connection 
with the Druids. 

Monaeses. 1. A Parthian general mentioned 
by Horace (Carm. iii. 6. 9) is probably the same 
as Surenas, the general of Orodes, who defeated 
Crassus. — 2. A Parthian noble, who deserted to 
Antony and urged him to invade Parthia, but soon 
afterwards returned to the Parthian king Phraates. 
— 3. A general of the Parthian king, Vologeses I., 
in the reign of Xero. 

Monapia orMonarina (Isle of Man), an island 
between Britannia and Hibernia. 

MoEda or Munda (Mondego), a river on the "W. 
coast of Spain, which flows into the ocean between 
the Tagus and Durius. 

Moneta, a surname of Juno among the Romans, 
by which she was characterised as the protectress 
of monev. Under this name she had a temple on 
the Capitoline, in which there was at the same 
time the mint, just as the public treasury was in 
the temple of Saturn. The temple had been vowed 
by the dictator L. Furius in a battle against the 
Aurunci, and v> as erected on the spot where the 
house of M. Manlius Capitolinus had stood. Mo- 
neta signifies the mint ; but some writers found- 
such a meaning too plain. Thus Livius Andronicus 
used ^loneta as a translation of Mnemosi/?ie (Murj- 
fxoauyri). and thus made her the mother of the 
Muses or Camenae. Cicero relates, that during 
an earthquake, a voice was heard issuing from the 
temple of Juno on the Capitol, and admonishing 
{monens) that a pregnant sow should be sacrificed. 
A somewhat more probable reason for the name is 
given by Suidas, though he assigns it to too late a 
time. In the war with Pyrrhus and the Tarentines, 
he says, the Romans being in want of money, 
prayed to Juno, and were told by the goddess, 
that money would not be wanting to them, so long 
as they v/ould fight with the arms of justice. As 
the Romans by experience found the truth of the 
words of Juno, they called her Juno Moneta. Her 
festival was celebrated on the 1st of June. 

Monima (Moviut]), a Greek woman, either of 
Stratonicea, in Ionia, or of INIiletus, was the wife 
of Mithridates, but was put to death by order of 
this monarch, when he fled into Armenia, b. c. 7-. 

Konoeci Portns, also Hercnlis Monoeci Portus 
{Monaco)^ a port-town on the coast of Liguria. 
between Nicaea and Albium Intemelium, founded 
hj the ^Massilians, was situated on a promontory 
(hence the arjc Monoeci of Virg. Aen. vi. 801), 
and possessed a temple of Hercules Monoecus, 
from whom the place derived its name. The 
harbour, though small and exposed to the S.E. 
wind, was of importance, as it was the only one 
on this part of the coast of Liguria. 

Montanus, Curtms, was exiled by Nero, 
A. D. 67 ; but was soon afterwards recalled at 



MORGANTIUM. 

his father's petition. On the accession of Ves- 
pasian, he vehemently attacked in the senate the 
notorious delator, Aquilius Regulus. If the same 
person with the Curtius Montanus satirised by 
Juvenal (iv. 107, 131, xi. 34), Montanus in later 
life sullied the fair reputation he enjoyed in youth ; 
for Juvenal describes him as a corpulent epicure, 
a parasite of Domitian, and a hackneyed declaimer. 

Montanus, Voltienus, an orator and declaimer 
in the reign of Tiberius. From his propensity 
to refine upon thought and diction, he was named 
the " Ovid" of the rhetorical schools. He was 
convicted on a charge of majestas, and died an 
exile in the Balearic islands, a, d. 25. 

Mopsia or Mopsopia, an ancient name of Pam- 
phylia, derived from Mopsus, the mythical leader 
of certain Greeks who were supposed to have 
settled in Pamphylia, as also in Cilicia and Syria, 
after the Trojan war, and whose name appears 
more than once in the geographical names in 
Cilicia. (See e.g. Mopsijcrexk, Mopsuestia.) 

Mopsium (Mo'lior : Mo'^/ios). a town of Thessaly 
in Pelasgiotis, situated on a hill of the same name 
b^'tween Tempo and Larissa. 

Mopsucrene (Mo;//ou kp^kjj or Kp-fjvai, i. e. the 
Spring of Mopsus), a city of Cilicia Campestris, on 
the S. slope of the Taurus, and 12 Roman miles 
from Tarsus, was the place where the emperor 
Constantius died, A. d. 364. 

Mopsuestia, (Moi|/ou karia, Moi^/ovearia, i. e. 
the Hearth of^fopsus, also Mo'i|/ou it6\is aniMoxpos : 
Moi|/eaT7?s : ]\Iamistra, in the Middle Ages : Messis), 
an important city of Cilicia Campestris, on both 
banks of the river Pyramus, 12 Roman miles frona 
its mouth, on the road from Tarsus to Issus, in the 
beautiful plain called to 'AXi]iov ireSi'oi/, was a 
civitas libera under the Romans. The 2 parts of 
the city were connected by a handsome bridge 
built by Constantius over the Pyramus. In eccle- 
siastical history, it is notable as the birthplace of 
Theodore of Mopsuestia. 

Mopsus (Moios). L Son of Ampyx or Am- 
pycus by the nymph Chloris. Being a seer, he 
was also called a son of Apollo by Himantis. 
He was one of the Lapithae of Oechalia or Ti- 
taeron (Thessaly), and took part in the combat 
at the wedding of Pirithous. He was one of 
the Calydonian hunters, and also one of the Ar- 
gonauts, and was a famous prophet among the 
Argonauts. He died in Libya of the bite of a 
snake, and was buried there by the Argonauts. 
He was afterwards worshipped as an oracular 
hero.— 2. Son of Apollo and iManto, the daughter 
of Tiresias, and also a celebrated seer. He con- 
tended in prophecy with Calchas at Colophon, 
and showed himself superior to the latter in pro- 
phetic power. [Calchas.] He was believed 
to have founded Mallos in Cilicia, in conjunction 
with the seer Amphilochus. A dispute arose 
between the two seers respecting the possession 
of the town, and both fell in combat by each 
j other's hand. Mopsus had an oracle at Mallos, 
I v,-hich existed as late as the time of Strabo. 
I Morgantium, Morgantina, Murgantia, Mor- 
I gentia ; MopydvTLou, MopyavTivri : Mopyayrlvos, 
I Murgentinus), a town in Sicily founded by the 
I Morgetes, after they had been driven out of Italy 
Viy the Oenotrians. According to Livy (xxiv. 27) 
i this city Avas situated on the E. coast, probably at 
j the mouth of the Symaethus ; but according to 
other writers it was situated in the interior of the 



MORGETES. 



MOTUCA. 



457 



island, S. E. of Agyrium, and near the Symaethus. 
The neighbouring country produced good wine. 

Morgetes (M6pyr)res), an ancient people in the 
S. of Italy. According to Strabo they dwelt in 
the neighbourhood of Rhegiuni, but being driven 
out of Italy by the Oenotrians crossed over to 
Sicily and there founded the town of Morgantium. 
According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Merges 
was the successor of the Oeiiotrian king Italiis, and 
hospitably received Siculus, who had been driven 
out of Latium by the Aborigines, in consequence 
of which the earlier Oenotrians were called Itulieies, 
Morgetes and SicuK: according to this account, the 
Morgetes ought to be regarded as a branch of the 
Oenotrians. 

Moria or Morija {Mdpiov opos), a mountain of 
Judaea, within the city of Jerusalem, on the 
summit of which the temple was built. [Jeru- 
salem.] 

Morimene {VxopiiJ.eur]), the N.W. district of 
Cappadocia, on the banks of the Halys, assigned 
under the Romans to Galatia. Its meadows were 
entirely devoted to the feeding of cattle. 

Morini, a people in Gallia Belgica, W. of the 
Nervii and Menapii, and the most N.-ly people in 
all Gaul, whence Virgil calls them extremi hommum 
{Aen. viii. 727). They dwelt on the coast, opposite 
Britain, and at the narrowest part of the channel 
between Gaul and Britain, which is hence some- 
times called Fretmn Morinorum or Moi-inum. 
They were a brave and warlike people. Their 
country was covered with woods and marshes. 
Their principal town was Gesoriacum. 

MoriUS (Mwptos), a small river in Boeotia, a S. 
tributary of the Cephissus, at the foot of Mt. 
Thurion near Chaeronea. 

Mormo (Mop/xw, also Mop/j.oXvKT], MopfjLo\vice7ov)^ 
a female spectre, with which the Greeks used to 
frighten children. 

Morpheus (Mop^eus,), the son of Sleep, and 
the god of dreams. The name signifies the fa- 
shioner or moulder, because he shaped or formed 
the dreams which appeared to the sleeper. 

Mors, called Thanatos {Qdi'aTos) by the 
Greeks, the god of death. In the Homeric poems 
Death does not appear as a distinct divinitj', 
though he is described as the brother of Sleep, 
together with whom he carries the body of Sar- 
pedon from the field of battle to the country of 
the Lycians, In Hesiod he is a son of Night 
and a brother of Ker and Sleep, and Death and 
Sleep reside in the lower world. In the Alcestis 
of Euripides, where Death comes upon the stage, 
he appears as an austere priest of Hades in a dark 
robe and with the sacrificial sword, with which 
he cuts off a lock of a dying person, and devotes 
it to the lower world. On the whole, later poets 
desci'ibe Death as a sad or terrific being (Horat. 
Cartn. i. 4. 13 ; Sat. ii. 1. 37) : but the best artists 
of the Greeks, avoiding any thing that might be 
displeasing, abandoned the idea suggested to them 
by the poets, and represented Death under a more 
pleasing aspect. On the chest of Cypselus, Night 
was represented with two boys, one black and the 
other white ; and at Sparta there were statues of 
both Death and Sleep. Both were usually re- 
presented as slumbering 3'ouths, or as genii with 
torches turned upside down. There are traces 
of sacrifices having been offered to Death, but 
no temples are mentioned anywhere. 

MorycllUS (Mdpvxos), a tragic poet, a con- 



temporary of Aristophanes, noted especially for 
his gluttony and effeminacy. 

Mosa {Maas or Meuse), a river in Gallia Bel- 
gica, rises in Mt. Vogesus, in the territory of the 
Lingones, flows first N.E. and then N.W , and 
falls into the Vahalis or W. branch of the Rhine. 

Moscha (Mdcrxa : Afuscat), an important sea- 
port on the N. E. coast of Arabia Felix, N.W. of 
Syngrus, the E.-most promontory of the peninsula 
(Bas el-Hud); a chief emporium for the trade be- 
tween India and Arabia. 

MoscM (Mocrxoi), a people of Asia, whose ter- 
ritory {'}] Moo-xfcTj, Moschorum Tractus) formed 
originally the S. part of Colchis, but. at the time of 
Augustus, Avas divided between Colchis, Iberia, 
and Armenia. 

Moschici Montes, or -icus Mons (ra Moo-xfca 
oprj : Mesjidi)^ a range of mountains extending S. 
and S.W. from the main chain of the Caucasus to 
that of the Anti-Taurus, and forming the boundary 
between Colchis and Iberia : named after the 
MoscHi, who dwelt among them. Though lofty, 
they were well wooded to the summit, and their 
lower slopes were planted with vines. 

Moschion (Mocrxi'cfi'), a Greek physician, the 
author of a short Greek tieatise "• On Female Dis- 
eases," is supposed to have lived in the begin- 
ning of the 2nd century after Christ. The work 
is edited by Dewez, Vienn. 1793. 

Moschus (MoVxos), of Syracuse, a grammarian 
and bucolic poet, lived about B. c. 250. Suidas 
says that he was acquainted with Aristarchus. 
According to this statement his date ought to be 
placed later ; but he calls himself a pupil of Bion, 
in the idyl in which he bewails the death of the 
latter [Bion]. There are 4 of his idyls extant. 
He writes with elegance and liveliness ; but he is 
inferior to Bion, and comes still further behind 
Theocritus. His style labours under an excess of 
polish and ornament. For editions see BiON. 

Mosella {Moscl or Moselle), a river in Gallia 
Belgica, rises in Mt. Vogesus, flows N. E. through 
the territories of the Treviri, and falls into the 
Rhine at Confluentes iCohlenz). This river forms 
the subject of a descriptive poem by Ausonius. 

Mosteni (Moo-ttjz/oi, Moani^a, MovaTrivi-i, Mvcr- 
TTivrj), a city of Lydia, in the Hyrcanian plain, S.E. 
of Thyatira, was one of the cities of Asia Minor 
destroyed by the great earthquake of A. i). 17. Its 
coins are numerous. 

MosycMus. [Lemnos.] 

Mosynoeci (MoavuoiKoi, MoaavuoiKoi), or Mo- 
syni or Mossyni (Moa-wo'i, Moaawoi), a people on 
the N, coast of Asia Minor, in Pontus, E. of the 
Chalybes and the cit\' of Cerasus, celebrated for 
their warlike spirit and savage customs, which are 
described by Xenophon (Anab. iv. 4, v. 4). Their 
name was derived from the conical wooden houses 
in which they dwelt. Their government was very 
curious : a king chosen by them was strictly 
guarded in a house higher than the rest, and 
maintained at the public cost ; but as soon as he 
displeased the commons, they literally stopped the 
supplies, and starved him to death. 

Mothone. [Methone.] 

Motuca (MoTovKa: Mutycensis : Modica), a 
town in the S. of Sicily, W. of the promontory 
Pachynus and near the sources of the river Moty- 
chanus {Fiume di Ragusa). Since both Cicero and 
Pliny call the inhabitants Mutycenses, it is pro- 
bable that Mutyca is the more correct form of the 



458 MOTYA. 
name. This town must not be confounded with 
the more celebrated Motya. 

Motya (MoTUTj : Motvoios), an ancient town in 
the N.W. of Sicily, situated on a small island 
(Isola di Mezzo) only G stadia from the coast, 
with which it Avas connected by a mole. It was 
founded by the Phoenicians in the territory of the 
Elymi. It possessed a good harbour, and was in 
early times one of the most flourishing cities of 
Sicilj'. It afterwards passed into the hands of the 
Carthaginians, was taken from them by Dionysius 
of Syracuse, and was finally captured by the Car- 
thaginian general Himilco, who transplanted all 
its inhabitants to the toAvn of Lilybaeum, which 
he had founded in its neighbourhood, b. c. 397. 
From this time it disappears from history. 

Motychanus. [Motuca.] 

Mucia, daughter of Q. Mucins Scaevola, the 
augur, consul B. c. 95, married Cn. Pompey, by 
whom she had 2 sons, Cneius and Sextus, and a 
daughter, Pompeia. She was divorced by Pompey 
in 62. She next married M. Aemilius Scaurus, 
a step-son of the dictator Sulla. In 39, Mucia 
went to Sicily to mediate between her son Sex. 
Pompey and Augustus. She was living at the 
time of the battle of Actium, 31. Augustus 
treated her with great respect. 

Mucianus. 1. P. Licinius Crassus Dives [ 
Mucianus, was the son of P. Mucins Scaevola, ' 
and was adopted b}^ P. Licinius Crassus Dives. ' 
He was consul b. c. 131, and carried on the 
war against Aristonicus in Asia, but Avas defeated 
b}^ the latter. He succeeded Scipio Nasica as 
pontifex maximus. He was distinguished both 
as an orator and a lawyer. 2. Licinius Mu- 
cianus, three times consul in a. d. 52, 70, and 
75, On Nero's death in 68, Mucianus had the 
command of the province of Syria ; and he ren- 
dered efficient aid to Vespasian, when the latter 
resolved to seize the imperial throne. As soon 
as Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, Mucianus 
set out for Europe to oppose Vitellius ; but the 
Vitellians were entirely defeated by Antonius 
Primus [Primus], before Mucianus entered Italj'. 
Antonius however had to surrender all power 
into the hands of Mucianus, upon the arrival 
of the latter at Rome. Mucianus was an orator 
and an historian. His powers of oratory are 
greatly praised by Tacitus. He made a collection 
of the speeches of the republican period, Avhicfi he 
published in 11 books oi Acta and 3 of Epistolae. 
The subject of his history is not mentioned ; but it 
appears to have treated chiefly of the East, 

Mucius Scaevola. [Scaevola,] 

Mugilla (Mugillanus), a toAvn in Latium near 
Corioli, from Avhich a family of the Papirii pro- 
bably deriA'ed their name Mugillanus. 

Mulciber, a surname of Vulcan, Avhich seems 
to haA^e been given to him as an euphemism, that 
he might not consume the habitations and property 
of men, but might kindly aid them in their pui-- 
suits. It occurs frequently in the Latin poets. 

Mulucha, Malva, or Molochath (MoAoxa0 : 
Wad el Muhvia or iMohalou, or Sourb-ou-IIerb), the 
largest river of Mauretania, rising in the Atlas, 
and flowing N. by E. into the Gu/f of Melillah, 
has been successively the boundary between the 
Mauri and the Massaesylii, Mauretania and Nu- 
midia, Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania 
Caesariensis, Marocco and Alc/ier. [Comp. Mac;- 

EETANIA.] 



MUNYCHIA. 

Mummius. 1. L., tribune of the plebs, b. c, 
187, and praetor 177.— 2. L., sumaraed Achai- 
cus, son of the last, Avas praetor 154, Avhen hi 
carried on the Avar successfully in further Spain, 
against the Lusitanians, He Avas consul in 146, 
Avhen he Avon for himself the surname of Achaicus, 
by the conquest of Greece, and the establishment 
of the Roman province of Achaia, After defeating 
the army of the Achaean league at the Isthmus 
of Corinth, he entered Corinth Avithout opposition. 
The city Avas burnt, rased, and abandoned to pil- 
lage : the native Corinthians Avere sold for slaves, 
and the rarest specimens of Grecian art were 
given up to the rapacity of an ignorant conqueror. 
Polybius the historian saw Roman soldiers playing 
at draughts upon the far-famed picture of Diony- 
sus by Aristides ; and Mummius himself was so 
unconscious of the real value of his prize, that 
he sold the rarer Avorks of painting, sculpture, 
and carving, to the king of Pergamus, and exacted 
securities from the masters of A'essels Avho con- 
vey sd the remainder to Italy, to replace by 
equiA-alents any picture or statue lost or injured 
in the passage. He remained in Greece during 
the greater part of 145 with the title of proconsul. 
He arranged the fiscal and municipal constitution 
of tlie noAvly acquired province, and Avon the 
confidence and esteem of the proA'incials by his 
integrity, justice, and equanimity. He triumphed 
in 145, He was censor in 142 with Scipi(> 
Africanus the younger. The political opinions 
of Mummius inclined to the popular side,— 3, 
Sp., brother of the preceding, and his legatus at Co- 
rinth in 146 — 145, Avas an intimate friend of the 
younger Scipio Africanus. In political opinions 
Spurius Avas opposed to his brother Lucius, and 
Avas a high aristocrat. He composed ethical and 
satirical epistles, Avhich were extant in Cicero's 
age, and Avere probably in the style which Horace 
afterwards cultivated so successfully. 
Munatms Plancus. [Plancus.] 
Munda. 1. A Roman colony and an important 
toAATi in Hispania Baetica, situated on a small 
river, and celebrated on account of 2 battles fought 
in its neighbourhood, the victory of Cn. Scipio 
over the Carthaginians in B. c. 216, and the im- 
portant victory of Julius Caesar over the sons of 
Pompey in 45. The town had fallen into decay 
as early as the time of Pliny, The site of the 
ancient town is usually supposed to be the modem 
village of Monda^ S.W, of Malaga ; but Munda 
Avas more probably in the neighbourhood of Cor- 
doA-a, and there are ruins of ancient Avails, and 
toAvers between Martos, Alcandete, Espejo and 
Baena, Avhich are conjectured to be the remains of 
Munda. —2. A river. See Monda. 

Miinychia {Movvvxia)^ a hill in the peninsula 
of Piraeus, Avhich formed the citadel of the ports 
of Athens. It Avas strongly fortified, and is fre- 
quently mentioned in Athenian history. At its 
foot lay the harbour of Munychia, one of the 3 
harbours in the peninsula of Piraeus, fortified by 
Themistocles. The names of these 3 harbours 
were Piraeus, Zea, and Munychia. The last was 
the smallest and the most E,-ly of the 3, and is 
called at the present day Phanari : Zea Avas 
situated between Piraeus and Munychia, Most 
topographers have erroneously supposed Phanari 
to be Phaleron, and Zea to be Munychia. The 
entrance to the harbour of Munychia was A'-ery 
i narrow, and could be closed by a chain. The hill 



MURCIA. 



MUSAE. 



459 



of Munychia contained several puLlic buildings. 
Of these the most important were: — (1) a temple 
of Artemis Mimj'chia, in which persons accused of 
crimes against the state took refuge : (2) The 
Bendideum, the sanctuary of the Thracian Artemis 
Bendis, in whose honour the festival of the Ben- 
didea was celebrated: (3) The theatre on the N.W. 
slope of the hill, in which the assemblies of the 
people were sometimes held, 

Murcia, Murtea, or Murtia, a surname of 
Venus at Rome, where she had a chapel in the 
circus, with a statue. This surname, which is. 
sa'd to be the same as Myrtea (from myrtus^ a 
my "tie), was believed to indicate the fondness of 
the goddess for the myrtle tree. In ancient times 
there is said to have been a myrtle grove in the 
front of her chapel at the foot of the Aventine, 

Murcus, L. Statius, was Caesar's legatus, b.c. 48, 
and praetor 45. He went into Syria after his year 
of office expired ; and after Caesar's death became 
an active supporter of the republican party, Cas- 
sius appointed him prefect of the fleet. After the 
ruin of the republican partj'- at Philippi, in 42, 
Murcus went over to Sex. Porapey in Sicily. Here 
he was assassinated by Pompey's order at the 
instigation of his freedman Menas, to whom Mur- 
cus had borne himself loftily. 

Murena, Licinius. The name Murena, which 
is the proper way of writing the word, not Mu- 
raena, is said to have been given in consequence of 
one of the family having a great liking for the 
lamprey (murena), and building tanks (vivaria) 
for them. — 1, P., a man of some literary know- 
ledge, lost his life in the wars of Marius and Sulla, 
B.C. 82. — 2. L., brother of the preceding, served 
under Sulla in Greece, in the Mithridatic war. 
After Sulla had made peace with Mithridates (84), 
Murena was left as propraetor in Asia, Anxious 
for distinction, Murena sought a quarrel with 
Mithridates ; and after carrying on the war for 
2 years, was at length compelled by the strict 
orders of Sulla to stop hostilities. [See p. 452, a.] 
Miu-ena returned to Rome, and had a triumph in 
81, He probabl}^ died soon after. — 3, L., son of 
the last, served under his father in the 2nd Mi- 
thridatic Avar, and also under Lucullus in the 3rd 
Mithridatic war. In 65 he was praetor, in 64 
propraetor of Gallia Cisalpina, and in 63 was 
elected consul with D. Junius Silanus. Serv, Sul- 
picius, an unsuccessful candidate, instituted a pro- 
secution against Murena for bribery {ambitus), and 
he Avas supported in the matter by M, Porcius 
Cato, Cn, Postumius, and Serv, Sulpicius the 
younger. Murena was defended by Q. Horten- 
sius, M. TuUius Cicero, who was then consul, and 
M. Licinius Crassus. The speech of Cicero, Avhich 
is extant, was delivered in the latter part of No- 
vember. The orator handled his subject skilfully, 
by making merry with the formulae and the prac- 
tice of the lawyers, to which class Sulpicius be- 
longed, and with the paradoxes of the Stoics, to 
which sect Cato had attached himself. Murena 
was acquitted, and was consul in the following 
year, 62. 4. A. Terentius Varro Murena, pro- 
bably the son of the preceding, Avas adopted by 
A. Terentius Varro, Avhose name he took, accord- 
ing to the custom in such cases. Ii' the civil Avars 
he is said to have lost his property, and C. Procu- 
leius, a Roman eques, is said to have given him a 
share of his own property. This Proculeius is called 
the brother of Varro, but, if we take the words of 



Horace literally (Carm. ii. 2), Proculeius had more 
than one brother. It is conjectured that this Pro- 
culeius Avas a son of the brotlier of No, 3, Avho 
had been adopted by one Proculeius, This Avould 
make Proculeius the cousin of Varro, It was com- 
mon enough among the Romans to call cousins by 
the name of brothers { f rater pair uelis and (rater). 
In 25 Murena subdued the Salassi in the Alps, 
and founded the town of Augusta {Aosta) in their 
territorj'. He Avas consul suffectus in 23. In 
22 he Avas involved in the conspiracy of Fan- 
nius Caepio, and Avas condemned to death and 
executed, notwithstanding the intercession of Pro- 
culeius and Terentia, the sister of Murena. Ho- 
race {Carm. ii. 10) addresses Murena by the name 
of Licinius, and probably intended to give him 
some advice as to being more cautious in his speech 
and conduct. 

Murgantia. 1. See Morgantium. — 2. A 
toAA'n in Samnium of uncertain site. 

Murgis, a town in Hispania Baetica, on the 
frontiers of Tarraconensis, and on the road from 
Acci to Malaga, 

Muridunum orMoridunum {Dorchester), called 
Dunium by Ptolemy, the capital of the Durotriges 
in the S. of Britain. At Dorchester there are 
remains of the walls and the amphitheatre of the 
ancient town. 

Mursa or Mursia (Esseck, capital of Slavonia), 
an important town in Pannonia Inferior, situated 
on the Dravus, not far from its junction Avith the 
Danube, Avas a Roman colony founded by the 
emperor Hadrian, and Avas the residence of the 
governor of Lower Pannonia. Here Magnentius 
Avas defeated by Constantius II., a.d. 351. 

Mursella, or Mursa Minor, a town in Pannonia 
Inferior, only 1 miles W. of the great Mursa. 

Mus, Decius. [Decius.] 

Musa, Antonius, a celebrated physician at 
Rome about the beginning of the Christian era. 
He Avas brother to Euphorbus, the physician to 
king Juba, and was himself the physician to the 
emperor Augustus. He had been originally a slave. 
When the emperor Avas seriously ill, and had 
been made worse by a hot regimen and treatment, 
B. c, 23, Antonius Musa succeeded in restoring 
him to health by means of cold bathing and cooling 
drinks, for Avhich service he received from Augus- 
tus and the senate a large sum of money and the 
permission to Avear a gold ring, and also had a 
statue erected in his honour near that of Aescula- 
pius by public subscription. He seems to have 
been attached to this mode of treatment, to which 
Horace alludes {Epist. i, 15. 3), but failed Avhen 
he applied it to the case of M. Marcellus, Avho died 
under his care a feAV months after the recovery of 
Augustus, 23. He Avrote several pharmaceutical 
Avorks, which are frequently quoted by Galen, but 
of Avhich nothing except a few fragments remain. 
There are, hoAvever, 2 short Latin medical works 
ascribed to Antonius Musa, but these are univer- 
sally considered to be spurious. 

Musa or Muza {Movcxa, Mov^a : prob. Moushid^ 
N. of Mokha), a celebrated port of Arabia Felix, 
on the W, coast, near its S. extremity, or in other 
Avords on the E, shore of the Red Sea, near the 
Straits of Bab-eUMandeb. 

Musae {Moiaai), the Muses, were, according to 
the earliest Avriters, the inspiring goddesses of song, 
and, according to later notions, divinities presiding 
over the different kinds of poetry, and over the 



460 



MUSAE. 



MUSAEaS. 



arts and sciences. They were originally regarded 
ns the nvmphs of inspiring wells, near which they 
were worshipped, and they bore different names in 
different places, until the Thraco-Boeotian wor- 
ship of the nine Muses spread from Boeotia over 
other parts of Greece, and ultimately became gene- 
rally established. — 1. Genealogy of the Mitses. The 
most common notion Avas that they Avere the 
daughters of Zeus and Mnemosj-ne, and born in 
Pieria. at the foot of Mt. Olympus. Some call 
them the daughters of Uranus and Gaea, and 
others daughters of Pierus and Antiope, or of 
Apollo, or of Zeus and Plusia, or of Zeus and 
IMoneta, probably a mere translation of Mnemosyne 
or j\Ineme, whence they are called Mnemonides^ or 
of Zeus and Minerva, or, lasth^, of Aether and 
Gaea. — 2. Number of the Muses. Originally there 
were 3 Muses worshipped on Mt. Helicon in 
Boeotia, namely, Melete (meditation), Mneme 
(memory), and Aoide (song). Three Muses also 
were recognised at Sicyon and at Delphi. As 
daughters of Zeus and Plusia we find mention of 
4 Muses, viz. Thelxinoe (the heart delighting), 
Aoide (song), Arche (beginning), and Melete. 
Some accounts, in which they are called daughters 
of Pierus, mention 7 Muses, viz. Nilo, Tntone. 
Asopo, Heptapora, Achelois, Tipoplo, cind lihodia ; 
and others, lastly, mention 8, Avhich is also said to 
have been the number recognised at Athens. At 
length, however, the number 9 became established 
throughout all Greece. Homer sometimes men- 
tions Musa only in the singular, and sometimes 
Musae in the plural, and once only he speaks of 
9 Muses, though without mentioning any of 
their names. Hesiod is the first who states the 
names of all the 9, and these 9 names became the 
usual ones. They are Clio, Euterpe, Thalia, Mel- 
foiaene, Terpsichore, Erato, Polymnia or Polyhym- 
nia, Urania, and Calliope. — 3. Nature and cha- 
racter of the Muses. In Homer's poems, they are 
the goddesses of song and poetry, and live in 
Olympus. There they sing the festive songs at 
the repasts of the immortals. They bring before 
the mind of the mortal poet the events Avhich he 
has to relate, and confer upon him the gift of song. 
The earliest poets in their invocation of the Muse 
or Muses were perfectly sincere, and actually be- 
lieved in their being inspired by the goddesses ; 
but in later times the invocation of the Muses was 
a mere formal imitation of the early poets. Tha- 
myris, who presumed to excel the Muses, was de- 
prived by tliem of the gift they had bestowed on 
him, and punished with blindness. The Sirens, 
who likewise ventured upon a contest Avith them, 
Avere depri\-ed of the feathers of their wings, and the 
Muses put them on their OAA-n persons as ornaments. 
The 9 daughters of Pierus, Avho presumed to rival 
the Muses, Avere metamorphosed into birds. Since 
poets and bards derived their power from the 
Muses, they are frequently called either their dis- 
ciples or sons. Thus Linus is called a son of Am- 
phiraarus and Urania, or of Apollo and Calliope, or 
Terpsichore ; Hyacinthus a son of Pierus and 
Clio ; Orpheus a son of Calliope or Clio, and 
Thamyris a son of Erato. These and a few 
others are the cases in Avhich the Muses are de- 
scribed as mothers ; but the more general idea 
■^■as. that, like other nj-mphs, they Avere virgin 
divinities. Being goddesses of song, they Avere 
natiu-ally connected with Apollo, the god of the 
lyre, who like them instructs the bards, and is 



mentioned along Avith them even by Homer. In 
later times Apollo is placed in very close con- 
nection AAUth the Muses, for he is described as the 
leader of the choir of the Muses by the surname 
Musagetes (Movcrayerris). A further feature in 
the character of the Muses is their prophetic power, 
Avhich belongs to them, partly because they AA^ere 
regarded as inspiring nymphs, and partly because 
of their connection Avith the prophetic god of Delphi. 
Hence, they instructed, for example, Aristaeus in 
the art of prophecy. As the Muses loved to dwell 
on Mt. Helicon, they Avere naturally associated 
Avith Dionysus and dramatic poetrj', and hence 
they are described as the companions, plaA'mates, 
or nurses of Dionysus. The Avorship of the Muses '] 
points originally to Thrace and Pieria about Mt. 
Olympus, whence it Avas introduced into Boeotia ; 
and the names of mountains, grottoes, and Avells, 
connected Avith their Avorship in the N., Avere like- 
AA-ise transferred to the S. Near Mt. Helicon, 
Ephialtes and Otus are said to have offered the 
first sacrifices to them. In the same place there 
was a sanctuary with their statues, the sacred 
wells Aganippe and Hippocrene, and on Mt. 
Libethrion, Avhich is connected Avith Helicon, 
there was a sacred grotto of the Muses. Pierus, 
a Macedonian, is said to have been the first who 
introduced the Avorship of the 7iine Muses, from 
Thrace to Thespiae, at the foot of Mt. Helicon. 
There they had a temple and statues, and the 
Thespians celebrated a solemn festival of the 
Muses on Mt. Helicon, called Musea. Mt. Par- 
nassus Avas likeAA'ise sacred to them, Avith the 
Castalian spring, near Avhich they had a temple. 
The sacrifices offered to the Muses consisted of 
libations of Avater or milk, and of honey. The 
A-arious surnames b_y Avhich they are designated by 
the poets are for the most part derived from the 
places Avhich Avere sacred to them or in Avhich they 
Avere Avorshipped, while some are descriptive of the 
SAveetness of their songs. — 4. Representations of 
the Muses in zcorks of art. In the most ancient 
works of art Ave find onh'' 3 Muses, and their attri- 
butes are musical instruments, such as the flute, 
the IjTe, or the barbiton. Later artists gaA'e to 
each of the 9 sisters different attributes as AA'ell as 
different attitudes. 1 . Calliope, the Muse of epic 
poetry, appears Avith a tablet and stylus, and some- 
times Avith a roll of paper ; 2. Clio, the Muse of 
historj'-, appears in a sitting attitude, Avith an open 
roll of paper, or an open chest of books ; 3. Euterpe, 
the Muse of lyric poetrA', with a flute; 4. Melpo- 
mene, the Muse of tragedy, Avith a tragic mask, 
the club of Hercules, or a sword, her head is sur- 
rounded Avith vine leaves, and she Avears the 
cothurnus; 5. Terpsichore, the Muse of choral 
dance and song, appears Avith the lyre and the 
plectrum ; 6. Erato, the Muse of erotic poetrA' and 
mimic imitation, sometimes also has the lyre ; f 
7. Polymnia, or Pohihjmma, the Muse of the sub- 
lime hymn, usually appears Avithout any attribute, 
in a pensive or meditating attitude ; 8. Uraiiia, the 
Muse of astronomy, Avith a staff pointing to a 
globe ; 9. Thalia, the Muse of comedy and of 
merry or idyllic poetry, appears Avith a comic mask, 
a shepherd's staff, or a Avreath of ivy. Sometimes 
the Muses are seen Avith feathers on their heads, 
alluding to their contest Avith the Sirens. 

Miasaeus (Moucraros). 1. A semi-mythological 
personage, to be classed Avith Olen, Orpheus, 
and Pamphus. He aa\is regarded as the author 



MUSAGETES. 

of various poetical compositions, especially as con- 
nected with the mystic rites of Demeter at Eleusis, 
over which the legend represented him as pre- 
siding in the time of Hercules. lie was reputed 
to belong to the family of the Eumolpidae, being 
the son of Euniolpus and Selene. In other vari- 
ations of the myth he was less definitely called a 
Thracian. According to other legends he was the 
son of Orpheus, of whom he was generally consi- 
dered as the imitator and disciple. Some accounts 
gave him a wife Deioce and a son Eumolpus. 
There was a tradition that the Museum in Piraeus 
bore that name from liaving been the place where 
Musaeus was buried. Among the numerous com- 
positions attributed to him by the ancients the 
most celebrated were his Oracles. Onomacritus, 
in the time of the Pisistratidae, made it his busi- 
ness to collect and arrange the oracles that passed 
under the name of Musaeus, and was banished by 
Hipparchus for interpolating in the collection oracles 
of his own making, — 2. A grammarian, the author 
of the celebrated poem on the loves of Plero and 
Leander. Nothing is known of the personal his- 
tory of the writer ; but it is certain that the poem 
is a late production. Some critics suppose that the 
author did not live earlier than the 5th century of 
our era. Edited by Passow, Lips. 1810; and by 
Schaefer, Lips. 18'2o. 
Musagetes. [Musae.] 

C. Musonius Rufus, a celebrated Stoic philo- 
sopher, was the son of a Roman eques, and was 
banished by Nero to the island of Gyaros, in. 
A. D. 66, under the pretext of his having been 
privy to the conspiracy of Piso. He returned 
from exile on the accession of Galba, and seems 
to have been held in high estimation by Vespasian, 
as he was allowed to remain at Rome when the 
other philosophers were banished from the city. 
Musonius wrote various philosophical works, all 
of which have perished. 

Musti (MoucTTT]), a town in the Carthaginian 
territory (Zeugitana), near the river Bagradas, on 
the road from Carthage to Sicca Veneria. Here 
Regulus killed an enormous serpent. 

Muthul, a river of Numidia, the boundary be- 
tween the kingdoms of Jugiirtha and Adherbal. 
It is probably the same as the Rubricatus. 

Mutilus, C.Papius, one of the principal Samnite 
generals in the Marsic war, b. c. 90 — 89. 

Mutina (Mutinensis : 3Iode?ia), an important 
town in Gallia Cispadana, on the high road from 
Mediolanum to the S. of Italy, was originally a 
Celtic town, and was the first place which the 
Romans took aAvay from the Boii. It is mentioned 
at the beginning of the 2nd Punic war (b. c. 218) 
under the name of Motina, as a fortified place 
inhabited by the Romans ; but it was not till 1S3 
that it was made a Roman colony. Mutina is 
celebrated in the history of the civil war after 
Caesar's death. Decimus Brutus was besieged here 
by M. Antonius from December, 44, to April, 43; 
and under its walls tlie battles were fought, in 
which the consuls Hirtius and Pansa peiished. 
Hence this war was called the Bellum Miiliuense. 
The best wool in all Italy came from the neigh- 
bourhood of Mutina. 

Mutunus or Mutinus, was among the Romans 
the same as the phallus, or Priapus, among the 
Greeks, and was believed to be the most powerful 
averter of demons, and of all evil that resulted 
from pride, boastfulness, and the like. 



MYCERINUS. 



461 



Mycale (MuKaATj: Samsung a mountain in the 
S. of Ionia in Asia Minor, N. of the mouth of tlie 
Maeander. It fonns the W. extremity of M. Mes- 
sogis, and runs far out into the sea, opposite to 
Samos, forming a sharp promontory, which was 
called Mycale or Trogilium (Tpct>y'i\iov, Tpwyv- 
Xiov : C. S. Maria). This cape and the S. E. pro- 
montory of Samos (Posidonium) overlap one an- 
other, and the 2 tongues of land are separated by 
a strait on]_y 7 stadia (little more than 3-4ths of a 
mile) in width, which is renowned in Greek history 
as the scene of the victory gained over the Persian 
fleet by Leotychides and Xanthippus, b. c. 479. 
There seems to have been a city of the same name 
on or near the promontory. On the N. side of the 
promontory, near Priene, was the great temple of 
Poseidon, which was the place of meeting for the 
Panionic festival and Amphictyony. 

Mycalessus (MuKaXriacros : MvKaXrjcra-ios), an 
ancient and important city in Boeotia, mentioned 
by Homer, was situated on the road from Aulis to 
Thebes. In b. c. 413 some Thracian mercenaries 
in the pay of Athens surprised and sacked the 
town, and butchered the inhabitants. From this 

I blow it never recovered, and was in ruins in the 

I time of Pausanias. It possessed a celebrated temple 

I of Demeter, who was hence surnamed Mycalessia. 

I Mycenae sometimes Mycene (MvnTiuai, Mv. 

I Kr]V7] : MvK7]va7os : Karvaia), an ancient town in 
Argolis, about 6 miles N. E. of Argos, is situated 
on a hill at the head of a narrow valley, and is 
hence described by Homer as " in a recess (^u^w) 
of the Argive land": hence the etymology of the 
name. Mycenae is said to have been founded by 
Perseus, and was subsequently the favourite resi- 
dence of the Pelopidae. During the reign of 
Agamemnon it was regarded as the first city in all 
Greece ; but after the conquest of Peloponnesus by 
the Dorians, it ceased to be a place of importance. 
It still, however, continued an independent town 
till b. c. 468, when it was attacked by the Argives, 
whose hatred the Mycenaeans are said to have 
incurred by the part they took in the Persian war 
in favour of the Greek cause. The massive walls 
of Mycenae resisted all the attacks of the Argives; 
but the inhabitants were at length compelled by 
famine to abandon their town. They elfected their 
escape without a surrender, and took refuge, some 

\ at Cleonae, some in Achai^, and others in Mace- 
donia. Mycenae was now destroyed by the Argives 
and was never rebuilt; but there are still numerous 
remains of the ancient city, which on account of 
their antiquity and grandeur are some of the most 
interesting in all Greece. Of these the most re- 
markable are the subterranean vault, commonly 
called the " Treasury of Athens," but which was 
'more probably a sepulchre, and the Gate of Lions, 
so called from 2 lions sculptured over the gate. 

Mycene (MuktjVt?), daughter of Inachus and 
wife of Arestor, from whom the town of Mycenae 
was believed to have derived its name : the true 
etymology of the name is given above. 

Mycerinus, or Mecherinus {yivK^ptvos, Mexe- 
plvos), son of Cheops, king of Egypt, succeeded 

I his uncle Chephren on the throne. His conduct 
, formed a strong contrast to that of his father and 
[ uncle, being as mild and just as theirs had been ty- 
rannical. On the death of his daughter, he placed 
her corpse within the hollow body of a wooden 
cow, which was covered with gold. Herodotus 
1 tells us that it was still to be seen at Sais in his 



462 



MYCONUS. 



MYRINA. 



time. We further hear of Mycerinus that, l)eing 
warned by an oracle tliat he should die at the 
end of 6 j-^ears, because he had been a gentle 
ruler and had not wreaked the vengeance of the 
gods on Egypt, he gave himself up to revelry, 
and strove to double his allotted time by turning 
night into day. He began to build a pyramid, but 
died before it was finished. It was smaller than 
those of Cheops and Chephren, and, according to 
Herodotus, was wrongly ascribed by some to the 
Greek hetaera Rhodopis. 

Myconus CMvkovos: MvkSvios: Mycono)^ a small 
island in the Aegaean sea. one of the Cyclades, 
S.E. of Tenos and E. of Delos, never attained any 
importance in historj', but is celebrated in mytho- 
logy as one of the places where the giants were 
defeated by Hercules. The island was poor and 
unproductive, and its inhabitants were rapacious. 
It contained 2 towns, a promontorj', called Plujrhia^ 
and a mountain named Dimastus. The large 
number of bald persons in this island was consi- 
dered worth}'- of record by several ancient writers. 

Mygdon {Mvy^wv), son of Acmon, a Phry- 
gian king, who fought with Otreus and Priam 
against the Amazons, and from whom some of 
the Phrygians are said to have been called Myg- 
donians. He had a son Coroebus, Avho is hence 
called Mygdonides. 

Mygdonia (Mu7Soz/ta : MuySoves). 1. A dis- 
trict in the E. of Macedonia, bordering on the 
Thermaic Gulf and the Chalcidic peninsula. Its 
people were of Thracian origin. 2. A district in 
the N. of Asia Minor, between M. Olympus and 
the coast, in the E. of Mysia and the W. of Bi- 
thynia, named after the Thracian people, Mygdones, 
who formed a settlement here, but Avere afterwards 
subdued by the Bithyni. — 3. The N.E. district 
of Mesopotamia, between M. Masius and the Cha- 
boras, Avhich divided it from Osroene. From its 
great fertility, it was also called Anthemusia ('Av- 
deixovcria). The name of Mygdonia was first in- 
troduced after the Macedonian conquests : in the 
passage of Xenophon (Anab. iv. 3), sometimes 
cited to prove the contrary, the true reading is 
Map5ovio.', not MvySovioi. 

Myia (Mv7a), daughter of Pythagoras and 
Theano, and wife of Milon of Crotona. A letter, 
addressed to a certain Phyllis, is extant under 
her name. 

Mylae (MvXai : MuAaTor, MuAa/rTj?). 1. (Me- 
lazzo)^ a town on the E. part of the N. coast of 
Sicily, situated on a promontory running out far 
into the sea, with a harbour and a citadel. It was 
founded by Zancle (Messana), and continued sub- 
ject to the latter city. It was off Mylae that 
Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sex. Pompeius, B. c. 
36. — ■ 2. A town of Thessaly in Magnesia, of un- 
certain site. 

Mylasa or Mylassa (ra Mv\a.cra, MvXacraa : 
MvXaaevs : Melasso, Ru.), a very ancient and 
flourishing inland city of Caria, lay 80 stadia (8 
geog. miles) from the coast at the Gulf of lassus, 
in a fertile plain, on and at the foot of an isolated 
rock of beautiful white marble, which furnished the 
material for the splendid temples and other public 
buildings of the city. The most important of these 
buildings was the great national temple of Zeus 
Carius or Osagon. [Caria.] Mylasa was the 
birthplace and capital of Hecatomnus. Under 
the Romans it was made a free city. In the civil 
wars, it v/as taken and partly destroyed by La- 



bicnus. Its rem.ains are very extensive, and the 
ruins of the temple of Zeus are supposed to have 
been found on the rock which formed the Acro- 
polis of the ancient city. 

Myndus (MvuSos : MvuSios : prob. Port Gu- 
mishki, Ru.), a Dorian colonj^on the coast of Caria, 
in Asia Minor, founded by settlers from Troezene, 
probably on the site of an old town of the Leleges, 
which continued to exist under the name of Palae- 
myndus. Myndus stood at the W. extremity of 
the same peninsula on which Halicarnassus stood. 
It was not one of the cities of the Dorian Hexapolis, 
but never became a place of much importance. 

My5ii or Myoma (Muwy, Mvovla: Muo//€us), a 
town of the Locri Ozolae, situated on a considerable 
height 30 stadia from Amphissa, and in one of the 
passes which led from Aetolia into Phocis. 

Myonnesus {IslvSw-n^os : C. Hypsili) a pro- 
montory of Ionia, Avith a town and a little island 
of the same name, S. of Teos and W. of Lebedus, 
and forming the N. headland of the Gulf of Ephe- 
sus. Here the Romans, under the praetor L. Aemi- 
lius, gained a great naval victory over Antiochus 
the Great, b. c. 1 90. 

Myos Hormos (6 Mub? op/^os, i. e. Muscle-port, 
rather than Mouse-port, for /u.vs is the Greek for 
muscle, and this shell-fish is very comracjn on the 
W. coast of the Red Sea), aft. Veneris Portus 
('Acppod'iTrjs op/uLos), an important sea-port town of 
Upper Egypt, built by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus 
on a promontory of the same name, 6 or 7 days' 
journey from Coptos. Some of the best modern 
geographers identify the port with Kosseir (lat. 
26° 10'), which is still an important port of the 
Red Sea, and the place of embarkation for the cara- 
van to Mecca. Kosseir lies due E. of Coptos, and 
is connected with it by a valley, which contains 
traces of an ancient road, and which still forms the 
route of the Mecca caravan. At the village of 
Abu-Sliaar, near Cosseir, are extensive ruins, which 
are supposed to be the remains of the town of 
Myos Hormos. Others, however, place it a degree 
further N., in lat. 26^10, opposite Jaffatine 
islands. 

Mjnra or Myron (ra and t? Mwp«, "n "^vpwv. Mu- 
pevs : Myra, Grk., Dembre, Turk., Ru.), one of the 
chief cities of Lycia, and, under the later Roman em- 
pire, the capital of the province, was built on a rock 
20 stadia (2 geog. miles) from the sea, and had a 
port called Andriaca ('Ai/Spta/iTj). St. Paul touched 
here on his voyage as a prisoner to Rome, and the 
passage where this is mentioned {Acts, xxvii. 5, 6), 
affords incidental proof that the place was then an 
important sea-port. There are still magnificent 
ruins of the cit}-, in great part hewn out of the rock. 

Myriandrus {Mvpiav^pos), a Phoenician colony 
ki Syria, on the E. side of the Gulf of Issus, a 
day's journey from the Cilician Gates. It probably 
stood a little S. of Alexandria, at a spot where 
there are ruins. Herodotus calls the Gulf of Issus 6 
MapiavdiKos k-oAttos, a name evidently' derived from 
this place, with a slight variation of form. 

Myriciis ('M.vpiKovs), a city on the coast of Troas, 
opposite to Tenedos. 

Myrlaa (77 Mvpiva, or NvpLua, Mvpivva, Mvpiur]: 
MvpivaAos). 1. {Sandarlik'^), a very ancient and 
strongly fortified city on the W. coast of Mysia, 
founded, according to mythical tradition, by Myri- 
nus or by the Amazon Myrina, and colonized by the 
Aeolians, of whose confederacy it formed a member. 
It Avas also called Smyrna, and, under the Roman 



MYRLEA. 



MYS. 



463 



empire, Sebastopolis : it was made by the Romans 
a civiias libera. It was destroyed by earthquakes 
under Tiberius and Trajan, but each time rebuilt. 
It was the birthplace of the epigrammatic poet 
Agathias. — 2. [See Lemnos.] 

Mjrrlea (MvpAeia : MvpX^avos : Amapoli., Ru., 
a little distance inland from Mudanieh)., a city 
of Bithynia, not far from Prusa, founded by the 
Colophonians, and almost rebuilt by Prusias I., who 
called it Apamea after his wife. The Romans 
colonized it under Julius Caesar and Augustus. 

Myrmecides (Mu/j^tjki'Stjs), a sculptor and en- 
graver, of Miletus or Athens, is generally men- 
tioned in connection with Callicrates, like whom 
he was celebrated for the minuteness of his works. 
[Callicrates.] His works in ivory were so 
small that they could scarcely be seen without 
placing them on black hair. 

Myrmecium {Mvpfj.riKiou), a Scythian or Cim- 
merian town of the Chersonesus Taurica, situated 
on a promontory of the same name at the narrowest 
part of the Bosporus, opposite the Achilleum in 
Asia. 

Myrmidon (MvpniScSv), son of Zeus and Eury- 
medusa, daughter of Clitos, whom Zeus deceived 
in the disguise of an ant. Her son was for this 
reason called Myrmidon (from fj-vp/xr]^, an ant), 
and was regarded as the ancestor of the Myr- 
midons in Thessaly. He was married to Pisi- 
dice, by whom he became the father of Antiphus 
and Actor. 

Myrmidones (MvpfudSues), an Achaean race in 
Phthiotis in Thessaly, whom Achilles ruled over 
and who accompanied this hero to Troy. They 
are said to have inhabited originally the island of 
Aegina, and to have emigrated with Peleus into 
Thessaly; but modern critics on the contrary sup- 
pose that a colony of them emigrated from Thessaly 
into Aegina. The Myrmidones disappear from 
history at a later period. The ancients derived 
their name either from a mythical ancestor Myr- 
midon, or from the ants {^vpfxniK^s) in Aegina, 
which were supposed to have been metamorphosed 
into men in the time of Aeacus. [Abacus.] 

Myron {^vpwv). 1. Tyrant of Sicyon, the 
father of Aristonymus, and grandfather of Clis- 
thenes. He gained the victory at Olympia in 
the chariot-race in B. c. 648.-2. One of the 
most celebrated of the Greek statuaries, and also 
a sculptor and engraver, was born at Eleutherae, 
in Boeotia, about 480. He is also called an 
Athenian, because Eleutherae had been admitted 
to the Athenian franchise. He was the disciple 
of Ageladas, the fellow-disciple of Polycletus, 
and a younger contemporary of Phidias. He 
flourished about 431, the time of the beginning of 
the Peloponnesian war. The chief characteristic 
of Myron seems to have been his power of ex- 
pressing a great variety of forms. Not content 
with the human figure in its most difficult and 
momentary attitudes, he directed his art towards 
various other animals, and he seems to have been 
the first great artist who did so. His great works 
were nearly all in bronze. The most celebrated 
of his statues were his Discobolus and his Cow. 
Of his Discobolus there are several marble copies 
in existence. It is true that we cannot prove by 
testimony that any of these alleged copies were 
really taken from Myron's work, or from imita- 
tions of it ; but the resemblance between them, 
the fame of the original, and the well-known 



frequency of the practice of making such marble 
copies of celebrated bronzes, all concur to put the 
question beyond reasonable doubt. Of these copies 
we possess one in the Townley Gallery of the 
British Museum, which was found in the grounds 
of Hadrian's Tiburtine Villa, in 1791. The Cow 
of Myron appears to have been a perfect work 
of its kind. It was celebrated in many popular 
verses, and the Greek Anthology still contains 
no less than 36 epigrams upon it. The Cow 
was represented as lowing, and the statue was 
placed on a marble base, in the centre of the 
largest open place in Athens, where it still stood 
in the time of Cicero. In the time of Pausanias 
it was no longer there ; it must have been re- 
moved to Rome, where it was still to be seen in 
the temple of Peace, in the time of Procopius. — 3. 
Of Priene, the author of an historical account of 
the first Messenian war, probably lived not earlier 
than the 3rd century B. c. 

Myronides (Mupwj/tSTjs), a skilful and successful 
Athenian general. In b. c. 457, he defeated the 
Corinthians, who had invaded Megara ; and in 
456 he defeated the Boeotians at Oenophyta. 

Myrrha (Muppa) or Smyrna, daughter of Ciny- 
ras and mother of Adonis. For details see Adonis. 

M3aTh.mus {Mv^^ivovs: Mv^piuoTjaios), a demus 
on the E. coast of Attica, belonging to the tribe 
Pandionis, a little S. of the promontory Cynosura. 
It is said to have been built by a hero Colaenus, 
and it contained a temple of Artemis Colaenis. 

Myrsilus (Mupo-iAos). 1. [Candaules.]— 2. A 
Greek historical writer of uncertain date, a native 
of Lesbos, from whom Dionysius of Halicarnassus 
borrowed a part of his account of the Pelasgians. 

Myrsmus. [Myrtuntium.] 

Myrtilis, a town of the Turdetani on the Anas 
in Lusitania, possessing the Jus Latii. 

Myrtilus (Mvpn'Aos), son of Hermes by Cleo- 
bule, Clytia, Phaetusa or Myrto. He was the 
charioteer of Oenomaus king of Elis, whom he 
betrayed, when Pelops contended with his master 
in the chariot-race. He was afterwards thrown 
into the sea by Pelops near Geraestus in Euboea ; 
and that part of the Aegean is said to have 
thenceforth been called after him the Myrtoan sea. 
[Oenomaus ; Pelops.] At the moment he ex- 
pired, he pronounced a curse upon the house of 
Pelops, which was henceforward tormented by the 
Erinnyes.. His father placed him among the stars 
as auriga. 

M3n:tis (Mupris), a lyric poetess, a native of 
Anthedon, in Boeotia. She was reported to have 
been the instructress of Pindar, and to have con- 
tended with him for the palm of superiority. This 
is alluded to in an extant fragment of Corinna. 
There were statues in honour of her in various 
parts of Greece. 

Myrtoum Mare {rh Mvprwov ireXayos), the 
part of the Aegaean sea, S. of Euboea, Attica and 
Argolis, which derived its name from the small 
island Myrtus, though others suppose it to come 
from Myrtilus, whom Pelops threw into this sea, 
or from the maiden Myrto. 

Myrtuntium {MvprovPTLov : MvpToiScnos), called 
M3a:sinus (Mvpaivos) in Homer, a town of the 
Epeans in Elis, on the road from Elis to Dyme. 

Myrtus. [Myrtoum Mare.] 

Mys {Mvs), an artist in the toreutic depart- 
ment, engraved the battle of the Lapithae and 
the Centaurs and other figures on the shield of 



464 MYSCELUS. 
Phidias's colossal bronze statue of Atliena Proma- 
chos, in the Acropolis of Athens. Pic is men- 
tioned as one of the most distinguished engravers 
by several ancient writers. 

Myscelus (MvaKeAos, or MvcnceWos), a native 
of Achaia, and, according to Ovid {jMetam. xv. 1), 
an Heraclid, and the son of an Argive named Ale- 
mon. He founded Croton in Italy, B.C. 710, in 
accordance with the Delphic oracle. The oracle 
had commanded him to build a city, where he 
should find rain with fine weather. For a long 
time he thought it impossible to fulfil the command 
of the oracle, till at length he found in Italy a 
beautiful woman in tears ; whereupon he perceived 
that the oracle was accomplished, and straightway 
founded Croton on the spot. 

Mysi [yiucroi), one of the Thracian peoples, 
who seem to have crossed over from Europe into 
Asia Minor before recorded history begins. They 
appear to be the same people as the Moesi (in 
Greek also Mucro/), on the banks of the Danube. 
[MoESiA.] They stand in close connection with 
the Teucri. These 2 peoples appear to have moved 
from the banks of the Strymon to the S.E. of 
Thrace, forcing the Bithyni over the Thracian 
Bosporus into Asia, and then to have crossed 
over into Asia themselves, by way of the Thracian 
Bosporus, and to have settled on the S.E. shore 
of the Propontis, as far W. as the river Rhyndacus 
(the rest of the Asiatic coast of the Propontis and 
the Hellespont being occupied by Phrygians), and 
also in the E. and S. parts of the district afterwards 
called jMvsia, in the mountains called Olympus 
and Temnus, and on the S. side of Ida. The Teu- 
crians obtained a permanent footing also on the N. 
side of Ida, in the Troad. Being afterwards driven 
W.-ward over the Rhyndacus by the Bithynians, and 
hemmed in on the W. and N. by the Aeolian colo- 
nies, the Mysians may be regarded as about shut up 
within the ranges of Ida and Olympus on the N. 
and N.E. and Temnus on the S. They were a simple 
pastoral people, low in the scale of civilization. 
Their language and religion bore a strong resem- 
blance to those of their neighbours, the Phrygians 
and Lydians, who were of the same Thracian 
origin as themselves ; and hence arose the error, 
which is found in Herodotus, of deriving them 
directly from the Lydians. 

Mysia (tj Mucri'a, poet. Mvcrh oXa : Mucro's, My- 
sus and Mysius : Chaii Karasi, the N.W. district 
of Ajiadoli), a district of Asia Minor, called also 
the Asiatic Mysia (Mucri'a t? W(Tiavr\), in contradis- 
tinction to Moesia on the banks of the Danube. 
Originally it meant of course the territory of the 
Mysi, but in the usual division of Asia Minor, as 
settled under Augustus, it occupied the whole of 
the N.W. corner of the peninsula, between the 
Hellespont on the N.W. ; the Propontis on the 
N. ; the river Rhyndacus and M. Olympus on the 
E., which divided it from Bithynia and Phrygia ; 
M. Temnus, and an imaginary line drawn from 
Temnus to the S. side of the Elaitic Gulf, on the S., 
where it bordered upon Lydia; and the Aegean 
Sea on the W. It was subdivided into n parts : 
(1.) Mysia Minor (M. tj /j.LKpd), along the N. coast. 
(2.) Mysia Major (M. 77 /xeyaKTi), the S.E. in- 
land region, with a small portion of the coast 
between the Troad and the Aeolic settlements 
aTjout the Elaitic Gulf. (3.) Troas (77 Tpwds), the 
N.W. angle, between the Aegean and Hellespont 
und the S. coast along the foot of Ida. (4.) Aeolis 



MYSIA. 

or Aeolia (17 AloXis or AioXia), the S. part of the 
W. coast, around the Elaitic Gulf, where the chief 
cities of the Aeolian confederacy were planted ; 
but applied in a wider sense to the W. coast in 
general ; and (5.) Teuthrania (77 Tivdpavia), the 
S.W. angle, between Temnus and the borders of 
Lydia, where, in very early times, Teuthras was 
said to have established a Mysian kingdom, which 
was early subdued by the kings of Lydia ; this 
part was also called Pergamene, from the celebrated 
city of Pergamus, which stood in it. This ac- 
count applies to the time of the early Roman em- 
pire ; the extent of Mysia, and its subdivisions, 
varied greatly at other times. In the heroic ages 
we find the great Teucrian monarchy of Troy in 
the N.W. of the country, and the Phrygians along 
the Hellespont: as to the Mysians, who appear as 
allies of the Trojans, it is not clear whether they 
are Europeans or Asiatics. The Mysia of the 
legends respecting Telephus is the Teuthranian 
kingdom in the S., only with a wider extent than 
the later Teuthrania. Under the Persian empire, 
the N.W. portion, which was still occupied in part 
by Phrygians, but chiefly by Aeolian settlements, 
was called Phrygia Minor, and by the Greeks 
Hellespontus. Mysia was the region S. of the 
chain of Ida ; and both formed, with Lydia, the 
second satrapy. In the division of the empire of 
Alexander the Great, Mysia fell, with Thrace, to 
the share of Lysimachus, B.C. 311, after whose 
defeat and death, in 281, it became a part of the 
Greco-Syrian kingdom, with the exception of the 
S.W. portion, where Philetaerus founded the king- 
dom of Pergamus (280), to which kingdom the 
whole of Mysia was assigned, together with 
Lydia, Phrygia, Caria, Lycia, risidia, and Pam- 
phylia, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by 
the Romans in 190. With the rest of the king- 
dom of Pergamus, Mysia fell to the Romans in 
133, by the bequest of Attains III., and formed 
part of the province of Asia. Under the later 
empire. Mysia formed a separate proconsular pro- 
vince, under the name of Hellespontus. The coun- 
try w\as for the most part mountainous ; its chief 
chains being those of Ida, Olympus, and Tem- 
nus, which are terminal branches of the N.W. 
part of the Taurus chain, and the union of which 
forms the elevated land of S.E. Mysia. Their pro- 
longations into the sea form several important liays 
and capes ; namely, among the former, the great 
gulf of Adramyttium {Adramyfti), which cuts olf 
Lesbos from the continent, and the Sinus Elaiticus 
(G. of Chandeli) • and, among the latter, Sigeum 
(C. Yeniclieri) and Lectum {G. Babu), at the N.W. 
and S.W. extremities of the Troad, and Cane 
(C. Colo7ii) and Hydria (Fokia), the N. and S. 
headlands of the Elaitic Gulf. Its rivers are nu- 
merous ; some of them considerable, in proportion 
to the size of the country ; and some of first-rate 
importance in history and poetry : the chief of 
them, beginning on the E., were Rhyndacus and 
IMacestus, Tarsius, Aesepus, Granicus, Rho- 
Dius, SiMois and Scamander, Satnois, Eve- 
NUS, and Caicus. The peoples of the country, be- 
sides the general appellations mentioned above, 
w'ere known by the following distinctive names : 
the Olympieni or Olympeni (OXvy.Tzi'nvoi, 'OAu,u- 
TTT^^'oi), in the district of Olympene at the foot of 
M. Olympus ; next to them, on the S. and W., 
and occupying the greater part of Mysia Proper, 
the Abretteni, who had a native divinity called by 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. METHYiMNA — NEAPOLIS. 




Alethymiia. P;ige Mi. 




Miletus, Page 44G. 




ilopsuestia iu Cilicia. Page 456. 




Morgautium. Page 456. 




ilotya. Page 458. 




Mylusa. Page i&2. 

7 o face p. 4G5.] 




Myndus. Page 462. 




Mytilene. Page 465. 




The Island of Xaxos. Page 469. 




Kaxos in Sicily. Page 4G9. 




Keapolis in Campania. Page 469. 



MYSIUS. 

the Greeks Z6i)s 'ASp^Trrjuos ; the Trimenthuntae, 1 
the Pentademitae, and the Mysoniacedones, all in 
the region of M. Temnus. 

Mysius {Bergamo), a tributary of the river 
Caicus in Mysia, or rather the upper part of the 
Caicus itself, had its source in M. Temnus. 

Myson (Muo-wi/), of Chenae, a village either in 
Laconia or on Mt. Oeta, is enumerated by Plato as 
one of the 7 sages, in place of Periander. 

Mystia, a town in the S.E. of Bruttium, a little 
above the Prom. Cocintum. 

Mytilene or Mitylene {MuriX-nvr], MnvX-nv-n 
the former is the ancient form, and the one usually 
found on coins and inscriptions ; the latter is some- 
times found on inscriptions, and is the commoner 
form in MSS. : Mvt iXrjvaTos, Mitylenaeus : Mi/ti- 
lene or J\leteli?i), the chief city of Lesbos, stood on 
the E. side of the island opposite the coast of 
Asia, upon a promontory which was once an 
island, and both sides of which formed excellent 
harbours. Its first foundation is ascribed to Ca- 
rians and Pelasgians. It was early colonized by 
the Aeolians. [Lesbos.] Important hints re- 
specting its political history are furnished by the 
fragments of the poetry of Alcaeus, whence (and 
from other sources) it seems that, after the rule 
and overthrow of a series of tyrants, the city was 
nearly ruined by the bitter hatred and conflicts of 
the factions of the nobles and the people, till Pitta- 
cus was appointed to a sort of dictatorship, and the 
nobl'es were expelled. [Alcaeus ; Pittacus.] 
Meanwhile, the city had grown to great importance 
as a naval power, and had founded colonies on the 
coasts of Mysia and Thrace. At the beginning of 
the 7th century B. c, the possession of one of these 
colonies, Sigeum at the mouth of the Hellespont, 
was disputed in war between the Mytilenaeans 
and Athenians, and assigned to the latter by the 
award of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Among 
the other colonies of Mytilene were Achilleum, 
Assos, Antandrus, &c. Mytilene submitted to the 
Persians after the conquest of Ionia and Aeolis, 
and furnished contingents to the expeditions of 
Cambyses against Egypt and of Darius against 
Scythia. It was active in the Ionian revolt, after 
the failure of which it again became subject to 
Persia, and took part in the expedition of Xerxes 
against Greece. After the Persian war, it formed 
an alliance with Athens, and remained one of the 
most important members of the Athenian confede- 
racy, retaining its independence till the 4th year 
of the Peloponnesian War, b. c. 428, when it 
lieaded a revolt of the greater part of Lesbos, the 
progress and suppression of which forms one of the 
most interesting episodes in the history of the 
Peloponnesian War. (See the Histories of Greece.) 
This event destroyed the power of Mytilene. Its 
subsequent fortunes cannot be related in detail 
here. It fell under the power of the Romans after 
the Mithridatic War. Respecting its important 
position in Greek literary history, see Lesbos. 

Myttistratum. [Amestratus.] 

Myus (Muous : Mvovaios: Palaiia, Ru.), the 
least city of the Ionian confederacy, stood in Caria, 
on the S. side of the Maeander, 30 stadia from its 
mouth, and very near Miletus. Its original site 
was probably at the mouth of the river; but its 
site gradually became an unhealthy marsh ; and 
by the time of Augustus it was so deserted by its 
inhabitants that the few who remained were reck- 
oned as citizens of Mil<Jtus. 



NABATAEI. 465 
N. 

Naarda (NaapSa), a town of Babylonia, chiefly 
inhabited by Jews, and with a Jewish academy. 

Naarmalclia or Nahrmalclia (l^aapfiaXx^^-, 
Nap/xctAxas, i. e. the King^s Canal: 6 fiaaiXeios 
TTora/JLos, ri fiaaiXiKy] Sicopul, flumen regium : Nahr- 
al-Malk ov Ne GruelMelek), the greatest of the 
canals connecting the Euphrates and the Tigris, was 
situated near the N. limit of Babylonia, a little S. 
of the Median Wall, in lat. 33° 5' about. Its 
formation was ascribed to a governor named Go- 
bares. It was repaired upon the building of 
Seleucia at its junction with the Tigris by Seleucus 
Nicator, and again under the Roman emperors, 
Trajan, Severus, and Julian. 

Nabalia. [Navalia.] 

Nabarzanes {NagapCduris), a Persian, conspired 
along with Bessus, against Darius, the last king of 
Persia. He was pardoned by Alexander. 

ITabataei, Nabathae (NagaraTot, Na^drai : 
0. T. Nebaioth), an Arabian people, descended 
from the eldest son of Ishmael, had their original 
abodes in the N. W. part of the Arabian peninsula, 
E. and S.E. of the Moabites and Edomites, who 
dwelt on the E. of the Dead Sea and in the moun- 
tains reaching from it to the Persian Gulf. In 
the changes efi"ected among the peoples of these re- 
gions by the Babylonian conquest of Judaea, the Na- 
bathaeans extended W. into the Sinaitic peninsula 
and the territory of the Edomites, while the latter 
took possession of the S. of Judaea [Idumaei]; 
and hence the Nabathaeans of Greek and Roman 
history occupied nearly the whole of Arabia Pe- 
traea, along the N.E. coast of the Red Sea, on both 
sides of the Aelanitic Gulf, and in the Idumaean 
mountains (M. of Seir), where they had their cele- 
brated rock-hewn capital, Petra. At first they 
were a roving pastoral people ; but, as their position 
gave them the command of the trade between 
Arabia and the W., they prosecuted that trade 
with great energy, establishing regular caravans 
between Leuce Come, a port of the Red Sea, in the 
N.W. part of Arabia, and the port of Rhinocolura 
(El-Arish) on the Mediterranean, upon the fron- 
tiers of Palestine and Egypt. Sustained by this 
traflic a powerful monarchy grew up, which re- 
sisted all the attacks of the Greek kings of Syria, 
and which, sometimes at least, extended its power 
as far N. as Syria. Thus, in the reign of Caligula, 
even after the Nabathaeans had nominally sub- 
mitted to Rome, we find even Damascus in pos- 
session of an ethnarch of " Aretas the king," i. e. of 
the Nabathaean Arabs : the usual names of these 
kings were Aretas and Obodas. Under Augustus 
the Nabathaeans are found, as nominal subjects of 
the Roman empire, assisting Aelius Gallus in his 
expedition into Arabia Felix, through which, and 
through the journey of Athenodorus to Petra, 
Strabo derived important information. Under Tra- 
jan the Nabathaeans were conquered by A. Cornelius . 
Palma, and Arabia Petraea became a Ptoman pro- 
vince, A. D. 105 — 107. In the 4th century it was 
considered a part of Palestine, and formed the- 
diocese of a metropolitan, whose see was at Petra. 
The Mohamedan conquest finally overthrew the^ 
power of the Nabathaeans, which had been loi:g!- 
declining : their country soon became a haunt ol'' 
the wandering Arabs of the Desert; and their \evj 
name disappeared. 

II K 



466 



NABIS 



NAR. 



NablB (Nct^is), succeeded in making himself 
tvrant of Lacedaemon on the death of Machanidas, 
B. c. 207. He carried the licence of tyranny to the 
furthest possible extent. All persons possessed of 
property were subjected to incessant exactions, and 
the most cruel tortures if they did not succeed in 
satisfying his rapacity. One of his engines of tor- 
ture resembled the maiden of more recent times ; 
it was a figure resembling his wife Apega, so con- 
stracted as to clasp the victim and pierce him to 
death with the nails with which the arms and 
bosom of the figure were studded. The money 
v/hich he got by these means and by the plunder 
of the temples enabled him to raise a large body of 
mercenaries, whom he selected from among the 
most abandoned and reckless villains. With these 
forces he was able to extend his sway over a con- 
siderable part of Peloponnesus ; but his further 
progress was checked by Flaminius, who after a 
short campaign compelled him to sue for peace 
(195). The tyrant, however, was allowed to re- 
tain the sovereignty of Sparta, and soon after the 
departure of Flamininus from Greece, he resumed 
hostilities. He was opposed by Philopoeraen, the 
general of the Achaean league ; and though Nabis 
met at iirst with some success, he was eventually 
defeated by Philopoemen, and was soon afterwards 
assassinated by some Aetoliaus who had been sent 
to his assistance (192). 

Habonassar (Nafoi^acrapos), king of Babylon, 
whose accession to the throne was fixed upon by 
the Babylonian astronomers as the era from which 
they began their calculations. This era is called 
the Era of Nahonassar. It commenced on the 
26th of February, b. c. 747. 

Nabrissa or Nebrissa, surnamed Veneria, a 
town of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica, near 
the mouth of the Baetis. 

Wacolia (Na/coAeta, or -i'a, or NoKcoAeia : SicU- 
gJiasi), a town of Phrygia Epictetus, on the W. 
bank of the river Thymbrius, between Dorylaeum 
and Cotyaeum, was the place where the emperor 
Valens defeated his rival Procopius, A. d. '666. 

Naenia, i. e. a dirgo or lamentation, chaunted at 
funerals, was personified at Rome and worshipped 
as a goddess. She had a chapel outside the walls 
of the city, near the porta Viminalis. 

Naevius, Cn., an ancient Roman poet, of whose 
life few particulars have been recorded. He was 
probably a native of Campania, and was bom some- 
where betweenB.c.274and264. He appears to have 
come to Rome earl}', and he produced his first play 
in 235. He was attached to the plebeian party; 
and, with the licence of the old Attic comedy, he 
made the stage a vehicle for his attacks upon the 
aristocrac}'. He attacked Scipio and the jNIetelli ; 
but he was indicted by Q. jNIetellus and thrown 
into prison, to which circumstance Plautus alludes 
in his Miles Gloriosus (iL 2. 56). "Whilst in prison 
he composed two plays, the Haiiolus and Leo7i, in 
which he recanted his previous imputations, and 
thereby obtained his release through the tribunes 
of the people. His repentance, however, did not last 
long, and he was soon compelled to expiate a new 
olfence by exile. He retired to Utica ; and it was 
here, probably, that he v.Tote his poem on the first 
Punic v/ar ; and here it is certain that he died, either 
:n 2(.I4 or 202. Naevius was both an epic and a dra- 
matic poet. Of his epic poem on the first Punic war a 
few fragments are still extant. It was written in the 
old Saturnian metre ; for Ennius, who introduced 



the hexameter among the Romans, was not brought 
to Rome till after the banishment of Naevius. 
The poem appears to have opened with the storj' of 
Aeneas's flight from Troy, his visit to Carthage 
and amour with Dido, together with other legends 
connected with the earh' history bcth of Carthage 
and of Rome. It was extensively copied both by 
Ennius and Virgil. The latter author took many 
passages from it ; particularly the description of 
the storm in the first Aene'id, the speech with 
which Aeneas consoles his companions, and the 
address of Venus to Jupiter. His dramatic wri- 
tings comprised both tragedies and comedies, most 
of which Avere taken from the Greek. Even in the 
Augustan age Naevius was still a favourite v/ith 
the admu-ers of the genuine old school of Roman 
poetry ; and the lines of Horace {Ep. ii. 1. 53) 
show that his Avorks, if not so much read as for- 
merly, were still fresh in the memories of men. 
The best edition of the fragments of Naevius is by 
Klussman, 8vo. Jena, 1843. 

Uaevius Sertorius Macro. [Macro.] 

Naharvali, a tribe of the Lygii in Germany, 
probably dwelt on the banks of the Vistula. In 
their country was a grove sacred to the worship of 
2 divinities called Alces, whom Tacitus compares 
with Castor and Pollux. 

Nahrmalcha [Naarmalcha]. 

Naiades. [Nymphae.] 

Nain (NaiV : Xain), a city of Galilee, S. of M. 
Tabor. (LuJce, vii. II.) 

Naisus, Naissus, or Naesus (NaiVo's, Nato-rroy, 
'Naiaaos : Nissa), an important town of Upper 
Moesia, situated on an E. tributary of the Margus, 
and celebrated as the birthplace of Constantine the 
Great. It was enlarged and beautified by Con- 
stantine, was destroyed by Attila, but was rebuilt 
.and fortified by Justinian. 

Namnetae or Nanmetes, a people on the W. 
coast of Gallia Lugdunensis, on the N. bank of 
the Liger, which separated them from Aquitania. 
Their chief town was Condivincum, afterwards 
Nanmetes (Nantes). 

Namusa, Aufidius, a Roman jurist, one of the 
numerous pupils of Serv. Sulpicius. 

Nantuatae or Nantuates, a people in the S. E. 
of Gallia Belgica between the Rhodanus and the 
Rhenus, and at the E. extremity of the Lacus 
Lenianus. 

Napaeae. [Nymphae.] 

Naparis, a northern tributary of the Danube : 
its modern name is imcertain. 

Napata (NaTrara : prob. El-Kab, Ru., at the 
great bend of the Nile to the S.W., between the 
4th and 5th cataracts), the capital of an Aethiopian 
kingdom N. of that of Meroe, was the S.-most 
point reached by Petronius, under Augustus. Its 
sovereigns were females, bearing the title of Can- 
dace ; and through a minister of one of them 
Christianit}' was introduced into Aethiopia in the 
apostolic age (Acts viiL 27). This custom of female 
government has been continued to our own times 
m the neighbouring kingdom of Sheridy. In the 
reign of Nero, Napata was only a small town. 

Napoca or Napuca (Napocensis or Napucen- 
sis), a Roman colony in Dacia, on the high road 
leading through the country, between Patavissa 
and Optatiana. 

Nar (A^era), a river in central Italy, rises in 
M. Fiscellus, on the frontiers of Umbria and Pice- 
num, flows in a S.W.-ly direction, forming the 



NARAGGARA. 



NATISO. 



467 



boundary between Umbria and the land of the 
Sabini, and after receiving the Velinus ( Veliiio) 
and Tolenus {Turano)^ and passing by Interamna 
and Narnia, falls into the Tiber, not far from 
Ocriculum. It was celebrated for its sulphureous 
waters and white colour {sulphurea Nar albus aqua, 
Virg. Aen. vii. 517). 

Naraggara (Napdyapa : Kassir Jehir, Ru.) one 
of the most important inland cities of Numidia, 
between Thagura and Sicca Venena, was the scene 
of Scipio's celebrated interview with Hannibal 
before the battle of Zaraa. 

Narbo Martins, at a later time Narbona (Nar- 
bonensis : Narbonne), a town in the S. of Gaul 
and the capital of the Roman province of Gallia 
Narbonensis, was situated on the river Atax 
{Aude\ also called Narbo, and at the head of the 
lake Rubresus or Rubrensis (also called Narbo- 
nitis), which was connected with the sea by a 
canal. By this means the town, which was 12 
miles from the coast, was made a sea-port. It was 
a very ancient place, and is supposed to have been 
originally called Atax. It was made a Roman 
colony by the consul Q. Marcius or Martius, B. c. 
118, and hence received the surname Martius; 
and it was the first colony founded by the Romans 
in Gaul. Julius Caesar also settled here the 
veterans of his 10th legion, whence it received 
the name of Colonia Decumanorum. It was a 
handsome and populous town ; the residence of 
the Roman governor of the province ; and a place 
of great commercial importance. The coast was 
celebrated for its excellent oj'sters. There are 
scarcely any vestiges of the ancient town ; but 
there are still remains of the canal. 
Narbonensis Gallia. [Gallia.] 
Narcissus (^dpKiaaos). 1, A beautiful youth, 
son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph 
Liriope of Thespiae. He was wholly inaccessible 
to the feeling of love ; and the nymph Echo," who 
was enamoured of him, died of grief. [Echo.] 
One of his rejected lovers, however, prayed to 
Nemesis to punish him for his unfeeling heart. 
Nemesis accordingly caused Narcissus to see his 
own image reflected in a fountain, and to become 
enamoured of it. But as he could not approach 
this object, he gradually pined away, and his 
corpse was metamorphosed into the flower which 
bears his name. —2. A freedman and secretary of 
the emperor Claudius, over whom he possessed mi- 
bounded influence. He long connived at the irre- 
gularities of Messalina ; but fearing that the em- 
press meditated his death, he betrayed to Claudius 
her marriage with C. Silius, and obtained the order 
for her execution, A. d. 48. After the murder 
of Claudius, Narcissus was put to death by com- 
mand of Agrippina, 54. He had amassed an enor- 
mous fortune, amounting, it is said, to 400,000,000 
sesterces, equivalent to 3,125,000^. of our money. 
— 3. A celebrated athlete, who strangled the em- 
peror Commodus, 192. He Avas afterwards ex- 
posed to the lions by the emperor Severus. 

Narisci, a small but brave people in the S. of 
Germany, of the Suevic race, dwelt W. of the 
Marcomanni and E. of the Hermunduri, and ex- 
tended from the Sudeti Montes on the N. to the 
Danube on the S., thus inhabiting part of the 
Upper Palatinate and the coimtry of the Fichtelge- 
hirge. 

Narmalclia. [Naarmalcha.] 

Narnia (Narniensis : Narni)^ a town in Um- 



bria, situated on a lofty hill, on the S. bank of the 
river Nar, originally called Nequinum, was made 
a Roman colony b. c. 299, when its name was 
changed into Narnia, after the river. This town 
was strongly fortified hy nature, being accessible 
only on the E. and W. sides. On the W. side it 
could only be approached by a very lofty bridge 
which Augustus built over the river. 

Naro, sometimes Nar (JVarenta), a river in 
Dalmatia, which rises in M. Albius, and falls into 
the Adriatic sea. 

Narona, a Roman colony in Dalmatia, situated 
on the river Naro, some miles from the sea, and on 
the road to Dyrrhachium. 

Narses, king of PerrJa. [Sassanidae.] 

Narses (Napo-Tjs), a celebrated general and 
statesman in the reign of Justinian, was an eunuch. 
He put an end to the Gothic dominion in Italy b}^ 
two brilliant campaigns, A. n. 552, 553, and an- 
nexed Italy again to the Byzantine empire. He 
was rewarded by Justinian with the government 
of the countrj^, which he held for many years. He 
T/as deprived of this office by Justin, the suc- 
cessor of Justinian, whereupon he invited the 
Langobards to invade Italy. His invitation was 
eagerly accepted by their king Alboin ; but it is 
said that Narses soon after repented of his conduct, 
and died of grief at Rome shortly after the Lango- 
bards had crossed the Alps (568), Narses was 95 
years of age at the time of his death. 

Narthacium (NapOdKiou), a town in Thessaly, 
on JVT. Narthacius, S.W, of Pharsalus. 

Naryx, also Narycus or Naryciuni (No/9u|, 
NdpvKos, NapvKiou : NapvKios, UapvKaTos : Talanda 
or Talanti), a town of the Locri Opuntii on the 
Ejiboean sea, the reputed birthplace of Ajax, son 
of Oileus, who is hence called Narydus heros. 
Since Locri Epizephyrii in the S. of Italy claimed 
to be a colony from Naryx in Greece, we find the 
town of Locri called Narycia by the poets, and the 
pitch of Bruttium also named Narycia. 

Nasamones (Nacra|Uaii/es), a powerful but savage 
Libyan people, Avho dwelt originally on the shores 
of the Great Syrtis, but were driven inland by the 
Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and afterwards by the 
Romans, An interesting account of their manners 
and customs is given by Herodotus (iv, 172), who 
also tells (ii. 32) a curious story respecting an ex- 
pedition beyond the Libyan Desert, undertaken by 
5 Nasamonian youths, the result of which was 
certain important information concerning the interior 
of Africa. [Nigeir.] 

Nasica, Scipio. [Scipio.] 

Nasidienus, a wealthj' (beatus) Roman, Avho 
gave a supper to Maecenas, which Horace ridi- 
cules in the 8th satire of his 2nd book. It appears 
from V. 58, that Rufus Avas the cognomen of Nasi- 
dienus. 

Nasidius, Q. or L., was sent by Pompey, in 
B.C. 49, Avith a fleet of 16 ships to relieve Mas- 
silia, Avhen it Avas besieged by D. Brutus. He 
was defeated by Brutus, and fled to Africa, Avhere 
he had the command of the Pompeian fleet. He 
served in Sicilj^ under Sex. Pompey, Avhom he de- 
serted in 35. He joined Antony, and commanded 
part of his fleet in the Avar Avith Octavian, 31. 

Naso, Ovidius. [Ovidius.] 

Nasus or Nesus. [Oeniadae.] 

Natiso {Natisone), a small river in Venetia iu 
the N. of Italy, which flows by Aquileia, and falls 
into the Sinus Tergestinus. 

H H 2 



46S 



NATTA. 



XAVIU:?. 



Katta or Nacca, "a fuller,*^ the name of an 
ancient family of the Pinaria gens. The Natta j 
satirised by Horace (Sai. i. 6. 124) for his dirty 
meanness, was probably a member of the noble 
Pinarian family, and therefore attacked by the 
poet fur such conduct. 

Naucrates [NavKpdT7]s), of Erythrae, a Greek 
rhetorician, and a disciple of Isocraies, is mentioned 
among the orators who competed (b.c. 'Bo'2) for the 
prize ofiered by Artemisia for the best funeral 
oration delivered over Mausoms. 

Naucratis (SavKpans : KavKpaTirtjs : Sa-el' 
Hadjar, Ru.), a city in the Delta of Egypt, in the 
Komus of Sais, on the E. bank of the Canopic | 
branch of the Nile, which \\"as hence called also 
Naucraticum Ostium. It was a colony of the j 
Milesians, founded probably in the reign of Amasis, I 
about B.C. 550, and remained a pure Greek city. \ 
It was the only place in Egypt, where Greeks were 
permitted to settle and trade. After the Greek 
and Roman conquests it continued a place of great \ 
prosperity and luxury, and was celebrated for its ' 
worship of Aphrodite. It was the birthplace of 
Athenaeus, Lyceas, Phylarchus. Polychannus. and 
Julius Pollux. : 

Kaucydes (NaujcuSps), an Argive statuary, son t 
of Motbon. and brother and teacher of Polycle- | 
tus 11. of Argos. flotirished B. c. 420. j 

ISTauloclltlS \J\av\oxos), that is, a place where i 
ships can anchor. L A naval station on the E. i 
part of the N. coast of Sicily between Mylae and ' 
the promontory Pelorus.— 2. A small island ofi" 
Crete, near the promontory Sammonium.— 3. A 
naval station belonging to Mesembria in Thrace. 

Naumachitis (Nauoaxios), a Gnomic poet, of 
uncertain age, some of whose verses are preserved 
by Stobaeus. 

Naupactns (Nauxoucros: Nai/ravrios : Le- 
panio). an ancient and strongly fortified town of 
the Locri Ozolae near the promontory Antirrhium, 
possessing the largest and best harbour on the 
whole of the N. coast of the Corinthian gult It 
is said to have derived its name from the Hera- 
clidae having here built the fleet, with which they 
crossed over to the Peloponnesus. After the Per- 
sian wars it fell into the power of the Athenians, 
who setiled here the iMessenians who had been 
compelled to leave their country at the end of the 
3rd Messenian war, B.C. 455; and during the 
Peloponnesian war it was the head-quarters of the 
Athenians in all their operations against the W. of 
Greece. At the end of the Peloponnesian war the j 
Messenians were obliged to leave Naupactus, which ; 
passed into the hands first of the Locrians and 
al'ter wards of the Achaeans. It was given by 
Philip with the greater part of the Locrian terri- 
tory to Aetolia, but it vras again assigned to Locris 
by the Romans. j 

Nanplia (NamrX/a: NainrAteus: Nauj^ia), the j 
port of Argos, situated on the Saronic gull was ; 
never a place of importance in antiquity, and was 
in ruins in the time of Pausanias. The inhabitants 
had been expelled by the Argives as early as the 
2nd Messenian war on suspicion of favouring the 
Spartans, who in consequence settled them at ^te- 
thone in iMessenia, At the present day Xauplia , 
is one of the most important cities in Greece. 

Nauplius \,y^a-ii:Kios). L Of Arsos, s:n of 
Poseidon and Amymone, a famous navigator, and 
the founder of the town of Nauplia. —2- Son of 
Clytoneus, was one of the Argonauts and a de- [ 



scendant of the preceding. — 3. King of Euboca, 
and father of Palamedes, Oeax. and Nausime- 
don, by Clymene. Catreus had given his daughter 
Clymene and her sister Aerope to Nauplius, to 
be carried to a foreign land ; but Xauplius mar- 
ried Clymene, and gave Aerope to Plisthenes, who 
became by her the father of Agamemnon and 
Menelaus. His son Palamedes had been con- 
demned to death by the Greeks during the siege 
of Troy ; and as Xauplius considered his condem- 
nation to be an act of injustice, he watched for the 
return of the Greeks, and as they approached the 
coast of Euboea he lighted torches on the danger- 
ous promontory of Caphareus. The sailors thus 
misguided sufi"ered shipwreck, and perished in ihe 
waves or by the sword of Xauplius, 

Nauportas {Ober or Upper Laibach), an ancier.: 
and important commercial Xowa. of the Taurisc:. 
situated on the river Xauportus {LaibachX a tribt:- 
tary of the Sa\-us, in Pannonia Superior. Ti.e 
to^-n fell into decay after the foundation of Aemona 
(Laibach), which was only 15 miles from it. The 
name of Xauportus is said to have been derived 
from the Argonauts having sailed up the Danube 
and the Savnis to this place and here built the 
town ; and it is added that they afterwards car- 
ried their ships across the Alps to the Adriatic 
sea, where they again embarked. This legend, 
like many others, probably owes its origin to a 
piece of i ad etymology. 

Nausicaa {'SavjiKoa). daughter of Akinous. 
king of the Phaeacians. and Arete, who conducted 
Ulysses to the court of her father, when he was 
shipwrecked on the coast. 

NausithoTls ( Ncucrtfioos), son of Poseidon and 
Periboea, the daughter of Eurymedon, was the 
father of Alcinous and Rhexenor, and king of 
the Phaeacians, whom he led from Hyperia in 
Thrinacia to the island of Scheria, in order to 
escape from the Cyclopes. 

Nautaca (Kav-^oKa : Xal-sheb or Kesh). a city of 
Sogdiana, near the Oxus, towards the E. part of its 
course. 

Nantes. [Xautia Gkxs.] 

Kautia Gens, an ancient patrician gens, claimed 
to be descended from Xautes, one of the companions 
of Aeneas, who was said to have brought with 
him the Palladium from Troy, which was placed 
under the care of the Xautii at Rome. The Xautii, 
all of whom were sumamed Rutili, frequently held 
the highest offices of state in the early times of the 
republic, but like many of the other ancient genres 
they disappear from history about the time of the 
Samnite wars. 

Nava {Xahe), a TV. tributary of the Rhine in Gaul, 
Avhich falls into the Rhine at the modem Bingen. 

Navalia or Nabalia, a river on the X. coast of 
Germany, mentioned by Tacitus, probably the E. 
arm of the Rhine. 

Navius, Attos. a renowned augur in the time 
of Tarquinius Priscus. This king proposed to 
double the number of the equestrian centuries, and 
to name the three new ones after himself and two 
of his friends, but was opposed by Xavius, because 
Romulus had originally arranged the equites under 
the sanction of the auspices, and consequently no 
alteration could be made m them -without the same 
sanction. The tale then goes on to say that Tar- 
quinius thereupon commanded him to divine wiie- 
ther what he was thinking of in his mind could be 
done, and that when Xavius, after consulting the 



NAXOS. 

heavens, declared that it could, the king held out a 
whetstone and a razor to cut it with. Navius im- 
mediately cut it. His statue was placed in the 
comitium, on the steps of the senate-house, the place 
where the miracle had been wrought, and beside 
the statue the whetstone was preserved. Attus 
Navius seems to be the best orthographj', making 
Attus an old praenomen, though v/e frequentl}- find 
the name written Attius. 

Naxos (Na|os : Na|w$). 1. (N'accia), an island 
in the Aegaean sea, and the largest of the Cyclades, 
is situated nearly half waj' between the coasts of 
Greece and Asia Minor. It is about 18 miles in 
length and 12 in breadth. It was very fertile in 
antiquity, as it is in the present day, producing an 
abundance of com, wine, oil, and fruit. It was 
especially celebrated for its wine, and hence plays 
a prominent part in the legends about Dionysus. 
Here the god is said to have found Ariadne after 
she had been deserted by Theseus. The marble 
of the island was also much prized, and^ was con- 
sidered equal to the Parian. — Naxos is frequently 
called Dia (At'a) by the poets, Avhi'^ vas one of 
its ancient names. It Avas likewise called Strongyle 
(^TpoyyuXr]) on account of its round shape, and 
Dionysias (Aiovvaids) from its connection with the 
worship of Dionysus. It is said to have been 
originally inhabited by Thracians and then by 
Carians, and to have derived its name from a 
Carian chief, Naxos. In the historical age it was 
inhabited by lonians, who had emigrated from 
Athens. Naxos was conquered by Pisi stratus, who 
established Lygdamis as tyrant of the island about 
B.C. 540. The Persians in 501 attempted, at the 
suggestion of Aristagoras, to subdue Naxos ; and 
upon the failure of their attempt, Aristagoras, 
fearing punishment, induced the Ionian cities to 
revolt from Persia. In 490 the Persians, under 
Datis and Artaphernes, conquered Naxos, and 
reduced the inhabitants to slavery. The Naxians 
recovered their independence after the battle of 
Salamis (480). They were the first of the allied 
states whom the Athenians reduced to subjection 
(471), after which time they are rarely mentioned 
in history. The chief town of the island was also 
called Naxos ; and we also have mention of the 
small towns of Tragaea and Lestadae. — 2. A 
Greek city on the E. coast of Sicily, S. of Mt. 
Taurus, was founded b. c. 735 by the Chalcidians 
of Euboea, and was the first Greek colony esta- 
blished in the island. It grew so rapidly in power 
that in only 5 or 6 years after its foundation it 
sent colonies to Catana and Leontini. It Avas for 
a time subject to Hieronymus, tyrant of Gela ; but 
it soon recovered its independence, carried on a 
successful war against Messana, and was subse- 
quently an ally of the Athenians against Syracuse. 
In 403 the town was taken by Dionysius of Syra- 
cuse and destroyed. Nearly 50 years afterwards 
(358) the remains of the Naxians scattered over 
Sicily were collected by Andromachus, and a new 
city was founded on Mt. Taurus, to which the name 
of Tauromenium was given. [Taukomenium.] 

Naxuana (Na^ovdva: NaJcsMvan), a city of 
Armenia Major, on the Araxes, near the confines 
of Media. 

Nazareth, Nazara CNa^apeO, or -er, or -d : 
Na^apaios, Nofwpatos, Nazarenus, Nazareus : e?i- 
Nasirah)^ a city of Palestine, in Galilee, S. of Cana, 
on a hill in the midst of the range of mountains N. 
of the plain of Esdraelon. 



NEAPOLIS. 4G9 

ITazianzus (Na^iapCos : TSSaCiavC-rjuos), a city of 
Cappadocia, on the road from Archelaiis to Tyana, 
celebrated as the diocese of the Father of the 
Church, Gregory Nazianzen. Its site is doubtful. 

Neaera (Neaipa), the name of several nymphs, 
and also of several maidens mentioned by the poets. 

Neaethus {'NeaiOos : Nieio),n river in Bruttium 
in the S. of Italy, falling into the Tarentine gulf a 
little N. of Croton. Here the captive Trojan women 
are said to have burnt the ships of the Greeks. 

Nealces (NeaA/CTjs), a painter who flourished 
in the time of Aratus, b. c. 245. 

Neandria (NeavSpeia : Neaz/Spers, pi.), a town 
of the Troad, upon the Hellespont, probably an 
Aeolian colony. By the time of Augustus it had 
disappeared. 

Neanthes (Neaj/07]s), of Cyzicum, lived about 
B.C. 241, and was a disciple of the Milesian Phi- 
liscus, who himself had been a disciple of Isocrates. 
He was a voluminous writer, principally of history. 

Neapolis {KediroXis: NeaTroAiTTjs, Neapolita- 
nus). I. In Europe. 1. (Napoli ov Naples), a city in 
Campania in Italy, on the W. slope of Mt. Vesuvius 
and on the river Sebethus, was founded by the 
Chalcidians of Cumae, on the site of an ancient 
place called Parthenope (nap0ei'(^7r7j), after the 
Siren of that name. Hence we find the town 
called Parthenope by Virgil and Ovid. The year 
of the foundation of Neapolis is not recorded. It 
was called the " New City," because it was re- 
garded simply as a new quarter of the neighbouring 
city of Cumae. When the town is first mentioned 
in Roman history, it consisted of 2 parts, divided 
from each other by a wall, and called respectively 
Palaeopolis and Neapolis. This division probably 
arose after the capture of Cumae by the Samnites, 
when a large number of the Cumaeans took refuge 
in the city they had founded ; whereupon the old 
quarter was called Palaeopolis. and the new quarter, 
built to accommodate the new inhabitants, was 
named Neapolis. There has been a dispute re- 
specting the site of these 2 quarters ; but it is pro- 
bable that Palaeopolis was situated on the W. side 
near the harbour, and Neapolis on the E. side near 
the river Sebethus. In b. c. 327 the town was 
taken by the Samnites, and in 290 it passed into 
the hands of the Ptomans, who allowed it however 
to retain its Greek constitution. At a later period 
it became a municipium, and finally a Roman 
colony. Under the Romans the 2 quarters of the 
city were united, and the name of Palaeopolis dis- 
appeared. It continued to be a prosperous and 
flourishing place till the time of the empire; and 
its beautiful scenery, and the luxurious life of 
its Greek population, made it a favourite resi- 
dence with many of the Romans. In the reign of 
Titus the city was destroyed by an earthquake, 
but was rebuilt by thi& emperor in the Roman 
style. The modern city of Naples does not stand 
on exactly the same site as Neapolis. The ancient 
city extended further E. than the modern city, 
since the former was situated on the Sebethus, 
whereas the latter does not reach so far as the 
Fiume delta Madalena; but the modern city on 
the other hand extends further N. and W. than 
the ancient one, since the island of Megaris, on 
which the Castel del Ovo now stands, was situated 
in ancient times between Pausilypum and Neapolis. 
In the neighbourhood of Neapolis there were warm 
baths, the celebrated villa of Lucullus, and the 
villa Pausilypi or Pausilypum, bequeathed by Ve- 

H H 3 



470 



NEARCHUS. 



NELEUS. 



dins Pollio to Augustus, and which has given its 
name to the celebrated grotto of Posilippo between 
Naples and Puzzuoli, at the entrance of which the 
tomb of Virgil is stUl shown. — 2. A part of Syra- 
cuse. [Syracusae.] — 3. (Napuli)^ a town on the 
W. coast of the island of Sardinia, celebrated for its 
Avarm baths. — 4. {Kavallo\ a sea-port town in 
Thrace, subsequently Macedonia adjecta, on the 
Strymonic gulf, between tlie Strymon and Nessus. 

— II. In Asia and A frica. 1. (Scala Nuova, or 
near it), a small Ionian city, on the coast of 
Lydia, N. of Mycale and S.W. of Ephesus. The 
Ephesians, to whom it at first belonged, exchanged 
it with the Samians for Marathesium. — 2, 3. 
Two towns of Caria, the one near Harpasa, the 
other on the coast, perhaps the new town of Myn- 
dus. — 4. {Tntinek Ru.), in Pisidia S. of Antioch; 
afterwards reckoned to Galatia. — 5. In Palestine, 
the Sychem or Sychar of Scripture (5uxe>, 1v- 
Xap, "Si/ctua, Joseph.: Nabloits), one of the most 
ancient cities of Samaria, stood in the narrow valley 
between Mts. Ebal and Gerizim, and was the re- 
ligious capital of the Samaritans, whose temple was 
built upon i\It. Gerizim. This temple was destroyed 
by John Hyrcanus, B. c. 129. Its full name, under 
the Romans, was Flavia Neapolis. It was the 
birthplace of Justin Martyr. — 6. A small town of 
Babylonia, on the W. bank of the Euphrates, op- 
posite to the opening of the King's Canal. —-7. In 
Egypt. [Caene]. — 8. In N. Africa on the W. 
coast of the Great Syrtis, by some identified with 
Leptis jNIagna, by others with the modern Tripoli. 

— 9. (jVabal), a very ancient Phoenician colony, 
on the E. coast of Zeugitana, near the N. extremity 
of the great gulf which was called after it Sinus 
Neapolitanus {Gulf of Hammamei). Under the 
Romans it was a libera civitas, and, according to 
Ptolemy, a colony. 

Nearchus (Neapxos), a distinguished friend 
and officer of Alexander, was a native of Crete, 
but settled at Amphipolis. He appears to have 
occupied a prominent position at the court of Phi- 
lip, by whom he was banished for participating in 
the intrigues of Alexander. After the death of 
Philip he was recalled, and treated with the ut- 
most distinction by Alexander, He accompanied 
the king to Asia ; and in B.C. 325, he was entrusted 
by Alexander with the command of the fleet which 
he had caused to be constructed on the Hydaspes. 
Upon reaching the mouth of the Indus, Alexander 
resolved to send round his ships by sea from thence 
to the Persian gulf, and he gladly accepted the 
offer of Nearchus to undertake the command of 
the fleet during this long and perilous navigation. 
Nearchus set out on the 21st of September, 326, 
and arrived at Susa in safety in February, 325. 
He was rewarded with a crown of gold for 
his distinguished services, and at the same time 
obtained in marriage a daughter of the Rhodian 
Mentor and of Barsine, to whom Alexander him- 
self had been previously married. In the division 
of the provinces after the death of Alexander, he 
received the government of Lycia and Pamphylia, 
which he held as subordinate to Antigonus. In 
317 he accompanied Antigonus in his march against 
Eumenes, and in 31-4 he is mentioned again as one 
of the generals of Antigonus. — Nearchus left a 
history of the voyage, the substance of which has 
been preserved to us by Arrian, who has derived 
from it the whole of the latter part of his " Indica." 

Nebo, a mountain of Palestine, on the E. side 



of the Jordan, opposite to Jericho, was in the S. 
part of the range called Abarim. It was on a 
summit of this mountain, called Pisgah, that Moses 
died. 

Nebrodes Montes, the principal chain of moun- 
tains in Sicily, running through the whole of the 
island, and a continuation of the Apennines. 

Neco or Necho (Ne/cojs, Ne'xws, Ne/caGs, Ne- 
Xaws, Nexaw), son of Psammetichus, whom he 
succeeded on the throne of Egypt in b. c. 617. 
His reign was marked by considerable energy and 
enterprise. He began to dig the canal intended to 
connect the Nile with the Arabian Gulf ; but he 
desisted from the work, according to Herodotus, 
on being warned by an oracle that he was con- 
structing it only for the use of the barbarian in- 
vader. But the greatest and most interesting 
enterprise with which his name is connected, is 
the circumnavigation of Africa by the Phoenicians, 
in his service, who set sail from the Arabian Gulf, 
and accomplishing the voyage in somewhat more 
than 2 years, entered the Mediterranean, and re- 
turned to Egypt through the Straits of Gibraltar. 
His military expeditions were distinguished at first 
by brilliant success, which was followed, however, 
by the most rapid and signal reverses. On his 
march against the Babylonians and Medes, whose 
joint forces had recently destroj-ed Nineveh, he 
was met at Magdolus (Megiddo) by Josiah, king 
of Judah, who was a vassal of Babylon. In the 
battle which ensued, Josiah was defeated and 
mortally wounded, and Necho advanced to the 
Euphrates, where he conquered the Bab^-lonians 
and took Carchemish or Circesium, where he ap- 
pears to have esta,blished a garrison. After the 
battle at Megiddo, he took the town of Cadytis, 
probably Jerusalem. In 606, Nebuchadnezzar 
attacked Carcliemish, defeated Necho, and would 
appear also to have invaded Egypt itself. In 601 
Necho died after a reign of 16 years, and was 
succeeded by his son Psammis or Psammuthis. 

Nectanabis, Nectanebus, or Nectanebes (New- 
To^va^is^ Ne/cTai/e^os, 'N€KTai'4€ris). 1. King of 
Egypt, the 1st of the 3 sovereigns of the Seben- 
nite dynasty, succeeded Nepherites on the throne 
about B.C. 374, and in the following 5'ear success- 
fully resisted the invasion of the Persian force 
under Phamabazus and Iphicrates. He died after 
a reign of 10 j^ears, and was succeeded by Tachos. 
— 2. The nephew of Tachos, deprived the latter 
of the sovereignty in 361, with the assistance of 
Agesilaus. For some time he defeated all the 
attempts of Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) to recover 
Eg}'pt, but he was at length defeated himself, and 
despairing of making any further resistance, he 
fled into Aethiopia, 350. Nectanabis was the 3rd 
king of the Sebennite dynasty, and the last native 
sovereign who ever ruled in Egypt. 

Neda (NeSa; Buzi), a river in Peloponnesus, 
rises in Arcadia in Mt. Cerausion, a branch of 
Mt. Lycaeus, and falls into the Ionian sea after 
forming the boundary between Arcadia and Mes- 
senia, and between Messenia and Elis. 

Negra or Negrana (to. N^ypaua : El-Nokra^ N. 
of Mareh\ a city of Arabia Felix, destroyed by 
Aelius Gallus. 

Neleus (NTjAeus). 1. Son of Tyro, the daughter 
of Salmoneus. Poseidon once visited Tj-ro in 
the form of the river-god Enipeus, and she be- 
came by him the mother of Pelias and Neleus. 
To conceal her shame she exposed the two boy.s, 



N ELIDES. 

but tliey v/cre found and reared by some country- 
men. They subsequently learnt tlieir parentage ; 
and after the death of Cretheus, king of lolcos, 
Avho had married their mother, they seized the 
throne of lolcos, excluding Aeson, the son of 
Cretheus and Tyro. But Pelias soon afterwards 
expelled his brother, and thus became sole king. 
Thereupon Neleus went with Melampus and Bias 
to Pylos, which his uncle Aphareus gave to him, 
and of which he thus became king. Several towns 
of this name claimed the honour of l)eing the city 
of Neleus or of his son Nestor, such as Pylos in 
Messenia, Pylos in Elis, and Pylos in Triphylia ; 
the last of which is probably the one mentioned b}'^ 
Homer in connection with Neleus and Nestor. 
Neleus was married to Chloris, a daughter of Am- 
phion of Orchomenos, according to Homer, and 
a Tbeban woman according to others. By her he 
became the father of Nestor, Chromius, Pericly- 
menus, and Pero, though he had in all 12 sons. 
When Hercules had killed Iphitus, he went to 
Neleus to be purified ; but Neleus, who was a 
friend of Eurytus, the father of Iphitus, refused to 
grant the request of Hercules. In order to take 
vengeance, Hercules afterwards marched against 
Pylos, and slew all the sons of Neleus, with the 
exception of Nestor: some later writers add that 
Neleus himself was also killed. Neleus was now 
attacked, and his dominions plundered by Augeas, 
king of the Epeans ; but the attacks of the latter 
were repelled by Nestor. The descendants of 
Neleus, the Nelldae, were eventually expelled from 
their kingdom by the Heraclidae, and migrated for 
the most part to Athens. — 2. The younger son of 
Codrus, disputed the right of his elder brother 
Medon to the crown on account of his lameness, 
and when the Delphic oracle declared in favour of 
Medon, he placed himself at the head of the colo- 
nists who migrated to Ionia, and himself founded 
■Miletus. His son Aepytus headed the colonists 
Avho settled in Priene. Another son headed a 
body of settlers who reinforced the inhabitants of 
lasus, after they had lost a great number of their 
citizens in a war with the Carians. — -3. Of Scep- 
sis, the son of Coriscus, was a disciple of Aristotle 
and Theophrastus, the latter of whom bequeathed 
to him his library, and appointed him one of his 
executors. The history of the writings of Aristotle 
as connected with Neleus and his heirs, is related 
elsewhere [p. 86, a]. 

Nelides, Neleiades, and Neleius (Nrj\et57?y, 
Nt? At? taSrjs-, NTjArjtoy), patronymics of Neleus, by 
which either Nestor, the son of Neleus, or Antilo- 
chus, his grandson, is designated. 

Nemausus (Nemausensis : Nismes), one of the 
most important towns of Gallia Narbonensis, was 
the capital of the Arecoraici and a Roman colony. 
It was situated inland E. of the Rhone on the 
highroad from Italy to Spain, and on the S. slope 
of M. Cevenna. It was celebrated as the place 
from which the family of the Antonines came. 
Though rarely mentioned by ancient writers, the 
Roman remains at Nisines, which are some of the 
most perfect N. of the Alps, prove that the ancient 
Nemausus was a large and flourishing city. Of 
these remains the most important are the am- 
phitheatre, the Maison Carree, a name given to 
a beautiful Corinthian temple, and the magnificent 
aqueduct, now called Pont du Gard, consisting of 
3 rows of arches, raised one above the other, and 
180 feet in height. 



NEMO REN SIS. 47 i 

JTemea (Ne.ue'a, Ion. Ne^erj), a valloy in Ar- 
golis between Cleonae and Phlius, celebrated in 
mythical story as the place where Hercules slew 
the Nemean lion. [See p. 308, b.] In this 
valley there was a splendid temple of Zeus Ne- 
meiis surrounded by a sacred grove, in which the 
Nemean games v/ere celebrated ever}' other yeai. 
(See Diet, of Antlq. art, Nemea.) 

^Temesianus, M. Aureliiis Olympius, a Roman 
poet, probably a native of Africa, flourished at the 
conrt of the emperor Carus (a. d. 283), carried ofi:' 
the prize in all the poetical contests of the day, and 
was esteemed second to the youthful prince Nunie- 
rianus alone, who honoured him so far as to peiiuit 
him to dispute, and to yield to the palm of verse. 
We are told that Nemesianus Avas the author of 
poems upon fishing, hunting, and aquatics ; all of 
which have perished, Avith the exception of a frag- 
ment of the Cynegetica, extending to 325 hexameter 
lines, which, in so far as neatness and purity of 
expression are concerned, in some degree justifies 
the admiration of his contemporaries. The best 
edition of this fragment is by Stern, published along 
with^Gratius Faliscus, Hal. Sax. 1832. 

Nemesis (Ne^eo-is), a Greek goddess, is most 
commonly described as a daughter of Night, though 
some call her a daughter of Erebus or of Oceanus. 
She is a personification of the moral reverence for 
law, of the natural fear of committing a culpable 
action, and hence of conscience. In later writers, 
as Herodotus and Pindar, Nemesis m.easures out 
happiness and unhappiness to mortals ; and he who 
is blessed with too many or too frec[uent gifts of 
fortune, is visited by her with losses and sufterings, 
in order that he may become humble. This notion 
arose from a belief that the gods were envious of 
excessive human happiness. Nemesis was thus a 
check upon extravagant favours conferred upon 
man by Tyche or Fortune ; and from this idea lastly 
arose that of her being an avenging and punishing 
fate, who, like Justice (Dike) and the Erinnyes, 
sooner or later overtakes the reckless sinner. She 
is frequently mentioned under the surnames Adras- 
tia [Adr.astia, No. 2], and Rhamniisia or Rham- 
nusis, the latter of which she derived from the 
town of Rhamnus in Attica, where she had a cele- 
brated sanctuary. She was usually represented in 
works of art as a virgin divinity : in the more 
ancient works she seems to have resembled Aphro- 
dite, whereas in the later ones she was more grave 
and serious. But there is an allegorical tradition 
that Zeus begot by Nemesis at Rhamnus an egg, 
which Leda found, and from which Helena and 
the Dioscuri sprang, whence Helena herself is 
called Rhamnusis. 

Nemesms (NeMeVjoy), the author of a Greek 
treatise Oti ike. Nature of Man, is called bishop of 
Emesa, in Syria, and probably lived at the end of 
the 4th or beginning of the 5th century after 
Christ. His treatise is an interesting philosophical 
work, which lias generally been highly praised by 
all who have read it. Edited by Matthaei, Halae, 
8vo. 1802. 

Nemetacum. [Nemetocenna.] 

Nemetes or Nemetae, a people in Gallia Bel- 
gica on the Rhine, whose chief town was Novio- 
magus, subsequently Nemetae {Speyer or Spires). 

Nemetocenna or Nemetacum (Arras), the 
chief town of the Atrebates in Gallia Belgica, 
subsequently Atrebati, whence its modern name. 

Nemorensis Lacus. [Aricia.] 

H H 4 



472 



NEMOSSUS. 



KEPOS. 



Nemossus. [Arverni.] 

Neobule. [Archilochus.] 

Neocaesarea (N^oKaiaapsia : Nco/fat(rap€us,Neo- 
caesariensis). 1. (Xiksar), the capital, iiiider tlie 
Roman empire, of Pontus Polemoniacus, in Asia 
Minor, stood on the river Lycus, 63 Roman miles 
E. of Amasia. It was a splendid city, and is famous 
in ecclesiastical history for the council held there 
in A. D. 314. —2. {Kiilat-en-Nejur9' Ru.), afortress 
established by Justinian, on the Euphrates, in the 
district of Syria called Chalybonitis. 

Neon (New;/ : Ne'i^ioy, Newj/aTos), an ancient 
town in Phocis at the E. foot of Mt. Tithorea, 
a branch of !Mt. Parnassus, was 80 stadia from 
Delphi across the mountains. Neon was destroyed 
by the Persians under Xerxes, but was subse- 
quently rebuilt and named Tithorea {Ti9op4a: 
Tidopevs) after the mountain on which it was 
situated. The new town however was not on 
exactly the same site as the ancient one. Tithorea 
was situated at the modern Veliiza, and Neon at 
Palea-Fiva, between 4 and 5 miles N. of Yelitza. 
Tithorea was destroyed in the Sacred war, and 
■vras again rebuilt, but remained an unimportant, 
though fortified place. 

NeontlcllOS (Neov rei'xos, i. e. Xew Wall). 1. 
(Aimdsjik), one of the 12 cities of Aeolis on the 
coast of Mysia, in Asia Minor, stood on the N. 
side of the Hermus, on the slope of M. Sardene, 
30 stadia inland from Larissa. One tradition 
makes it older than Cyme ; but the more probable 
account is that it was built by the Aeolians of 
Cyme as a fortress against the Pelasgians of Larissa. 
— 2. A fort on the coast of Thrace, near the 
Chersonesus. 

Neoptolemus (NeoTrroAeuos). 1. Also called 
Pyrrlius, son of Achilles and Deidamia, the 
daughter of Lycomedes ; according to some he was 
a son of Achilles and Iphigenia, and after the 
sacrifice of his mother was carried by his father to 
the island of Scyros. The name of Pyrrhus is said 
to have been given to him by Lycomedes, because 
he had fair {Trvppos) hair, or because Achilles, 
while disguised as a girl, had borne the name of 
Pyrrha. He was called Neoptolemus, that is, 
young or late warrior, either because he had fought 
in early youth or because he had come late to 
Troy. From his father he is sometimes called 
AcTiUlides, and from his grandfather or great- 
grandfather, Pelldes and Aeacides. Neoptolemus 
was brought up in Scyros in the palace of Lyco- 
medes, and was fetched from thence by Ulysses to 
join the Greeks in the war against Troy, because 
it had been prophesied by Helenus that Neopto- 
lemus and Philoctetes were necessary for the 
capture of Troy. At Troy Neoptolemus showed 
himself worthy of his great father. He was one 
of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse. At 
the capture of the city he killed Priam at the 
sacred hearth of Zeus, and sacrificed Polyxena to 
the spirit of his father. When the Trojan captives 
were distributed among the conquerors, Andro- 
mache, the widow of Hector, was given to Neopto- 
lemus, and by her he became the father of Molossus, 
Pielus, Pergamus, and Amphialus. Respecting his 
return from Troy and the subsequent events of his 
life the traditions differ. It is related that Neo- 
ptolemus returned home by land, because he had 
been forewarned by Helenus of the dangers which 
the Greeks would have to encounter at sea. Ac- 
cording to Homer Neoptolemus lived in Phthia, 



the kingdom of his father, and here he married 
Hermione, whom her father Menslaus sent to hira 
from Sparta. According to others Neoptolemus 
himself went to Sparta to receive Hermione, be- 
cause he had heard a report that she was betrothed 
to Orestes. Most writers relate that he aban- 
doned his native kingdom of Phthia, and settled 
in Epirus, where he became the ancestor of the 
Molossian kings. Shortly after his marriage with 
Hermione, Neoptolemus went to Delphi, where he 
was murdered ; but the reason of his visiting 
Delphi, as well as the person by whom he was 
slain, are diff'erently related. Some say he went 
to plunder the temple of Apollo, others to present 
part of the Trojan booty as an offering to the god, 
and others again to consult the god about the means 
of obtaining children by Hermione. Some relate 
that he was slain at the instigation of Orestes, who 
was angry at being deprived of Hermione, and 
others, by the priest of the temple, or by Machae- 
reus, the son of Daetas. His body was buried at 
Delphi; and he Avas worshipped there as a hero.— 
2. I. King of Epirus, was son of Alcetas I., and 
father of Alexander I., and of Olympias, the mother 
of Alexander the Great. Neoptolemus reigned in 
conjunction with his brother Arymbas or Arrybas 
till his death, about B.C. 360.*— 3. IL King of 
Epirus, son of Alexander I. and grandson of the 
preceding. At his father's death in 326, he was 
probably a mere infant, and his pretensions to the 
throne were passed over in favour of Aeacides. It 
was not till 302 that the Epirots, taking advantage 
of the absence of Pyrrhus, the son of Aeacides, rose 
in insurrection against him, and set up Neoptolemus 
in his stead. The latter reigned for the space of 6 
years, but was obliged to share the throne with 
Pyrrhus in 296. He was shortly afterwards as- 
sassinated by Pyrrhus. — 4. A Macedonian officer 
of Alexander the Great, after whose death he ob- 
tained the government of Armenia. In 321 he 
revolted from Perdiccas, and joined Craterus, but 
he was defeated by Eumenes, and was slain in 
battle by the hands of the latter.- 5. A general of 
Mithridates, and brother of Archelaus. — 6. An 
Athenian tragedian, who performed at the games 
in which Philip of Macedon was slain, 336.-7. 
Of Paros, a Greek grammarian of uncertain date, 
wrote several works quoted by Athenaeus and the 
Scholiasts. 

Nepete, Nepe or Nepet (Nepesinus: AepO» 

an ancient town of Etruria, but not one of the 
12 cities, was situated near the saltus Ciminius 
and was regarded as one of the keys and gates 
of Etruria {clausira portaeque Eiruriae, Liv. vi. 9) 
It appears as an ally of the Romans at an early 
period, soon after tlae capture of Rome by the 
Gauls, and was subsequently made a Roman 
colony. There are still remains at Kepi of the 
walls of the ancient city. 

Nephele (Netpe'ATj), wife of Athamas and mother 
of Phrixus and Helle. Hence Helle is called Ne- 
pheleis by Ovid. For details see Athamas. 

Nephelis (Ne4)6Ats),a smalltov.Ti and promontory 
on the coast of Cilicia Aspera, between Anemurium 
and Antiochia. 

Nepheris (Ne*epjs), a fortified town in the im- 
mediate neighbourhood of Carthage, on a rock near 
the coast. 

Nepos, Cornelius, the contemporary and friend 
of Cicero, Atticus, and Catullus, was probably a 
native of Verona, or of some neighbouring village. 



NEPOS. 

and died during the reign of Augustus. No otiier 
particulars, with regard to his personal history, 
have been transmitted to us. He is known to iiave 
written the following pieces, all of which are now 
lost. 1. Chronica^ an Epitome of Universal History, 
probably in 3 books, to which Catullus appears to 
allude in dedicating his poems to Cornelius Nepos. 
2. Exemplorum Lihri^ probably a collection of re- 
markable sayings and doings. 3. De Viris lUus- 
tribus, perhaps the same work as the preceding, 
quoted under a different title. 4. Vita Ciceronis, 
5. Epistolae ad Ciceronem. 6. De Historicis. — There 
is still extant a work entitled Vitae Excelleniiuiu 
Imperatorum^ containing biographies of several 
distinguished commanders, Avhich is supposed by 
many critics to have been the production of Corne- 
lius Nepos. In all MSS., however, this work is 
ascribed to an unknown Aemilius Probus, living 
under Theodosius at the end of the 4th century of 
the Christian aera, with the exception however of the 
life of Atticus, and the fragment of a life of Cato the 
Censor, which are expressly attributed to Corne- 
lius Nepos. These 2 lives may safely be assigned 
to Cornelius Nepos ; but the Latinity of the other 
biographies is such that we cannot suppose them 
to have been written by a learned contemporary of 
Cicero. At the same time their style presents a 
striking contrast to the meretricious finery of the 
later empire ; and hence it may be conjectured 
that Probus abridged the work of Nepos, and that 
the biographies, as they now exist, are in reality 
epitomes of lives actually written by Nepos. The 
most useful editions of these lives are by Van Sta- 
veren, 8vo. Lug. Bat. 1773; by Tzschucke, 8vo. 
Gotting. 1804 ; by Bremi, 8vo. Zurich, 1820 ; and 
by Roth, Basil. 8vo. 1841. 

Nepos, Julms, last emperor but one of the West, 
A. D. 474 — 475, was raised to the throne by Leo, 
the emperor of the East. Nepos easily deposed 
Glycerius, who was regarded at Constantinople as 
an usurper [Glycerius] ; but he was in his turn 
deposed in the next year by Orestes, who pro- 
claimed his son Romulus. Nepos fled into Dal- 
matia, where he was killed in 480. 

Nepotianus, Flavius Popilius, son of Eutropia, 
the half-sister of Constantine the Great, was pro- 
claimed emperor at Rome in A. D. 350, but was 
slain by Marcellinus, the general of the usurper 
Magnentius, after a reign of '28 days. 

Neptunus, called Poseidon by the Greeks. The 
Greek god is spoken of in a separate article. [Po- 
seidon.] Neptunus was the chief marine divinity 
of the Romans. As the early Romans were not a 
maritime people, the marine divinities are rarely 
mentioned, and we scarcely know with certainty 
what day in the year was set apart as the festival 
of Neptunus, though it seems to have been the 
23rd of July {X. Kal. Sext.). His temple stood 
in the Campus Martius, not far from the septa. At 
his festival the people formed tents (umbrae) of the 
branches of trees, in which thej^ enjoyed themselves 
in feasting and drinking. (Diet, of Ant. art. Nep- 
tunalia). When a Roman commander set sail with 
a fleet, he first offered up a sacrifice to Neptunus, 
which was thrown into the sea. In the Roman 
poets Neptunus is completely identified with the 
Greek Poseidon, and accordingly all the attributes 
of the latter are transferred by them to the former. 

Neratitts Priscus, a Roman jurist, who lived 
under Trajan and Hadrian. It is said that Trajan 
sometimes had the design of making Neratius his 



NERO. 473 

successor in place of Hadrian. He enjoyed a high 
reputation under Hadrian, and was one of his con- 
siliarii. His works are cited in the Digest. 

Nereis or Nereis (NTjpely, in Horn. N-np-rji's), a 
daughter of Nereus and Doris, and used especially 
in the plural, Nereides (NripeiSes, NTjpr/l'Ses) to 
indicate the 50 daughters of Nereus and Doris. 
The Nereides were the marine nymphs of the Medi- 
terranean, in contradistinction from the Naiades^ 
or the nymphs of fresh water, and the Ocea- 
nides, or the nymphs of the great ocean. Their 
names are not the same in all writers ; one of the 
most celebrated was Thetis, the mother of Achilles. 
They are described as lovely divinities, dwelling 
with their father at the bottom of the sea, and 
were believed to be propitious to all sailors, and 
especially to the Argonauts. They were worshipped 
in several parts of Greece, but more especially in 
seaport towns. The epithets given them by the poets 
refer partly to their beauty and partly to their 
place of abode. They are frequently represented 
in works of art, and commonly as youthful, beau- 
tiful, and naked maidens ; and they are often 
grouped with Tritons and other marine beings. 
Sometimes they appear on gems as half maidens 
and half fishes. 

Nereius, a name given by the poets to a de- 
scendant of Nereus, such as Phocus and Achilles. 

Neretum or Neritum (Neretinus : Narho), a 
town of the Salentini in Calabria in the S. of Italy. 

Nereus (NTjpeys), son of Pontus and Gaea, and 
husband of Doris, by whom he became the father 
of the 50 Nereides. He is described as the wise 
and unerring old man of the sea, at the bottom of 
which he dwelt. His empire is the Mediterranean 
or more particularly the Aegean sea, whence he is 
sometimes called the Aegean. He was believed, 
like other marine divinities, to have the power of 
prophesying the future and of appearing to mortals 
in different shapes ; and in the story of Hercules 
he acts a prominent part, just as Proteus in the 
story of Ulysses, and Glaucus in that of the Argo- 
nauts. Virgil {Aen. ii. 418) mentions the trident 
as his attribute, and the epithets given him by the 
poets refer to his old age, his kindliness, and his 
trustworthy knowledge of the future. In works 
of art, Nereus, like other sea-gods, is represented 
with pointed sea-weeds taking the place of hair in 
the eyebrows, the chin, and the breast. 

Nericus. [Leucas.] 

Nerino, equivalent to Nereis, a daughter of 
Nereus. [Nereis.] 
Nerio, Neriene, or Nerienis. [Mars.] 
Neritum, a mountain in Ithaca. [Ithaca.] 
Neritus, a smally rocky island near Ithaca, 
erroneously supposed by some to be Ithaca itself. 

Nerium, also called Celticum [C. Finisterre)^ 
a promontory in the N. W. corner of Spain, and 
in the territory of the Nerii, a tribe of the Celtic 
Artabri, whence the promontory is also called 
Artabrum. 

Nero, Claudius. Nero is said to have signified 
" brave " in the Sabine tongue. 1. Tib., one of 
the 4 sons of App. Claudius Caecus, censor B. c. 
312, from whom all the Claudii Nerones were de- 
scended.— 2. C, a celebrated general in the 2nd 
Punic war. He was praetor 212, and was sent 
into Spain to oppose Hasdrubal, who eluded his 
attack, and he was succeeded by Scipio Africanus. 
Nero was consul in 207 with M. Livius Salinator. 
Nero marched into the S. of Italy against Hanni- 



474 



NERO. 



NERO. 



bal, Avhom Tie defeated. He then marched into 
the N. of Italy, effected a junction Avith his col- 
league M. Livius in Picenum, and proceeded to 
crush Hasdrubal before his brother Hannibal could 
come to his assistance. Hasdrubal was defeated 
and slain on the river Metaurus. This great 
battle, which probably saved Rome, gave a lustre 
to the name of Nero, and consecrated it among the 
recollections of the Romans. 

Quid debeas, o Roma, Neronibus, 
Testis Metauruin flumen et Hasdrubal 
Devictus. Horat. Carm. iv. 4. 

Nero was censor, 204, with M. Livius. — 3. 
Tib., praetor, 204, Avith Sardinia for his pro- 
vince ; and consul 202, when he obtained Africa 
as his province, but his fleet suffered so much at 
sea, that he was unable to join Scipio in Africa.— 
4. Tib., served under Pompey in the war against 
the pirates, B. c. 67. He is probably the Tib. 
Nero who recommended that the members of the 
conspiracy of Catiline, Avho had been seized, should 
be kept confined till Catiline Avas put do\ATi. — 5. 
Tib., father of the emperor Tiberius, Avas probably 
the son of the last. He served as quaestor under 
Caesar (48) in the Alexandrine war. He sided 
with L. Antonius in the Avar of Perusia (41) ; and 
when this toAvn surrendered, he passed over to 
Sex. Pompey in Sicily, and subsequently to M. 
AntonA' in Achaea. On a reconciliation being 
effected between Antony and Octavian at the 
close of the year (40), he returned AA^th his Avife 
to Rome. Livia, AA'ho possessed great beauty, 
excited the passion of Octavian, to Avhom she 
was surrendered by her husband, being then 6 
months gone Avith child of her second son Drusus. 
Nero died shortly after, and left Octavian the tutor 
of his tAvo sons. 

Nero. 1. Roman emperor, A. d. 54 — 68, was 
the son of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and of 
Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus Caesar, and 
sister of Caligula. Nero's original name was L. 
Domitius Alienobarhiis, but after the marriage of 
his mother with her uncle, the emperor Claudius, 
he was adopted by Claudius (a.d. 50), and aa^is 
called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. 
Nero Avas born at Antium, on the 15th of Decem- 
ber, A. D. 37. Shortly after his adoption by Clau- 
dius, Nero, being then 16 years of age, married 
Octavia, the daughter of Claudius and Messalina 
(53). Among his early instructors was Seneca, 
Nero had some talent and taste. He AA-^as fond of 
the arts, and made verses ; but he was indolent 
and given to pleasure, and had no inclination for 
laborious studies. On the death of Claudius (54), 
Agrippina secured the succession for her son, to the 
exclusion of Britannicus, the son of Claudius. His 
mother wished to govern in the name of her son, 
and her ambition Avas the cause of Nero's first 
crime. Jealousy thus arose between Nero and his 
mother, Avhich soon broke out into a quarrel, and 
Agrippina threatened to join Britannicus and raise 
hira to his father's place ; Avhereupon Nero caused 
Britannicus to be poisoned, at an entertainment 
where Agrippina and OctaA'ia Avere present (55). 
During the early part of Nero's reign, the govern- 
ment of Rome Avas in the hands of Seneca, and 
of Burrhus, the praefect of the praetorians, Avho 
opposed the ambitious designs of Agrippina. Mean- 
time the young emperor indulged his licentious 
inclinations Avithout restraint. He neglected his 
wife for the beautiful, but dissolute Poppaea Sa- 



bina, the Avife of Otho. This abandoned woman 
aspired to become the emperor's wife ; but since 
she had no hopes of succeeding in her design while 
Agrippina lived, she used all her arts to urge Nero 
to put his mother to death. Accordingly in 59, 
Agrippina Avas assassinated by Nero's order, Avith 
the approbation at least of Seneca and Burrhus, 
who saw that the time Avas come for the destruc- 
tion either of the mother or the son. Though Nero 
had no longer any one to oppose him, he felt the 
punishment of his guilty conscience, and said that 
he Avas haunted by his mother's spectre. He 
attempted to droAvn his reflections in fresh riot, 
in Avhich he Avas encouraged by a band of flat- 
terers. He did not, however, immediately marry 
Poppaea, being probably restrained by fear of 
Burrhus and Seneca. But the death of Burrhus 
in 62, and the retirement of Seneca from public 
affairs, Avhich immediately folloAved, left Nero 
more at liberty. Accordingly he divorced his 
Avife Octavia, and in 18 days married Poppaea. 
Not satisfied with putting aAvay his AAafe, he falsely 
charged her with adultery, and banished her to 
the island of Pandataria, Avhere she Avas shortly 
after put to death. — In 64 the great fire at Rome 
happened. Its origin is uncertain, for it is hardly 
credible that the city Avas fired by Nero's order, 
as some ancient AATiters assert. Out of the 14 
regiones of Rome into Avhich Rome Avas divided, 
3 Avere totally destroyed, and in 7 others onl}^ a 
few half-burnt houses remained. The emperor 
set about rebuilding the city on an improved plan, 
Avith Avider streets. He found money for his pur- 
poses by acts of oppression and violence, and even 
temples were robbed of their Avealth. With these 
means he began to erect his sumptuous golden 
palace, on a scale of magnitude and splendour 
which almost surpasses belief. The vestibule con- 
tained a colossal statue of himself 120 feet high. 
The odium of the conflagration which the emperor 
could not remove from himself, he tried to throw 
on the Christians, who were then numerous in 
Rome, and many of them were put to a cruel 
death. — The tyranny of Nero at last (65) led to 
the organisation of a formidable conspiracy against 
him, usually called Piso's conspiracy, from the 
name of one of the principal accomplices. The 
plot was discovered, and many distinguished per- 
sons Avere put to death, among AA'hom Avas Piso 
himself, the poet Lucan, and the philosopher 
Seneca, though the latter appears to have taken 
no part in the plot. In the same year, Pop- 
paea died of a kick, Avhich her bratal husband 
gave her in a fit of passion when she Avas with 
child. Nero now married Statilia Messallina. The 
history of the remainder of Nero's reign is a cata- 
logue of his crimes. Virtue in any form AA^as the 
object of his fear ; and almost every month Avas 
marked by the execution or banishment of some 
distinguished man. Among his other victims 
AA'ere Thrasea Paetus and Barea Soranus, both 
men of high rank, but of spotless kitegrity. In 
67 Nero paid a visit to Greece, and took part in 
the contests of both the Olympic and Pythian 
games. He commenced a canal across the Isthmus 
of Corinth, but the Avorks AA^ere afterwards sus- 
pended by his own orders. While in Greece he 
sent orders to put to death his faithful general 
Domitius Corbulo, which the old soldier anti- 
cipated by stabbing himself. The Roman Avorld 
had long been tired of its oppressor ; and the 



NERTOBRIGA. 

storm at length broke out in Gaul, where Julius 
Vindex, the governor, openly raised the standard 
of revolt. His example was followed by Galba, 
who was governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. 
Galba was proclaimed emperor by his troops, but 
he only assumed the title of legatus of the senate 
and the Roman people. Soon after these news 
reached Rome, Nymphidius Sabinus, who was 
praefectus praetorio along with Tigellinus, per- 
suaded the troops to proclaim Galba. Nero was 
immediately deserted. He escaped from the palace 
at night with a few freedraen, and made his way to 
a house about 4 miles from Rome, which belonged 
to his freedman Phaon, Here he gave himself 
a mortal wound, when he heard the trampling 
of the horses on which his pursuers were mounted. 
The centurion on entering attempted to stop the 
flow of blood, but Nero saying, " It is too late. 
Is this your fidelitj' ? " expired with a horrid 
stare. Nero's progress in crime is easily traced, 
and the lesson is worth reading. Without a good 
education, and with no talent for his high station, 
he Avas placed in a position of danger from the 
first. He was sensual, and fond of idle display, 
and then he became greedy of money to satisfy 
his expenses ; he was timid, and by consequence 
he became cruel when he anticipated danger ; and, 
like other murderers, his first crime, the poisoning 
of Britannicus, made him capable of another. But, 
contemptible and cruel as he was, there are many 
persons who, in the same situation, might run the 
saine guilty career. He was onlj'- in his 31st 
year when he died, and he had held the supreme 
poAver for 18 years and 8 months. He was the 
last of the descendants of Julia, the sister of the 
dictator Caesar. — The most important external 
events in the reign of Nero were the conquest 
of Armenia by Domitius Corbulo [Corbulo], and 
the insurrection of the Britons under Boadicea, 
which was quelled by Suetonius Paulinus. [Pa 
Nus]. 2. Eldest son of Germanicus and Agrip- 
pina, fell a victim to the ambition of Sejanus, who 
resolved to get rid of the sons of Germanicus in 
order to obtain the imperial throne for himself. 
Drusus, the brother of Nero, was persuaded to 
second the designs of Sejanus, in hopes that the 
death of his elder brother would secure him the 
succession to the throne. There was no difficulty 
in exciting the jealousy of Tiberius ; and accord- 
ingly in A. D. 29, Nero was declared an enemy 
of the state, was removed to the island of Pontia, 
and was there either starved to death or perished 
by his own hands. 

Nertobriga. 1. (Valei-a la vieja), a town in 
Hispania Baetica, Avith the surname Concordia 
Julia, probably the same place which Polybius 
calls (xxxv. 2) Ercobrica ('Ep/cog/?(/ca). — 2. {Al- 
inuna), a town of the Celtiberi in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis on the road from Emerita to Caesar- 
augusta. 

Neriilum, a fortified place in Lucania on the 
Via Popilia. 

Nerva, Cocceius. 1. M. , consul b. c. 36, brought 
about the reconciliation between M. Antonius and 
Octavianus, 40, and is the same as the Cocceius 
mentioned by Horace (Sat. i. 5. 28).—^. M., 
probably the son of the preceding, and grand- 
father of the emperor Nerva. He was consul 
A. D. 22, In 33, he resolutely starved himself 
to death, notwithstanding the intreaties of Ti- 
berius, whose constant companion he was. He 



NESTOR. 475 

Avas a celebrated jurist and is often mentioned in 
the Digest. — 3. M., the son of the last, and pro- 
babl}^ father of the emperor, Avas also a celebrated 
jurist, and is often cited in the Digest under the 
name of Nerva Filius. — 4. M., Roman emperor, 
A. D. 96-98, Avas born at Narnia, in Umbria, a. d. 
32. He Avas consul Avith Vespasian, 71, and Avith 
Domitian, 90. On the assassination of Domitian, 
in September, 96, Nerva, Avho had probably been 
privy to the conspiracy, was declared emperor at 
Rome by the people and the soldiers, and his 
administration at once restored tranquillity to the 
state. He stopped proceedings against those Avho 
had been accused of treason (majestas), and al- 
lowed many exiled persons to return to Rome. 
The class of informers Avere suppressed by penal- 
ties, and some Avere put to death. At the com- 
mencement of his reign, Nerva sAvore that he 
would put no senator to death ; and he kept his 
Avord, CA^en Avhen a conspiracy had been formed 
against his life by Calpurnius Crassus. Though 
Nerva Avas virtuous and humane, he did not pos- 
sess much energy and vigour ; and his feebleness 
Avas shown by a mutiny of the Praetorian soldiers. 
The soldiers demanded the punishment of the 
assassins of Domitian, Avhich the emperor refused. 
Though his body was feeble, his Avill Avas strong, 
and he offered them his OAvn neck, and declared 
his readiness to die. However, it appears that 
the soldiers effected their purpose, and Nerva 
Avas obliged to put Petronius Secundus and Par- 
thenius to death, or to permit them to be mas- 
sacred by the soldiers. Nerva felt his Aveakness, 
but he showed his noble character and his good 
sense by appointing as his successor a man Avho 
possessed both vigour and ability to direct public 
affairs. He adopted as his son and successor, 
without any regard to his oaa^u kin, M. Ulpius 
Trajanus, who Avas then at the head of an army 
in Germany. Nerva died suddenly on the 27th 
of January, a. d. 98, at the age of 65 years. 

Nervii, a powerful and Avarlike people in Gallia 
Belgica, Avhose territory extended from the river 
Sabis [Sambre) to the Ocean, and part of Avhich 
Avas covered by the wood Arduenna. They were 
diA'ided into several smaller tribes, the Centrones, 
Grudii, Levaci, Pleumoxii and Geiduni, In b, c. 
58 they Avere defeated by Caesar Avith such 
slaughter that out of 60,000 men capable of bear- 
ing arms only 500 Avere left. 

Nesactium, a town in Istria on the river Arsia, 
taken by the Romans, b. c. 177, 

Nesis (Nisila), a small island off the coast of 
Campania between Puteoli and Neapolis, and 
opposite Mt. Pausilypus. This island Avas a fa- 
vourite residence of some of the Roman nobles. 

Nessonis (N^ao-wuLs), a lake in Thessaly, a 
little S. of the river Peneus, and N. E. of Larissa, 
is in summer merely a sAvamp, but in Avinter is 
not only full of Avater, but even overfloAvs its 
banks. Nessonis and the neighbouring lake Boe- 
beis were regarded by the ancients as remains 
of the vast lake, Avhich was supposed to have 
covered the Avhole of Thessalj', till an outlet was 
made for its Avaters through the rocks of Tempe. 

Nessus (NeVcros), a centaur, Avho carried Deia- 
nira across the river Evenus, but, attempting to 
run aAvay Avith her, Avas shot by Hercules with a 
poisoned arroAv, Avhich afterwards became the cause 
of the death of Hercules. See pp. 310, 311. 

Nestor (Necrrcop), king of Pylos, son of Neleus 



476 



NESTO HIDES. 



NICxVEA. 



and Chloris, husband of Eurydice and father of Pi- 
sidice, Polycaste, Perseus, Stratius, Aretus, Eche- 
phron, Pisistratus, Antilochus, and Thrasymedes. 
Some relate that, after the death of Eurydice, Nes- 
tor married Ajiaxibia, the daughter of Atrcus, and 
sister of Agamemnon ; but this Anaxibia is else- 
where described as tlie wife of Strophius, and the 
mother of Pyhades. When Hercules invaded the 
country of Nelens, and slew his sons, Nestor alone 
was spared, either because lie was absent from 
Pylos, or because he had taken no part in carrying 
off from Hercules the oxen of Geryones. In his 
youth and early manhood, Nestor was a distin- 
guished warrior. He defeated both the Arcadians 
and Eleans. He took part in the fight of the La- 
pithae against the Centaurs, and he is mentioned 
among the Calydonian hunters and the Argonauts. 
Although far advanced in age, he sailed with the 
other Greek heroes against Troy. Having ruled 
over three generations of men, his advice and 
authority were deemed equal to that of the im- 
mortal gods, and he was renowned for his wisdom, 
his justice, and his knowledge of war. After the 
fall of Troy he returned home, and arrived safely 
in Pylos, where Zeus granted to him the full en- 
joyment of old age, surrounded by intelligent and 
brave sons. Various towns in Peloponnesus, of 
the name of Pylos, laid claim to being the city 
of Nestor. On this point see p. 471, a. 

Nestorides {Nearopidris), i. e. a son of Nestor, 
as Antilochus and Pisistratus. 

Nestorius, a celebrated Haeresiarch, was ap- 
pointed patriarch of Constantinople A. d. 428, but 
in consequence of his heresy was deposed at the 
council of Ephesus, 431. His great opponent was 
Cyril. Nestorius was subsequently banished to 
one of the Oases in Egypt, and he died in exile 
probably before 450. Nestorius carefully distin- 
guished between the divine and human nature 
attributed to Christ, and refused to give to the 
Virgin Mary the title of Theotocics (QsotSkos) or 
"Mother of God." The opinions of Nestorius 
are still maintained by the Nestorian Christians. 

Nestus, sometimes Nessus (NeVros: Afeslo 
by the Greeks, Karasu by the Turks), a river in 
Thrace, which rises in Mt. Rhodope, flows S. E., 
and fiills into the Aegaean sea W. of Abdera and 
opposite the island of Thasos. The Nestus formed 
the E. boundary of Macedonia from the time of 
Philip and Alexander the Great. 

Nesus. [Oeniadae.] 

Netum (Netinus: Noto Antiquo near A^oto), a 
town in Sicily S. W. of Syracuse, and a de- 
pendency of the latter. 

Neuri (NeC/?oi, Neupot), a people of Sarmatia 
Europaea, whom Herodotus describes as not of 
Scythian race, though they followed Scythian 
customs. Having been driven out from their earlier 
abodes by a plague of serpents, they settled to 
the N.W. of the sources of the Tyras {Dniester). 
They were esteemed skilful in enchantment. 

Nevirnum. [Noviodunum, No. 2.] 

Nicaea (NiKaia: Nucaieys, Ntfcaei^s, Nicaeensis, 
Nicensis). 1. (Iznik, Ru.), one of the most cele- 
brated cities of Asia, stood on the E, side of the 
lake Ascania (Iznik) in Bithynia. Its site appears 
to have been occupied in very ancient times by a 
town called Attaea, and afterwards by a settlement 
of the Bottiaeans, called Ancore or Helicore, which 
was destroyed by the Mysians. Not long after the 
death of Alexander the Great, Antigonus built on 



the same spot a city which he named after himself, 
Antigonea; but Lysimachus soon after changed the 
name into Nicaea, in honour of his wife. Under 
the kings of Bithjmia it was often the royal resi- 
dence, and it long disputed with Nicomedia the 
rank of capital of Bithynia. The Roman emperors 
bestowed upon it numerous honours and benefits, 
which are recorded on its coins. Its position, at 
the junction of several of the chief roads leading 
through Asia Minor to Constantinople, made it the 
centre of a large traffic. It is very famous in ec- 
clesiastical history as the seat of the great Oecu- 
menical Council, which Constantine convoked in 

A. D. 325, chiefly for the decision of the Arian 
controversy, and which drew up the Nicene Creed; 
that is to say, the first part of the well known 
creed so called, the latter part of which wa^? added 
by the Council of Constantinople, in the year 381. 
The Council of Nice (as we commonly call it) also 
settled the time of keeping Easter. A second 
council held here in 787 decided in favour of the 
worship of images. In the very year of the great 
Council, Nicaea was overthrown by an earthquake, 
but it was restored by the emperor Valens in 368. 
Under the later emperors of the East, Nicaea long 
served as the bulwark of Constantinople against 
the Arabs and Turks : it was taken by the Seljuks 
in 1078, and became the capital of the Sultan 
Soliman; it was retaken by the First Crusaders in 
1097. After the taking of Constantinople by the 
Venetians and the Franks, and the foundation of 
the Latin empire there in 1204, the Greek emperor 
Theodorus Lascaris made Nicaea the capital of 
a separate kingdom ; in which his followers main- 
tained themselves with various success against the 
Latins of Constantinople on the one side, and the 
Seljuks of Iconium on the other, and in 1261 re- 
gained Constantinople. At length, in 1330, Nicaea 
was finally taken by Orchan the son of the founder 
of the Ottoman empire, Othman. Iznik, the modern 
Nicaea, is a poor village of about 100 houses ; but 
the double walls of the ancient city still remain 
almost complete, exhibiting 4 large and 2 small gates. 
There are also the remains of the 2 moles which 
formed the harbour on the lake, of an aqueduct, of 
the theatre, and of the gymnasium ; in this last 
edifice, we are told, there was a point from which 
all the 4 gates were visible, so great was the regu- 
larity with which the city was built. — 2. {Nilab) 
a city of India, on the borders of the Paropamisadae, 
on the W. of the river Cophen. — 3. (Prob. Dara- 
poor, Ru.), a city of India, on the river Hydaspes 
{Jelum) built by Alexander to commemorate his 
victory over Porus. — 4. A fortress of the Epicne- 
midian Locrians on the sea, near the pass of Ther- 
mopylae, which it commanded. From its important 
position, it is often mentioned in the wars of Greece 
with Macedonia and with the Romans. In the for- 
mer, its betrayal to Philip by the Thracian dynast 
Phalaecus led to the decision of the Sacred War, 

B. c. 346; and after various changes, it is found, at 
the time of the wars with Rome, in the hands of 
the Aetolians. — 5. In Illyria. [Nicia]. — 6. 
An ancient name of Mariana in Corsica. — 7. 
(Nizza, Nice), a city on the coast of Liguria, a 
little E. of the river Var; a colony of Massilia, and 
subject to that city ; hence it was considered as 
belonging to Gaul, though it was just beyond the 
frontier. It first became important as a stronghold 
of the Christian religion, which was preached there 
by Nazarius at an early period. 



NICANDER. 

Nicander (NiKav^pos). L King of Sparta, son 
of Charilaus, and father of Theopompus, reigned 
about B.C. a09— 770. — 2. A Greek poet, gram- 
marian and physician, was a native of Claros near 
Colophon in lonin, wlience he is frequently called 
a Colophonian. He succeeded his father as one of 
the hereditary priests of Apollo Clarius. He appears 
to have flourished about b.c. 185 — 135. Of the 
numerous works of Nicander only two poems are ex- 
tant, one entitled Theriaca {&rjpiaKd), which consists 
of nearly 1000 hexameter lines, and treats of vemo- 
mous animals and the wounds inflicted by them, and 
another entitled AJcxipharmaca ('AA.e|£(^ap/xa/<a), 
which consists of more than 600 hexameter lines, 
and treats of poisons and their antidotes. Among 
the ancients his authority in all matters relating 
to toxicology seems to have been considered high. 
His works are frequently quoted by Pliny, Galen, 
and other ancient writers. His style is harsh and 
obscure ; and his works are now scarcely ever 
read as poems, and are only consulted by those 
who are interested in points of zoological and 
medical antiquities. The best edition is by Schnei- 
der, who published the Alexiphurmaca in 1792 
Haiae; and the Theriaca in 181G, Lips. 

Nicanor (NiKdvcap). 1. Son of Parmenion, a 
distinguished officer in the service of Alexander, 
died daring the king's advance into Bactria, B. c. 
330. — 3. A Macedonian officer, who, in the di- 
vision of the provinces after the death of Perdiccas, 
(321), obtained the government of Cappadocia. 
He attached himself to the party of Antigonus, 
who made him governor of Media and the ad- 
joining provinces, which he continued to hold until 
312, when he was deprived of them by Seleucus. 
-—3. A Macedonian officer under Cassandcr, by 
whom he was secretly despatched, immediately on 
the death of Antipater, 319, to take the command 
of the Macedonian garrison at Munychia. Nicanor 
arrived at Athens before the news of Antipater's 
death, and thus readily obtained possession of the 
fortress. Soon afterwards he surprised the Piraeus 
also, and placed both fortresses in the hands of 
Cassander on the arrival of the latter in Attica in 
318. Nicanor was afterwards despatched by Cas- 
sander with a fleet to the Hellespont, where he 
gained a victory over the admiral of Polysperchon. 
On his return to Athens he incurred the suspicion 
of Cassander, and was put to death. 

Nicarchus (Ni'/capxos), the author of 38 epi- 
grams in the Greek Anthology, appears to have 
lived at Rome near the beginning of the 2nd cen- 
tury of the Christian era. 

Kicator, Seleucus. [Seleucus.] 

Nice (Ni'/cT]), called Vict5ria by the Romans, 
the goddess of victory, is described as a daughter 
of Pallas and Styx, and as a sister of Zelus (zeal), 
Cratos (strength), and Bia (force). When Zeus 
commenced fighting against the Titans, and called 
upon the gods for assistance, Nice and her 2 sisters 
were the first who came forward, and Zeus was so 
pleased with their readiness, that he caused th'^m 
ever after to live with him in Olympus. Nice had 
a celebrated temple on the acropolis at Athens, 
which is still extant and in excellent preservation. 
She is often seen represented in ancient works of 
art, especially with other divinities, such as Zeus 
and Athena, and with conquering heroes whose 
horses she guides. In her appearance she resembles 
Athena, but has wings, and carries a palm or a 
wreath, and is engaged in raising a trophy, or 



NICIA. 477 

in inscribing the victory of the conqueror on a 
shield. 

Nicephormm ('NiKr}(p6pioi'). 1. (RaJchth), a 
fortified town of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, 
near the mouth of the river Bilecha (el Beitkh)^ 
and due S. of Edessa, built by order of Alexander, 
and probaljly completed under Seleucus. It is 
doubtless the same place as the Callinicus or Cal- 
linicum {KaWiviKos or oj/), the fortifications of 
which v.-ere repaired by .Justinian. Its Uanie was 
again changed to Leontopolis, when it was adorned 
with fresh buildings by the emperor Ijoo. — 2. A 
fortress on the Propontis, belonging to the territory 
of Pergamus. 

Nicephorius CNiK-ricpSpios)^ a river of Armenia 
Major, on which Tigranes built his residence Ti- 
GRANOCERTA. It was a tributary of the Upper 
Tigris ; probably identical with the Centkites, 
or a small tributary of it. 

Nicephorus {Nucncpopos). 1. Callistus Xan- 
thopulus, the author of the Ecclesiastical History, 
was born in the latter part of the 13th century, and 
died about 1450. His Ecclesiastical history was 
originally in 23 books, of which there are 1 8 extant, 
extending from the birth of Christ down to the 
death of the tyrant Phocas, in 610. Although Ni- 
cephorus compiled from the works of hispredecessors, 
he entirely remodelled his materials, and his style 
is vastly superior to that of his contemporaries. 
Edited by Ducaeus, Paris, 1630, 2 vols, fol. — 2. 
Gregoras. [Gregoras.] ■— 3. Patriarcha, ori- 
ginally the notary or chief secretary of state to the 
emperor Constantino V. Copronymus, subsequently 
retired into a convent, and was raised to the patri- 
archate of Constantinople in 806. He was deposed 
in 815, and died in 828. Several of his works 
have come down to us, of which the most important 
is entitled Breviarium Historicmri, a Byzantine 
history, extending from 602 to 770. This is one of 
the best works of the Byzantine period. Edited 
by Petavius, Paris, 1616. 

Mcer (Neckai-), a river in Germany falling 
into the Rhine at the modern Maunheivu 

Niceratus (Ni/cTjparos). 1. Father of Nicias, the 
celebrated Athenian general. —-2. Son of Nicias, 
put to death by the 30 tyrants, to whom his great 
wealth was no doubt a temptation. — 3. A Greek 
writer on plants, one of the followers of Asclepiades 
of Bithynia. 

Nicetas (Ni/cyfras). 1. Acominatus, also called 
Choniates, because he was a native of Chonae, 
formerly Colossae, in Phrygia, one of the most im- 
portant Bvzantine historians, lived in the latter 
half of the 12th, and the former half of the 13th 
centuries. He held important public offices at 
Constantinople, and was present at the capture of 
the city by the Latins in 1204, of which he has. 
given us a faithful description. He escaped to 
Nicaea, where he died about 1216. The history 
of Nicetas consists of 10 distinct works, each of 
which contains one or more books, of which there 
are 21, giving the history of the emperors from 
1118 to 1206. The best edition is by Bekker, 
Bonn, 1835. —2. Eugenianus, lived probably 
towards the end of the 12th century, and wrote 
" The History of the Lives of Drusilla and Cha- 
ricles," which is the worst of all the Greek romances 
that have come down to us. It was published for 
the first time by Boissonade, Paris, 1819, 2 vols. 

Nicia {Enza 9), a tributary of the Po in Gallia 
Cisalpina. 



478 



NICIAS. 



NICOCREON. 



Nicias (NtKi'as). L A celebrated Athenian 
general during the Peloponnesian war, was the son 
of Niceratus, from whom he inherited a large for- 
tune. His property was valued at 100 talents. 
From this cause, combined with his imambitious 
character, and his aversion to all dangerous inno- 
vations, lie was naturally brought into connection 
with the aristocratical portion of his fellow-citizens. 
He was several times associated with Pericles, as 
strategus ; and his great prudence and high cha- 
racter gained for him considerable influence. On 
the death of Pericles he came forward more openly 
as the opponent of Cleon, and the other demagogues 
of Athens ; but from his military reputation, the 
mildness of his character, and the liberal use 
which he made of his great wealth, he was looked 
upon with respect by all classes of the citizens. 
His timidity led him to buy off the attacks of the 
sycophants. He was a man of strong religious 
feeling, and Aristophanes ridicules him in the 
Equites for his timidity and superstition. His cha- 
racteristic caution was the distinguishing feature 
of his military career ; and his military' operations 
were almost always successful. He frequently 
commanded the Athenian armies during the earlier 
years of the Peloponnesian war. After the death 
of Cleon (b. c. 422) he exerted all his influence to 
bring about a peace, which was concluded in the 
following year (421). For the next few years 
Nicias used all his efforts to induce the Athenians 
to preserve the peace, and was constantly opposed 
by Alcibiades, who had now become the leader of J 
the popular party. In 41"), the Athenians resolved I 
on sending their great expedition to Sicily, and ap- 1 
pointed Nicias, Alcibiades and Lamachus to the com- i 
mand. Nicias disapproved of the expedition alto- 
gether, and did all that he could to divert the 
Athenians from this course. But his representa- 
tions produced no effect ; and he set sail for Sicily 
with his colleagues. Alcibiades was soon after- 
wards recalled [Alcibiades] ; and the sole com- 
mand vras thus virtually left in the hands of Nicias. 
His early operations were attended with success, j 
He defeated the Syracusans in the autumn, and i 
employed the winter in securing the co-operation of j 
several of the Greek cities, and of the Sicel tribes | 
in the island. In the spring of next year he re- 
newed his attacks upon Syracuse ; he seized Epi- 
polae, in which he was successful, and commenced 
the circumvallation of Syracuse. About this time 
Lamachus was slain, in a skirmish under the 
walls. All the attempts of the SA-racusans to 
stop the- circumvallation failed. The works were 
nearly completed, and the doom of Syracuse seemed 
sealed, when Gylippus, the Spartan, arrived in 
Sicily. [Gylippus.] The tide of success now 
turned ; and Nicias found himself obliged to send 
to Athens for reinforcements, and requested at the 
same time that another commander might be sent 
to supply his place, as his feeble health rendered 
him imequal to the discharge of his duties. The 
Athenians voted reinforcements, which were placed 
under the command of Demosthenes and Euryme- 
don ; but they would not allow Nicias to resign 
his command, Demosthenes, upon his arrival in ^ 
Sicily (413), made a vigorous effort to recover I 
Epipolae, w^hich the Athenians had lost. He was | 
nearly successful, but was finally driven back with ' 
severe loss. Demosthenes now deemed any further ' 
attempts against the city hopeless, and therefore j 
proposed to abandon the siege and return to Athens. } 



To this Nicias would not consent. He professed 
to stand in dread of the Athenians at home ; but he 
appears to have had reasons for believing that a 
party amongst the Syracusans themselves were 
likely in no long time to facilitate the reduction of 
the city. But meantime fresh succours arrived for 
the Syracusans ; sickness was making ravages 
among the Athenian troops, and at length Nicias 
himself saw the necessity of retreating. Secret 
orders were given that every thing should be in 
readiness for departure, when an eclipse of the 
moon happened. The credulous superstition of 
Nicias led to the total destruction of the Athenian 
armament. The soothsayers interpreted the event 
as an injunction from the gods that they should 
not retreat before the next full moon, and Nicias 
resolutely determined to abide by their decision. 
The Syracusans resolved to bring the enemy to 
an engagement, and, in a decisive naval battle, 
defeated the Athenians. They were now masters 
of the harbour, and the Athenians were reduced to 
the necessity of making a desperate effort to escape. 
The Athenians were again decisively defeated ; 
and having thus lost their fleet, they were obliged 
to retreat by land. They were pursued by the 
enemy, and were finally compelled to surrender. 
Both Nicias and Demosthenes were put to death 
by the Syracusans. — 2. The physician of Pyrrhus, 
king of Epirus, who offered to the Roman consul 
to poison the king, for a certain reward. Fabricius 
not only rejected his base offer with indignation, 
but inunediately sent him back to Pyrrhus with 
notice of his treachery. He is sometimes, but 
eiToneously, called Clneas. — 3. A Coan gramma- 
rian, who lived at Rome in the time of Cicero, with 
whom he was intimate. — 4. A celebrated Athe- 
nian painter, flourished about b. c. 320. He was 
the most distinguished disciple of Euphranor. His 
works seem to have been all painted in encaustic. 
One of his greatest paintings was a representation 
of the infernal regions as described bv Homer. He 
refused to sell this picture to Ptolemy, although 
the price offered for it was 60 talents. 

Nicochares (NtKoxo/>7jj), an Athenian poet of 
the Old Comedy, the son of Philonides, was con- 
temporary with Aristophanes. 

Nicocles {NikokXtis). 1. King of Salamis in 
Cyprus, son of Evagoras, whom he succeeded b. c. 
374. Isocrates addressed him a long panegyric 
upon his father's virtues, for which Nicocles re- 
I warded the orator with the magnificent present of 
20 talents. Scarcely any particulars are known of 
the reign of Nicocles. — He is said to have pe- 
rished by a violent death, but neither the period 
nor circumstances of this event are recorded. — 2. 
Prince or ruler of Paphos, in Cyprus, during the 
period which followed the death of Alexander. He 
w^as at first one of those who took part with Pto- 
lemy against Antigonus ; but having subsequently 
entered into secret negotiations wdth Antigonus, he 
Avas compelled by Ptolemy to put an end to his 
own life, 310. —3. Tyrant of Sicyon, was deposed 
by Aratus, after a reign of only 4 months, 251. 

Hicocreon (NiKo/c/jewv), king of Salamis in 
Cyprus, at the time of Alexander's expedition into 
Asia. After the death of Alexander he took part 
v\dth Ptolemy against Antigonus, and was entrusted 
by Ptolemy with the chief command over the 
whole island. Nicocreon is said to have ordered 
the philosopher Anaxarchus to be pounded to 
death in a stone mortar, in revenge for an insult 



NICOLA us. 



NICOPOLIS. 



479 



which the latter had offered the king, when he 
visited Alexander at Tyre. 

Nicolaus Chalcocondyles. [Chalcocondyles.] 

Nicolaus Damascenus, a Greek historian, and 
an intimate friend both of Herod the Great and of 
Augustus. He was, as his name indicates, a native 
of Damascus, and a son of Antipater and Stratonice. 
He received an excellent education, and he car- 
ried on his philosophical studies in common with 
Herod, at Avhose court he resided. In b. c. 13 he 
accompanied Herod on a visit to Augustus at 
Rome ; on which occasion Augustus made Nicolaus 
a present of the finest fruit of the palm-tree, which 
the emperor called Nicolai, — a name by which it 
continued to be known down to the Middle Ages. 
Nicolaus rose so high in the favour of Augustus, 
that he was on more than one occasion of great 
service to Herod, when the emperor was incensed 
against the latter. Nicolaus wrote a large number 
ot" works, of which the most important were : — 1. 
A life of himself, of which a considerable portion 
is still extant. 2. An universal history, which 
consisted of 144 books, of which we have only a 
few fragments. 3. A life of Augustus, from which 
we have some extracts made by command of Con- 
stantine Porphyrogenitus. He also wrote commen- 
taries on Aristotle, and other philosophical works, 
and was the author of several tragedies and co- 
medies : Stobaeus has preserved a fragment of one 
of his comedies, extending to 44 lines. The best 
edition of his fragments is by Orelli, Lips. 1804. 

Nicomaclius (Nt/cd/xaxos). 1. Father of Aris- 
totle. See p. 84, a. ■— 2. Son of Aristotle by the 
slave Herpyllis. He was himself a philosopher, 
and wrote some philosophical works. A portion of 
Aristotle's writings bears the name of Nicomacliean 
Ethics, but why we cannot tell ; whether the 
father so named them, as a memorial of his affection 
for his young son, or whether they derived their 
title from being afterwards edited and commented 
on by Nicomachus. — 3. Called Gerase7ius, from 
his native place, Gerasa in Arabia, was a Py- 
thagorean, and the writer of a life of Pythagoras, 
now lost. His date is inferred from his mention 
of Thrasyllus, who lived under Tiberius. He wrote 
on arithmetic and music ; and 2 of his works on 
these subjects are still extant. The work on arith- 
metic was printed by Wechel, Paris, 1538 ; also, 
after the Theologumena Arithneticae, attributed to 
lamblichus. Lips. 1817. The work on music was 
printed by Meursius, in his collection, Lugd. Bat, 
1616, and in the collection of Meibomius, Amst. 
1652,-4. Of Thebes, a celebrated painter, was 
the elder brother and teacher of the great painter 
Aristides. He flourished B, c. 3b">\ and onwards. 
He was an elder contemporary of Apelles and Pro- 
togenes. He is frequently mentioned by the an- 
cient writers in terms of the highest praise. Cicero 
says that in his works, as well as in those of Echion, 
Protogenes, and Apelles, every thing was already 
perfect. {Brutus, 18.) 

Nicomedes {Niicoix-qdrjs). 1, I. King of Bi- 
thynia, was the eldest son of Zipoetes, whom he 
succeeded, B. c. 278. With the assistance of the 
Gauls, whom he invited into Asia, he defeated and 
put to death his brother Zipoetes, who had for 
some time held the independent sovereignty of a 
considerable part of Bithynia. The rest of his 
reign appears to have been undisturbed, and under 
his sway Bithynia rose to a high degree of power 
and prosperity. He founded the city of Nicomedia, 



which he made the capital of his kingdom. The 
length of his reign is uncertain, but he probably 
died about 250. He was succeeded by his son 
ZiELAS. — 2. II. Surnamed Epiphanes, king of 
Bithynia, reigned B. c. 149 — 91. He was the 
son and successor of Prasias II., and 4th in descent 
from the preceding. He was brought up at Rome, 
where he succeeded in gaining the favour of the 
senate. Prusias, in consequence, became jealous of 
his son, and sent secret instructions for his assas- 
sination. The plot was revealed to Nicoraedes, who 
thereupon returned to Asia, and declared open war 
against his father. Prusias was deserted by his 
subjects, and was put to death by order of his son, 
149. Of the long and tranquil reign of Nicomedes 
few events have been transmitted to us. He 
courted the friendship of the Romans, whom he 
assisted in the war against Aristonicus, 131. He 
subsequently obtained possession of Paphlagonia, 
and attempted to gain Cappadocia, by marrying 
Laodice, the widow of Ariarathes VI. He was, 
however, expelled from Cappadocia by Mithridates ,■ 
and he was also compelled by the Romans to 
abandon Paphlagonia, when they deprived Mithri- 
dates of Cappadocia. — 3. III. Surnamed Philo- 
PATOR, king of Bithynia (91 — 74), son and suc- 
cessor of Nicomedes II. Immediately after his 
accession, he was expelled by Mithridates, who set 
up against him his brother Socrates ; but he was 
restored by the Romans in the following year (90). 
At the instigation of the Romans, Nicomedes now- 
proceeded to attack the dominions of Mithridates, 
who expelled him a second time from his kingdom 
(88). This was the immediate occasion of the 1st 
Mithridatic war ; at the conclusion of which (84) 
Nicomedes was again reinstated in his kingdom. 
He reigned nearly 10 years after this second re- 
storation. He died at the beginning of 74, and 
having no children, by his will bequeathed his 
kingdom to the Roman people. 

Nicomedia (Nt/co/x7j5ei'a : Nj/cojUTjSeus, fem. Ni- 
KOjxrihicTaa : Izmid or Iznikmid, Ru.), a celebrated 
city of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, built by king 
Nicomedes I. (b. c, 264), at the N.E. corner of 
the Sinus Astacenus {Gulf of Izmid: comp. As- 
TACUs). It was the chief residence of the kings 
of Bithynia, and it soon became one of the most 
splendid cities of the then known world. Under 
the Romans, it was a colony, and a favourite resi- 
dence of several of the later emperors, especially of 
Diocletian and Constantine the Great, Though 
repeatedly injured by earthquakes, it was always 
restored by the munificence of the emperors. Like 
its neighbour and rival, Nicaea, it occupies an 
important place in the wars against the Turks ; 
but it is still more memorable in history as the 
scene of Hannibal's death. It was the birthplace 
of the historian Arrian. 

Niconia or Niconium, a town in Scythia on 
the right bank of the Tyras {Dniester). 

Nicophon and Nicopkron {^iKocpuv, 'HinScpowv), 
an Athenian comic poet, son of Theron, and a con- 
temporary of Aristophanes at the close of his 
career. 

Nicopolis (NiK^TToAis : NjkottoAi'ttjj, Nicopo- 
litanus). 1. {Faleoprevyza, Ru.), a city at the 
S.W. extremity of Epirus, on the point of land which 
forms the N. side of the entrance to the Gulf of 
Ambracia, opposite to Actium. It was built by 
Augustus in memory of the battle of Actium, and 
was peopled from Ambracia, Anactorium, and 



480 



NICOSTRATUS. 



NILUS. 



other neighbouring cities, and also with settlers 
from Aetolia. Augustus also built a temple of 
Apollo on a neighbouring hill, and founded games 
in honour of the god, which were held every 5th 
year. The city was received into the Amphic- 
tyonic league in place of the Dolopes, It is spoken 
of both as a libera civitas, and as a colony. It had 
a considerable commerce and extensive fisheries. 
It was made the capital of Epirus by Constantine, 
and its buildings were restored both by Julian and 
by Justinian. — 2. {Nicopoli), a city of Moesia 
Inferior, on the Danube, built by Trajan in me- 
mory of a victory over the Dacians, and celebrated 
as the scene of the great defeat of the Hungarians 
and Franks hy the sultan Bajazet, on Sept. 28, 
139G, — 3. {Enderez, or Decrigni'i), a city of 
Armenia Minor, on or near the Lycus, and not far 
from the sources of the Halys, founded by Pompey 
on the spot where he gained his first victory over 
Mithridates : a flourishing place in the time of 
Augustus : restored by Justinian. — 4. A city in 
the N. E. corner of Cilicia, near the junction of the 
Taurus and Am.anus. — 5. {Kars, Kiassera, or 
Caesar''s Castle, Ru.), a city of Lower Eg3'pt, 
about 2 or 3 miles E. of Alexandria, on the canal 
between Alexandria and Canopus, was built by 
Augustus in memory of his last victory over An- 
tonius. Here also, as at Nicopolis opposite to 
Actium, Augustus founded a temple of Apollo, 
Avith games every 5th year. Not being mentioned 
after the time of the first Caesars, it would seem 
to have become a mere suburb of Alexandria. 

Mcostratus {NLKoarpaTos), the youngest of the 
3 sons of Aristophanes, Avas himself a comic poet. 
His plays belonged both to the middle and the 
new comedy. 

Nigeir, Nigir, or Nigris (N/yeip, 'Niyip, a com- 
pounded form of the Avord Geh- or Gir, Avhich, 
seems to be a native African term for a river in gene- 
ral), changed, by a confusion which Avas the more 
easily made on account of the colour of the people 
of the region, into the Latin Avord Niger, a great 
river of Aethiopia Interior, which modern usage 
has identified with the river called Joli-ba (i. e. 
Great River) and Qmrm (or rather Koioara), in W. 
Africa. As early as the time of Herodotus, Ave find 
an authentic statement concerning a river of the in- 
terior of Libya, Avhich is evidently identical both 
Avith the Nigir of most of the ancient geographers, 
and Avith the Qiiorra. He tells us (ii. 32) that 5 
young men of the Nasamones, a Libyan people on 
the Great Syrtis, on the N. coast of Africa, started 
to explore the desert parts of Libya ; that, after 
crossing the inhabited part, and the region of the 
Avild beasts, they journeyed many days through 
the Desert towards the W., till they came to a 
plain where fruit trees grew ; and as they eat the 
fruit, they Avere seized by some little black men, 
whose language they could not understand, Avho 
led them through great marshes to a city, inha- 
bited by the same sort of little black men, Avho 
Avere all enchanters ; and a great river flowed by 
the city from W. to E., and in it there Avere cro- 
codiles. Herodotus, like his informants, inferred 
from the course of the river, and from the cro- 
codiles in it, that it was the Nile ; but it can 
hardly be any river but the Quorra ; and that the 
city Avas Timbuctoo is far more probable than not. 
The opinion, that the Niger was a W. branch of 
the Nile, prevailed very generally in ancient 
times ; but by no means universally, Pliny gives 



the same account in a very confused manner, and 
makes the Nigris (as he calls it) the boundary 
betAveen N. Africa and Aethiopia. Ptolem}-, how- 
ever, who evidently had new sources of information 
respecting the interior of Africa, makes the Nigeir 
rise not far from its real source (allowing for the 
imperfect observations on which his numerical lati- 
tudes and longitudes are founded) and follow a 
direction not very different from Avhat that of tlie 
Joli-ha and Quurra would be if Ave suppose that 
the Zinui, Koji, and Jeo, form an unbroken com- 
munication between the Quorra and the lake 7 chad. 
But Ptolemy adds, Avhat the most recent disco- 
veries render a very remarkable statement, that a 
branch of the Nigeir communicates Avith the lake 
Libya (Ai^wtj), which he places in 16° 30' N. lat. 
and 35° E. long. (i. e. from the Fortunate I. = 17" 
from Greenwich). This is almost exactly the po- 
sition of lake Tchad; and, if the Tchadda really 
flows out of this lake, it Avill represent the branch 
of the Nigeir spoken of by Ptolemj', Avhose in- 
formants, however, seem to have inverted the 
directio7i of its stream. It is further remarkable 
that Ptolemy places on the Nigeir a city named 
Thamondocana in the exact position of Timbuctoo, 
and that the length of the river, computed from 
his position, agrees very nearly with its real length. 
The error of connecting the Niger and the Nile 
revived after the time of Ptolemj^ and has only 
been exploded by very recent discoveries. 

Niger, C. Pescenmus, Avas governor of S.yria 
during the latter end of the reign of Coramodus, on 
Avhose death he Avas saluted emperor by the legions 
in the East, a. d. 193. But in the following j'-ear 
he Avas defeated and put to death b)'" Septimius 
Severus. Many anecdotes have been preserved of 
the firmness Avith Avhich Niger enforced the most 
rigid discipline among his troops ; but he preserved 
his popularity by the impartiality Avhich he dis- 
played, and by the example of frugality, temperance, 
and hardy endurance of toil which he exhibited in 
his own person. 

Nigira (Niyeipa, Ptol. : Jennehl\ a city on the 
N. side of the river Nigir, and the capital of the 

NiGRITAE, 

Nigritae or -etes {^lyplrai, 'NLyp7Tai AlOio-ires, 
NlypriTes), the N.-most of the Ethiopian (i. e, 
Negro) peoples of Central Africa, dwelt about the 
Nigir, in the great plain of Soudan. 

Nigritis Lacus (Ni7prTjs Xl/xut)), a lake in the 
interior of Africa, out of Avhich Ptolemy represents 
the river Nigir as flowing. He places it about at 
the true source of the Nigir (i. e. the Joli-ba) ; but 
it is not yet discovered Avhether the river has its 
source in a lake." Som.e modern geographers iden- 
tify it Avith the lake Debo^ S. W. of Timbuctoo. 

Nilupolis or Nilus {TSSe(?^ov iroMs, NeTAos), a 
city of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, in the 
Nomos Heracleopohtes, Avas built on an island in 
the Nile, 20 geographical miles N. E. of Hera- 
cleopolis. There was a temple here in which, as 
throughout Egypt, the river Nile was worshipped 
as a god. 

Nilus ( ' NeiA.os, derived probably from a word 
Avhich still exists in the old dialects of India, 
Nilas, i. e. black, and sometimes called MeAay by 
the Greeks: NetAos occurs first in Hesiod ; Homer 
calls the river AlyvnrTos : Nile, Arab. Bahr-Nil, 
or simply Bahr, i. e. the River : the modern names 
of its upper course, in Nubia and Abyssinia, are 
various). This river, one of the most iraputlant in 



COIN'S OF CITIES AXD COUNTRIES. XEAPOLIS — OBULCO. 




Xuceria in Bruttimn. Page 485. 




To mcc p. 4?i.] 



NILUS. 



NINUS. 



481 



tlie world, flows tlirough a channel which forms a 
sort of cleft extending N. and S. through the high 
rocky and sandy land of N.E.Africa. Its W. or main 
branch has not yet been traced to its source, but 
it has been followed up to a point in 4° 42' N. lat. 
and 30** 58' E. long., where it is a rapid mountain 
stream, running at the rate of 6 knots an hour over 
a rocky bed, free from alluvial soil. After a course 
in the general direction of N. N. E. as far as a 
place called Khartum, in 15° 34' N. lat. and 320 
30' E. long., this river, which is called the Bahr- 
el-Abiad, i. e. White River ^ receives another large 
river, the Bahr-el-AzreJc, i. e. Blue River, the 
sources of which are in the highlands of Abyssinia, 
about no N. lat. and 37 E. long: this is the 
middle branch of the Nile system, the Astapus 
of the ancients. The third, or E. branch, called 
Tacazze, the Astaboras of the ancients, rises 
also in the highlands of Abyssinia, in about 1 1® 
40' N. lat., and 39° 40' E. long., and joins the 
Nile (i. e. the main stream fonned by the union of 
X^ieAbiad and the Azreh), in l/** 45' N. lat., and 
about 34* 5' E. long. : the point of junction was the 
apex of the island of Merge. Here the united 
river is about 2 miles broad. Hence it flows 
through Nubia, in a magnificent rocky valley, fall- 
ing over 6 cataracts, the N.-most of which, called 
the First cataract (i. e. to a person going up the 
river), is and has always been the S. boundary 
of Egypt. Of its course from this point, to its 
junction with the Mediterranean, a sufficient ge- 
neral description has been given under Aegyptus 
(p. 14). Tlae branches into which it parted at the 
S. point of the Delta were, in ancient times, 3 in 
number, and these again parted into 7, of which, 
Herodotus tells us, 5 were natural and 2 artificial. 
These 7 mouths were nearly all named from cities 
which stood upon them : they were called, pro- 
ceeding from E. to W., the Pelusiac, the Tanitic 
or Saitic, the Mendesian, the Phatnitic or Path- 
metic or Bucolic, the Sebennytic, the Bolbitic or 
Bolbitine, and the Canobic or Canopic. Through 
the alterations caused by the alluvial deposits of 
the river, they have now all shifted their positions, 
or dwindled into little channels, except 2, and 
these are much diminished ; namely, the Damiat 
mouth on the E. and the Roseita mouth on the W. 
Of the canals connected with the Nile in the Delta, 
the most celebrated were the Canobic, which con- 
nected the Canobic mouth with the lake Mareotis 
and with Alexandria, and that of Ptolemy (after- 
wards called that of Trajan) which connected the 
Nile at the beginning of the Delta with the bay 
of Heroopolis at the head of the Red Sea : the 
formation of the latter is ascribed to king Necho, 
and its repair and improvement successively to 
Darius the son of Hystaspes, Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus and Trajan. That the Delta, and indeed 
the whole alluvial soil of Egypt has been created 
by the Nile, cannot be doubted ; but the present 
small rate of deposit proves that the formation 
must have been made long before the historical 
period. The periodical rise of the river has been 
spoken of under Aegyptus. It is caused by 
the tropical rains on the highlands in which it rises. 
The best ancient accounts, preserved by Ptolemy, 
place its source in a range of mountains in Central 
Africa, called the Mountains of the Moon ; and 
the most recent information points to a range of 
mountains, a little N. of the Equator, called Jebel- 
el-Kumri, or the Bhce Mountain, as containing the 



probable sources of the Bahr Ahiad. The ancient 
Egyptians deified the Nile, and took the utmost 
care to preserve its water from pollution. 

Ninus, the reputed founder of the city of Ninus 
or Nineveh. An account of his exploits is given 
under Serairamis, his wife, whose name was more 
celebrated. [Semiramis.] 

Nmus, Nimve (Ntj/oy,or less correctly N?wy: 0. 
T. Nineveh, LXX. Hivevi), Nivevi : NiV/os, Nini- 
vitae, pi. ), the capital of the great Assyrian monarchy, 
and one of the most ancient cities in the world, stood 
on the E. side of the Tigris, at the upper part of its 
course, in the district of Aturia. The accounts of 
its foundation and history are as various as those 
respecting the Assyrian monarchy in general [As- 
syria]. The Greek and Roman writers ascribe 
its foundation to Ninus ; but in the book of Gene- 
sis (x. 11) we are told, immediately after the 
mention of the kingdom of Nimrod and his 
foundation of Babel and other cities in Shinar 
{i. e. Babylonia), that " out of that land went forth 
Asshur" (or otherwise, " he — i.e. Nimrod — 
went forth into Assyria "), " and builded Nine- 
veh." There is no further mention of Nineveh in 
Scripture till the reign of Jeroboam II., about b.c. 
825, when the prophet Jonah was commissioned to 
preach repentance to its inhabitants. It is then 
described as " an exceeding great city, of 3 days' 
journey," and as containing "more than 120,000 
persons that cannot discern between their right hand 
and their left hand," which, if this phrase refers to 
children, would represent a population of 600,000 
souls. The other passages, in which the Hebrew 
prophets denounce ruin against it, bear witness to 
its size, wealth, and luxury, and the latest of them 
{Zeph. ii. 13) is dated only a few years before the 
final destruction of the city, which was eff'ected by 
the Medes and Babylonians about B. c. 606. It is 
said by Strabo to have been larger than Babylon, 
and Diodorus describes it as an oblong quadrangle 
of 150 stadia by 90, making the circuit of the 
walls 480 stadia (more than 55 statute miles) : if 
so, the city was twice as large as London together 
with its suburbs. In judging of these statements, 
not only must allowance be made for the immense 
space occupied by palaces and temples, but also for 
the Oriental mode of building a city, so as to in- 
clude large gardens and other open spaces within 
the walls. The walls of Nineveh are described as- 
100 feet high, and thick enough to allow 3 chariots 
to pass each other on them ; with 1500 towers, 200 
feet in height. The city is said to have been en- 
tirely destroyed by fire when it was taken by the 
Medes and Babylonians, about b. c. 606 ; and fre- 
quent allusions occur to its desolate state. Under 
the Roman empire, however, we again meet with 
a city Nineve, in the district of Adiabene, men- 
tioned by Tacitus, and again by Ammianus Mar- 
cellinus, and a medieval historian of the 13th cen- 
tury mentions a fort of the same name : but state- 
ments like these must refer to some later place 
built among or near the ruins of the ancient Nine- 
veh. Thus, of all the great cities of the world,., 
none was thought to have been more utterly lost 
than the capital of the most ancient of the great 
monarchies. Tradition pointed out a few shapeless 
mounds opposite Mosul on the Upper Tigris, as alt 
that remained of Nineveh ; and a few fragments o£ 
masonry were occasionally dug up there, and else- 
where in Assyria, bearing inscriptions in an almost 
unknown character, called, from its shape, cunei- 

1 1 



482 NINYAS. 
fonn or arrow-headed. Within the last 10 years, 
however, those shapeless mounds have been shov/n 
to contain the remains of great palaces, on the 
■walls of which the scenes of AssjTian life and the 
records of Assyrian conquests are sculptured ; while 
the efforts which had long been made to decipher 
the cuneiform inscriptions found in Persia and 
Babylonia, as well as Assyria, have been so far 
successful as to make it probable that we may soon 
read the records of Assyrian history from her own 
monuments. It is as yet premature to form defi- 
nite conclusions to any great extent. The results 
of Major Rawlinson's study of the cuneiform in- 
scriptions of Assyria are only in process of publica- 
tion. The excavations conducted by Dr. Layard 
and M. Botta have brought to light the sculptured 
remains of immense palaces, not only at the tradi- 
tional site of Nineveh, namely Kouyunjik and 
Nehhi-Yumis, opposite to Mosul, and at Khorsabad, 
about 10 miles to the N.N.E., but also in a mound, 
1 8 miles lower do^ra the river, in the tongue of 
land between the Tigris and the Great Zah, which 
still bears the name of Nimroud ; and it is clear 
that their remains belong to different periods, em- 
bracing the records of two distinct dynasties, ex- 
tending over several generations ; none of which 
can be later than B. c. 606, while some of them 
probably belong to a period at least as ancient as 
the 13th, and perhaps even the loth century B. c. 
There are other mounds of ruins as yet unexplored. 
Which of these ruins correspond to the true site of 
Nineveh, or whether (as Dr. Layard suggests) 
that vast city may have extended all the way 
along the Tigris from Kouyunjik to Nimroud, and 
to a corresponding breadth N. E. of the river, as 
far as Khorsabad, are questions still under discus- 
sion. Meanwhile, the study of the monuments 
and inscriptions thus discovered must soon throw 
fresh light on the whole subject. Some splendid 
fragments of sculpture, obtained by Dr. Layard 
from Nimroud, are now to be seen in the British 
Museum. 

Ninyas (Nivvas), son of Ninus and Semiramis. 
See Semiramis. 

Niobe {NLoSr}). 1, Daughter of Phoroneus, and 
by Zeus the mother of Argus and Pelasgus. — 2. 
Daughter of Tantalus by the Pleiad Taygete or 
the Hyad Dione. She was the sister of Pelops, 
and the wife of Amphion, king of Thebes, by whom 
she became the mother of 6 sons and 6 daughters. 
Being proud of the number of her children, she 
deemed herself superior to Leto, who had given 
birth to only 2 children. Apollo and Artemis, in- 
dignant at such presumption, slew all her children 
with their arrows. For 9 days their bodies lay in 
their blood without any one burying them, for 
Zeus had changed the people into stones ; but on 
the 10th day the gods themselves buried them. 
Niobe herself, who had gone to Mt. Sipylus, was 
metamorphosed into stone, and even thus continued 
to feel the misfortune with which the gods had 
visited her. This is the Homeric story, which 
later writers have greatly modified and enlarged. 
The number and names of the children of Niobe 
vary very much in the different accounts ; for while 
Homer states that their number was 12, Hesiod 
and others mentioned 20, Alcman only 6, Sappho 
18, and Herodotus 4; but the most commonly re- 
ceived number in later times appears to have been 
14, namely 7 sons and 7 daughters. According to 
Homer all the children of Niobe fell by the arrows 



NISIBIS. 

of Apollo and Artemis ; but later writers state that 
one of her sons, Amphion or Amyclas, and one of 
her daughters, Meliboea, were saved, but that Me- 
liboea, having turned pale with terror at the sight 
of her dying brothers and sisters, was afterwards 
called Chloris. The time and place at which the 
children of Niobe were destroj^ed are likewise 
stated differently. According to Homer, they pe- 
rished in their mother's house. According to Ovid, 
the sons were slain while they were engaged in 
g}Tnnastic exercises in a plain near Thebes, and 
the daughters during the funeral of their brothers. 
Others, again, transfer the scene to Lydia, or make 
Niobe, after the death of her children, go from 
Thebes to Lydia, to her father Tantalus on Mt. 
Sipylus, where Zeus, at her own request, meta- 
morphosed her into a stone, which during the 
summer always shed tears. In the time of Pau- 
sanias people still fancied they could see the petri- 
fied figure of Niobe on Mt. Sipylus. The tomb of 
the children of Niobe, however, was shown at 
Thebes. The story of Niobe and her children was 
frequently taken as a subject by ancient artists. 
One of the most celebrated of the ancient works of 
art still extant is the group of Niobe and her 
children, which filled the pediment of the temple 
of Apollo Sosianus at Rome, and which was dis- 
covered at Rome in the year 1583. This group is 
now at Florence, and consists of the mother, who 
holds her youngest daughter on her knees, and 13 
statues of her sons and daughters, besides a figure 
usually called the paedagogus of the children. The 
Romans themselves were uncertain whether the 
group was the work of Scopas or Praxiteles. 

I^iphates (d NKpdrTjs, i. e. Snow-mozmtain : 
Balan), a mountain chain of Armenia, forming an 
E. prolongation of the Taurus from where it is 
crossed by the Euphrates towards the Lake of Van, 
before reaching which it turns to the S., and ap- 
proaches the Tigris below Tigranocerta ; thus sur- 
rounding on the N. and E. the basin of the highest 
course of the Tigris (which is enclosed on the S. 
and S.W. by Mt. Masius), and dividing it from 
the valley of the Arsanias {Murad) or S. branch 
of the Euphrates. The contmuation of Mt. Ni- 
phates to the S.E. along the E. margin of the Tigris 
valley is formed by the mountains of the Carduchi 
( Mts. of Kurdistan ) . 

Nireus (Nipeus), son of Charopus and Aglaia, 
was, next to Achilles, the handsomest among the 
Greeks at Troy. He came from the island of 
Syme (between Rhodes and Cnidus). Later wTiters 
relate that he w-as slain by Eurypylus or Aeneas. 

Msaea. [Megara.] 

Kisaea, Nisaei, Nisaeus Campus (NiVaia, 
liiaaLoi, rh NtVaioi' irediov), these names are found 
in the Greek and Roman writers used for various 
places on the S. and S.E, of the Caspian : thus one 
writer mentions a city Nisaea in Margiana, and 
another a people Nisaei in the N. of Aria ; but 
most apply the term Nisaean Plain to a plain in 
the N. of Great Media, near Rhagae, the pasture 
ground of a great number of horses of the finest 
breed, which supplied the studs of the king and 
nobles of Persia. It seems not unlikely that this 
breed of horses was called Nisaean from their ori- 
ginal home in Margiana (a district famous for its 
horses') and that the Nisaean plain received its 
name from the horses kept in it. 

JTisibis (Nio-jgis : Niai^rjuos). 1. Also Antio- 
chia Mygdoniae (0. T. Aram Zoba ? Ru. nr. A'isi- 



NISUS. 



NOBILIOR. 



483 



bin), a celebrated city of Mesopotamia, and the 
capital of the district of Mygdonia, stood on the 
river Mygdoniiis {Nahr-aJ^Huali) 37 Roman miles 
S.W. of Tigranocerta, in a very fertile district. It 
was the centre of a considerable trade, and was of 
great importance as a military post. In the suc- 
cessive wars between the Romans and Tigranes, 
the Parthians, and the Persians, it was several 
times taken and retaken, until at last it fell into the 
hands of the Persians in the reign of Jovian. ™ 2. 
A city of Aria at the foot of M. Paropamisus. 

Nisus (N?(ros). 1. King of Megara, was son 
of Pandion and Pylia, brother of Aegeus, Pallas, 
and Lycus, and husband of Abrote, by whom he 
became the father of Scylla. Wlien Megara was 
besieged by Minos, Scylla, who had fallen in love 
with Minos, pulled out the purple or golden hair 
which grew on the top of her father's head, and on 
which his life depended. Nisus thereupon died, 
and Minos obtained possession of the city. Minos, 
however, was so horrified at the conduct of the un- 
natural daughter, that he ordered Scylla to be 
fastened to the poop of his ship, and afterwards 
drowned her in the Saronic gulf. According to 
others, Minos left Megara in disgust ; Scylla leapt 
into the sea, and swam after his ship ; but her 
father, who had been changed into a sea-eagle {lia- 
liaeeius), pounced down upon her, whereupon she 
was metamorphosed into either a fish or a bird 
called Ciris. — Scylla, the daughter of Nisus, is 
sometimes confounded by the poets with Scylla, 
the daughter of Phorcus. Hence the latter is 
sometimes erroneously called Niseia Virgo, and 
Niseis. [Scylla.] — Nisaea, the port town of 
Megara, is supposed to have derived its name from 
Nisus, and the promontory of Scyllaeum from his 
daughter. 2. Son of Hyrtacus, and a friend of 
Euryalus. The two friends accompanied Aeneas 
to Italy, and perished in a night attack against the 
Rutulian camp. 

Nisyrus (Niarovpos : Nikerd), a small island in 
the Carpathian Sea, a little distance olf the pro- 
montory of Caria called Triopium, of a round form, 
80 stadia (8 geog. miles) in circuit, and composed 
of lofty rocks, the highest being 2271 feet high. Its 
volcanic nature gave rise to the fable respecting its 
origin, that Poseidon tore it off the neighbouring 
island of Cos to hurl it upon the giant Polybotes. 
It was celebrated for its warm springs, wine, and 
mill-stones. Its capital, of the same name, stood 
on the N.W. of the island, where considerable 
ruins of its Acropolis remain. Its first inhabitants 
are said to have been Carians ; but already in the 
heroic age it had received a Dorian population, 
like other islands near it, with which it is men- 
tioned by Homer as sending troops to the Greeks. 
It received other Dorian settlements in the histori- 
cal age. At the time of the Persian War, it be- 
longed to the Carian queen Artemisia: it next 
became a tributary ally of Athens : though trans- 
ferred to the Spartan alliance by the issue of the 
Peloponnesian War, it was recovered for Athens 
by the victory at Cnidus, b. c. 394. After the 
victory of the Romans over Antiochus the Great, 
it was assigned to Rhodes ; and, with the rest of 
the Rhodian republic, was united to the Roman 
empire about b. c. 70. 

Nitiobriges, a Celtic people in Gallia Aqui- 
tanica between the Garumna and the Liger, whose 
fighting force consisted of 5000 men. Their chief 
town was Aginnltm {A gen). 



Mcocris (N/rco/cpts). 1. A queen of Babylon, 
mentioned by Herodotus, who ascribes to her 
many important works at Babylon and its vicinity. 
It is supposed by most modern writers that she 
was the wife of Nebuchadnezzar, and the mother 
or grandmother of Labynetus or Belshazzar, the 
last king of Babylon. — 2. A queen of Egypt, was 
elected to the sovereignty in place of her brother, 
whom the Egyptians had killed. In order to take 
revenge upon the murderers of her brother, she 
built a very long chamber under ground, and when 
it was finished invited to a banquet in it those of 
the Egyptians who had had a principal share in the 
murder. While they were engaged in the banquet 
she let in upon them the waters of the Nile by 
means of a large concealed pipe, and drowned them 
all, and then, in order to escape punishment, threw 
herself into a chamber full of ashes. This is the 
account of Herodotus. We learn from other au- 
thorities that she was a celebrated personage in 
Egyptian legends. She is said to have built the 
third pyramid, by which we are to understand, that 
she finished the third pyramid, which had been 
commenced by Mycerinus. Modern writers make 
her the last sovereign of the 6th dynasty, and 
state that she reigned 6 years in place of her mur- 
dered husband (not her brother, as Herodotus 
states), whose name was Menthuophis. The latter 
is supposed to be the son or grandson of the Moe- 
ris of the Greeks and Romans. 

Mtriae, Mtrariae (NiTpiai, NtTpm, 'NlTpaiai : 
Birket-el-Duarah), the celebrated natron lakes in 
Lower Egypt, which lay in a valley on the S.W. 
margin of the Delta, and gave to the surrounding 
district the name of the Nofxhs 'NirpicoTis or Ni- 
rpiojTTjs, and to the inhabitants, whose chief occu- 
pation was the extraction of the natron from the 
lakes, the name of NiTpioorai. This district was 
the chief seat of the worship of Serapis, and the 
onl)'- place in Egypt where sheep were sacrificed. 

Mxi Dii, a general term, applied by the Romans 
to those divinities who were believed to assist 
women in child-birth. 

Hobilior, Fulvms, plebeians. This family was 
originally called Paetinus, and the name of No- 
bilior was first assumed by No. 1, to indicate that 
he was more noble than any others of this name. 
1. Ser., consul b. c. 255, with M. Aemilius Paulus, 
about the middle of the 1st Punic war. The 2 
consuls were sent to Africa, to bring off the sur- 
vivors of the army of Regulus. On their way to 
Africa they gained a naval victory over the Car- 
thaginians ; but on their return to Italy, they were 
wrecked off the coast of Sicily, and most of their 
ships were destroyed. 2. M., grandson of the 
preceding, curule aedile 195; praetor 193, when 
he defeated the Celtiberi in Spain, and took the 
town of Toletum ; and consul 189, when he re- 
ceived the conduct of the war against the Aetolians. 
He took the town of Ambracia, and compelled the 
Aetolians to sue for peace. On his return to Rome 
in 187, he celebrated a most splendid triumph. 
In 179 he was censor with M. Aemilius Lepidus, 
the pontifex maximus. Fulvius Nobilior had a 
taste for literature and art ; he was a patron of the 
poet Ennius, who accompanied him in his Aetolian 
campaign ; and he belonged to that party among 
the Roman nobles who were introducing into the 
city a taste for Greek literature and refinement. 
He was, therefore, attacked by Cato the censor, 
who made merry with his came, calling him mo~ 

TI 2 



404 



NOLA. 



XORICUM. 



lilior instead of nobiliur. Fulvius, in his censor- 
ship, erected a temple to Hercules and the Muses 
in the Circus Flarainius, as a proof that the state 
ought to cultivate the liberal arts ; and he adorned 
it Avith the paintings and statues -which he had 
brought from Greece upon his conquest of Aetolia. 
— 3. M., son of No. 2, tribune of the plebs 171 ; 
curule aedile 16(5, the year in which the Andria of 
Terence was performed ; and consul 159. — 4., Q., 
also son of No. 2, consul 153, when he had the 
conduct of the war against the Celtiberi in Spain, 
by whom he was defeated v,-ith great loss. He 
was censor in 136. He inherited his father's love 
for literature : he presented the poet Ennius with 
the Roman franchise when he was a triumvir for 
founding a colony. 

N51a (Nolanus : Nolo), one of the most ancient 
to\ras in Campania, 21 Roman miles S. E. of 
Capua, on the road from that place to Nuceria, 
was founded by the Ansonians, but afterwards fell 
into the hands of the Tyrrheni (Etruscans), whence 
some writers call it an Etruscan city. In B. c. 327 
Nola was sufficiently powerful to send 2000 soldiers 
to the assistance of Neapolis. In 313 the town 
was taken by the Romans. It remained faithful 
to the Romans even after the battle of Cannae, 
when the other Campanian towns revolted to Han- 
nibal ; and it was allowed in consequence to retain 
its own constitution as an ally of the Romans, In 
the Social war it fell into the hands of the con- 
federates, and when taken by Sulla it was burnt 
to the ground by the Samnite garrison. It was 
afterwards rebuilt, and was made a Roman colony 
by Vespasian. The emperor Augustus died at 
Nola. In the neighbourhood of the town some 
of the most beautiful Campanian vases have been 
found in modern times. According to an eccle- 
siastical tradition, church bells were invented at 
Nola, and were hence called Campame. 

Nomentanus, mentioned by Horace as pro- 
verbially noted for extravagance and a riotous 
mode of living. The Scholiasts tell us that his 
full name was L. Cassius Nomentanus. 

Nomentum (Nomentanus: La Mentana), ori- 
ginally a Latin Xovra founded by Alba, but subse- 
quently a Sabine town, 14 (Roman) miles from 
Rome, from which the Via Xonmiiana (more an- 
ciently Via Ficulensis) and the Porta Nomeniana 
at Rome derived their name. The neighbourhood 
of the town was celebrated for its wine. 

Nomia (to No'uia). a mountain in Arcadia on 
the frontiers of Laconia, is said to have derived its 
name from a nymph Nomia. 

Nomius (NoVios), a surname of divinities pro- 
tecting the pastures and shepherds, such as Apollo, 
Pan, Hermes, and Aristaeus. 

Nonacris {KwvaKpis : Nwi'aKpjaTTjs, "NuvoKpL- 
€vs), a town in the N. of Arcadia, N.'W. of Phe- 
neus, was surrounded by lofty mountains, in which 
the river Styx took its origin. The town is said 
to have derived its name from Nonacris, the wife 
of Lycaon. From this town Hermes is called 
Nonacnaies, Evander jVonacrms, Atalanta Nona- 
cria, and Callisto Xonacrina Virgo, in the general 
sense of Arcadian. 

Nonius MarceUus, [Marcellus.] 

Nonlns Sufenas. [Sufexas.] 

Konnus {'Kowos). 1, A Greek poet, was a 
native of Panopolis in Egypt, and lived in the 6th 
century of the Christian era. Respecting his life 
nothing is known, except that he was a Christian. 



He is the author of an enormous epic poera, which 
has come down to us under the name of Diony- 
siaca or Bassarica (ALovva-iaKa or BaaaapiKo.)^ and 
which consists of 48 books. The work has no 
literary merit ; the style is bombastic and inflated ; 
and the incidents are patched together with little 
or no coherence. Edited by Graefe, Lips. 1819 — 
1826, 2 vols. 8vo. Nonnus also made a paraphrase 
of the gospel of St. John in Hexameter verse, which 
is likewise extant. Edited by Heinsius, Lugd. 
Bat. 1627. — 2. Tlieophanes Nonnus, a Greek 
medical writer who lived in the 10th century after 
Christ. His work is entitled a " Compendium of 
the whole Medical art," and is compiled from pre- 
vious writers. Edited by Bernard, Gothae et 
Amstel. 1794, 1795, 2 vols. 

Nora (ra Nwpa: HupafSs, Norensis). 1. {Torre 
Forcadizo), one of the oldest cities of Sardinia, 
founded by Iberian settlers under Norax, stood on 
the coast of the Sinus Caralitanus, 32 Roman miles 
S. W. of Caralis. — 2. A mountain fortress of Cap- 
padocia, on the borders of Lycaonia, on the N. 
side of the Taurus, noted for the siege sustained in 
it b)" Eumenes against Antigonus for a whole 
winter. In the time of Strabo, who calls it NTjpo- 
aaaos, it was the treasury of Sisinas, a pretender 
to the throne of Cappadocia. 

Norba (Norbanensis, Norbanus). 1. (NormaX 
a strongly fortified town in Latium on the slope of 
the Volscian mountains and near the sources of the 
Nymphaeus, originally belonged to the Latin and 
subsequently to the Volscian league. As early as 
B. c. 492 the Romans founded a colony at Norba. 
It espoused the cause of Marius in the civil war, 
and was destroyed by fire by its own inhabitants, 
when it was taken by one of Sulla's generals. 
There are still remains of polygonal walls, and a 
subterraneous passage at Norma. — 2. Surnamed 
Caesar ea (Alcantara), a Roman colony in Lusi- 
tania on the left bank of the Tagus, N.W. of 
Augusta Emerita. The bridge built by order of 
Trajan over the Tagus at this place is still extant. 
It is 600 feet long by 28 wide, and contains 6 
arches. 

Norbanus, C, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 95, 
when he accused Q. Servilius Caepio of majestas, 
but was himself accused of the same crime in the 
following year, on account of disturbances which 
took place at the trial of Caepio. In 90 or 89, 
Norbanus was praetor in Sicily during the Marsic 
war ; and in the civil wars he espoused the Marian 
party. He was consul in 83, when he was de- 
feated by Sulla near Capua. In the following 
year, 82, he joined the consul Carbo in Cisalpine 
Gaul, but their united forces were entirely defeated 
by Metellus Pius. Norbanus escaped from Italy, 
and fled to Rhodes, where he put an end to hia 
life, when his person was demanded by Sulla. 

Norbanus Flaccus. [Flaccu.s.] 

Noreia (NcopTjeta : Xeinnarki in Sfi/ria), the 
ancient capital of the Tam-isc" or Norici in Noricum, 
from which the whole countvy probably derived its 
name. It was situated in the centre of Noricum, 
a little S. of the river Murius, and on the road 
from Virunum to Ovilaba, It is celebrated as the 
place wheje Carbo was defeated by the Cimbri, 
B.C. 113. It was besieged by the Boii in the 
time of Julius Caesar. (Caes. B. G. i. 5.) 

Noricum, a Roman province S. of the Danube, 
which probably derived its name from the town of 
NoREiA, was bounded on the N. by the Danube, on 



NORTIA. 



NUMA. 



485 



the W. by Rhaetia and Viiidelicia, on the E. by 
Pannonia, and on the S. by Pannonia and Italy. 
It was separated from Rhaetia and Vindelicia by 
the river Aenus (Inn), from Pannonia on the E. 
by M. Cetiiis, and from Pannonia and Italy on the 
S. by the river Savus, the Alpes Carnicae, and 
M. Ocra. It thus corresponds to the greater part 
of Styria and Carinthia, and a part of Austria, 
Bavaria, and Salzburg. Noricum was a moun- 
tainous country, for it was not only surrounded on 
the S. and E. by mountains, but one of the 
main branches of the Alps, the Alpes Noricae 
(in the neighbourhood of Salzburg), ran right 
through the province. In those mountains a large 
quantity of excellent iron was found ; and the 
Noric swords were celebrated in antiquity. Gold 
also is said to have been found in the mountains in 
ancient times. The inhabitants of the country 
were Celts, divided into several tribes, of which 
the Taurisci, also called Norici, after their capital 
Noreia, were the most important. They were 
conquered by the Romans towards the end of the 
reign of Augustus, after the subjugation of Raetia 
by Tiberius and Drusus, and their country was 
formed into a Roman province. In the later divi- 
sion of the Roman empire into smaller provinces, 
Noricum was formed into 2 provinces, N. Ripense, 
along the bank of the Danube, and N. Mediterra- 
neum, separated from the former by the mountains, 
which divide Austria and Styria : they both be- 
longed to the diocese of lUyricum and the prefec- 
ture of Italy. 

Nortia or Nurtia, an Etruscan divinity, wor- 
shipped at Volsinii, where a nail was driven every 
year into the wall of her temple, for the purpose of 
marking the number of years. 

Nossis, a Greek poetess, of Locri in Italy, lived 
about B. c. 310, and is the author of 12 epigrams 
of considerable beauty in the Greek Anthology. 

NotUS. [AUSTER.] 

Novaria (Novarensis : Novara)^ a town in 
Gallia Transpadana, situated on a river of the same 
name (Gogna), and on the road from Mediolanum 
to Vercellae, subsequently a Roman municipium. 

Novatianus, a heretic, who insisted upon the per- 
petual exclusion from the Church of all Christians, 
who had fallen away from the faith under the 
terrors of persecution. On the election of Corne- 
lius to the see of Rome, A. D. 251, Novatianus 
was consecrated bishop by a rival party, but was 
condemned by the council held in the autumn of 
the same year. After a vain struggle to main- 
tain his position, he was obliged to give way, and 
became the founder of a new sect, who from him 
derived the name of Novatians. It should be ob- 
served that the individual who first proclaimed 
these doctrines was not Novatianus, but an African 
presbyter under Cyprian, named Novatus. Hence 
much confusion has arisen between Novatus and 
Novatianus, who ought, however, to be carefully 
distinguished. A few of the works of Novatianus 
are extant. The best edition of them is by Jack- 
son, Lond. 1728. 

Novatus. [Novatianus.] 

Novensiles or Novensides Dii, Roman gods 
whose name is probably composed of nove and 
insides, and therefore signifies the new gods in 
opposition to the Indigetes, or old native divinities. 
It was customary among the Romans, after the 
conquest of a neighbouring town, to carry its gods 
to Rome, and there establish their worship. 



Novesium (Netiss), a fortified town of the Ubii 
on the Rhine, and on the road leading from Colonia 
Agrippina (Cologne), to Castra Vetera (Xanten). 
The fortifications of this place were restored by 
Julian in A. D. 359. 

Noviodunum, a name given to many Celtic 
places from their being situated on a hill (dun). 
1. (Nouan), a town of the Bituriges Cubi in Gallia 
Aquitanica, E. of their capital Avaricum. — 2. 
(Nevers)y a to\m of the Aedui in Gallia Lugdunen- 
sis, on the road from Augustodunum to Lutetia, 
and at the confluence of the Niveris and the Liger, 
whence it was subsequently called Nevimum, and 
thus acquired its modern name. — 3. A town of 
the Suessones in Gallia Belgica, probably the same 
as Augusta Suessonum, [Augusta, No. 6.] —4. 
(Nion), a town of the Helvetii in Gallia Belgica, 
on the N. bank of the Lacus Lemanus, was made 
a Roman colony by Julius Caesar, B. c. 45, under 
the name of Colonia Equestris. — 5. (Isaczi), a for- 
tress in Moesia Inferior on the Danube, near 
which Valens built his bridge of boats across the 
Danube in his campaign against the Goths. 

Noviomagus or Noeomagus. 1. (Castelnan de 
Medoc), a town of the Bituriges Vivisci in Gallia 
Aquitanica, N. W. of Burdigala. —2. A town of 
the Tricastini in Gallia Narbonensis, probably the 
modern Nions, though some suppose it to be the 
same place as Augusta Tricastinorum (Aouste). — 
3. (Spires), the capital of the Nemetes. [Neme- 
TES.] — 4. (Neumagen), a town of the Treviri in 
Gallia Belgica on the Mosella.— 5. (Nimwegeti).^ 
town^of the Batavi. 

Novius, Q., a celebrated writer of Atellane 
plays, a contemporary of the dictator Sulla. 

Novum Comum. [Comum.] 

Nuba Palus (NoO§a A(>V77 : prob. L. Fittreh, 
in Dar Zaleh), a lake in Central Africa, receiving 
the great river Gir, according to Ptolemy, who 
places it in 15° N. lat. and 40° E. long. (=22° 
from Greenwich.) 

Nubae, Nubaei (NoCSai, NongoToj), an African 
people, who are found in 2 places, namely about 
the lake Nuba, and also on the banks of the Nile 
N. of Meroe, that is, in the N. central part of 
Nubia : the latter Avere governed by princes of 
their own, independent of Meroe. By the reign 
of Diocletian they had advanced N.- wards as far as 
the frontier of Egypt. 

Nuceria (Nucerinus.) 1. Sumamed Alfaterna 
(Nocera), a town in Campania on the Samus 
(Sarno), and on the Via Appia, S. E. of Nola, and 
9 (Roman) miles from the coast, was taken by the 
Romans in the Samnite wars, and was again taken 
by Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, when it 
was burnt to the ground. It was subsequently re- 
built, and both Augustus and Nero planted here 
colonies of veterans. Pompeii was used as the 
harbour of Nuceria. — 2. Sumamed Camellaria 
(Nocera), a town in the interior of Umbria on the 
Via Flaminia. — 3. (Luzzara), a small town in Gal- 
lia Cispadana on the Po, N. E. of Brixellum.— 4. A 
town in Apulia, more correctly called Luceria. 

Nuitbones, a people of Germany, dwelling on 
the right bank of the Albis (Elbe), S. W. of the 
Saxones, and N. of the Langobardi, in the S. E. 
part of the modem Mecklenburg. 

Numa, Marcius. 1. An intimate friend of 
Numa Pompilius, whom he is said to have accom- 
panied to Rome, where Numa made him the 1st 
Pontifex Maximus. Marcius aspired to the kingly 

II 3 



486 NUMA. 

dignity on the death of Pompilius, and he starved 
himself to death on the election of TuUus Hostilius. 
=— 2. Son of the preceding, is said to have married 
Pompilia, the daughter of Numa Pompilius, and 
to have become by her the father of Ancus Marcius. 
Numa Marcius was appointed by TuUus Hostilius 
praefectus urbi. 

Nnma Pompilius, the 2nd king of Rome, who 
belongs to legend and not to historJ^ He was a 
native of Cures in the Sabine country, and was 
elected king one year after the death of Romulus, 
when the people became tired of the interregnum of 
the senate. He was renowned for his wisdom and 
his piety ; and it was generally believed that he 
had derived his knowledge from Pythagoras. His 
reign was long and peaceful, and he devoted his 
chief care to the establishment of religion among 
his rude subjects. He was instructed by the Ca- 
mena Egeria, who visited him in a grove near 
Rome, and who honoured him with her love. He 
was revered by the Romans as the author of their 
whole religious worship. It was he who first ap- 
pointed the pontiffs, the augurs, the flamens, the vir- 
gins of Vesta, and the Salii. He foimded the temple 
of Janus, which remained always shut during his 
reign. The length of his reign is stated differently. 
Livy makes it 43 years ; Polybius and Cicero, 39 
years. The sacred books of Numa, iu which he pre- 
scribed all the religious rites and ceremonies, were 
said to have been buried near him in a separate tomb, 
and to have been discovered by accident, 500 years 
afterwards, in B. c. 181. They were carried to the 
city-praetor Petilius, and were found to consist of 
12 or 7 books in Latin on ecclesiastical law, and 
the same number of books in Greek on philosophy : 
the latter were burnt on the command of the senate, 
but the former were carefully preserved. The 
story of the discovery of these books is evidently a 
forgery ; and the books, which were ascribed to 
Numa, and which were extant at a later time, 
were evidently nothing more than works containing 
an account of the ceremonial of the Roman religion. 

Numana ( Umana Disimtta), a town in Pice- 
nuni, on the road leading from Ancona to Atemum 
along the coast, was founded by the Siculi, and 
v/as subsequently a municipium. 

Kumantia (Numantlnus : nr. Fuente de Don 
Guar ray Ru.), the capital of the Arevacae or Are- 
vaci in Hispania Tarraconensis, and the most im- 
portant town in all Celtiberia, w^as situated near 
the sources of the Durius, on a small tributary of 
this river, and on the road leading from Asturica 
to Caesaraugusta. It was strongly fortified by 
nature, being built on a steep and precipitous, 
though not lofty, hill, and accessible by only one 
path, which was defended by ditches and pali- 
sades. It was 2-4 stadia in circumference, but was 
not surrounded by regular walls, which the natural 
strength of its position rendered unnecessarj-. It 
was long the head-quarters of the Celtiberians in 
their wars with the Romans ; and its protracted 
siege and final destruction by Scipio Africanus the 
younger (b. c. 133) is one of the most memorable 
events in the early history of Spain. 

Numenius (Nou^TjVioj), of Apamea in Syria, a 
Pythagoreo-Platonic philosopher, who was highly 
esteemed by Plotinus and his school, as well as by 
Origen. He probably belongs to the age of the 
Antonines. His object was to trace the doctrines 
of Plato up to Pythagoras, and at the same time to 
show that they were not at variance with the 



NTJMIDIA. 

dogmas and mysteries of the Brahmins, Jews, Magi, 
and Egj^tians. Considerable fragments of his 
works have been preserved by Eusebius, in his 
Praeparatio Evangelica. 

Numerianus, M, Aurelius, the younger of the 
2 sons of the emperor Carus, who accompanied his 
father in the expedition against the Persians, a. d. 
283. After the death of his father, which hap- 
pened in the same year, Numerianus was acknow- 
ledged as joint emperor with his brother Carinus. 
The arm}-, alarmed by the fate of Carus, who was 
struck dead by lightning, compelled Numerianus 
to retreat towards Europe. During the greater 
part of the march, which lasted for 8 months, he 
was confined to his litter by an affection of the 
eyes ; but the suspicions of the soldiers having 
become excited, they at length forced their way 
into the imperial tent, and discovered the dead 
body of their prince. Arrius Aper, praefect of the 
praetorians, and father-in-iaw of the deceased, was 
arraigned of the murder in a military council, held 
at Chalcedon, and, without being permitted to 
speak in his ovra. defence, was stabbed to the 
heart by Diocletian, whom the troops had already 
proclaimed emperor. [Diocletianus.] 

Numicms or Numicus {Numico)^ a small river 
in Latium flowing into the Tyrrhene sea near 
Ardea, on the banks of which was the tomb of 
Aeneas, whom the inhabitants called Jupiter 
Indiges. 

Numidia (NovfiiUa^ t] No/xadia and IJofiadiKT] : 
Noftas, Niimida, pL "No/xdSes or NOjUoSes AiSues, 
Numidae : Algier), a country of N. Africa, which, 
in its original extent, was divided from Mauretania 
on the W. by the river Malva or Mulucha, and on 
the E. from the territory of Carthage (aft. the 
Roman Province of Africa) by the river Tusca: its 
N. boundary was the Mediterranean, and on the 
S. it extended indefinitely towards the chain of 
the Great Atlas and the country of the Gaetuli. 
Intersected by the chain of the Lesser Atlas, and 
watered by the streams running dovm from it, it 
abounded in fine pastures, which were early taken 
possession of by wandering tribes of Asiatic origin, 
who from their occupation as herdmen were called 
by the Greeks, here as elsewhere, Nouddes, and 
this name was perpetuated in that of the country*. 
A sufficient account of these tribes, and of their 
connection with their neighbours on the W., is 
given under Mauretania. The fertility of the 
coimtn,', inviting to agriculture, gradually gave a 
somewhat more settled character to the people ; 
and, at their first appearance in Roman history, 
we find their 2 great tribes, the Massylians and 
the Massaesylians, forming 2 monarchies, which 
were united into one under Masinissa, b. c. 201. 
(For the historical details, see Masinissa). On 
Masinissa's death in 148, his kingdom was divided, 
by his dying directions, between his 3 sons, Mi- 
cipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa ; but it was soon 
reunited under Micipsa, in consequence of the 
death of both his brothers. His death, in 118, 
was speedily followed by the usurpation of Ju- 
gurtha, an account of which and of the ensuing 
war with the Romans is given under Jugurtha. 
On the defeat of Jugurtha in 106, the country be- 
came virtually subject to the Romans, but they 
permitted the family of Masinissa to govern it, 
with the royal title (see Hiempsal, No. 2 ; Juba, 
No. ] ), until B. c. 46, when Juba, who had es- 
poused the cause of Pompey in the Civil Wars, 



NUMIDICUS. 



NYMPHAE. 



487 



was defeated and dethroned hy Julius Caesar, and 
Numidia was made a Roman province. It seems 
to have been about the same time or a little 
later, under Augustus, that the W. part of the 
country was taken from Numidia, and added to 
Mauretania, as far E. as Saldae. In B.C. 30 
Augustus restored Juba II. to his father's king- 
dom of Numidia ; but in B. c. 25 he exchanged it 
for Mauretania, and Numidia, that is, the country 
between Saldae on the W. and the Tusca on the 
E., became a Roman province. It was again 
diminished by near a half, under Claudius (see 
Mauretania) ; and henceforth, until the Arab 
conquest, the senatorial province of Numidia de- 
notes the district between the river Ampsaga on 
the W. and the Tusca on the E. : its capital was 
Cirta {Constantineh). The country, in its later 
restricted limits, is often distinguished by the 
name of New Numidia or Numidia Proper. The 
Numidians are celebrated in military liistory as 
furnishing the best light cavalry to the armies, 
first of Carthage, and afterwards of Rome. 

NumidlCUS Sinus (Noy^i§i/cbs koXtvos: Bay of 
Storah), the great gulf E. of Pr. Tretura {Seven 
Capes), on tbe N. of Numidia. 

Numistro (Numistranus), a to-vvn in Lucania 
near the frontiers of Apulia. 

N^mitor. [Romulus.] 

Nursia (Nursinus : Norcia), a town in the N. 
of the land of the Sabines, situated near the 
sources of the Nar and amidst the Apennines, 
whence it is called by Virgil (Aen. vii. 716) 
frigida Nursia. It was the birthplace of Sertorius 
and of the mother of Vespasian. 

Nycteis (Ny/crTjis), that is, Antiope, daughter 
of Nycteus, and mother of Amphion and Zethus, 
[Antiope ; Nycteus.] 

Nycteus (NuKxeus), son of Hyrieus by the 
nymph Clonia, and husljand of Polj^xo, by whom 
he became the father of Antiope ; though, accord- 
ing to others, Antiope was the daughter of the 
river-god Asopus. Antiope was carried off hj 
Epopeus, king of Sicyon ; whereupon Nycteus, who 
governed Thebes, as the guardian of Labdacus, 
invaded Sicyon with a Theban army. Nycteus 
was defeated, and being severely wounded, he was 
carried back to Thebes, where, previous to his death, 
he appointed his brother Lycus guardian of Lab- 
dacus, and at the same time required him to take 
vengeance on Epopeus. [Lycus.] 

Nyctimene, daughter of Epopeus, king of Les- 
bos, or, according to others, of Nycteus. Pursued 
and dishonoured by her amorous father, she con- 
cealed herself in the shade of forests, where she 
was metamorphosed by Athena into an owl. 

Nymphae (Nu/^^at), the name of a numerous 
class of female divinities of a lower rank, though 
they are designated by the title of Olympian, are 
called to the meetings of the gods in Olympus, and 
are described as the daughters of Zeus. They may 
be divided into 2 great classes. The 1st class em- 
hraces those who were recognised in the worship 
of nature. The early Greeks saw in all the phe- 
nomena of ordinary nature some manifestation of 
the deity ; springs, rivers, grottoes, trees, and 
mountains, all seemed to them fraught with life ; 
and all were only the visible embodiments of so 
many divine agents. The salutary and beneficent 
powers of nature were thus personified, and re- 
garded as so many divinities. The 2nd class of 
nymphs are personifications of tribes, races, and 



states, such as Gyrene, and many otners. —I. 
The nymphs of the 1st class must again be sub- 
divided into various species, according to the diffe- 
rent parts of nature of which they are the repre- 
sentatives. 1. Nymphs of the watery element. To 
these belong first the nymphs of the ocean, Ocea- 
nides {'D.K£au7vai, 'rLKsauiSes, vvfACpai SAikj), who 
were regarded as the daughters of Oceanus ; and 
next the nymphs of the Mediterranean or inner 
sea, who were regarded as the daughters of Nereus^ 
and hence were called Nereides (NrjpetSes). The 
rivers were represented by the Potameides {Uora- 
firjiSes), who, as local divinities, were named after 
their rivers, as Acheloides, Anigrides, Ismenides, 
Amnisiades, Pactolides. The nymphs of fresh 
water, whether of rivers, lakes, brooks, or springs, 
were also designated by the general name Naiades 
(NTjtSes), though they had, in addition, specific 
names (Kp7]va7at, Ilr]ya7ai, 'EKeiov6iJ.oi, Ai/xrariSes, 
or AiiJLudSes), Even the rivers of the lower regions 
were described as having their nymphs ; hence v/e 
read of Nymphae infernae paludis and Avemales. 
Many of these nymphs presided over waters or 
springs which were believed to inspire those who 
drank of them. The nymphs themselves were, there- 
fore, thought to be endowed with prophetic power, 
and to inspire men with the same, and to confer upon 
them the gift of poetry. Hence all persons in a 
state of rapture, such as seers, poetE, madmen, &c., 
were said to be caught by the nymphs (pv/ji<p6- 
Atjtttoz, in Lat. lymphati, lymphatici)- As water 
is necessary to feed all vegetation as well as all 
living beings, the water-nymphs frequently appear 
in connection with higher divinities, as, for example, 
with Apollo, the prophetic god and the protector 
of herds and flocks ; with Artemis, the huntress 
and the protectress of game, who was herself ori- 
ginally an Arcadian nymph ; with Hermes, the 
fructifying god of flocks ; with Dionysus ; and with 
Pan, the Sileni and Satyrs, whom they join in 
their Bacchic revels and dances. ■= 3. Nymphs of 
mountains and grottoes, called Oreades ('OpeiaSes, 
'OpoSe/xvtdSes), but sometimes also by names de- 
rived from the particular mountains they inhabited 
(e. g. KiOaipupides, HrjMdSes, KopvKiai). <— 3. 
Nymphs of forests, groves, and ghns, were believed 
sometimes to appear to and frighten solitary tra- 
vellers. They are designated by the names 'AA- 
(TTjrSes, 'TATjojpoi, AuAwj/jdSe?, and '^aTxaio.i. — 4. 
Nymphs of trees, were believed to die together 
with the trees which had been their abode, and 
with which they had come into existence. They 
were called Dryades and Hamadryades (ApvdSes, 
'AjuaSpvaBes or 'ASpuaSes), from dpvs, which sig- 
nifies not only an oak, but any wild-growing lofty 
tree ; for the nymphs of fruit trees were called 
Melides (MTjAtSes, also MTjAtaSes, 'ETTijUyjAtSes, or 
'AjxaixriXL^es). They seem to be of Arcadian ori- 
gin, and never appear together with any of the 
great gods.— II. The 2nd class of nymphs, who Avere 
connected with certain races or localities (Nu^^at 
xQSviai), usually have a name derived from the 
places with which they are associated, as Nysiades, 
Dodonides, Lemniae. — The sacrifices offered to 
nymphs usually consisted of goats, lambs, milk, 
and oil, but never of wine. They were worshipped 
in many parts of Greece, especially near springs, 
groves, and grottoes. They are represented in works 
of art as beautiful maidens, either quite naked or 
only half-covered. Later poets sometimes describe 
them as having sea-coloured hair. 

ii4 



488 NYMPH AEUM. 

Kjnnpfiaeum (Nvjj.(paiov, i. e. N'r/mp7i''s abode). 
1. A mountain, with perhaps a village, by the river 
Aous, near Apollonia, in lUyricum. — 2. A port 
and promontory on the coast of lllyricum, 3 Roman 
miles from Lissus. — 3. {C.Gliiorgi), the S,W. pro- 
montory of Acte or Athos, in Chalcidice. — 4. A 
sea-port town of the Chersonesus Taurica {Crimea) 
on the Cimmerian Bosporus, 25 stadia geog. 
miles) from Panticapaeum. — 5. A place on the 
coast of Bithynia, 30 stadia (3 geog. miles) W. of 
the mouth of the river Oxines. — 6. A place in 
Cilicia, between Celenderis and Soloe. 

Nymphaeus (yiv^<paios). 1. (N'm/a or Nimpa), 
a small river of Latium, falling into the sea above 
Astura; of some note as contributing to the forma- 
tion of the Pomptine marshes. It now no longer 
reaches the sea, but falls into a little lake, called 
Lago di Monaci. — 2. A harbour on the "VV. side 
of the island of Sardinia, between the Prom. Mer- 
curii and the town of Tillium. — 3. Also called 
NymplllUS {Basilimfa) y a small river of Sophene 
in Armenia, a tributary of the upper Tigris, flow- 
ing from N. to S. past Martyropolis, in the valley 
between M. Niphates and M. Masius. 

Nymphidius Sabinus, commander of the prae- 
torian troops, together with Tigellinus, towards 
the latter end of Nero's reign. On the death of 
Nero, A. D. 68, he attempted to seize the throne, 
but was murdered by the friends of Galba. 

Nymphis (Nv^^is), son of Xenagoras, a native 
of the Pontic Heraclea, lived about B. c. 250. fie 
was a person of distinction in his native land, as 
w^ell as an historical writer of some note. He 
wrote a work on Alexander and his successors, in 
24 books, and also a history of Heraclea in 1 3 books. 

Nymphodorus (Nu^(/)<$5wpos). 1. A Greek his- 
torian of Amphipolis, of uncertain date, the author 
of a work on the Laws or Customs of Asia (NSixifxa 
'Ao-i'as). — 2. Of S}Tacuse, likewise an historian, 
seems to have lived about the time of Philip and 
Alexander the Great. He wrote a Periplus of 
Asia, and a work on Sicily. 

Nysa or Nyssa (Ni/o-a, Nuo-o-a), was the le- 
gendary scene of the nurture of Dionysus, whence 
the name was applied to several places which were 
sacred to that god. 1. In India, in the district of 
Goryaea, at the N.W. comer of the Punjab, near 
the confluence of the rivers Cophen and Choaspes, 
probably the same place as Nagara or Dionysopolis 
{Nagar or Naggar). Near it Avas a mountain of 
like name. — 2. A city or mountain in Aethiopia, 

— 3. (Sultan-Hisar, Ru., a little W. of Nazeli), a 
city of Caria, on the S. slope of M. Messogis, built 
on both sides of the ravine of the brook Eudon, 
which falls into the Maeander. It was said to 
have been named after the queen of one of the 
Antiochi, having been previously called Athymbra 
and Pythopolis. — 4. A city of Cappadocia, near 
the Halys, on the road from Caesarea to Ancyra : 
the bishopric of St. Gregory of Nyssa. — 5. A towTi 
in Thrace between the rivers Nestus and Strymon. 

— 6. A town in Boeotia near Mt. Helicon. 
Nysaeus, Nysius, Nyseus, or Nysigena, a 

surname of Dionysus, derived from Nysa, a moun- 
tain or city (see above), where the god was said 
to have been brought up by nymphs. 

Nyseides or Nysiades,' the nymphs of Nysa, 
who are said to have reared Dionysus, and whose 
names are Cisseis, Nysa, Erato, Eriphia, Bromia, 
and Polyhymno. 

Nyx (Ni/|), called Nox by the Romans, was a 



OASIS. 

personification of Night. Homer calls her the 
subduer of gods and men, and relates that Zeus 
himself stood in awe of her. In the ancient cos- 
mogonies Night is one of the very first created 
beings, for she is described as the daughter of 
Chaos, and the sister of Erebus, by whom she be- 
came the mother of Aether and Hem.era. She is 
further said to have given birth, without a hus- 
band, to Moros, the Keres, Thanatos, Hypnos, 
Dreams, Momus, Oizys, the Hesperides, Moerae, 
Nemesis, and similar beings. In later poets, with 
whom she is merely the personification of the dark- 
ness of night, she is sometimes described as a 
winged goddess, and sometimes as riding in a 
chariot, covered with a dark garment and accom- 
panied by the stars in her course. Her residence 
was in the darkness of Hades. 



0. 



Oanus ("riavos : Frascolari), a small river on 
the S. coast of Sicily near Camarina. 

Oarus ("Oapos), a considerable river mentioned 
by Herodotus as rising in the country of the 
Thyssagetae, and falling into the Palus Maeotis 
{Sea of Azov) E. of the Tanais {Don). As there 
is no river which very well answers this description, 
Herodotus is supposed to refer to one of the E. 
tributaries of the Do?}, such as the Sal or the 
Manyteli. 

Oasis COatTJS, Awacis, and in later writers 
^"Clacris) is the Greek form of an Egyptian word 
(in Coptic ouahe, an inhabited place), which was 
used to denote an island in the sea of sand of the 
great Libyan Desert : the word has been adopted 
into our language. The Oases are depressions in 
the great table-land of Libya, preserved from the 
inroad of the shifting sands by steep hills of lime- 
stone round them, and watered by springs, which 
make them fertile and habitable. With the sub- 
stitution of these springs for the Nile, they closely 
resemble that greater depression in the Libyan 
table-land, the valley of Egypt. The chief specific 
applications of the word by the ancient writers are 
to the 2 Oases on the W. of Egj'pt, which were 
taken possession of by the Egyptians at an early 
period. — L Oasis Minor, the Lesser or Second 
Oasis ("Ooo-t J MiKpd, or fi Sevrepa : Wah-el-Bah- 
ryeh or Wah-el-Behnesa), lay W. of Oxyrynchus, 
and a good day's journey from the S.W. end of 
the lake Moeris. It was reckoned as belonging to 
the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt ; and formed a 
separate Nomos. — 2. Oasis Major, the Greater, 
Upper, or First Oasis ("O. /j-eydXr}, tj irpwrrj, i) 
6.VM "O,, and, in Herodotus, iroXis "Oaxris and yrjaos 
MuKcipuv, Wah-el-Kkargeh), is described by Strabo 
as 7 days' journey W. of Abydos, which applies 
to its N. end, as it extends over more than 1^^ of 
latitude. It belonged to Upper Egypt, and, like 
the other, formed a distinct nome : these 2 nomes 
are mentioned together as duo Oasitae " {a.i Zvo 
'OotrtTot). When the ancient writers use the word 
Oasis alone, the Greater Oasis must generally be 
understood. The Greater Oasis contains consider- 
able ruins of the ancient Egyptian and Roman 
periods. Between and near these were other Oases, 
about which we learn little or nothing from the 
ancient writers, though in one of them, the Wah- 
el-Gharbee. or Wah-el-Dakklek, 3 days W. of the 
Greater Oasis, there are the ruins of a Romaa 



OAXES. 



OCHA. 



489 



temple, inscribed with the names of Nero and of 
Titus. The Greater Oasis is about level with the 
vallev of the Nile, the Lesser is about 200 feet 
higher than the Nile, in nearly the same latitude. 
— 3, A still more celebrated Oasis than either of 
these was that called Ammon, HammorL, Ammo- 
nium, Hammonis Oraculum, from its being a 
chief seat of the worship and oracle of the god 
Ammon. It was called by the Arabs in the middle 
ages SaniaiiaJt, and now Siwah. It is about 15 
geog. miles long, and 12 wide: its chief town, 
Siwah, is in 29° 12' N. lat., and 26° 17' E. long.: 
its distance from Cairo is 12 days, and from the 
N. coast about 160 statute miles: the ancients 
reckoned it 12 days from Memphis, and 5 days 
from Paraetonium on the N. coast. It was inha- 
bited by various Libyan tribes, but the ruling 
people were a race kindred to the Aethiopians 
above Egypt, who, at a period of unknown anti- 
quity, had introduced, probably from Meroe, the 
worship of Ammon : the government was mo- 
narchical. The Ammonians do not appear to have 
been subject to the old Egyptian monarchy. Cam- 
byses, after conquering Egypt in b. c. 525, sent an 
army against them, which was overwhelmed by 
the sands of the Desert. In b. c. 331, Alexander 
the Great visited the oracle, which hailed him as 
the son of Zeus Ammon. The oracle was also 
visited by Cato of Utica. Under the Ptolemies 
and the Romans, it was subject to Egypt, and 
formed part of the Nomos Libya. The most re- 
markable objects in the Oasis, besides the temple 
of Ammon, were the palace of the ancient kings, 
abundant springs of salt water (as well as fresh) 
from which salt was made, and a well, called Fons 
Solis, the water of which was cold at noon, and 
warm in the morning and evening. Considerable 
ruins of the temple of Ammon are still standing at 
the town of Siwah. In ancient times, the Oasis 
had no town, but the inhabitants dwelt in scattered 
villages. — 4. In other parts of the Libyan Desert, 
there v> ere oases of which the ancients had some 
knowledge, but which they do not mention by the 
name of Oases, but by their specific names, such 
as AuGiLA, Phazania, and others. 
Oazes. [Oaxus.] 

Oaxus {"Oalos: 'Oa|ios), called Axus ("A^os) 
by Herodotus, a town in the interior of Crete on 
the river Oaxes, and near Eleutherna, is said to 
have derived its name from Oaxes or Oaxus, who 
was, according to some accounts, a son of Acacallis, 
the daughter of Minos, and, according to others, a 
son of Apollo by Anchiale. 

Obila (Avila), a town of the Vettones in His- 
pania Tarraconensis. 

ObliviSnis Plumen. [Limaea.] 

Obrimas {Koja-Chai or SandukU-Chai), an E. 
tributary of the jSIaeander, in Phrygia. 

Obringa (Aur), a W. tributary of the Rhine, 
forming the boundary between Germania Superior 
and Inferior. 

Obsequens, Jiilius, the name prefixed to a frag- 
ment entitled De Prodigiis or Frodigiorum, Libellus, 
containing a record of the phenomena classed by 
the Romans under the general designation of 
Prodigia or Ostenta. The series extends in chrono- 
logical order from the consulship of Scipio and 
Laelius, B. c. 190, to the consulship of Fabius and 
Aelius, B.C. 11. The materials are derived in a 
great measure from Livy, whose very words are 
frequently employed. With regard to the com- 



piler we know nothing. The style is tolerably 
pure, but does not belong to the Augustan age. 
The best editions are by Scheffer, Amst. 1679, and 
by Oudendorp, Lug. Bat. 1720. 

Obucola, Obucula or Obulciila {Monclova\ a 
town in Hispania Baetica on the road from Hispalis 
to Emerita and Corduba. 

Obulco (Porcu7ia), surnamed Pontificense, a 
Roman municipium in Hispania Baetica, 300 stadia 
from Corduba. 

Ocalea ('Xl/coAea, 'Xl/ca\e77, also '^licdXeia, 'Xl/ca- 
Xeai : 'flKaXevs), an ancient town in Boeotia, be- 
tween Haliartus and Alalcomenae, situated on a 
river of the same name falling into the lake Copais, 
and at the foot of the mountain Tilphusion. 

Oceanides. [Nywphae.] 

Oceanus ('n/ceavos), in the oldest Greek poets, 
is the god of the water which was believed to 
surround the whole earth, and which was supposed 
to be the source of all the rivers and other waters 
of the world. This water-god, in the Theogony of 
Ilesiod, is the son of Heaven and Earth {Qvpa.vo'i 
and Tata), the husband of Tethys, and the father 
of all the river-gods and water-nymphs of the 
whole earth. He is introduced in person in the 
Prometheus of Aeschylus. As to the physical idea 
attached by the early Greeks to the word, it seems 
that they regarded the earth as a flat circle, which 
was encompassed by a river perpetually flowing 
round it, and this river was Oceanus. (This notion 
is ridiculed by Herodotus.) Out of and into this 
river the sun and the stars were supposed to rise 
and set ; and on its banks were the abodes of the 
dead. From this notion it naturally resulted that, 
as geographical knowledge advanced, the name was 
applied to the great outer waters of the earth, in 
contradistinction to the innei seas, and especially 
to the Atlantic, or the sea without the Pillars of 
Hercules {rj e|w ^aAaTra, Mare Exterius) as dis- 
tinguished from the Mediterranean, or the Sea with- 
in that limit (tjcVto's ^dXarra, Mare Internum); 
and thus the Atlantic is often called simply Ocea- 
nus. The epithet Atlantic (ij ''AtAuvtikt] ddhaacra, 
Herod., 6 'A. ttSptos, Eurip.; Atlanticum Mare) 
was applied to it from the mythical position of 
Atlas being on its shores. The other great waters 
which were denoted by the same term are de- 
scribed under their specific names. 

Ocelis (^'Ok7]\is : Ghela), a celebrated harbour 
and emporium, at the S.W. point of Arabia Felix, 
just at the entrance to the Red Sea. 

Ocellus Lucanus, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
was a native of some Greek city in Lucania, but 
we have no particulars of his life. We have 
still extant under his name a considerable fragment 
of a work, entitled, " On the Nature of the Whole," 
(Trept TTjs Tov iravThs (puaios), written in the Ionic 
dialect ; but it is much disputed whether it is a 
genuine work. In this work the author maintains 
that the whole (rh trav, or 6 Koaixos) had no be- 
ginning, and will have no end. Edited by Ru- 
dolphi. Lips. 1801—8. 

Ocelum. 1. A town in the N. E. of Lusitania 
between the Tagus and the Durius, whose inha- 
bitants, the Ocelenses, also bore the name of Lan- 
cienses. — 2. {Ucello or Uxeau), a town in the 
Cottian Alps, was the last place in Cisalpine Gaul, 
before entering the territories of king Cottius. 

Oclia {"Oxv), the highest mountain in Euboea, 
was in the S. of the island near Carystus, running 
I out into the promontory Caphareus. 



490 



OCHUS. 



OCTAVIUS. 



Ochus, [Artaxerxes III.] 

Ochus ("Oxos, "Hxos), a great river of Central 
Asia, flowing from the N. side of the Paroparaisus 
(Hindoo Koosh\ according to Strabo, through 
Hyrcania, into the Caspian ; according to Pliny and 
Ptolemy, through Bactria, into the Oxus. Some 
suppose it to be only another name for the Oxus. 
In the Pehlvi dialect the word denotes a river in 
general. 

Ocriculum (Ocriculanus : nr. Otricoli Ru.), an 
important municipium in Urabria, situated on the 
Tiber near its confluence with the Nar, and on the 
Via Flaminia, leading from Rome to Narnia, &c. 
There are ruins of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre 
and temples near the modern Otricoli. 

Ocrisia or Oclisia, mother of Servius Tullius. 
For details, see Tullius. 

Octavia. 1. Sister of the emperor Augustus, 
was married first to C. Marcellus, consul, B. c. 50, 
and subsequently, upon the death of the latter, to 
Antony, the triumvir, in 40. This marriage was 
regarded as the harbinger of a lasting peace. Au- 
gustus was warmly attached to his sister, and she 
possessed all the charms and virtues likely to 
secure a lasting influence over the mind of a hus- 
band. Her beauty was universally allowed to be 
superior to that of Cleopatra, and her virtue was 
such as to excite admiration in an age of growing 
licentiousness and corruption. For a time Antony 
seemed to forget Cleopatra ; but he soon became 
tired of his virtuous wife, and upon his return to 
the East, he forbade her to follow him. When at 
length the war broke out between Antony and 
Augustus, Octavia was divorced by her husband ; 
but instead of resenting the insults she had re- 
ceived from him, she brought up with care his 
children by Fulvia and Cleopatra. She died B. c. 
11. Octavia had 5 children, 3 by Marcellus, a 
son and 2 daughters, and 2 by Antony, both 
daughters. Her son, M. Marcellus, was adopted 
by Augustus, and was destined to be his successor, 
but died in 23. [Marcellus, No. 9.] The 
descendants of her 2 daughters by Antonius suc- 
cessively ruled the Roman world. The elder of 
them married L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and be- 
came the grandmother of the emperor Nero ; the 
younger of them married Drusus, the brother of 
the emperor Tiberius, and became the mother of 
the emperor Claudius, and the grandmother of the 
emperor Caligula. [Antonia.] —2. The daughter 
of the emperor Claudius, by his 3rd wife, Valeria 
Messalina, was born about a. d. 42. She was at 
first betrothed by Claudius to L. Silanus, who put 
an end to his life, as Agrippina had destined Oc- 
tavia to be the wife of her son, afterwards the 
emperor Nero. She was married to Nero in a. d. 
53, but was soon deserted by her young and pro- 
fligate husband for Poppaea Sabina. After living 
with the latter as his mistress for some time, he 
resolved to recognise her as his legal wife ; and 
accordingly he divorced Octavia on the alleged 
ground of sterility, and then married Poppaea, 
A. D. 62. Shortly afterwards, Octavia was falsely 
accused of adultery, and was banished to the little 
island of Pandataria, where she was put to death. 
Her untimely end excited general commiseration. 
Octavia is the heroine of a tragedy, found among 
the works of Seneca, but the author of which was 
more probably Curiatius Maternus. 

Octavianus. [Augustus.] 

Octavius. 1. Cn., sumamed Kufus, quaestor 



about B. c. 230, may be regarded as the founder 
of the family. The Octavii originally came from the 
Volscian town of Velitrae, where a street and an 
altar bore the name of Octavius. — 2. Cn., son of 
No. 7, plebeian aedile 206, and praetor 205, when 
he obtained Sardinia as his province. He was ac- 
tively employed during the remainder of the 2nd 
Punic war, and he was present at the battle of 
Zama. — 3. Cn., son of No. 2, was praetor 168, 
and had the command of the fleet in the war 
against Perseus. He was consul 165. In 162 he 
was one of 3 ambassadors sent into Syria, but 
was assassinated at Laodicea, by a Greek of the 
name of Leptines, at the instigation, as was sup- 
posed, of Lysias, the guardian of the young king 
Antiochus V. A statue of Octavius was placed on 
the rostra at Rome, where it was in the time of 
Cicero. — 4. Cn., son of No. 3, consul 128. — 5. 
M., perhaps younger son of No. 3, was the col- 
league of Tib. Gracchus in the tribunate of the 
plebs, 133, when he opposed his tribunitian veto 
to the passing of the agrarian law. He was in 
consequence deposed from his office by Tib. Grac- 
chus. — 6. Cn., a supporter of the aristocratical 
party, was consul 87 with L. Cornelius Cinna. 
After Sulla's departure from Italy, in order to 
carry on the war against Mithridates, a vehement 
contest arose between the 2 consuls, which ended 
in the expulsion of Cinna from the city, and his 
being deprived of the consulship. Cinna soon 
afterv/ards returned at the head of a powerful 
army, and accompanied by Marius. Rome was 
compelled to surrender, and Octavius was one of 
the first victims in the massacres that followed. 
His head was cut off and suspended on the rostra. 
■="7. L., son of No. 6, consul 75, died in 74, as 
proconsul of Cilicia, and was succeeded in the 
command of the province by L. Lucullus. — 8. Cn., 
son of No. 7, consul 76.-9. M., son of No. 8 
was curule aedile 50, along with M. Caelius. On 
the breaking out of the civil war in 49, Octavius 
espoused the aristocratical party, and served a? 
legate to M. Bibulus, who had the s^apreme com- 
mand of the Pompeian fleet. After the battle 
of Pharsalia, Octavius sailed to Illyricum ; but 
having been driven out of this country (47) by 
Caesar's legates, he fled to Africa. He was pre- 
sent at the battle of Actium (31), when he com- 
manded part of Antony's fleet. — 10. C, younger 
son of No. 1, and the ancestor of Augustus, 
remained a simple Roman eques, without attempt- 
ing to rise any higher in the state. — 11. C, son 
of No. 10, and great-grandfather of Augustus, 
lived in the time of the 2nd Punic war, in which 
he served as tribune of the soldiers. He was pre- 
sent at the battle of Cannae (216), and was one of 
the few who survived the engagement. — 12. C, 
son of No. 11, and grandfather of Augustus, 
lived quietly at his villa at Velitrae, without 
aspiring to the dignities of the Roman state. 
— 13. C, son of No. 12, and father of Augustus, 
was praetor 61, and in the following year succeeded 
C. Antonius in the government of Macedonia, 
which he administered with equal integrity and 
energy. He returned to Italy in 59, died the fol- 
lowing year, 58, at Nola, in Campania, in the very 
same room in which Augustus afterwards breathed 
his last. By his 2nd wife Atia, Octavius had a 
daughter and a son, the latter of whom was subse- 
quently the emperor Augustus. [Augustus.] — 
14. L., a legate of Pompev in the war against the 



OCTAVIUS. 



OECHALIA. 



491 



pirates, 67, was sent, by Pompey into Crete to 
supersede Q. Meteilus in the command of the 
island ; but Meteilus refused to surrender the 
command to him. [Metellus, No. 16.] 

Octavius Balbus. [Balbus.] 

Octodurus (Octodurensis : MaHigny), a town 
of the Veragri in the country of the Helvetii, is 
situated in a valley surrounded by lofty mountains, 
and on the river Dranee near the spot where it 
flows into the Rhone. The ancient town, like the 
modern one, was divided by the Drance into 2 
parts. The inhabitants had the Jus Latii. 

Octogesa, a town of the Ilergetes in Hispania 
Tarraconensis near the Iberus, probably S. of the 
Sicoris. 

Octoloplius, a place of uncertain site, in the N. 
of Thessaly or the S. of Macedonia. 

Ocypete. [Harpyiae.] 

Ocyrhoe('nKupo7j.) 1. One of the daughters 
of Oceanus and Tethj^s. — 2. Daughter of the cen- 
taur Chiron, possessed the gift of prophecy, and is 
said to have been changed into a mare. 

Odenathus, the ruler of Palmyra, checked the 
victorious career of the Persians after the defeat 
and capture of Valerian, a. d. 260, and drove Sapor 
out of Syria. In return for these services, Gallie- 
nus bestowed upon Odenathus the title of Au- 
gustus. Odenathus was soon afterwards murdered 
by some of his relations, not without the consent, 
it is said, of his wife Zenobia, 266. He was suc- 
ceeded by Zenobia. 

Odessus COS7](r<ros : ^OhiqaaLTris^ 'Od-qa-aGvs). 1 . 
(Varna), also called Odyssus and Odissus at a 
later time, a Greek town in Thracia (in the later 
Moesia Inferior) on the Pontus Euxinus nearly 
due E. of Marcianopolis, was founded hj the Mi- 
lesians in the territory of the Crobyzi in the reign 
of Astyages, king of Media (b. c. 594 — 559). 
The town possessed a good harbour, and carried on 
an extensive commerce. —= 2. A seaport in Sarmatia 
Europaea, on the N. of the Pontus Euxinus and 
on the river Sangarius, W. of Olbia and the mouth 
of the Borysthenes. It was some distance N.E. of 
the modern Odessa. 

Odoacer, usually called king of the HeruH, was 
the leader of the barbarians, who overthrew the 
Western empire, A. d. 476. He took the title of 
king of Italy, and reigned till his power was over- 
thrown by Theodoric, king of the Goths. Odoacer 
was defeated in 3 decisive battles by Theodoric 
(489 — 490), and then took refuge in Ravenna, 
where he was besieged for 3 years. He at last 
capitulated on condition that he and Theodoric 
should be joint kings of Italy ; but Odoacer was 
soon afterwards murdered by his rival. 

Odomantice (0^oiJi.avTiKr}), a district in the 
N.E. of Macedonia between the Strymon and the 
Nestus, inhabited by the Thracian tribe of the 
Odomanti or Odomantes. 

Odrysae ('OS^ucrai), the most powerful people 
in Thrace, dwelt, according to Herodotus, on both 
sides of the river Artiscus, a tributary of the He- 
brus, but also spread further W. over the whole 
plain of the Hebrus. Soon after the Persian wars 
Teres, king of the Odrysae, obtained the sove- 
reignty over several of the other Thracian tribes, 
and extended his dominions as far as the Black 
sea. He was succeeded by his son Sitalces, who 
became the master of almost the whole of Thrace. 
His empire comprised all the territory from 
Abdera to the mouths of the Danube, and from 



Byzantium to the sources of the Strymon ; and if 
is described by Thucydides as the greatest of all 
the kingdoms between the Ionian gulf and the 
Euxine, both in revenue and opulence. Sitalces 
assisted the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war 
against Perdiccas, king of Macedonia. [Sitalces.] 
He died B. c. 424, and v/as succeeded by his ne- 
phew Seuthes I. On the death of the latter about 
the end of the Peloponnesian war, the power of 
the Odrysae declined. For the subsequent history 
of the Odrysae, see Thracia, 

Odyssea {^OSvcrcreia), a town of Hispania Bae- 
tica, situated N. of Abdera amidst the mountains 
of Turdetania, with a temple of Athena, said to 
have been built by Odysseus ( Ulysses). Its position 
is quite uncertain. Some of the ancients supposed 
it to be the same as Olisipo. 

Odysseus. [Ulysses.] 

Oea ('Ewa, Ptol. : Oeensis: Tripoli 9 Ru.), a city 
on the N. coast of Africa, in the Regio Syrtica 
(i. e. between the Syrtes), was one of the 3 cities 
of the African Tripolis, and, under the Romans, a 
colony by the name of Aelia Augusta Felix. It 
had a mixed population of Libyans and Sicilians. 

Oea (O'/a), a town in the island of Aegina, 20 
stadia from the capital. 

Oeagrus, or Oeager (OiV/pos), king of Thrace, 
was the father, by the muse Calliope, of Orpheus 
and Linus. Hence the sisters of Orpheus are 
called Oeagrides, in the sense of the Muses. The 
adjective Oeagrius is also used by the poets as 
equivalent to Thracian. Hence Oeagrizis Haemus^ 
Oeagrius Hebrus, &c. 

Oeantlie or OeantMa {Oldv6ri, OUvQ^ia : Olav- 
6evs : Galaxidhi), a tov/n of the Locri Ozolae on 
the coast, near the entrance of the Crissaean gulf. 

Ceaso or Oeasso {Oyarzun), a town of the Va- 
scones on the N. coast of Hispania Tarraconensis 
situated on a promontory of the same name, and 
on the river Magrada. 

Oeax (0?'a|), son of Nauplius and Clymene, and 
brother of Palamedes and Nausimedon. 

Oebalus (O'/gaAos). 1. Son of Cynortas, hus- 
band of Gorgophone, and father of Tyndareus, 
Pirene, and Arene, was king of Sparta, where he 
was afterwards honoured with an heroum. Ac- 
cording to others he was son of Perieres and 
grandson of Cynortas, and was married to the 
nymph Batea, by whom he had several children. 
The patronymic Oebalides is not only applied to his 
descendants, but to the Spartans generally, as 
Hyacinthus, Castor, Pollux, &c. The feminine 
patronymic Oehalis and the adjective Oehalius are 
applied in the same way. Hence Helen is called 
by the poets Oehalis, and Oebalia pelleoe ; the city 
of Tarentum is termed Oebalia aroc, because it was 
founded by the Lacedaemonians ; and suice the 
Sabines were, according to one tradition, a Lace- 
daemonian colony, we find the Sabine king Titus 
Tatius named Oehalius Titus, and the Sabine 
v.'omen Oebalides matres. (Ov. Fast. i. 260, iii. 
230.) = 2, Son of Telon by a nymph of the stream 
Sebethus, near Naples, ruled in Campania. 

Oechalia (Oi'xaAta : Ot'xaAievs, 0<xaAiWT7]s). 
1. A town in Thessaly on the Peneus near Tricca. 
— =■ 2. A town in Thessaly, belonging to the terri- 
tory of Trachis. — 3. A town in Messenia on the 
frontier of Arcadia, identified by Pausanias with 
Carnasium, by Strabo with Andania. — - 4. A town 
of Euboea in the district Eretria. — The ancients 
were divided in opinion which of these places was 



492 



OECUMENIUS. 



OENIADAE. 



the residence of Eurytus, whom Hercules defeated 
and slew. The original legend probably belonged 
to the Thessalian Oechalia, and was thence trans- 
ferred to the other towns. 

Oecumenius (OIkov/ul^vios), bishop of Tricca in 
Thessaly, a Greek commentator on various parts of 
the New Testament, probably flourished about a. d. 
950. He has the reputation of a judicious com- 
mentator, careful in compilation, modest in oifering 
his own judgment, and neat in expression. Most 
of his commentaries were published at Paris, 1631. 

Oedipus (OiSiVous), son of Laius and Jocaste 
of Thebes. The tragic fate of this hero is more 
celebrated than that of any other legendary per- 
sonage, on account of the frequent use which the 
tragic poets have made of it. In their hands it 
underwent various changes and embellishments ; 
but the common story ran as follows. Laius, son 
of Labdacus, was king of Thebes, and husband of 
Jocaste, a daughter of Menoeceus and sister of 
€reon. An oracle had informed Laius that he was 
destined to perish by the hands of his own son. 
Accordingly, when Jocaste gave birth to a son, 
they pierced his feet, bound them together, and 
exposed the child on Mt. Cithaeron. There he was 
found by a shepherd of king Polybus of Corinth, 
and was called from his swollen feet Oedipus. 
Having been carried to the palace, the king and 
his wife Merope (or Periboea) brought him up as 
their own child. Once, however, Oedipus was 
taunted by a Corinthian with not being the king's 
son, whereupon he proceeded to Delphi to consult 
the oracle. The oracle replied that he was destined 
to slay his father and commit incest with his 
mother. Thinking that Polybus was his father, 
he resolved not to return to Corinth ; but on his 
road between Delphi and Daulis he met his real 
father Laius. Polyphontes, the charioteer of Laius 
bade Oedipus make way for them ; whereupon a 
scuffle ensued in which Oedipus slew both Laius 
and his charioteer. In the mean time the celebrated 
Sphinx had appeared in the neighbourhood of 
Thebes. Seated on a rock, she put a riddle to 
every Theban that passed by, and whoever was 
unable to solve it was killed by the monster. This 
calamity induced the Thebans to proclaim that 
whoever should deliver the country of the Sphinx, 
should be made king, and should receive Jocaste 
as his wife. Oedipus came forward, and when he 
approached the Sphinx she gave the riddle as 
follows : " A being with 4 feet has 2 feet and .S 
feet, and only one voice ; but its feet vary, and 
when it has most it is weakest." Oedipus solved 
the riddle by saying that it was man, who in 
infancy crawls upon all fours, in manhood stands 
erect upon 2 feet, and in old age supports his tot- 
tering legs with a staff. The Sphinx, enraged at 
the solution of the riddle, thereupon threw her- 
self down from the rock. Oedipus now obtained 
the kingdom of Thebes, and married his mother, 
by whom he became the father of Eteocles, Poly- 
nices, Antigone, and Ismene. In consequence of 
this incestuous alliance of which no one was aware, 
the country of Thebes was visited by a plague. 
The oracle, on being consulted, ordered that the 
murderer of Laius should be expelled. Oedipus 
accordingly pronounced a solemn curse upon the 
unknown murderer, and declared him an exile ; 
but when he endeavoured to discover him, he was 
informed by the seer Tiresias that he himself was 
both the parricide and the husband of his mother. 



Jocaste now hung herself, and Oedipus put out his 
own eyes. From this point traditions differ, for 
according to some, Oedipus in his blindness was 
expelled from Thebes by his sons and brother-in- 
law, Creon, who undertook the government, and 
he was accompanied by Antigone in his exile to 
Attica; while according to others he was imprisoned 
by his sons at Thebes, in order that his disgrace 
might remain concealed from the eyes of the world. 
The father now cursed his sons, who agreed to rule 
over Thebes alternately, but became involved in a 
dispute, in consequence of which they fought in 
single combat, and slew each other. Hereupon 
Creon succeeded to the throne, and expelled 
Oedipus. After long wanderings Oedipus arrived 
in the grove of the Eumenides, near Colonus, in 
Attica; he was there honoured by Theseus in his 
misfortune, and, according to an oracle, the Eume- 
nides removed him from the earth, and no one 
was allowed to approach his tomb. According to 
Homer, Oedipus, tormented by the Erinnyes of his 
mother, continued to reign at Thebes, after her 
death ; he fell in battle, and was honoured at 
Thebes with funeral solemnities. 

Oeneon (OiVewv: Olveoivevs), a seaport town of 
the Locri Ozolae, E. of Naupactus. 

Oeneus (OiVeus), son of Portheus, husband of 
Althaea, by whom he became the father of Tydeus 
and Meleager, and was thus the grandfather of 
Diomedes. He was king of Pleuron and Calydon 
in Aetolia. This is Homer's account; but according 
to later authorities he was the son of Porthaon and 
Euryte, and the father of Toxeus, whom he himself 
killed, Thyreus (Phereus), Clymenus, Periphas, 
Agelaus, Meleager, Gorge, Euryraede, Melanippe, 
Mothone, and Deianira. His second wife was 
Melanippe, the daughter of Hipponous, by whom 
he had Tydeus according to some accounts; though 
according to others Tydeus was his son by his own 
daughter Gorge. He is said to have been deprived 
of his kingdom by the sons of his brother Agrius, 
who imprisoned and ill used him. He was subse- 
quently avenged by Diomedes, who slew Agrius 
and his sons, and restored the kingdom either to 
Oeneus himself, or to his son-in-law Andraeraon, 
as Oeneus was too old. Diomedes took his grand- 
father with him to Peloponnesus, but some of the 
sons who lay in ambush, slew the old man, near 
the altar of Telephus in Arcadia. Diomedes buried 
his body at Argos, and named the town of Oenoe 
after him. According to others Oeneus lived to 
extreme old age with Diomedes at Argos, and died 
a natm-al death. Homer knows nothing of all 
this ; he merely relates that Oeneus once neglected 
to sacrifice to Artemis, in consequence of which 
she sent a monstrous boar into the territory of Ca- 
lydon, which was hunted by Meleager. The hero 
Bellerophon was hospitably entertained by Oeneus, 
and received from him a costly girdle as a present. 

Oeniadae (OtVjctSoi : Trigardon or Trikhardo\ 
an ancient town of Acarnania, situated on the 
Achelous near its mouth, and surrounded by 
marshes caused by the overflowing of the river, 
which thus protected it from hostile attacks. It 
was called in ancient times Erysiche ('Epv(n'x»?), 
and its inhabitants Erysichaei (^Epvcnxatoi) ; and 
it probably derived its later name from the mythi- 
cal Oeneus, the grandfather of Diomedes. Unlike 
the other cities of Acarnania, Oeniadae espoused 
the cause of the Spartans in the Peloponnesian 
war. At the time of Alexander the Great, the 



OENIDES. 



OEONUS. 



493 



town was taken by the Aetolians, who expelled 
the inhabitants; but the Aetolians were expelled 
in their turn b^y Philip V., king of Macedonia, 
who surrounded the place with strong fortifications. 
The Romans restored the town to the Acarnanians. 
The fortress Nesus or Nasus belonging to the terri- 
tory' of Oeniadae was situated in a email lake near 
Oeniadae. 

Oenides, a patronymic from Oeneus, and hence 
given to Meleager, the son of Oeneus, and Dio- 
medes, the grandson of Oeneus. 

Oenoanda or Oeneanda, a town of Asia Minor, 
in the N.W. cf Pisidia, or the district of Cabalia, 
Bubject to Cibyra. 

Oenobaras (Oh'oedpas), a tributary of the 
Orontes, flowing through the plain of Antioch, in 
Syria. 

Oenoe (OlvSri : Olvoa7os). 1. A demus of Attica, 
belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, near Eleu- 
therae on the frontiers of Boeotia, frequently men- 
tioned in the Peloponnesian war.— 2. A demus of 
Attica, near Marathon, belonging to the tribe 
Aiantis, and also to the Tetrapolis.— 3. A fortress 
of the Corinthians, on the Corinthian gulf, be- 
tween the promontory Olmiae and the frontier of 
Megaris. — 4. A town in Argolis on the Arcadian 
frontier at the foot of Mt. Artemisium. — 5. A 
town in Elis, near the mouth of the Selleis. — 6. 
A town in the island Icarus or Icaria. 

Oenomaus (OlyS/jLaos). 1. King of Pisa in Elis, 
was son of Ares and Harpinna, the daughter of 
Asopus, and husband of the Pleiad Sterope, by 
whom he became the father of Hippodamia. Ac- 
cording to others be was a son of Ares and Sterope 
or a son of Alxion. An oracle had declared that 
he should perish by the hands of his son- in law; 
and as his horses were swifter than those of any 
other mortal, he declared that 'all who came for- 
ward as suitors for Hippodamia's hand should 
contend with him in the chariot-race, that whoever 
conquered should receive her, and that whoever 
was conquered should suffer death. The race-course 
extended from Pisa to the altar of Poseidon, on the 
Corinthian isthmus. The suitor started with Hip- 
podamia in a chariot, and Oenomaus then hastened 
with his swift horses after the lovers. He had 
overtaken and slain many a suitor, when Pelops, 
the son of Tantalus, came to Pisa. Pelops bribed 
Myrtilus, the charioteer of Oenomaus, to take out 
the linch-pins from the wheels of his master's 
chariot, and he received from Poseidon a golden 
chariot, and most rapid horses. In the race which 
followed, the chariot of Oenomaus broke down, and 
he fell out and was killed. Thus Pelops obtained 
Hippodamia and the kingdom of Pisa. There are 
some variations in this story, such as, that Oenomaus 
was himself in love with his daughter, and for this 
reason slew her lovers. Myrtilus also is said to 
have loved Hippodamia, and as she favoured the 
suit of Pelops, she persuaded Myrtilus to take the 
linch-pins out of the wheels of her father's chariot. 
As Oenomaus was breathing his last he pronounced 
a curse upon Myrtilus. This curse had its desired 
effect, for as Pelops refused to give to Myrtilus 
the reward he had promised, or as Myrtilus had 
attempted to dishonour Hippodamia, Pelops thrust 
him down from Cape Geraestus. Myrtilus, while 
dying, likewise pronounced a curse upon Pelops, 
which was the cause of all the calamities that 
afterwards befell his house. The tomb of Oeno- 
maus was shown on the river Cladeus in Elis. His 



house was destroyed by lightning, and onlj' one 
pillar of it remained standing. — 2. Of Gadara, a 
cynic philosopher, who flourished in the reign of 
Hadrian, or somewhat later, but before Porphyry. 
He wrote a work to expose the oracles, of which 
considerable fragments are preserved by Eusebius. 
— 3. A tragic poet. [Diogenes, No. 5.] 

Oenone {Oluwvri), daughter of the river-god 
Cebren, and wife of Paris, before he carried off 
Helen. [Paris.] 

Oenone or Oenopia, the ancient name of 
Aegina. 

Oenophyta (to Olv6<pvTa : Inia), a town in 
Boeotia, on the left bank of the Asopus, and on 
the road from Tanagra to Oropus, memorable for 
the victory gained here by the Athenians over the 
Boeotians, b. c. 456. 

Oenopides (Oluomdrjs) of Chios, a distinguished 
astronomer and mathematician, perhaps a contem- 
porary of Anaxagoras. Oenopides derived most of 
his astronomical knowledge from the priests and 
astronomers of Egypt, with whom he lived for 
some time. He obtained from this source his know- 
ledge of the obliquity of the ecliptic, the discovery 
of which he is said to have claimed. The length 
of the solar year was fixed by Oenopides at 365 
days, and somewhat less than 9 hours. He is said 
to have discovered the r2th and 23rd propositions 
of the 1st book of Euclid, and the quadrature of 
the meniscus. 

Oenopion (Oluoniuv), son of Dionysus and hus- 
band of the nymph Helice, by whom he became 
the father of Thalus, Euanthes, Melas, Salagus, 
Athamas, and Merope, Aerope or Haero. Some 
writers call Oenopion a son of Rhadamanthus by 
Ariadne, and a brother of Staphylus. From Crete 
he migrated with his sons to Chios, which Rha- 
damanthus had assigned to him as his habitation. 
When king of Chios, the giant Orion sued for the 
hand of his daughter Merope. As Oenopion refused 
to give her to Orion, the latter violated Merope, 
whereupon Oenopion put out his eyes, and expelled 
him from the island. Orion went to Lemnos ; he 
Avas afterwards cured of his blindness, and returned 
to Chios to take vengeance on Oenopion. But the 
latter was not to be found in Chios, for his friends 
had concealed him in the earth, so that Orion, un- 
able to discover him, went to Crete. 

Oenotri, Oenotria. [Italia.] 

Oenotrides, 2 small islands in the Tyrrhene 
sea, off the coast of Lucania, and opposite the 
town of Elea or Velia and the mouth of the Helos. 

Oenotropae. [Anius.] 

Oenotrus (0^vQ>Tpos), youngest son of Lycaon, 
emigrated with a colony from Arcadia to Italy, and 
gave the name of Oenotria to the district in which 
he settled. 

Oenus {Olvovs: Kelesina), a river in Laconia, 
rising on the frontier of Arcadia, and flowing into 
the Eurotas, N. of Sparta. There was a town of the 
same name upon this river, celebrated for its wine. 

Oenussae (OiVoCco-at, OlvoOaai). 1. A group 
of islands lying off the S. point of Messenia, oppo- 
site to the port of Phoenicus : the 2 largest of them 
are now called Sapienza and Cabrera. — 2. (Spal- 
madori or Egonuses), a group of 5 islands between 
Chios and the coast of Asia Minor. 

Oeonus (Oloov6s), son of Licymnius of Midea 
in Argolis, first victor at Olympia, in the foot-race. 
He is said to have been killed at Sparta by the 
sons of Hippocoon, but was avenged by Hercules, 



494 OEROE. 

whose kinsman he was, and was honoured with a 

monument near the temple of Hercules. 

Oeroe {'ClepoT]), an island in Boeotia, formed by 
the river Asopus and opposite Plataeae. 

Oescus (Isker or Esker) called OsciUS ("Octkios) 
by Thucydldes, and Scius (Sfclos) by Herodotus, 
a river in Moesia, v.-hich rises in Mt. Scomius 
according to Thucydides, or in Mt. Rhodope ac- 
cording to Pliny, but in reality on the W. slope of 
JMt. Haemus, and flows into the Danube near a 
town of the same name (OreszovUz). 

Oesyma {Olavfiri : Ola-vfjia7os), called Assyma 
(Aicrv/iTj) by Homer (77, viii. 304), an ancient town 
in Thrace between the Strymon and the Nestus, a 
colony of the Thasians. 

Oeta (OfrTj, TO Olraictiu ovpea : Katavoihra), a 
rugged pile of mountains in the S. of Thessaly, an 
eastern branch of Mt. Pindus, extended S. of Mt. 
Othrys along the S. bank of the Sperchius to the 
Maliac gulf at Thermopylae, thus forming the X. 
barrier of Greece. Strabo and Livy give the name 
of Callidromus to the eastern part of Oeta, an 
appellation which does not occur in Herodotus and 
the earlier -n-riters. Respecting the r^ass of Mt. 
Oeta, see Thermopylae. Oeta was celebrated 
in mythology as the mountain on which Her- 
cules burnt himself to death. From this moun- 
tain the S. of Thessaly bordering on Phocis Avas 
called Oetaea {OlToia] and its inhabitants Oetaei 
(OfVaroi). 

Oetylns {CrtrvXos : OItvXios : Vitylo\ also 
called Tylus (TvKos). an ancient town in Laconia, 
on the Messenian gulf, S. of Thalama, called after 
an Argive hero of this name. 

OfeUa, a man of sound sense and of a straight- 
forward character, whom Horace contrasts with the 
Stoic quacks of his time. 

Ofella, Q. Lucretius, originally belonged to the 
Marian party, but deserted to Sulla, who appointed 
him to the command of the army employed in the 
blockade of Praeneste, b. c. 82. Ofella became a 
candidate for the consulship in the following year, 
although he had not yet been either quaestor or 
praetor, thus acting in defiance of one of Sulla's 
laws. He was in consequence put to death by 
Sulla's orders. 

Cfilius, a distinguished Roman jurist, was one 
of the pupUs of Servius Sulpicius, and a friend of 
Cicero and Caesar. His works are often cited in 
the Digest. 

Oglasa (Monte CJiristo), a small island off the 
coast of Etruria. 

OgnlnTi, Q. and Cn., 2 brothers, tribunes of 
the plebs, E. c. 300, carried a law by which the 
number of the pontiffs was increased from 4 to 8, 
and that of the augurs from 4 to 9, and which 
enacted that 4 of the pontiffs and 5 of the augurs 
should be taken from the plebs. Besides these 8 
pontiffs there was the pontifes masimus, v/ho is 
generally not included when the number of pontiffs 
is spoken of. 

Ogygia {'Djyv^ia)^ the mythical island of Ca- 
lypso, is placed by Homer in the navel or central 
point of the sea, far away from all lands. Later 
writers pretended to find 'it in the Ionian sea, near 
the promontory- Lacinium, in Bruttium. 

Ogygus or Ogyges {'a-fuyris), sometimes called 
a Boeotian autochthon, and sometimes son of Boe- 
otus, and king of the Hectenes, is said to have 
been the first ruler of the territory of Thebes, 
which was called after him Ogygia. In his reign 



OLCADES. 

I the waters of lake Copais rose above its banks, and 
j inundated the whole valley of Boeotia. This flood 
I is usually called after him the Ogygian. The name 
I of Ogyges is also coimected with Attic story, for 
i in Attica an Ogygian flood is likewise mentioned, 
I and he is described as the father of the Attic hero 
I Eleusis, and as the father of Daira, the daughter 
j of Oceanus. In the Boeotian tradition he was the 

father of Alalcomenia, Thelxinoea and Aulis. — 
' Bacchus is called Ogygius deus, because he is said 
j to have been bom at Thebes. 

Ogyris {"Clyvpis)^ an island of the Erythraean 
; Sea {Indian Ocean)^ off the coast of Carmania, at 

a distance of 2000 stadia (20 geog. miles), noted 

as the alleged burial-place of the ancient king 

Erythras. 

bicles or Oicleus ('OikXtis, 'Ot/cAeus), son of 
Antiphates, grandson of Melampus and fkther of 
Amphiaraus, of Argos. He is also called a son of 
Amphiaraus, or a son of Mantius, the brother of 
Antiphates. Oicles accompanied Hercules on his 
expedition against Laomedon of Troy, and was 
there slain in battle. According to other traditions 
he returned home from the expedition, and dwelt 
in Arcadia, where he was visited by his grandson 
Alcmaeon, and where his tomb was shown. 

Oneus ('OtAeus), son of Hodoedocus and Lao- 
nome, grandson of CjTius, and great-grandson of 
Opus, was a king of the Locrians, and married to 
Eriopis, by whom he became the father of Ajax, 
who is hence called O'illdes, Ollwdes, and Jjaa: 
Gild. Oileus was also the father of Medon by 
Rhene. He is mentioned among the Argonauts. 

Olba or Olbe COAgTj), an ancient inland city of 
CUicia, in the motmtains above Soloe, and between 
the rivers Lamus and Cydnus. Its foundation was 
ascribed by mythical tradition, to Ajax the son of 
Teucer, whose alleged descendants, the priests of 
the very ancient temple of Zeus, once ruled over 
aU CUicia Aspera. In later times it belonged to 
Isatuia, and was the see of a bishop. 

Olbasa ("OA^ao-a). 1. A city of Cilicia Aspera, 
at the foot of the Tatirus, N. of Selinus, and N. W. 
of Caystrus; not to be confounded M-ith Olba.— 2. 
A city in the S.E. of Lycaonia, S.W. of Cybistra, 
in the district called Antiochiana. — 3. A city in 
the X. of Pisidia. between Pednelissus and Selge. 

Olbe. [Olba.] 

Olbia ('OAgi'a). 1. (Prob. Eouhes, near Hieres), 
a colony of Massilia, on the coast of Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, on a hill called Olbianus, E. of Telo Mar- 
tins (Toulon).-^ 2. (Prob. Tei-ra Nova), a very 
ancient city, near the X. end of the E. side of the 
island of Sardinia, with the only good harbour on 
this coast ; and therefore the usual landing-place 
for persons coming from Rome. A mythical tra- 
dition ascribed its foundation to the Thespiadae.— 
3. In Bithynia [Astacus]. The gulf of Astacus 
was also called from it. Sinus Olbianus. — 4. A 
fortress on the W. frontier of Pamphylia, on the 
coast, W. of the river Catarharractes ; not impro- 
bably on the same site as the later Attalia.— 5. 

[BORYSTHEXES.] 

Olcades, an ancient people in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, X. of Carthago Xova, near the sources of 
the Anas, in a part of the country afterwards in- 
habited by the Oretani. They are mentioned 
only in the wars of the Carthaginians with the 
inhabitants of Spain. Hannibal transplanted some 
of the Olcades to Africa. Their chief towns were 
Althaea and Carteia, the site of both of which ia 



OLCINIUM. 



OLYMPIA. 



495 



uncertain ; the latter place must not be confounded 
with the celebrated Carteia in Baetica. 

Olcininm (Olciniatae : Duldgno), an ancient 
town on the coast of Illyria, S. W. of Scodra, be- 
longing to the territory of Gentius. 

Olearus. [Oliarus.] 

Oleastrum. 1. A town of the Cosetani, in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Dertosa 
to Tarraco, probably the place from which the 
plumbum Oleastrense derived its name. — 2. A 
town in Hispania Baetica, near Gades. 

Olen {'n\r]v), a mythical personage, who is re- 
presented as the earliest Greek lyric poet, and the 
first author of sacred hymns in hexameter verse. 
He is closely connected with the worship of Apollo, 
of whom, in one legend, he w-as made the prophet. 
His connection with Apollo is also marked by his 
being called Hyperborean, and one of the esta- 
blishers of oracles ; though the more common story 
made him a native of Lycia. He is said to have 
settled at Delos. His name seems to signify simply 
the flute-flayer. Of the ancient hymns, which 
went under his name, Pausanias mentions those to 
Here, to Achaeia, and to Hithyia ; the last was in 
celebration of the birth of Apollo and Artemis. 

Olenus ("HAeros : 'HAeVios). 1. An ancient 
town in Aetolia, near New Pleuron, and at the 
foot of Mt. Aracynthus, is mentioned by Homer, 
but was destroyed by the Aetolians at an early 
period. — 2. A town in Achaia, between Patrae 
and Dyme, refused to join the Achaean league on 
its restoration, in B. c. 280. In the time of Strabo 
the town was deserted. The goat Amalthaea, 
which suckled the infant Zeus, is called Olenia 
capella by the poets, either because the goat was 
supposed to have been born near the town of 
Olenus, and to have been subsequently transferred 
to Crete, or because the nymph Amalthaea, to 
whom the goat belonged, was a daughter of 
Olenus. 

Olgassys (^OXyaaavs : Al-Gez Dagh\ a lofty, 
steep, and rugged mountain chain of Asia Minor, 
extending nearly W. and E. through the E. of 
Bithynia, and the centre of Paphlagonia to the 
river Halys, nearly parallel to the chain of Olympus, 
of Avhich it may be considered as a branch. Nu- 
merous temples were built upon it by the Paphla- 
gonians. 

Oliarus {'nxlapos, "D-Xdapos : ^nXidpios : Anti- 
paros), a small island in the Aegean sea, one of 
the Cyclades, W. of Paros, originally colonized by 
the Phoenicians, is celebrated in modem times for 
its stalactite grotto, which is not mentioned by an- 
cient writers. 

Oligyrtus {'OXiyvpros), a fortress in the N. E. 
of Arcadia on a mountain of the same name, be- 
tween Stymphalus and Caphyae. 

Olisipo {Lisbon), a town in Lusitania, on the 
right bank of the Tagus near its mouth, and a 
Roman municipium with the surname Felicitas 
Julia. It was celebrated for its swift horses. Its 
name is sometimes written TJlyssippo, because it 
was supposed by some to have been the town 
which Ulysses was said to have founded in Spain ; 
but the to\vn to which this legend referred was 
situated in the mountains of Turdetania. 

Olizon CO\i(wv), a town of Thessaly on the 
coast of Magnesia and on the Pagasaean gulf, 
mentioned by Homer. 

Ollms {Oglio), a river in Gallia Transpadana, 
falls into the Po, S. W. of Mantua. 



Olmiae ('OXfxial), a promontory in the territory 
of Corinth, which separated the Corinthian and 
Alcyonian gulfs. 

01ooss5ll {'OXoocrcrc^v : ''OXooaaSvios : Elas- 
sona), a town of the Perrhaebi in Thessaly, in the 
district of Hestiaeotis. Homer {II. ii. 739) calls it 
" white," an epithet which it obtained, according 
to Strabo, from the whiteness of its soil, 

Olophyxus ('OAo4)u|os : 'OXocpv^ios), a town of 
Macedonia, on the peninsula of Mt. Athos. 

Olpae or Olpe ("OATrai, 'OAttt? : 'OXttoios) 

1. {Arapi), a town of the Amphilochi in Acar- 
nania, on the Arabracian gulf, N. W. of Argos Am- 
philochicum.— 2. A town of the Locri Ozolae. 

Oiurus {"OXovpos : 'OXovpios) 1. A town in 
Achaia, near Pellene, on the Sicyonian frontier. 

2. Also Oluris {"OXovpis), called Dorium (Aoi- 
piov) by Homer, a town in Messenia, S. of the 
river Neda. 

Oliis {'OXovs : 'OAowTtos), a tow^n and harbour 
on the E. coast of Crete, near the promontory of 
Zephyrium. 

Olybrius, Anicius, Roman emperor a. d. 47"2. 
was raised to this dignity by Ricimer, who deposed 
Anthemius. He died in the course of the same 
year, after a reign of 3 months and 13 days. His 
successor was Glycerius. 

Olympene, and Olympeni, or Olympieai 
{'0Xvfj.nr]V7], 'OAiiyUTTTji/oi, 'OXv/xir Li]t/oi), the names 
of the district about the Mysian Olympus, and of 
its inhabitants. 

Olympia {'OXvfxma), the name of a small plain 
in Elis, in which the Olympic games were cele- 
brated. It was surrounded on the N. and N. E. 
by the mountains Cronion and Olympus, on the S. 
by the river Alpheus, and on the W. by the river 
Cladeus. In this plain was the sacred grove of 
Zeus, called Aliis {"AXt is, an old Elean form of 
'dXaos, a grove), situated at the angle formed by 
the confluence of the rivers Alpheus and Cladeus, 
and 300 stadia distant from the town of Pisa. 
The Altis and its immediate neighbourhood were 
adorned with numerous temples, statues, and public 
buildings, to which the general appellation of Olympia 
was given ; but there was no town of this name. 
The Altis was surrounded by a wall. It contained 
the following temples : — 1. The Olympieum, or 
temple of Zeus Olympius, which was the most 
celebrated of all the buildings at Olympia, and 
which contained the master-piece of Greek art, the 
colossal statue of Zeus b}'^ Phidias. The statue 
was made of ivory and gold, and the god was 
represented as seated on a throne of cedar wood, 
adorned with gold, ivory, ebony, and precious 
stones. [Phidias.] 2. The Heraeum, or temple 
of Hera, which contained the celebrated chest of 
Cypselus, and was situated N. of the Olympieum. 

3. The Metroum, or temple of the Mother of the 
gods. The other public buildings in the Altis 
most worthy of notice were, the Tliesauri, or trea- 
suries of the different states, which had sent dedi- 
catory offerings to the Olympian Zeus, situated at 
the foot of Mt. Cronion : the Zanes, or statues of 
Zeus, which had been erected from fines imposed 
upon those who had been guilty of fraud or other 
irregularities in the Olympic contests, and Avhich 
were placed on a stone platform near the Thesauri: 
the Prytaneum, in which the Oljnnpic victors dined 
after the contests had been brought to a close : the 
Bouleuteno7i, in which all the regulations relating 
to the games were made, and which contained, a 



496 



OLYMPIAS. 



OLYMPUS. 



siatue of Zeus Horcius, before wliich the usual 
oaths were taken by the judges and t)ie com- 
batants : the Philippeum, a circular building of 
brick, surmounted with a dome, which was erected 
by Philip after the battle of Chaeronea, and which 
was situated near one of the gates of the Altis, 
close to the Prytaneum : the Hippodamlum^ a 
sacred enclosure erected in honour of Hippodamla : 
the Pelopium, a sacred enclosure, erected in honour 
of Pelops. The 2 chief buildings outside the Altis 
were the Stadium to the E. of Mt. Cronion, in 
which the gymnastic games were celebrated, and 
the Hippodromus^ a little S.E. of the Stadium, in 
which the chariot races took place. At the place 
which formed the connection between the Stadium 
and Hippodromus, the Hellanodicae, or judges of 
the Olympic games had their seats. (For details 
see Diet, of Antiq. arts. Hippodromus and Sta- 
diiLm.) The Olympic games were celebrated from 
the earliest times in Greece, and their establish- 
ment was assigned to various mythical personages. 
There was an interval of 4 years between each 
celebration of the festival, which interval was 
called an Oljinpiad ; but the Olympiads were not 
employed as a chronological aera till the victory of 
Coroebus in the foot-race, b. c. 776. An account 
of the Olympic games and of the Olympiads is given 
in the Did. of Antiq. arts. Olympia and Olympias. 

Olympias ('OAu^Trias), wife of Philip li., king 
of Macedonia, and mother of Alexander the Great, 
was the daughter of Neoptolemus I., king of Epirus. 
She was married to Philip B. c. 359. The nu- 
merous amours of Philip, and the passionate and 
jealous character of Olympias occasioned frequent 
disputes between them ; and when Philip married 
Cleopatra, the niece of Attalus (337), Olympias 
withdrew from Macedonia, and took refuge at the 
court of her brother Alexander, king of Epirus. It 
was generally believed that she lent her support to 
the assassination of Philip, 33G ; but it is hardly 
credible that she evinced her approbation of that 
deed in the open manner asserted by some writers. 
After the death of Philip she returned to Mace- 
donia, where she enjoyed great influence through 
the affection of Alexander. On the death of the 
latter (323), she withdrew from Macedonia, where 
her enemy Antipater had the undisputed control 
of affairs, and took refuge in Epirus. Here she 
continued to live, as it were, in exile, until the 
death of Antipater (319) presented a new opening 
to her ambition. She gave her support to the new 
regent Polysperchon, in opposition to Cassander, 
who had formed an alliance with Eurydice the 
wife of Philip Arrhidaeus, the nominal king of 
Macedonia. In 317 Olympias, resolving to obtain 
the supreme power in Macedonia, invaded that 
country, along with Polysperchon, defeated Eury- 
dice in battle, and put both her and her husband 
to death. Olympias followed up her vengeance by 
the execution of Nicanor, the brother of Cassander, 
as well as of 100 of his leading partisans among 
the Macedonian nobles. Cassander, who was at 
that time in the Peloponnesus, hastened to turn 
his arms against Macedonia. Ohnnpias on his 
approach threw herself (together with Roxana and 
the young Alexander) into Pydna, where she was 
closely blockaded by Cassander throughout the 
winter. At length in the spring of 316, she was 
compelled to surrender to Cassander, who caused 
her tf be put to death. Olympias was not without 
something of the grandeur and loftiness of spirit 



which distinguished her son, but her ungovernable 
passions led her to acts of sanguinary cruelty that 
must for ever disgrace her name. 

Olympiodorus ('OAi'/i7rio'5ct;pos). 1. A native 
of Thebes in Egypt, who li veo. in the 5th century 
after Christ. He wrote a work in 22 books (entitled 
'laropiKol \6yoi), which comprised the history ot' 
the Western empire under the reign of Honorius, 
from A. D. 407 to October, a. d. 425. Olympio- 
dorus took up the history from about the point at 
which Eunapius had ended. [Eunapius.] The 
original work of Olympiodorus is lost, but an 
abridgment of it has been preserved by Photius. 
After the death of Honorius Olympiodorus removed 
to Byzantium, to the court of the emperor Theo- 
dosius. Hierocles dedicated to this Olympiodorus 
his work on providence and fate [Hierocles], 
01}Tnpiodorus Avas a heathen. •— 2. A peripatetic 
philosopher, who taught at Alexandria, where 
Proclus was one of his pupils. — 3. The last phi- 
losopher of celebrity in the Neo-Platonic school of 
Alexandria. He lived in the first half of the 6th 
century after Christ, in the reign of the emperor 
Justinian. His life of Plato, and commentaries on 
several of Plato's dialogues are still extant. — 4. 
An Aristotelic philosopher, the author of a com- 
mentary on the Meteorologica of Aristotle, which 
is still extant, lived at Alexandria, in the latter 
half of the 6th century after Christ. Like Sim- 
plicius, to whom, however, he is inferior, he 
endeavours to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. 

Olympius ('OXu/iTrios), the OljTnpian, occurs as 
a surnam.e of Zeus, Hercules, the Muses (Olym- 
piades)^ and in general of all the gods who were 
believed to live in Olympus, in contradistinction 
from the gods of the lower world. 

Olympius Nemesianus. [Nemesianus.] 

Olympus COAu/iTToy), the name of 2 Greek 
musicians, of whom one is mythical, and the other 
historical. — 1. The elder Olympus belongs to the 
mythical genealogy of Mysian and Phrygian flute- 
players — Hyagnis, Marsyas, Olympus — to each 
of whom the invention of the flute was ascribed, 
under whose names we have the mythical repre- 
sentation of the contest between the Phrygian 
auletic and the Greek citharoedic music. Olympus 
was said to have been a native of Mysia, and to 
have lived before the Trojan war. Olympus not 
unfrequently appears on works of art, as a boy, 
sometimes instructed by Marsyas, and sometimes 
as witnessing and lamenting his fate. — 2. The 
true Olympus was a Phrj-gian, and perhaps be- 
longed to a family of native musicians, since he 
was said to be descended from the first Olympus. 
He flourished about b. c. 660 — 620. Though a 
Phrygian by origin, Olympus must be reckoned 
among the Greek musicians ; for all the accounts 
make Greece the scene of his artistic activity ; and 
he may be considered as having naturalized in 
Greece the music of the flute, which had previously 
been almost peculiar to Phrygia. 

Olympus ('OAujUTTos). I. Li Europe. 1. (Grk. 
Elymbo, Turk. Sernavat-Evi, i. e. Abode oftJie Ce- 
lestials). The E. part of the gre.at chain of moun- 
tains which extends W. and E. from the Acroce- 
raunian promontory on the Adriatic, to the Ther- 
maic Gulf, and which formed the N. boundary of 
ancient Greece proper. In a wide sense, the name 
is sometimes applied to all that part of this great 
chain which lies E. of the central range of Pindus, 
and which is losually called the Cambunian moun- 



THE PARTHENON. 




Panathenaic Procession, (From the Frieze of tlie Partlicnon.) Page .;27. 




The Parthenon restored. Page 527. 




Ground Plan of the Parthenon. Page 527. 



A. Peristyliiim. I D. Hecatompedon. 

B. Pronaos or Prodomus. a. Statue of the Goddess. 

C. Opisthodomus or Posticum. | E. Parthenon, afterwards Opisthodomus. 

{To face p. 496. 



COINS OF PERSONS. NEPOS — OTHO. 




Julius Nepos, Roman Emperor, a. d. 474 — 475. Page 473. 




Nero, Eoman Emperor, A. d. 54 — 68. Page 474. 




Nicocles, King of Salamis, b. c. 374. Piige 478, No. 1. 




Nicomedes II., King of Bithynia, e. c. 149—91. Page 479. 
To face p. 497.] 




Numerianus, Roman Emperor, a. d. 283. Page 486. 




Octavia, the sister of Augustus, and wife of M. Antonius. 
The head of her husband is on the obverse. Page 490, No. 1. 




Octavia, the wife of Nero. The head of her husband is on 
the obverse. Page 491, No. 2. 




Otho, Roman Emperor, a. d. 69. Page 50'. 



OLYNTHUS. 



OMBL 



497 



tains ; but tlie more specific and ordinary use of 
the name Olympus is to denote the extreme E. 
part of the chain, which striking oif from the Cam- 
hunian mountains to the S.E., skirts the S. end of 
the slip of coast called Pieria, and forms at its 
termination the N. wall of the vale of Tempe. 
Its shape is that of a blunt cone, with its outline 
picturesquely broken by minor summits; its height 
is about 9/00 feet; and its chief summit is covered 
with perpetual snow. From its position as the 
boundary between Thessaly and Macedonia, it is 
sometimes reckoned to the former, sometimes to 
the latter. — In the Greek mythology, Olympus 
was the chief seat of the third dynasty of gods, of 
which Zeus Avas the head. It was a really local 
conception with the early poets, to be understood 
literally, and not metaphorically, that these gods 
" on the snowy top 

Of cold Olympus ruled the middle air. 

Their liigliest hcavcnJ''* 
Indeed, if Homer uses either of the terms "OAu^ttTros 
and ovpauos metaphorically, it is the latter that is 
a metaphor for the former. Even the fable of the 
giants scaling heaven must be understood in this 
sense ; not that they placed Pelion and Ossa upon 
ihe top of Olympus to reach the still higher lieaven, 
but that they piled Pelion on the top of Ossa, and 
both on the lower slopes of Olympus, to scale the 
summit of Olympus itself, the abode of the gods. 
Homer describes the gods as having their several 
palaces on the summit of Olympus ; as spending 
the day in the palace of Zeus, round whom they 
sit in solemn conclave, while the younger gods 
dance before them, and the Muses entertain them 
with the lyre and song. They are shut in from 
the view of men upon the earth by a wall of clouds, 
the gates of which are kept by the Hours. The 
same conceptions are found in Hesiod, and to a 
great extent in the later poets ; with whom, how- 
ever, even as early as the lyric poets and the tra- 
gedians, the idea becomes less material, and the 
real abode of the gods is gradually transferred from 
the summit of Olympus to the vault of heaven 
(i. e. the sky) itself. This latter is also the con- 
ception of the Roman poets, so far at least as any 
definite idea can be framed out of their compound 
of Homer's language with later notions. — 2. A 
hill in Laconia, near Sellasia, overhanging the river 
Oenus. — 3. Another name for Lycaeum in Ar- 
cadia.— 11. In A.sia.'—\. Tke Mysian Olympus 
("OAu/xttos o Mwcrios- : KesMsh Dagh, Ala Dagh, 
IsJiik Dagh, and Kush-Dagh)^ a chain of lofty 
mountains, in the N.W. of Asia Minor, forming, 
with. Ida, the W. part of the N.-most line of the 
mountain system of that peninsula. It extends 
from W. to E. through the N. E. of Mysia and 
the S.W. of Bithynia, and thence, inclining a little 
N.-wards, it first passes through the centre of 
Bithynia, then forms the boundary between Bi- 
thynia and Galatia, and then extends through the 
S. of Paphlagonia to the river Halys. Beyond the 
Halys, the mountains in the N. of Pontus form a 
continuation of the chain. — 2. ( Yanar Dagh ), a 
volcano on the E. coast of Lycia, above the city of 
Phoenicus {Yanar). The names of the mountain 
and of the city are often interchanged. [Phoe- 
nicus.] 

Olyntlius i^OXvvQos'. 'OXvu6ios: A io Mamas), 
a town of Macedonia in Chalcidice, at the head of 
the Toronaic gulf, and at a little distance from the 
coast, between the peninsulas of Pallene and Si- 



thonia. It was the most important of the Greek 
cities on the coast of Macedonia, though we have 
no record of its foundation. It afterwards fell into 
the hands of the Thracian Bottiaei, when they 
were expelled from their own country by the Ma- 
cedonians. [Bottiaei ] It was taken by Arta- 
bazus, one of the generals of Xerxes, who peopled 
it with Chalcidians from Torone ; but it owed its 
greatness to Perdiccas, who persuaded the inha- 
bitants of many of the smaller towns in Clialcidice 
to abandon their own abodes and settle in Olynthus. 
This happened about the commencement of the 
Peloponnesian war ; and from this time Olynthus 
appears as a prosperous and flourishing town, with 
a population of 5000 inhabitants capable of bearing 
arms. It became the head of a confederacy of all 
the Greek towns in this part of Macedonia, and it 
long maintained its independence against the at- 
tacks of the Athenians, Spartans and Macedonians ; 
but in B. c. 379 it was compelled to submit to Sparta, 
after carrying on war with this state for 4 years. 
When the supremacy of Sparta was destroyed by 
the Thebans, Olynthus recovered its independence, 
and even received an accession of power from 
Philip, who was anxious to make Olynthus a 
counterpoise to the influence of Athens in the N. 
of the Aegean. With this view Philip gave 
Olynthus the territory of Potidaea, after he had 
wrested this town from the Athenians in 356. 
But when he had sufficiently consolidated hia 
power to be able to set at defiance both Olynthus 
and Athens, he threw off the mask, and laid siege 
to the former city. The Olynthians earnestly 
besought Athens for assistance, and were warmly 
supported by Demosthenes in his Olynthiac ora- 
tions ; but as the Athenians did not render the 
city any effectual assistance, it was taken and 
destroyed by Philip, and all its inhabitants sold 
as slaves (347). Olynthus was never restored^ 
and the remnants of its inhabitants were at a later 
time transferred by Cassander to Cassandrea. At 
the time of its prosperity Olynthus used the neigh- 
bouring town of Mecyberna as its seaport. 

Omana or Omanum {"O/uLava, "Oixavov). 1. A 
celebrated port on the N.E. coast of Arabia Felix, 
a little above the E.-most point of the peninsula, 
Pr. Syagros {Has el Had), on a large gulf of the 
same name. The people of this part of Arabia 
were called Omanitae ('O^ai^iTai) or Omani, and 
the name is still preserved in that of the district, 
Oman. — 2. (Prob. Schaina), a sea-port town in 
the E. of Carmania ; the chief emporium on that 
coast, for the trade between India, Persia, and 
Arabia. 

Omanitae and Omanum. [Omana.] 
Ombi COfj-Soi : 'O/iS'traj ; Koum Omhou, i. e. 
Hill of Omhon, Ru.), the last great city of IJpper 
Egypt, except Syene, from which it was distant 
about 30 miles, stood on the E. bank of the Nile, 
in the Ombites Nomos, and was celebrated as one 
of the chief seats of the worship of the crocodile. 
Juvenal's 15th satire is founded on a religious war 
between the people of Ombi and those of Tentyra, 
who hated the crocodile ; but, as Tentyra lies so 
much further down the Nile, with several inter- 
vening cities celebrated, as well as Ombi, for 
crocodile-worship, critics have suspected an error 
in the names, and some have proposed to read 
Coptos or Copion for Ombos in v. 35. It seems, 
however, better to suppose that Juvenal used the 
name without reference to topographical precision. 

K K 



498 



OMPHALE. 



OPHELTES. 



Opposite to Ombi, on the left "bank, was the town 
of Contra-Ombos, 

Omphale (Oii(pd\ri), daughter of the Lydian 
king lardanus, and wife of Tmolus, after whose , 
death she undertook the government herself. When ' 
Hercules, in consequence of the murder of Iphitus, 
was afflicted with a serious disease, and was in- 
formed by the oracle that he could only be cured 
by serving some one for wages for the space of 3 
years, Hermes sold Hercules to Omphale. The 
hero became enamoiired of his mistress, and to 
please her, he is said to have spun wool and put 
on the garments of a woman, while Omphale wore 
his lion's skin. She bore Hercules several children. 

Om.ph.aliiini {'Oij.(pd\Lov : 'O^cc/jaAtTTjs), a town 
in Crete in the neighbourhood of Cnossus. 

On. [Heliopolis.] 

Onatas ('Oudras), of Aegina, the son of Micon, 
was a distinguished statuary and painter, con- 
temporary -v^-ith Polygnotus, Ageladas, and Hegias. 
He flourished down to about b. c. 460, that is, in 
the age immediately preceding that of Phidias. 

Oncae ("OyKui), a village in Boeotia near 
Thebes, from which one of the gates of Thebes 
derived its name ('Oy Ka7ai)^ and which contained 
a sanctuary of Athena, who was hence called 
Athena Onca. 

Onchesnms or OncMsmus {"GyxWH-os, "Oy- 
Xicrfj.o<: : OrcJiido), a seaport town of Epirus in 
Chaonia, opposite the W. extremity of Corcyra. 
The ancients derived its name from Anchises, 
whence it is named by Dionysius the " Harbour of 
Anchises (*A7xi'crou Aiutjv). From this place 
Cicero calls the wind blowing from Epirus towards 
Italy Onchesmites. 

Onchestus {^OyxW'os : '07X7?crTios) 1. An 
ancient town of Boeotia, said to have been founded 
by Onchestus, son of Poseidon, was situated a little 
S. of the lake Copais near Haliartus. It contained 
a celebrated temple and grove of Poseidon, and 
was the place of meeting of the Boeotian Amphic- 
tyony. The ruins of this town are still to be seen 
on the S. W. slope of the mountain Faga. 2. A 
river in Thessaly, which rises in the neighbourhood 
of Eretria, and flows by Cynoscephalae, and falls 
into the lake Boebeis. It is perhaps the same as 
the river OnocJionus (^Ov6xo}vos) mentioned by 
Herodotus. 

Onesicritns ( OvricriKpiros'), a Greek historical 
writer, who accompanied Alexander on his cam- 
paigns in Asia, and* wrote a history of them, which 
is frequently cited by later authors. He is called 
by some authorities a native of Astypalaea, and 
by others of Aegina. When Alexander constructed 
his fleet on the Hydaspes, he appointed Onesicritus 
chief pilot of the fleet, a post which he held not 
only during the descent of the Indus, but through- 
out the voyage from the mouth of that river to the 
Persian gulf, which was conducted under the com- 
mand of Nearchus. Though an eye-'v\'itness of 
much that he described, it appears that he inter- 
mixed many fables and falsehoods with his nar- 
rative, so that he early fell into discredit as an 
authority. 

Oningis or Oringis, [Oringis.] 

Oniros (^Ov^ipos), the Dream-God, was a per- 
sonification of dreams. According to Homer 
Dreams dwell on the dark shores of the W. Ocea- 
nus, and the deceitful dreams come through an 
ivory gate, while the true ones issue from a gate 
made of horn. Hesiod calls dreams the children 



of night ; and Ovid, who calls them children Oi 
Sleep, mentions 3 of them by name, viz. Morpheus, 
Icelus or Phobetor, and Phantasus, Euripides 
called them sons of Gaea, and conceived them as 
genii with black -tt-ings. 

Onoba, sumamed Aestuaria (Huelva), a sea- 
port town Oi the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica, 
between the mouths of the Baetis and Anas, on an 
aestuan,- formed by the river Luxia. There are 
remains of a Roman aqueduct at Huelva. 

Onomacritns (^OvofxaKpnos), an Athenian, who 
occupies an interesting position in the history of 
the early Greek religious poetry. He lived about 
B. c. 520 — ■^o. He enjoyed the patronage of 
Hipparchus, until he was detected by Lasus of 
Hermione (the dithyrambic poet) in making an in- 
terpolation in an oracle of Musaeus, for which Hip- 
parchus banished him. He seems to have gone 
into Persia, where the Pisistratids, after their ex- 
pulsion from Athens, took him agaiii into favour, 
and employed him to persuade Xerxes to engage 
in his expedition against Greece, by reciting to 
him all the ancient oracles which seemed to favour 
the attempt. It appears that Onomacritus had 
made a collection and arrangement of the oracles 
ascribed to Musaeus. It is further stated that he 
made interpolations in Homer as well as in Mu- 
saeus, and that he was the real author of some of 
the poems which went imder the name of Orpheus. 

Onomarchus ('Ovo/xopxos), general of the Pho- 
cians in the Sacred war, succeeded his brother Phi- 
lomelus in this command, B. c. 353. In the follow- 
ing year he v/as defeated in Thessaly by Philip, 
and perished in attempting to reach by swimming 
the Athenian ships, which were lying off the shore. 
His body fell into the hands of Philip, who caused 
it to be crucified, as a punishment for his sacri- 
lege. 

Onosander (^Oy6(Tav^pos\ the author of a cele- 
brated work on military tactics (entitled SxpaxT;- 
yiKos Xoyos), which is still extant. All subsequent 
Greek and Roman writers on the same subject 
made this work their text-book, and it is still held 
in considerable estimation. He appears to have 
lived about a. d. 50. In his style he imitated 
Xenophon with some success. Edited by Schwebel, 
Niimberg, 1761 ; and by Coraes, Paris, 1822. 

Onu-gnathus (^Ovov yvddos: Elaphonisi), an 
island and a promontory on the S. coast of Laconia, 
W. of C. Malea. 

Oniiphis {^OvGv<pis), the capital of the Nomos 
Onuphites in the Delta of Egypt. Its site is un- 
certain; but it was probably near the middle of the 
Delta. ^ 

Ophelion ('nd)eAi'w^), an Athenian comic poet, 
probably of the Middle Comedy, B. c. 380. 

Ophelias (OcpeWas), of Pella in Macedonia, 
was one of the generals of Alexander the Great, 
after whose death he followed the fortunes of 
Ptolemy. In b. c. 322, he conquered Cyrene for 
Ptolemy, of which city he held the government on 
behalf of the Egyptian king for some years. But 
soon after 313 he threw off his allegiance to Pto- 
lemy, and continued to govern Cyrene as an inde- 
pendent state for nearly 5 years. In 308 he formed 
an alliance with Agathocles, and marched against 
Carthage ; but he was treacherously attacked by 
Agathocles near this city, and was slain. 

Opheltes COcpeXr-.-js). 1, Also called Arche- 
morus. [Archemorus.] — 2. One of the Tyr- 
rhenian pirates, who attempted to carry off Diony- 



OPHION. 



OPPIUS. 



499 



BUS, and were therefore metamorphosed into dol- 
phins. 

Ophion CO(pLcop). 1. One of the oldest of the 
Titans was married to Eurynome, with whom he 
ruled over Olympus, but being conquered by Cro- 
nos and Rhea, he and Eurynome were thrown into 
Oceanus or Tartarus. — 2. A giant, who perished 
in the battle with Zeus. — 3. Father of the cen- 
taur Amycus, who is hence called Opliionides. 

Ophionenses or Ophienses ('O^toz/ers, '0(pL^'ls), 
a people in the N.E. of Aetolia. 

Opllir (0. T. LXX. ^ovcp'ip, '2,(>}(pdpa), a 

place frequently referred to in the Old Testament, 
as proverbial for its gold, and to which Solomon, 
in conjunction with Hiram, king of Tyre, sent a 
fleet, which brought back gold and sandal-wood 
and precious stones. These ships were sent from 
Ezion-geber, at the head of the Red Sea, whence 
also king Jehoshaphat built ships to go to Ophir 
for gold, but this voyage was stopped by a ship- 
wreck. It is clear, therefore, that Ophir was on 
the shores of the Erythraeum Mare of the ancients, 
or our Indian Ocean. Among the most plausible 
conjectures as to its site are: (1) that it was on 
the coast of India, or a name for India itself ; (2) 
that it was on the coast of Arabia, in which case 
it is not necessary to suppose that Arabia furnished 
all the articles of commerce which were brought 
from Ophir, for Ophir may have been a great 
emporium of the Indian and Arabian trade ; (3) 
that it is not the name of any specific place, but a 
general designation for the countries (or any of 
them) on the shores of the Indian Ocean, which 
supplied the chief articles of Indian and Arabian 
commerce. 

Ophis ( Ocbis), a river in Arcadia, which flowed 
by Mantinea. 

Ophiusa or OpMussa {'OcpLSeacra, 'Ocpiovaaa, 
'O(piov<ra, i, e. abounding in S7iakes). 1. [PlTYU- 
SAE.]—- 2. Or Ophiussa (Perhaps Palanea), a 
town of Europaean Scythia on the left bank of 
the Tyras (Dniester). — 3. A little island near 
Crete. — 4, (A fsia or Rabbi), a small island in the 
Propontis (Sea of Marmara), off the coast of 
Mysia, N.W. of Cyzicus andS.W. of Proconnesus. 
—5. [Rhodus.]— 6. [Tenos.] 

Ophrynium {'Ocppvueiou : prob. Fren-Kevi), a 
small town of the Troad, near the lake of Pteleos, 
between Dardanus and Rhoeteum, with a grove 
consecrated to Hector. 

Opici. [Osci.] 

Opilius Macrinus. [Macrinus.] 
Opilius, Aurelius, the freedman of an Epi- 
curean, taught at Rome, first philosophy, then rhe- 
toric, and, finally, grammar. He gave up his school 
upon the condemnation of Rutilius Rufus (b. c. 92), 
whom he accompanied to Smyrna, and there the 
two friends grew old together in the enjoyment of 
each other's society. He composed several learned 
works, one of which, named Musae, is referred to 
by A. Gellius. 

Opimius. 1. Q., consul b. c. 154, when he 
subdued some of the Ligurian tribes N. of the 
Alps, who had attacked Massilia. He Avas noto- 
rious in his youth for his riotous living. ---2. 
L., son of the preceding, was praetor 125, in which 
year he took Fregellae, which had revolted against 
the Romans. He belonged to the high aristocra- 
tical party, and was a violent opponent of C. 
Gracchus. He was consul in 121, and took the 
leading part in the proceedings which ended in the 



murder of Gracchus. Opimius and his party abused 
their victory most savagely, and are said to have 
killed more than 300 persons. For details see 
p. 288, a. In the following year (120), he was 
accused of having put Roman citizens to death 
without trial ; but he was defended by the consul, 
C. Papirius Carbo, and was acquitted. In 112 he 
was at the head of the commission which was 
sent into Africa in order to divide the dominions 
of Micipsa between Jugurtha and Adherbal, and 
was bribed by Jugurtha, to assign to him the 
better part of the country. Three years after he 
was condemned under the law of the tribune, C. 
Mamilius Limetanus, by which an inquiry was 
made into the conduct of all those who had re- 
ceived bribes from Jugurtha. Opimius went into 
exile to Dyrrhachium in Epirus, where he lived for 
some years, hated and insulted by the people, and 
where he eventually died in great poverty. He 
richly deserved his punishment, and met with a 
due recompense for his cruel and ferocious conduct 
towards C. Gracchus and his party. Cicero, on 
the contrary, who, after his consulship, had iden- 
tified himself with the aristocratical party, fre- 
quently laments the fate of Opimius. The year in 
which Opimius was consul (121) was remarkable 
for the extraordinary heat of the autumn, and thus 
the vintage of this year was of an unprecedented 
quality. This wine long remained celebrated as 
the Vinum Opimiajium, and was preserved for an 
almost incredible space of time. 

Opis (^HTTis), an important commercial city of 
Assyria, in the district of Apolloniatis, at the con- 
fluence of the Physcus {Odorneh) with the Tigris; 
not mentioned later than the Christian era. 

Opitergium (Opiterginus : Oderzo), a Roman 
colony in Venetia in the N. of Italy, on the river 
Liquentia near its source, and on the high road 
from Aquileia to Verona. In the Marcomannic 
war it was destroyed by the Quadi, but it was re- 
built, and afterwards belonged to the Exarchate. 
From it the neighbouring mountains were called 
Montes Opitergini. 

Oppianus I^Oinviavos)^ the author of 2 Greek 
hexameter poems still extant, one on fishing, en- 
titled Halieutica KKl^vtlko.), and the other on 
hunting, entitled Cynegetica {KvvrjyeTiKoi). Mo- 
dern critics, however, have shown that these 2 
poems were written by 2 different persons of this 
name. 1, The author of the Halieutica, was bom 
either at Corycus or at Anazarba, in Cilicia, and 
flourished about A. d. 180. The poem consists of 
about 3500 hexameter lines, divided into 5 books, 
of which the first 2 treat of the natural history of 
fishes, and the other 3 of the art of fishing.— 2. 
The author of the Cynegetica, was a native of Apa- 
mea or Pella, in Syria, and flourished a little later 
than the other Oppianus, about A. D. 206. His 
poem, which is addressed to the emperor Caracalla, 
consists of about 2100 hexameter lines, divided into 
4 books. The best edition of the 2 poems is by 
Schneider, Argent. 1776, and 2nd ed. Lips. 1813. 
There is also a prose paraphrase of apoemon hawking 
('I|6UT;Ka) attributed to Oppianus, but it is doubt- 
ful to which of the 2 authors of this name it be- 
longs. Some critics think that the work was pro- 
bably written by Dionysius. 

Oppius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs B. c. 213, 
carried a law to curtail the expenses and luxuries 
of Roman women. It enacted that no woman 
should have more than half an ounce of gold, nor 

K K '1 



500 OPS. ORCHOMENUS. 

wear a dress of different colours, nor ride in a car- year of his age, in the consulship of Cicero, b.c. G3. 

He lived nearly 100 years, but had lost his memory 



riacre in the city, or in any to^^•n, or within a mile 
of it, unless on account of public sacrifices. This 
law was repealed in 195, notwithstanding the ve- 
hement opposition of the elder Cato.— 2. Q., a 
Roman general in the Mithridatic war, b. c. 88, 
fell into the hands of Mithridates, but was subse- 
sequenth' surrendered by the latter to Sulla. — 3. C, 
an intimate friend of C. .Julius Caesar, whose 
private affairs he managed in conjunction with 
Cornelius Balbus. Oppius was the author of se- 
veral works, referred to by the ancient v,-riters, but 
all of which have perished. The authorship of the 
histories of the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish 
v.-ars, was a disputed point as early as the time of 
Suetonius, some assigning them to Oppius and 
others to Hirtius. But the similarity in style and 
diction between the work on the Alexandrine war 
and the last book of the Commentaries on the 
Gallic war. leads to the conclusion that the former, 
at all events, was the work of Hirtius. The book 
on the African war was probably written by Op- 
pius He also wrote the lives of several distin- 
guished Romans, such as Scipio Africanus the 
alder, Marius, Pompey, and probably Caesar. 

Ops, a female Roman divinity of plenty and fer- 
tility, as is indicated by her name, which is 
connected wi:h opimus^ opulentus, inops, and copia. 
She was regarded as the wife of Satumus, and 
the protectress of every thing connected with 
agriculture. Her abode was in the earth, and 
hence those who invoked her used to touch the 
ground. Her worship was intimately connected 
with that of her husband Satm-nus, for she had 
both temples and festivals in common with him ; 
b'.it she had likewise a separate sanctuary on the 
Capitol, and in the vicus jugarius, not far from the 
temple of Satumus, she had an altar in common 
-v\-ith Ceres. The festivals of Ops are called Opalia 



long before his death. 

Orbona, a female Roman divinity, was invoked 
by parents who had been deprived of their children, 
and desired to have others, and also in dangerous 
maladies of children. 

Orcades lusiilae {Orkney and Shetland Isles), a 
group of several small islands off the N. coast of 
Britain, with which the Romans first became ac- 
quainted when Agricola sailed round the N. of 
Britain. 

Orchomenus (^Opxo}j.^vos : 'Opxo/jLevios). 1. 
(Scripu). an ancient, wealthy, and powerful city of 
Boeotia, the capital of the Miuyean empire in the 
ante-historical ages of Greece, and hence called by 
Homer the Minyean Orchomenos ("Opx- Mivveios). 
It was situated N.W. of the lake Copais, on the 
river Cephissus, and was built on the slope of a hill 
on the summit of which stood the acropolis. It is 
said to have been originally called Andreis {^kv- 
Bp^is), from Andreus. the son of Peneus, who 
emigrated from the Peneus in Thessaly ; to have 
been afterwards called Phleaya {^\€yva), from 
Phlegj-as, a son of Ares and Chryse ; and to have 
finally obtained its later name from Orchomenus, 
son of Zeus or Eteocles and the Danaid Hesione, 
and father of Minyas. This Orchomenus was re- 
garded as the real founder of the Minyean empire, 
which before the time of the Trojan war extended 
over the whole of the W. of Boeotia. The cities of 
Coronea, Haliartus, Lebedea, and Chaeronea were 
subject to it ; and even Thebes at one time was 
compelled to pay it tribute. It lost, however, 
much of its power after its capture by Hercules, 
but in the time of the Trojan war it still ap- 
pears as a powerful city. Sixty years after the 
Trojan war it was taken by the Boeotians ; its 
empire was completely destroyed ; and it became a 



Rud Opiconsitia, from her surname Coiisiva, con- j member of the Boeotian league. All this belongs 



tected with the verb severe, to sow. 

Optatns, bishop of Milevi in Numidia, flou- 
rished under the emperors Valentinian and Valens. 
He wrote a work, still extant, against the errors 
of the Donatists, entitled, De Schismate Donatis- 
tarurii adversus Parmenianum. Edited by Dupin, 
Paris fol. 1700. 

Opus ('OttoCs, contr. of *0it6^ls\ "Ottovutlos). 
1. {Talanda or Talanti?), the capital of the Opun- 
tian Locrians, was situated, according to Strabo, 



to the mj'thical period. In the historical age it 
continued to exist as an independent town till 
B.C. 367, when it was taken and destroyed by the 
Thebans, and its inhabitants murdered or sold as 
slaves. In order to weaken Thebes, it was rebuilt 
at the instigation of the Athenians, but was soon 
destroyed again by the Thebans ; and although it 
was again restored by Philip in 338, it never re- 
covered its former prosperity ; and in the time of 
Strabo was in ruins. The most celebrated building 



15 stadia (2 miles) from the sea, and 60 stadia from i in Orchomenos was the so-called treasury of Minyas, 
its harbour Cynos ; but, according to Livy, it was I but which, like the similar monument at Mycenae, 
only i mile from the coast. It was the birthplace } was more probably a family-vault of the ancient 
of Patroclus. The bay of the Euboean sea near i heroes of the place. It was a circular vault ot 
this town was called Opuntius Sinus. [Locri.] —! massive masonry embedded in the hill, with an 
2, A small town in Elis. j arched roof, and had a side door of entrance. The 

Ora. 1. ("Opa) a city of Carmania, near the | remains of this building are extant; and its form 
borders of Gedrosia.— 2. {"Clpa), a city in the N.W. j may still be traced, though the whole of the stone- 
of India, near the sources of the Indus. j work of the vault has disappeared. Orchomenos 

Orae. [Oritae.] | possessed a very ancient temple of the Charites or 

Orbelus {^OpSrjXos), a moimtain in the N.E. of 



^lacedonia, on the borders of Thrace, extends from 
Mt, Rhodope along the Stn-mon to Mt. Pangaeus. 

Orbilius PupiUus, a Roman grammarian and 
schoolmaster, best known to us from his having 
been the teacher of Horace, who gives him the 
epithet of jAagosus from the severe floggings which 
his pupils received from him. (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 71.) 
He was a native of Beneventum, and after servmg 
as an apparitor of the magistrates, and also as a 
soldier in the army, he settled at Rome in the 50th 



Graces ; and here was celebrated in the most ancient 
times a musical festival, which was frequented by 
poets and singers from all parts of the Hellenic 
world. There was a temple of Hercules 7 stadia 
N. of the town, near the sources of the river Melas. 
Orchomenos is memorable on account of the great 
A-ictory which Sulla gained in its neighbourhood 
over Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, 86.— 
2. (KalpaJii), an ancient town of Arcadia, mentioned 
by Homer with the epithet ■rToXv(xr]Kos, to distin- 
guish it from the Miuyean Orchomenus, is said to 



ORCUS. 



ORETANL 



501 



have been founded "by Orchomenus, son of Lycaon. 
It was situated on a hiil N.W. of Mantinea, and 
its territory included the towns of Methydrium, 
Theisoa, Teuthis, and the Tripolis. In the Pelo- 
ponnesian war Orchomenus sided with Sparta, and 
was taken by the Athenians. After the battle of 
Leuctra the Orchomenians did not join the Arcadian 
confederacy in consequence of its hatred against 
Mantinea. In the contests between the Achaeans 
and Aetolians, it was taken successively by Cleo- 
menes and Antigonus Doson ; but it eventually 
became a member of the Achaean League. — 3. A 
town on the confines of Macedonia and Thessaly, 
and hence sometimes said to belong to the former, 
and sometimes to the latter country. 
Orcus. [Hades.] 

Ordessus {'OpSrjcraos), a tributary of the Ister 
(Danube) in Scythia, mentioned by Herodotus, 
but which cannot be identified with any modern 
river. 

Ordovices, a people in the W. of Britain, oppo- 
site the island Mona {Anglesey), occupying the N. 
portion of the modern Wales. 

Oreades. [Nymphae.] 

Orestae ('Operrrai), a people in the N. of Epirus 
on the borders of Macedonia, inhabiting the district 
named after them, Orestis or Orestias. They were 
originally independent, but were afterwards subject 
to the Macedonian monarchs. They were declared 
free by the Romans in their war with Philip. Ac- 
cording to the legend, they derived their name 
from Orestes, Avho is said to have fled into this 
country after murdering his mother, and to have 
there founded the town of Argos Oresticum. 

Orestes ('Opeo-TTjs). 1. Son of Agamemnon and 
Clytaemnestra, and brother of Chrysothemis, Lao- 
dice (Electra), and Iphianassa (Iphigenia). Ac- 
cording to the Homeric account, Agamemnon on 
his return from Troy was murdered by Aegisthus 
and Clytaemnestra before he had an opportunity of 
seeing him. In the 8th year after his father's 
murder Orestes came from Athens to Mycenae and 
slew the murderer of his father. This simple story 
of Orestes has been enlarged and embellished in 
various ways by the tragic poets. Thus it is said 
that at the murder of Agamemnon it v/as intended 
to despatch Orestes also, but that by means of 
Electra he Avas secretly carried to Strophius, king 
in Phocis, who was married to Anaxibia, the sister 
of Agamemnon. According to some, Orestes was 
saved by his nurse, who allowed Aegisthus to kill 
her own child, supposing it to be Orestes. In the 
house of Strophius, Orestes grew up with the king's 
son Pylades, with whom he had formed that close 
and intimate friendship which has become pro- 
verbial. Being frequently reminded by messengers 
from Electra of the necessity of avenging his father's 
death, he consulted the oracle of Delphi, which 
strengthened him in his plan. He therefore re- 
paired in secret to Argos. Here he pretended to 
be a messenger of Strophius, who had come to an- 
nounce the death of Orestes, and brought the ashes 
of the deceased. After visiting his father's tomb, 
and sacrificing upon it a lock of his hair, he made 
himself known to his sister Electra, and soon after- 
wards slew both Aegisthus and Clytaemnestra in 
the palace. Immediately after the murder of his 
mother he was seized with madness. He now fled 
from land to land, pursued by the Erinnyes of his 
mother. At length by Apollo's advice, he took 
refuge with Athena at Athens. The goddess af- 



forded him protection, and appointed the court of 
the Areopagus to decide his fate. The Erinnyes 
brouglit forward their accusation, and Orestes made 
the command of the Delphic oracle his excuse. 
When the court voted, and was equally divided, 
Orestes was acquitted by the command of Athena 
According to another modification of the legend, 
Orestes consulted Apollo how he could be delivered 
from his madness and incessant Avandering. The 
god advised him to go to Tauris in Scythia, and 
to fetch from that country the image of Artemis, 
which was believed to have fallen there from hea- 
ven, and to carry it to Athens. Orestes and Pylades 
accordingly went to Tauris, v/here Thoas was king. 
On their arrival they were seized by the natives, 
in order to be sacrificed to Artemis, according to 
the custom of the country. But Iphigenia, the 
priestess of Artemis, was the sister of Orestes, and, 
after recognising each other, all three escaped with 
the statue of the goddess. After his return to Pe- 
loponnesus Orestes took possession of his fiither'a 
kingdom at Mycenae, which had been usurped by 
Aletes or Menelaus. When Cylarabes of Argos 
died without leaving any heir, Orestes also became 
king of Argos. The Lacedaemonians likewise made 
him their king of their own accord, because they 
preferred him, the grandson of Tyndareus, to Nico- 
stratus and Megapenthes, the sons of Menelaus by 
a slave. The Arcadians and Phocians increased 
his power by allying themselves with him. He 
married Hermione, the daughter of INIenelaus, and 
became by her the father of Tisamenus. The story 
of his marriage with Hermione, who had previously 
been married to Neoptolemus, is related elsewhere. 
[Hermione; Neoptolemus.] He died of the 
bite of a snake in Arcadia, and his body, in ac- 
cordance with an oracle, was afterwards carried 
from Tegea to Sparta, and there buried. His bones 
are said to have been found at a later time in a 
war between the Lacedaemonians and Tegeatans, 
and to have been conveyed to Sparta. — 2. Regent 
of Italy during the short reign of his infant son 
Romulus Augustulus, a.d. 475 — 476. He was bom 
in Pannonia, and served for some years under At- 
tila ; after whose death he rose to eminence at the 
Roman court. Having been entrusted with the 
command of an army by Julius Nepos, he deposed 
this emperor, and placed his son Romulus Augus- 
tulus on the throne ; but in the following year he 
was defeated by Odoacer and put to death. [Odoa- 
CER.] — 3. L. Aurelius Orestes, consul b.c. 126, 
received Sardinia as his province, where he remained 
upwards of 3 ^^ears. C. Gracchus was quaestor to 
Orestes in Sardinia.— 4. Cn. Aufidius Orestes, 
originally belonged to the Aurelia gens, whence his 
surname of Orestes, and was adopted by Cn. Au- 
fidius, the historian, when the latter Avas an old 
man. Orestes was consul, 71. 

Oresteum, Orestheum, or Oresthasium ('Ope- 
cTeioi', 'OpeaB^iov, 'OpsaOdaiov), a town in the S. 
of Arcadia in the district Maenalia, not far from 
Megalopolis. 

Orestias. 1. The country of the Orestae. 
[Orestae.] — 2. A name frequently given by the 
Byzantine writers to Hadrianopolis in Thrace. 

Orestilla, Aurelia. [Aurelia.] 

Oretani, a powerful people in the S.W. of His- 
pania Tarraconensis, bounded on the S. by Baetica, 
on the N. by the Carpetani, on the W. by Lusita- 
nia, and on the E. by the Bastetani ; their territory 
corresponded to the eastern part of Granada, the 

K K 3 



502 OREUS 

-whole of La Mancha, and the western part of 
Murcia. Their chief town was Castulo. 

Oreus {^Clpi6s : 'npe'iTrjs), a town in the N, of 
Euboea, on the river Callas, at the foot of the 
mountain Telethrium, and in the district Hes- 
tiaeotis, was itself originally called Hestiaea or His- 
tiaea. After the Persian wars Oreus, with the 
rest of Euboea, became subject to the Athenians ; 
but on the revolt of the island, in B. c. 445, Oreus 
■^as taken by Pericles, its inhabitants expelled, 
and their place supplied hj 2000 Athenians. The 
site of Oreus made it an important place, and its 
name frequently occurs in the Grecian wars dov>'n 
to the dissolution of the Achaean league. 

Orgetorix, the noblest and richest among the 
Helvetii, formed a conspiracy to obtain the royal 
power B.C. 61, and persuaded his countrymen to 
emigrate from their own country. Two years were 
devoted to making the necessary preparations ; but 
the real designs of Orgetorix having meantime 
transpired, and the Helvetii having attempted to 
bring him to trial, he suddenlj" died, probably, as 
was suspected, by his o'svn hands. 

Oribasms {'OpeiSdaios or 'Opigacrios), an emi- 
nent Greek medical v^Titer, born about a. d. 325, 
either at Sardis in Lydia, or at Pergamus in Mysia. 
He early acquired a great professional reputation. 
He was an intimate friend of the emperor Julian, 
with whom he became acquainted several years 
before Julian's accession to the throne. He was 
almost the only person to whom Julian imparted 
the secret of his apostasy from Christianity. He 
accompanied Julian in his expedition against Persia, 
and was with him at the time of his death, 363. 
The succeeding emperors, Vaientinian and Valens, 
confiscated the property of Oribasius and banished 
him. He was afterwards recalled from exile, and 
was alive at least as late as 395. Of the personal 
character of Oribasius we know little or nothing, 
but it is clear that he was much attached to pa- 
ganism and to the heathen philosophy. He was 
an intimate friend of Eunapius, who praises him 
very highly, and ■v\T:ote an account of his life. We 
possess at present 3 works of Oribasius: L Col- 
lecta Medicinalia {'^vvayociyaX 'larpLKai)^ or some- 
times Hebdomecontabiblos ('E§5o/i7j/£0}'Ta§t§Aos), 
which was compiled at the command of Julian, 
when Oribasius Avas still a young man. It contains 
but little original matter, but is very valuable on 
account of the numerous extracts from writers whose 
works are no longer extant. More than half of 
this work is now lost, and what remains is in some 
confusion. There is no complete edition of the 
■work. 2. An abridgment {^vvo\\ils) of the former 
■work, in 9 books. It was written 30 years after 
the former. 3. Euporista or De facile Parabilibus 
{EvTrSpiara), in 4 books. Both this and the pre- 
ceding work were intended as manuals of the prac- 
tice of medicine. 

Orlcum or Oricus D.piKov, TipiKos : 'npiKios : 
Ericlio), an important Greek town on the coast of 
lUyria, near the Ceraunian mountains and the fron- 
tiers of Epirus. According to tradition it was 
founded by the Euboeans, who were cast here by a 
storm on their return from Troy ; but, according to 
another legend, it was a Colchian colony. The 
town was strongly fortified, but its harbour was 
not verj' secure. It v\-as destroyed in the civil Avars, 
but was rebuilt by Herodes Atticus. The turpen- 
tine tree {terebinthj£) grew in the neighbourhood 
of Oreus. 



ORIGENES. 

Origenes ('npiyeVTjs), usually called Origen, 
one of the most eminent of the early Christian 
v.Titers, was bom at Alexandria, a. D. 186. He 
received a careful education from his father, Leo- 
nides, who was a devout Christian ; and he subse- 
quentlj' became a pupil of Clement of Alexandria. 
His father having been put to death in the perse- 
cution of the Christians in the 10th year of Severus 
(202), Origen was reduced to destitution ; where- 
upon he became a teacher of grammar, and soon 
acquired a great reputation. At the same time he 
gave instraction in Christianity to several of the 
heathen ; and though only in his 18th year, he was 
appointed to the office of Catechist, which was 
vacant through the dispersion of the clergy conse- 
quent on the persecution. The young teacher 
showed a zeal and self-denial beyond his years. 
Deeming his profession as teacher of grammar in- 
consistent with his sacred work, he gave it up ; 
and he lived on the merest pittance. His food and 
his periods of sleep were restricted within the nar- 
rowest limits ; and he performed a strange act of self- 
mutilation, in obedience to what he regarded as the 
recommendation of Christ. (Matth. xix. 12.) At a 
later time however he repudiated this literal under- 
standing of our Lord's words. About 211 or 212 
Origen visited Home, where he made however a very 
short stay. On his return to Alexandria he con- 
tinued to discharge his duties as Catechist, and to 
pursue his biblical studies. About 21 6 he paid a 
visit to Caesarea in Palestine, and about 230 he tra- 
velled into Greece. Shortly after his return to Alex- 
andria, he had to encounter the open enmity of 
Demetrius, the bishop of the city. He was first 
deprived of his office of Catechist, and was compelled 
to leave Alexandria ; and Demetrius afterwards 
procured his degradation from the priesthood and his 
excommunication. The charges brought against him 
are not specified ; but his unpopularity appears to 
have arisen from the obnoxious character of some of 
his opinions, and was increased by the circumstance 
that even in his lifetime his Avritings were seriously 
corrupted. Origen withdrew to Caesarea in Pales- 
tine, vv^here he was received with the greatest kind- 
ness. Among his pupils at this place was Gregory 
Thaumaturgus, who afterwards became his pane- 
gyrist. In 235 Origen fled from Caesarea in 
Palestine, and rook refuge at Caesarea in Cappa- 
docia, Avhere he remained concealed 2 years. It 
was subsequent to this that he undertook a 2nd 
journey into Greece, the date of which is doubtful. 
In the Decian persecution (249 — 251), Origen was 
put to the torture ; but though his life was spared, 
the sufferings which he underwent hastened his 
end. He died in 253 or 254, in his 69th year at 
Tyre, in which city he was buried. — The following 
are the most important of Origen's works : 1. The 
Hexapla, which consisted of 6 copies of the Old 
Testament, ranged in parallel columns. The 1st 
column contained the Hebrew text in Hebrew 
characters, the 2nd the same text in Greek cha- 
racters, the 3rd the version of Aquila, the 4th 
that of Symmachus, the 5th the Septuagint, the 
6th the version of Theodotion. Beside the com- 
pilation and arrangement of these versions, Origen 
added marginal notes, containing, among other 
things, an explanation of the Hebrew names. Only 
fragments of this valuable Avork are extant ; the 
best edition of which is by Montfaucon, Paris, 1714. 
2. Exegetical works, Avhich comprehend 3 classes : 
(1.) Tomi, which Jerome renders Volumina^ con- 



ORINGIS. 



ORITAE. 



503 



taining ample commentaries, in which he gave full 
scope to his intellect. (2.) Scholia, brief notes on 
detached passages. (3.) Homiliae, popular expo- 
sitions, chiefly delivered at Caesarea. In his various 
expositions Origen sought to extract from the 
Sacred Writings their historical, mystical or pro- 
phetical, and moral significance. His desire of 
finding continually a mystical sense led him fre- 
quently into the neglect of the historical sense, and 
even into the denial of its truth. This capital fault 
has at all times furnished ground for depreciating 
his labours, and has no doubt materially diminished 
their value : it must not, however, be supposed 
that his denial of the historical truth of the Sacred 
Writings is more than occasional, or that it has 
been carried out to the full extent which some of 
his accusers have charged upon him. 3. De Prin- 
cipiis (riepl apxcoj/). This work was the great ob- 
ject of attack with Origen's enemies, and the source 
from which they derived their chief evidence of his 
various alleged heresies. It was divided into 4 
books. Of this work some important fragments are 
extant ; and the Latin version of Rufinus has 
come down to us entire ; but Rufinus took great 
liberties with the original, and the unfaithful- 
ness of his version is denounced in the strongest 
terms by Jerome. 4. Exhoriaiio ad Martyrium 
(YAs fxapTvpiov TrpoTpe-n-TiKhs Aoyos), or De Mar- 
tyria (Hepl fiaprvpiov), written during the perse- 
cution under the emperor Maximin (235 — 238), 
and still extant. 5. Contra Celsuvi Lihri VIII. 
(Kara KeAcrou rofJLOi 7]'), still extant. In this 
important work Origen defends the truth of Christi- 
anity against the attacks of Celsus. [Celsus.] — 
There is a valuable work entitled Philocalia (^i- 
XoKaXia), which is a compilation by Basil of Cae- 
sarea and his friend Gregory of Nazianzus, made 
almost exclusively from the writings of Origen, of 
which many important fragments have been thus 
preserved. Few writers have exercised greater 
influence by the force of their intellect and the 
variety of their attainments than Origen, or have 
been the occasion of longer and more acrimonious 
disputes. Of his more distinctive tenets, several 
had reference to the doctrine of the Trinity, to the 
subject of the incarnation, axid to the pre-existeiice 
of Christ's human soul, which, as well as the pre- 
existence of other human souls, he afiirmed. He 
was charged also with holding the corporeity of 
angels, and with other errors as to angels and 
daemons. He held the freedom of the human 
will, and ascribed to man a nature less corrupt and 
depraved than was consistent with orthodox views 
of the operation of divine grace. He held the doc- 
trine of the universal restoration of the guilty, 
conceiving that the devil alone would suffer eternal 
punishment. The best edition of his works is by 
Delarue, Paris, 1733—1759, 4 vols. fo. 

Oringis or Oningis, probably the same place as 
Aurinx, a wealthy town in Hispania Baetica, with 
silver mines, near Munda. 

Orion ('Opiwj/), son of Hyrieus, of Hjo-ia, in 
Boeotia, a handsome giant and hunter, said to have 
been called by the Boeotians Candaon. Once he 
came to Chios (Ophiusa), and fell in love with 
Aero, or Merope, the daughter of Oenopion, by the 
nymph Helice. He cleared the island from wild 
beasts, and brought the spoils of the chase as pre- 
sents to his beloved ; but as Oenopion constantly 
deferred the marriage, Orion once when intoxicated 
offered violence to the maiden. Oenopion now 



implored the assistance of Dionysus, who caused 
Orion to be thrown into a deep sleep by satyrs, in 
which state Oenopion deprived him of his sight. 
Being informed by an oracle that he should recover 
his sight, if he would go towards the east and ex- 
pose his eye-balls to the rays of the rising sun, 
Orion followed the sound of a Cyclops' hammer, 
went to Lemnos, where Hephaestus gave to him 
Cedalion as his guide. Having recovered his sight, 
Orion returned to Chios to take vengeance on 
Oenopion ; but as the latter had been concealed by 
his friends, Orion was unable to find him, and then 
proceeded to Crete, where he lived as a hunter 
with Artemis. The cause of his death, which took 
place either in Crete or Chios, is differently stated. 
According to some, Eos (Aurora), who^ loved Orion 
for his beauty, carried him off, but as the gods 
were angry at this, Artemis killed him with an 
arrow in Ortygia. According to others, he was 
beloved by Artemis, and Apollo, indignant at his 
sister's affection for him, asserted that she Avas un- 
able to hit with her arrow a distant point which 
he showed her in the sea. She thereupon took aim, 
and hit it, but the point was the head of Orion, 
who had been swimming in the sea. A third ac- 
count, which Horace follows (Carm. ii. 4. 72), 
states that he attempted to violate Artemis (Diana), 
and was killed by the goddess with one of her 
arrows. A fourth account, lastly, states that he 
boasted he would conquer every animal, and would 
clear the earth from all wild beasts ; but the earth 
sent forth a scorpion which destroyed him. Aescu- 
lapius attempted to recall him to life, but was slain 
by Zeus with a flash of lightning. The accounts 
of his parentage and birth-place vary in the dif- 
ferent writers, for some call him a son of Poseidon 
and Euryale, and others say that he was born of 
the earth, or a son of Oenopion. He is further 
called a Theban, or Tanagraean, but probably be- 
cause Hyria, his native place, sometimes belonged 
to Tanagra, and sometimes to Thebes. After his 
death, Orion was placed among the stars where he 
appears as a giant with a girdle, sword, a lion's 
skin and a club. The constellation of Orion set at 
the commencement of November, at which time 
storms and rain were freqnent ; hence he is often 
called iiribnfer, nimhosus, or aguosus. 

Orion and Orus ('npioa/ and '^O.pos), names of 
several ancient grammarians, who are frequently 
confounded with each other. It appears, however, 
that we may distinguish 3 writers of these names. 
1. Orion, a Theban grammarian, who taught at 
Caesarea, in the 5th century after Christ, and is 
the author of a lexicon, still extant, published by 
Sturz, Lips. 1820.— 2. Orus, of Miletus, a gram- 
marian, lived in the 2nd century after Christ, and 
Avas the author of the works mentioned by Suidas. 
— 3. Orus, an Alexandrine grammarian, who 
taught at Constantinople not earlier than the 
middle of the 4th century after Christ. 

Orippo, a town in Hispania Baetica, on the road 
between Gades and Hispalis. 

Oritae, Horitae, or Orae ('npetrai, '^Xlpai), a 
people of Gedrosia, who inhabited a district on 
the coast nearly 200 miles long, abounding in 
Avine, corn, rice, and palm-trees, the modern Urhoo 
on the coast of Beloochistan. Some of the ancient 
Avriters assert that they were of Indian origin, 
Avhile others say that, though they resembled the 
Indians in many of their cusloms, they spoke a 
different language. 



504 



ORITIIYIA. 



ORPHEUS. 



Orithyia {'Ope(dvia\ daughter of Erechtheus, 
kino: of Athens, and Praxithea. Once as she had 
strayed beyond the river Uissus she was seized by 
Boreas, and carried off to Thrace, where she bore 
to Boreas Cleopatra, Chione, Zetes, and Calais. 

Ormenus ("Opucz^os), son of Cercaphus, grandson 
of Aeolus and father of Amyntor, was believed to 
have founded the town of Ormenium, in Thessaly. 
From him Amyntor is sometimes called Ormejiides, 
and Astydamia, his grand-daughter, Ormenis. 

Omeas (Opv^ai: 'Opvedrrjs), an ancient town 
of Argolis, near the frontiers of the territorj' of 
Phlius, and 120 stadia from Argos. It was origi- 
nally independent of Argos, but was subdued by 
the Argives in the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 415. 

Orneus (^Opvevs), son of Erechtheus, father of 
Peteus, and grandfather of Menestheus ; from him 
the town of Orneae was believed to have derived 
its name. 

Oroanda ('Opdai'Sa: 'OpoavSevs, or -i/co'y, Oro- 
andensis), a mountain city of Pisidia, S. E. of 
Antiochia, from which the " Oroandicus tractus " 
obtained its name. 

Oroatis {'OpodrLs : Tab), the largest of the 
minor rivers which flow into the Persian Gulf, 
formed the boundary between Susiana and Persis, 

Orobiae {'OpoSiat), a town on the coast of Eu- 
boea, not far from Aegae, with an oracle of Apollo. 

Orodes {'Opcodrjs), the name of 2 kings of Par- 
thia. [Arsaces XIV., XVII.] 

Oroetes ('OpoiV???), a Persian, was made satrap 
of Sardis by Cyrus, which government he retained 
under Cambyses. In B. c. 522, he decoyed Poly- 
crates into his power by specious promises, and 
put him to death. But being suspected of aiming 
at the establishment of an independent sovereignty, 
he was himself put to death by order of Darius. 

Orontes {'Op6vTr]s). 1. {Nalr-el-Asy), the, 
largest river of Syria, has 2 chief sources in Coe- 
lesyria, the one in the Antilibanus, the other fur- 
ther N. in the Libanus ; flows N. E. into a lake 
S. of Emesa, and thence N. past Epiphania and 
Apamea, till near Antioch, where it suddenly 
sweeps round to the S. W. and falls into the sea 
at the foot of M. Pieria. According to tradition 
its earlier name was Typhon (Tv<puv), and it was 
called Orontes from the person who first built a 
bridge over it. — 2. A mountain on the S. side of 
the Caspian, between Parthia and Hyrcania. — 
3. A people of Assyria, E. of Gaugamela. 

Oropus {'ripci-rros : '£lpwiTos : Oropo), a town on 
the eastern frontiers of Boeotia and Attica, near 
the Euripus, originally belonged to the Boeotians, 
but was at an early time seized by the Athenians, 
and was long an object of contention between the 
2 peoples. At length, after being taken and re- 
taken several times, it remained permanently in 
the hands of the Athenians, and is always reckoned 
hx later writers as a town of Attica. Its seaport 
was Delphinium at the mouth of the Asopus, about 
1| mile from the town. 

Orosms, Paulus, a Spanish presbyter, a native 
of Tarragona, flourished under Arcadius and Hono- 
rius. Having conceived a warm admiration for 
St. Augustine, he passed over into Africa about 
A. D. 413. After remaining in Africa about 2 
years, Augustine sent him into Syria, to coimteract 
the influence of Pelagius, who had resided for 
some years in Palestine. Orosius fomid a warm 
friend in Jerome, but was unable to procure the 
condemnation of Pelagius, and was himself anathe- 



matized by John, bishop of Jerusalem, when he 
brought a formal charge against Pelagius. Orosius 
subsequently returned to Africa, and there, it is 
believed, died, but at what period is not known. 
The following works by Orosius are still extant. 
]. Historiarum adversus Paganos Lihri VII., 
dedicated to St. Augustine, at whose suggestion 
the task -was undertaken. The pagans having 
been accustomed to complain that the ruin of the 
Roman empire must be ascribed to the wrath of 
the ancient deities, whose worship had been aban- 
doned, Orosius, upon his return from Palestine, 
composed this histor\' to demonstrate that from the 
earliest epoch the world had been the scene of 
calamities as great as the Roman empire was then 
sufi'ering. The work, which extends from the 
Creation down to A. D. 417, is,vv'ith exception of the 
concluding portion, extracted from Justin, Eutro- 
pius, and inferior second-hand authorities. Edited 
by Havercamp, Lug. Bat. 1738. 2. Liber Apolo- 
gcticus de A rbitni Libertate, written in Palestine, 
A.D. 415, appended to the edition of the History 
by Havercamp. 3. Commonitorium ad Augusti- 
num, the earliest of the works of Orosius, composed 
soon after his first arrival in Africa. 

Orospeda or Ortospeda (Sierra del Mundo\ the 
highest range of mountains in the centre of Spain, 
began in the centre of Mt. Idubeda, ran first W. 
and then S., and terminated near Calpe at the 
Fretum Herculeum. It contained several silver 
mines, whence the part in which the Baetig 
rises was called Mt. Argentarius or the Silver 
Mountain. 

Orpheus ('Op^eus), a mythical personage, was 
regarded by the Greeks as the most celebrated of 
the early poets, who lived before the time of Homer. 
His name does not occur in the Homeric or He- 
siodic poems ; but it already had attained to great 
celebrity in the lyric period. There were numerous 
legends about Orpheus, but the common story ran 
as follows. Orpheus, the son of Oeagrus and Cal- 
liope, lived in Thrace at the period of the Argonauts, 
whom he accompanied in their expedition. Pre- 
sented with the lyre by Apollo, and instructed by 
the Muses in its use, he enchanted with its music 
not only the wild beasts, but the trees and rocks 
upon Olympus, so that they moved from their places 
to follow the sound of his golden harp. The power 
of his music caused the Argonauts to seek his aid, 
which contributed materially to the success of their 
expedition : at the sound of his IjTe the Argo 
glided down into the sea ; the Argonauts tore 
themselves away from the pleasures of Lemnos ; 
the S}Tnplegadae, or moving rocks, which threatened 
to crush the ship between them, were fixed in their 
places ; and the Colchian dragon, which guarded 
the golden fleece, was lulled to sleep : other legends 
of the same kind may be read in the Argonautica, 
which bears the name of Orpheus. After his 
return from the Argonautic expedition he took up 
his abode in a cave in Thrace, and employed him- 
self in the civilisation of its wild inhabitants. There 
is also a legend of his having A-isited Egypt. The 
legends respecting the loss and recovery of his 
wife, and his own death, are verv* various. His 
wife was a nymph named Agriope or Eurydice. 
In the older accounts the cause of her death is not 
referred to. The legend followed in the well- known 
passages of Virgil and Ovid, which ascribes the 
death of Eurydice to the bite of a serpent, is no 
doubt of high antiquity; but the introduction of 



ORPHEUS. 



OSCA. 



505 



Aristaeus into the legend cannot be traced to any 
writer older than Virgil himself. He followed his 
lost wife into the abodes of Hades, where the 
charms of his lyre suspended the torments of the 
damned, and won back his wife from the most 
inexorable of all deities ; but his prayer was only 
granted upon this condition, that he should not 
look back upon his restored wife, till they liad 
arrived in the upper world : at the very moment 
when they were about to pass the fatal bounds, tiie 
anxiety of love overcame the poet ; he looked 
round to see that Eurvdice was following him ; 
and he beheld her cauglit back into the infernal 
regions. His grief for the loss of Eurj-dice led him 
to treat with contempt the Thracian women, who 
in revenge tore him to pieces under the excitement 
of their Bacchanalian orgies. After his death, the 
Muses collected the fragments of his body, and 
buried them at Libethra at the foot of Olympus, 
where the nightingale sang sweetly over his grave. 
His head was thrown into the Hebrus, down which 
it rolled to the sea, and was borne across to Lesbos, 
where the grave in which it was interred was shown 
at Antissa. His lyre was also said to have been 
carried to Lesbos ; and both traditions are simpl_y 
poetical expressions of the historical fact that Les- 
bos was the first great seat of the music of the lyre : 
indeed Antissa itself was the birth-place of Ter- 
pander, the earliest historical musician. The astro- 
nomers taught that the lyre of Orpheus was placed 
by Zeus among the stars, at the intercession of 
Apollo and the Muses. In these legends there 
are some points which are sufficiently clear. The 
invention of music, in connection with the services 
of Apollo and the Muses, its first great application 
to the worship of the gods, which Orpheus is there- 
fore said tc have introduced, its power over the 
passions, and the importance which the Greeks 
attached to the knowledge of it, as intimately 
allied with the very existence of all social order, 
— are probably the chief elementary ideas of the 
whole legend. But then comes in one of the dark 
features of the Greek religion, in which the gods 
envy the advancement of man in knowledge and 
civilisation, and severely punish any one who 
transgresses the bounds assigned to humanit}-. In 
a later age, the conflict was no longer viewed as 
between the gods and man, but between the 
worshippers of different divinities ; and especially 
between Apollo, the symbol of pure intellect, 
and Dionysus, the deity of the senses ; hence 
Orpheus, the servant of Apollo, falls a victim to 
the jealousy of Dionysus, and the fury of his wor- 
shippers.— 0/;p>^tc Societies and Mysteries. About 
the time of the first development of Greek philo- 
sophy, societies were formed, consisting of persons 
called X\iQ followers of Orpheus (ol 'OpcpLKo'i), who, 
under the pretended guidance of Orpheus, dedicated 
themselves to the worship of Dionysus. They per- 
formed the rites of a mystical worship, but instead 
of confining their notions to the initiated, they 
published them to others, and committed them to 
literary works. The Dionysus, to whose worship 
the Orphic rites were annexed, was Dionysus Za- 
greus, closely connected with Demeter and Cora 
(Persephone). The Orphic legends and poems 
related in great part to this Dionysus, Avho was 
combined, as an infernal deity, with Hades ; and 
upon whom the Orphic theologers founded their 
hopes of the purification and ultimate immortality 
of the soul. But their mode of celebrating this 



j worship was very different from the popular rites 
of Bacchus. The Orphic worshippers of Bacchus 
I did not indulge in unrestrained pleasure and 
frantic enthusiasm, but rather aimed at an ascetic 
purity of life and manners. All this part of tlie 
nn-thology of Orpheus, which connects him with 
Dionysus, must be considered as a later invention, 
quite irreconcilable with the original legend, in 
which he is the servant of Apollo and the Muses : 
but it is almost hopeless to explain the transition. 
• — Many poems ascribed to Orpheus were current 
as early as the time of the Pisistratids [Onoma- 
CRiTUs]. The}" are often quoted by Plato, and 
the allusions to them in later writers are very fre- 
quent. The extant poems, which bear the name 
of Orpheus, are the forgeries of Christian gram- 
marians and philosophers of the Alexandrian school ; 
but among the fragments, which form a part of the 
collection, are some genuine remains of that Orphic 
poetry which was known to Plato, and which must 
be assigned to the period of Onomacritus, or perhaps 
a little earlier. The Orphic literature, which in 
this sense may be called genuine, seems to have 
included Hyiims, a Theogony, Oracles, Sec. The 
apocryphal productions which have come down to 
us are, 1. Argoiiautica, an epic poem in 1384 
hexameters, giving an account of the expedition 
of the Argonauts. 2. Hymns, 87 or 88 in num- 
ber, in hexameters, evidently the productions of 
the Neo-Platonic school. 3. Lithica {AiQiko), treats 
of properties of stones, both precious and common, 
and their uses in divination. 4. Fragments, 
chiefly of the Tlieogony. It is in this class that 
we find the genuine remains of the literature of 
the early Orphic theology, but intermingled with 
others of a much later date. The best edition is 
by Hermann, Lips. 1805. 

OrtMa ('Op0ta, 'OpQis, or 'Opdwaia), a surname 
of the Artemis who is also called Iphigenia or 
Lygodesma, and must be regarded as the goddess 
of the moon. Her worship was probably brought 
to Sparta from Lemnos. It was at the altar of 
Artemis Orthia that Spartan boys had to undergo 
the flogging, called diamastigosis. 

Orthosia ('Op0a)o-i'a). 1, A city of Caria, on the 
Maeander, with a mountain of the same name, 
where the Rhodians defeated the Carians, B.C. 167. 

— 2. A city of Phoenice, S. of the mouth of the 
Eleutherus, and 12 Roman miles from Tripolis. 

Ortlirus {''OpQpos), the two-headed dog of Gery- 
ones, who was begotten by Typhon and Echidna, 
and was slain by Hercules. [See p. 309, b.] 

Ortospana or -urn (^OpTocnrava; Cabulf), a 
considerable city of the Paropamisadae, at the 
sources of a W. tributarj^ of the river Coes, and 
at the junction of 3 roads, one leading N. into 
Bactria, and the others S. and E. into India. It 
was also called Carura or Cabura. 

Ortygia (^Oprvyia). 1. The ancient name of 
Delos. Since Artemis (Diana) and Apollo were 
bom at Delos, the poets sometimes call the goddess 
Ortygia, and give the name of Ortygiae botes to the 
oxen of Apollo. The ancients connected the name 
with Oriyx ("O/jtuI) a quail. [See p. 379, a.] 

— 2. An island near Syracuse. [Syraci;sae]. — 
3. A grove near Ephesus, in which the Ephesians 
pretended that Apollo and Artemis were bom. 
Hence Propertius calls the Cayster, which flowed 
near Ephesus, Ortygius Cayster. 

Oms. [HoRus ; Orion.] 

Osca. 1. {Huesca in Arragonia), an important 



606 OSCELA. 
town of the Ilergetes and a Roman colony in His- 1 
pania Tarraconensis, on the road from Tarraco to | 
llerda, with silver mines ; whence Livy speaks of { 
argentum Osciense, though these words may perhaps J 
mean silver money coined at Osca. — 2. (W. of ] 
Hnescar in Granada), a town of the Turdetani in 
Hispania Baetica. 

Oscela. [Lepontii.] 

Osci or Opici i^OaKoi, 'Ottlkol), one of the most 
ancient tribes of Italy, inhabited the centre of the . 
peninsula, from which they had driven out the i 
Siculi. Their principal settlement was in Campania, 
but we also find them in parts of Latium and Sam- 
nium. They were subdued by the Sabines and 
Tyrrhenians, and disappeared from history at a 
comparatively early period. They were called in 
their own language Uskus. They are identified by 
many writers with the Ausones or Aurunci ; but 
others think that the latter is a collective name for 
all the people dwelling in the plain, and that the 
Osci were a branch of the Ausones. The Oscan j 
language was closely connected with the other an- 
cient Italian dialects, out of which the Latin lan- 
guage was formed ; and it continued to be spoken 
by the people of Campania long after the Oscans 
had disappeared as a separate people. A know- 
ledge of it was preserved at Rome by the Fabulae 
Atellanae, which were a species of farce or comedy 
written in Oscan. 

Osi, a people in Germany, probably in the moun- 
tains between the sources of the Oder and the 
Gran, were, according to Tacitus, tributary to the 
Sarmatians, and spoke the Pannonian language. 

Osicerda. [Ossigerda.] 

Osiris {"Oa-Lpis), the great Egyptian divinity, 
and husband of Isis. According to Herodotus 
they were the only divinities who Avere worshipped 
by all the Egyptians. His Egyptian name is said 
to have been Hysiris, which is interpreted to mean 
"son of Isis;" though some said that it meant 
" many-eyed." He is said to have been originally 
king of Egypt, and to have reclaimed his subjects 
from a barbarous life by teaching them agriculture, 
and enacting wise laws. He afterwards trp.Yelied 
into foreign lands, spreading, wherever he went, 
the blessings of civilisation. On his return to 
Egypt, he was murdered by his brother Tj-phon, 
who cut his body into pieces, and tlirew them into 
the Nile. After a long search Isis discovered the 
mangled remains of her husband, and with the 
assistance of her son Horus defeated Typhon, and 
recovered the sovereign power, vv^hich Typhon had 
usurped. See Isis. 

Osismii, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, at the 
N.W. extremity of the coast, and in the neigh- 
bourhood of the modern Quimper and Brest. 

Osroene {'Ocrporjur] : "Oa-porivoi^ pi. : Pashalik 
of Orfah)^ the W. of the 2 portions into Avhich N. 
Mesopotamia was divided by the river Chaboras 
(K/iabour)^ which separated it from Mygdonia on 
the E. and from the rest of Mesopotamia on the 
S. : the Euphrates divided it, on the W. and 
N. W., fi:om the Syrian districts of Chalybonitis, 
Cyrrhestice, and Commagene ; and on the N. it 
wa.s separated by M. Masius from Armenia. Its 
iiame_ was said to be derived from Osroes, a:i 
Arabian chieftain, who, in the time of the Seleu- 
ddae, established over it a petty principality, v.-ith 
Edessa for its capital, which lasted till the rei-n 
of Caracalla, and respecting the history of v.-hich, 
see Abgarus. 



OTANES. 

Ossa {"Oaaa : Kissavo, i e. ivy-dad), a cele- 
brated mountain in the N. of Magnesia, in Thes- 
saly, connected witli Pelion on the S. E., and 
divided from Olympus on the N. W. b}' the vale 
of Tempe. It is one of the highest mountains in 
Greece, but much less lofty than OljTnpus. It is 
mentioned by Homer, in the legend of the war of 
the Giants, respecting which see Olympus. 

Osset, with the surname Constantia Julia, a 
town in Hispania Baetica, on the right bank of the 
Baetis, opposite HispaHs. 

Ossigerda or Osicerda (Ossigerdensis), a town 
of the Edetani in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a 
Roman municipium. 

Ossigi (Maquiz), a town of the Turduli in His- 
pania Baetica, on the spot where the Baetis first 
enters Baetica. 

Ossonoba (Estoy N. of Faro), a town of the 
Turdetani in Lusitania, between the Tagus and 
Anas. 

Osteodes ('Oo-TewSTjs vrjaos : Alicur), an island 
at some distance from the N. coast of Sicily, oppo- 
site the town of Soli. 

Ostia (Ostiensis : Ostia), a town at the mouth 
of the river Tiber, and the harbour of Rome, from 
which it was distant 16 miles by land, was situated 
on the left bank of the left arm of the river. It 
was founded by Ancus Martius, the 4th king of 
Rome, was a Roman colony, and eventually be- 
came an important and flourishing town. In the 
civil wars it was destroyed by Marius, but it was 
soon rebuilt with greater splendour than before. The 
emperor Claudius constructed a new and better 
harbour on the right arm of the Tiber, which was 
enlarged and improved by Trajan. This new har- 
bour was called simply Partus Romanus or Porius 
Augusti, and around it there sprang up a flourishing 
to\™, also called Porius (the inhabitants Portu- 
enses). The old town of Ostia, whose harbour had 
been already partly filled up by sand, now sank 
into insignificance, and only continued to exist 
through its salt-works (salinae), which had been 
established b}' Ancus ]\Iartius. The ruins of Ostia 
are between 2 and 3 miles from the coast, as the 
sea has gradually receded in consequence of the 
accumulaticri of sand deposited by the Tiber. 

Ostia K'ili. [Nilus.] 

Ostorius Scapula. [Scapula.] 

Ostra (Ostranus), a town in Umbria in the ter- 
ritory of the Senones. 

T." Otacilius Crassus, a Roman general during 
the 2nd Punic war, was praetor B. c. 217, and 
subsequently pro-praetor in Sicily. In 215 he 
crossed over to Africa, and laid waste the Car- 
thaginian coast. He was praetor for the 2nd time, 
214, and his command was prolonged during the 
next 3 years. He died in Sicily, 211. 

L. Otacilius Pilitus, a Roman rhetorician, who 
opened a school at Rome B. c. 81, was originally a 
slave ; but having exhibited talent, and a love of 
literature, he was manumitted by his master. Cn. 
Pompeius Magnus was one of his pupils, and he 
wrote the histor}"- of Pompey, and of his father 
likewise. 

Otanes ('0x0^775). 1. A Persian, son of Phar- 
naspes. was the first who suspected the imposture 
01 Smerdis the Magian, and took the chief part in 
organizing the conspiracy against the pretender 
(B.C. 521). After the accession of Darius Hys- 
taspis, he was placed in command of the Persian 
force v/hich invaded Samos for the purpose of 



OTHO. 



OVIDIUS. 



507 



placing Syloson, brother of Polycrates, in the 
government. — 2. A Persian, son of Sisamnes, 
succeeded Megabyzus (b. c. 506) in the command 
of the forces on the sea-coast, and took Byzantium, 
Chalcedon, Antandrus, and Lamponium, as well as 
the islands of Lemnos and Imbros. He was pro- 
bably the same Otanes who is mentioned as a son- 
in-law of Darius Hystaspis, and as a general em- 
ployed against the revolted lonians in 499. 

Otho, L. Eoscius, tribune of the plebs b. c. 67, 
was a warm supporter of the aristocratical party. 
He opposed the proposal of Gabinius to bestow 
upon Pompey the command of the war against the 
pirates ; and in the same year he proposed and 
carried the law which gave to the equites a special 
place at the public spectacles, in fourteen rows or 
seats (in quattuordecim gradibus sive ordinibus), 
next to the place of the senators, which was in the 
orchestra. This law was very impopular ; and in 
Cicero's consulship (63) there was such a riot 
occasioned by the obnoxious measure, that it re- 
quired all his eloquence to allay the agitation. 

Otho, Salvius. 1. M., grandfather of the em- 
peror Otho, was descended from an ancient and 
noble family of the town of Ferentinum, in Etruria, 
His father was a Roman eques ; his mother was 
of low origin, perhaps even a freedwoman. Through 
the influence of Livia Augusta, in whose house he 
had been brought up, Otho was made a Roman 
senator, and eventually obtained the praetorship, 
but was not advanced to any higher honour. — 2. 
L., son of the preceding, and father of the emperor 
Otho, stood so high in the favour of Tiberius and 
resembled this emperor so strongly in person, that 
it was supposed by most that he was his son. He 
was consul suffectus in a. D. 33; was afterwards 
proconsul in Africa ; and in 42 was sent mto II- 
lyricum, where he restored discipline among the 
soldiers, who had lately rebelled against Claudius. 
At a later time he detected a conspiracy which had 
been formed against the life of Claudius. — 3. L., 
surnamed Titianus, elder son of No. 2, was con- 
sul 52, and proconsul in Asia 63, when he had 
Agricola for his quaestor. It is related to the 
honour of the latter that he was not corrupted by 
the example of his superior officer, who indulged 
in every kind of rapacity. On the death of Galba 
in January 69, Titianus was a second time made 
consul, with his brother Otho, the emperor. On 
the death of the latter, he was pardoned by Vi- 
tellius." 4. M., Roman emperor from January 
15th to April 16th. a. d. 69, was the younger son of 
No. 2. He was born in the early part of 32. He 
v/as of moderate stature, ill-made in the legs, 
and had an effeminate appearance. He was one of 
the companions of Nero in his debaucheries ; but 
when the emperor took possession of his wife, the 
beautiful but profligate Poppaea Sabina, Otho was 
sent as governor to Lusitania, which he adminis- 
tered with credit during the last 10 years of Nero's 
life. Otho attached himself to Galba when he 
revolted against Nero, in the hope of being adopted 
by him and succeeding to the empire. But when 
Galba adopted L. Piso, on the 10th of January, 
69, Otho formed a conspiracy against Galba, and 
was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers at Rome, 
who put Galba to death. Meantime Vitellius had 
been proclaimed emperor at Cologne by the German 
troops on the Srd of January ; and his generals 
forthwith set out for Italy to place their master on 
the throne. When these news reached Otho, he 



marched into the N. of Italy to oppose the generals 
of Vitellius. The fortune of war was at first in 
his favour. He defeated Caecina, the general of 
Vitellius, in more than one engagement ; but his 
army was subsequently defeated in a decisive battle 
near Bedriacum by the united forces of Caecina and 
Valens, whereupon he put an end to his own life 
at Brixellum in the 37th year of his age. 

Othryades ('OOpvd^rjs). 1. A patronymic given 
to Panthous or Panthus, the Trojan priest of 
Apollo, as the son of Othr5's. --2. A Spartan, one 
of the 300 selected to fight with an equal number 
of Argives for the possession of Thyrea. Othryades 
was the only Spartan who survived the battle, and 
was left for dead. He spoiled the dead bodies of 
the enemy, and remained at his post, while Al- 
cenor and Chromius, the two survivors of the 
Argive party, hastened home with the news of 
victor}', supposing that all their opponents had been 
slain. As the victorj'- was claimed by both sides, 
a general battle ensued, in which the Argives were 
defeated. Othryades slew himself on the field, 
being ashamed to return to Sparta as the one sur- 
vivor of her 300 champions. 

Otlirys ( 09pvs), a lofty range of mountains in 
the S. of Thessaiy, which extended from Mt. Tjra- 
phrestus, or the most S.-lj'- part of Pindus, to the 
E. coast and the promontory between the Paga- 
saean gulf and the N. point of Euboea. It shut in 
the great Thessalian plain on the S. 

Otus, and his brother, EpMaltes, are better 
known by their name of the Aloidae. [Aloeus.] 

P. Ovidius Naso, the Roman poet, was born at 
Sulmo, in the country of the Peligni, on the 20th 
March, B. c. 43. He was descended from an an- 
cient equestrian family, but possessing only mode- 
rate wealth. He, as well as his brother Lucius, 
who was exactly a year older than himself, was 
destined to be a pleader, and received a careful 
education to qualify him for that calling. He 
studied rhetoric under Arellius Fuscus and Porcius 
Latro, and attained to considerable proficiency in 
the art of declamation. But the bent of his genius 
showed itself very early. The hours which should 
have been spent in the stud}' of jurisprudence were 
employed in cultivating his poetical talent. The 
elder Seneca, who had heard him declaim, tells us 
that his oratory resembled a solutum carmen^ and 
that anj^ thing in the way of argument was irksome 
to him. His father denounced his favouiite pur- 
suit as leading to inevitable povertj' ; but the death 
of his brother, at the early age of 20, probably 
served in some degree to mitigate his father's oppo- 
sition, for the patrimony which would have been 
scanty for two might amply suffice for one. Ovid's 
education was completed at Athens, where he made 
himself thoroughly master of the Greek language. 
Afterwards he travelled with the poet Macer, in 
Asia and Sicily. It is a disputed point whether 
he ever actually practised as an advocate after 
his return to Rome. The picture Ovid himself 
draws of his weak constitution and indolent tem- 
per prevents us from thinking that he ever followed 
his profession Avith perseverance, if indeed at all. 
The same causes deterred him from entering the 
senate, though he had put on the lotus clavus when 
he assumed the toga virilis, as being by birth entitled 
to aspire to the senatorial dignity. (Trist. iv. 10. 29.) 
He became, however, one of the Triumviri Capiiales; 
and he was subsequently made one of the Centum- 
viri, or judges who tried testamentary and even 



508 OVIDIUS. 

criminal causes ; and in due time he was promoted 
to be one of the Decemviri, who ainsembled and 
presided over the court of the Centumviri. — Such 
is all the account that can be given of Ovid's busi- 
ness life. He married twice in early life at the 
desire of his parents, but he speedily divorced 
each of his wives in succession. The restraint of 
a wife was irksome to a man like Ovid, who was 
devoted to gallantry and licentious life. His chief 
mistress in the early part of his life was the one 
whom he celebrates in his poems under the name 
of Corinna. If we may believe the testimony of 
Sidonius Apollinaris, Corinna was no less a person- 
age than Julia, the accomplished, but abandoned 
daughter of Augustus. There are several passages 
in Ovid's Amores which render the testimony of 
Sidonius highly probable. Thus it appears that 
his mistress was a married woman, of high rank, 
but profligate morals ; all which particulars will 
suit Julia. How long Ovid's connection with Co- 
rinna lasted there are no means of deciding ; but it 
probably ceased before his marriage with his 3rd 
wife, whom he appears to have sincerely loved. "We 
can hardly place his 3rd marriage later than his 30th 
year, since a daughter, Perilla, was the fruit of it 
(Trist. iii. 7. 3), who was grown up and married 
at the time of his banishment. Perilla was twice 
married, and had a child by each husband. Ovid 
was a grandfather before he lost his father at the 
age of 90 ; soon after whose decease his mother 
also died. Till his 50th year Ovid continued to 
reside at Rome, where he had a house near the 
Capitol, occasionally taking a trip to his Pelignan 
farm. He not only enjoyed the friendship of a 
large circle of distinguished men, but the regard 
and favour of Augustus and the imperial family. 
But in A. D. 9 Ovid was suddenly commanded by 
an imperial edict to transport himself to Tomi, a 
town on the Euxine, near the mouths of the 
Danube, on the very border of the empire. He 
underwent no trial, and the sole reason for his 
banishment stated in the edict was his having 
published his poem on the Art of Love (Ars A/na- 
toria). It was not, however, an eucsiliura, but a 
relegatio ; that is, he was not utterly cut off from 
ail hope of return, nor did he lose his citizenship. 
The real cause of his banishment has long exer- 
cised the ingenuity of scholars. The publication 
of the Ars Amatoria was certainly a mere pretext. 
The poem had been published nearly 1 years pre- 
viously ; and moreover, whenever Ovid alludes to 
that, the ostensible cause, he invariably couples with 
it another which he mysteriously conceals. Accord- 
ing to some -RTiters, the real cause was his intrigue 
with Julia. But this is sufficiently refuted by the 
fact that Julia had been an exile since B. c. 2. 
Other writers suppose that he had been guiltj- of 
an intrigue with the younger Julia, the daughter 
of the elder one ; and the remarkable fact that the 
younger Julia was banished in the same year with 
Ovid leads very strongly to the inference that his 
fate was in some way connected with hers. But 
Ovid states himself that his faiilt was an involun- 
tary one ; and the great disparity of years between 
the poet and the younger Julia renders it impro- 
bable that there had been an intrigue between 
them. He may more probably have become ac- 
quainted with Julia's profligacy by accident, and 
by his subsequent conduct, perhaps, for instance, 
by concealing it, have given off"ence to Livia, or 
Augustus, or both. Ovid draws an affecting pic- 



OVIDIUS. 

ture of the miseries to which he was exposed in 
his place of exile. He complains of the inhos- 
pitable soi', of the severity of the climate, and of 
the perils to which he was exposed, when the 
barbarians plundered the surrounding country, and 
insulted the very walls of Tomi. In the most 
abject terras he supplicated Augustus to change his 
place of banishment, and besought his friends to 
use their influence in his behalf. In the midst of 
all his misfortunes he sought some relief in the 
exercise of his poetical talents. Not only did he 
i finish his Fasti in his exile, besides wTiting the 
! Ibis, the Tristia, Ex Fonto, &c., but he likewise 
acquired the language of the Getae, in which he 
composed some poems in honour of Augustus. 
These he publicly recited, and they were received 
' with tumultuous applause by the Tomitae. With 
his new fellow-citizens, indeed, he had succeeded 
in rendering himself highly popular, insomuch that 
I they honoured him with a decree, declaring him 
! exempt from all public burthens. He died at 
i Tomi in the 60th year of his age, a. d. 18. — The 
following is a list of Ovid's works, arranged, as far 
as possible, in chronological order : — 1. Amorum 
Lihri III., the earliest of the poet's works. Ac- 
cording to the epigram prefixed, the work, as we 
now possess it, is a 2nd edition, revised and 
abridged, the former one having consisted of 5 
books, 2. Epistolae Hero'idum, 21 in number. 
3. Ars Amatoria, or De Arte Amandi, written 
'< about B. c. 2. At the time of Ovid's banishment 
I this poem was ejected from the public libraries by 
command of Augustus. 4. Remedia Amoris, in 1 
I book. o. Nux, the elegiac complaint of a nut- 
i tree respecting the ill-treatment it receives from 
\ wayfarers, and even from its own master. 6. 
; Metamorphoseon Libri XV. This, the greatest 
of Ovid's poems in bulk and pretensions, appears 
j to liave been written between the age of 40 and 
50. It consists of such legends or fables as in- 
volved a transformation, from the Creation to the 
time of Julias Caesar, the last being that emperor's 
change into a star. It is thus a sort of cyclic poem 
I made up of distinct episodes, but connected into 
one narrative thread, with much skill. 7. Fasto- 
rum Libri XII., of which only the first 6 are 
extant. This work was incomplete at the time of 
Ovid's banishment. Indeed he had perhaps done 
little more than collect the materials for it ; for 
that the 4th book was written in Pontus appears 
from ver. 88. The Fasti is a sort of poetical 
Roman calendar, with its appropriate festivals and 
mythology, and the substance was probably taken 
in a great measure from the old Roman annalists. 
The work shows a good deal of learning, but it has 
j been observed that Ovid makes frequent mistakes 
j in his astronomy, from not understanding the books 
from which he took it. 8. Tristium Lihri V., elegies 
written during the first 4 years of Ovid's banish- 
I ment. They are chiefly made up of descriptions 
I of his afflicted condition, and petitions for mercy, 
j The lOih elegy of the 4th book is valuable, as 
containing many particulars of Ovid's life. 9. 
Epistolarum ex Ponto Libri IV., are also in the 
elegiac metre, and much the same in substance as 
the Tristia, to which they were subsequent. It 
must be confessed that age and misfortune seem 
to have damped Ovid's genius both in this and the 
preceding work. Even the versification is more 
slovenly, and some of the lines ver}- prosaic. 10. 
Ibis^ a satire of betv,een 600 and 700 elegiac 



j 

OXIA. 

verses, also written in exile. The poet inveighs 
in it against an enemy who had traduced him. 
Though the variety of Ovid's imprecations displays 
learning and fancy, the piece leaves the impression 
of an impotent explosion of rage. The title and 
plan were borrowed from Callimachus. 11. Con- 
solatio ad Liviam Augustam, is considered by most 
critics not to be genuine, though it is allowed on 
all hands to be not unworthy of Ovid's genius. 
12. The Medicamma Faciei and Halimticon are 
mere fragments, and their genuineness not alto- 
gether certain. -—Of his lost works, the most cele- 
brated was his tragedy, Medea^ of whicli only two 
lines remain. That Ovid possessed a great poetical 
genius is unquestionable ; which makes it the more 
to be regretted that it was not always under the 
control of a sound judgment. He possessed great 
vigour of fancj', warmth of colouring, and facility 
of composition. Ovid has himself described how 
spontaneously his verses flowed ; but the facility of 
composition possessed more charms for him than 
the irksome, but indispensable labour of correction 
and retrenchment. Ovid was the first to depart 
from that pure and correct taste which charac- 
terises the Greek poets, and their earlier Latin 
imitators. His writings abound with those false 
thoughts and frigid conceits which we find so fre- 
quently in the Italian poets ; and in this respect 
he must be regarded as unantique. The best 
edition of Ovid's complete works is by Burmann, 
Amsterdam, 1727, 4 vols. 4to. 

Oxia Palus, is first mentioned distinctly by 
Ammianus Marcellinus as the name of the Sea of 
Aral, which the ancients in general did not dis- 
tinguish from the Caspian. When Ptolemy, how- 
ever, speaks of the Oxiana Palus 'n^eiav-r) 
K'tfjLvri) as a small lake in the steppes of Sogdiana, 
he is perhaps following some vague account of the 
separate existence of the Sea of Aral, and the same 
remark may be applied to Pliny's account that the 
source (instead of the termination) of the river Oxus 
was in a lake of the same name. 

Oxiani ('nitaro;', Ovi,iavo'i\ a people of Sog- 
diana, on the N. of the Oxus. 

Oxii Montes (ra "n^eta, or Ov|eta, opr] : prob. 
Ak-tagJi), a range of mountains between the rivers 
Oxus and Jaxartes ; the N. boundary of Sogdiana 
towards Scythia. 

Oxus or Oaxus ("O^os, "^^os : Jihoun or 
Amou), a great river of Central Asia, rose, ac- 
cording to some of the ancient geographers, on the 
N.side of the Paropamisus M. {Hindoo Koosh) , and, 
according to others, in the Emodi M., and flowed 
N. W., forming the boundary between Sogdiana 
on the N. and Bactria and Margiana on the S., 
and then, skirting the N. of Hyrcania, it fell into 
the Caspian. The Jihoun now flows into the 
S. W. comer of the .Sea of Aral ; but there are 
still distinct traces of a channel extending in a 
S. W. direction from the Sea of Aral to the 
Caspian, by which at least a portion, and probably 
the whole, of the waters of the Oxus found their 
way into the Caspian ; and very probably the Sea 
of Aral itself was connected with the Caspian by 
this channel. The ancient geographers mention, 
as important tributaries of the Oxus, the OcHus, 
the Margus, and the Bactrus, which are now 
intercepted by the sands of the Desert. The 
Oxus is a broad and rapid river, navigable through 
a considerable portion of its course. It formed, in 
ancient times, a channel of commercial intercourse 



PACHYMERES. 509 

between India and W. Asia, goods being brought 
down it to the Caspian, and thence up the Cyrus 
and across Armenia, into Asia Minor. It occupies 
also an important place in history, having been in 
nearly all ages the extreme boundary between the 
great monarchies of S. W, Asia and the hordes 
which wander over the central steppes. Cyrus 
and Alexander both crossed it; but the former 
effected no permanent conquests on its N, side; 
and the conquests of the latter in Sogdiana, though 
for a time preserved under the Bactrian kings, were 
always regarded as lying beyond tlie limits of the 
civilised world, and were lost at the fall of the 
Bactrian kingdom. — Herodotus does not mention 
the Oxus by namo, but it is supposed to be the 
river which he calls Araxes. 

Oxybii, a Ligurian people on the coast of Gallia 
Narbonensis, W. of the Alps, and between the 
Flumen Argenteum (Argens) and Antipolis (An- 
tibes). They were neighbours of the Salluvii and 
Deciates. 

Oxydracae (O^udpaKaj), a warlike people of 
India intra Gangem, in the Punjab, between the 
rivers Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Acesines (Ckenab)^ 
in whose capital Alexander was wounded. They 
called themselves descendants of DiouA'sus. 

Oxylus fOluAos), the leader of the Heraclidae 
in their invasion of Peloponnesus, and subse- 
quently king of Elis. [See p. 306, b.] 

Oxyrliynchus ('O^vpvyxos : Behr^seh, Ru.), 
a city of Middle Egypt, on the W. bank of the 
canal which runs parallel to the Nile on its W, 
side (BaJir Yussuf ). It was the capital of the 
Nomos Oxyrhynchites, and the chief seat of the 
worship of the fish called oxyrynchus. 

Ozogardana, a city of Mesopotamia on the 
Euphrates, the people of which preserved a lofty 
throne or chair of stone, which they called Tra- 
jan's judgment-seat. 



P. 

Pacaris, [Hypacyris.] 

Pacatiana. [Phrygia]. 

Paccius or Paccius Antioclius, a physician 
about the beginning of the Christian era, who was 
a pupil of Philonides of Catana, and lived probablj'' 
at Rome. He made a large fortune by the sale of 
a certain medicine of Jiis own invention, the com- 
position of which he kept a profound secret. At 
his death he left his prescription as a legacy to the 
emperor Tiberius, who, in order to give it as wide 
a circulation as possible, ordered a copy of it to be 
placed in all the public libraries. 

Pach.es {Uaxns), an Athenian general in the 
Peloponnesian war, took Mytilene and reduced 
Lesbos, B. c. 427. On his return to Athens he 
was brought to trial on some charge, and, per- 
ceiving his condemnation to be certain, drew his 
sword and stabbed himself in the presence of his 
judges. 

Pachymeres, Georgius, an important Byzan- 
tine writer, was born about a. n. 1242 at Nicaea, 
but spent the greater part of his life at Constanti- 
nople. He was a priest, and opposed the miion of 
the Greek and Latin churches, Pachymeres wrote 
several works, the most important of which is a 
Byzantine History, containing an account of the 
emperors Michael Palaeologus and Andronicufl 



.610 PACHYNUS. 
Palaeologus the elder, in 13 books. The style is 
remarkablT good and pure for the age. Edited by 
Possinus. Rome, 1666—1669, 2 vols. foL, and by 
Bekker, Bonn, 1835, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Pachynus or Pachyntim {Capo Passaro), a pro- 
montor}- at the S. E. extremity of Sicily, and one 
of the 3 promontories which give to Sicily its trian- 
gular figure, the other 2 being Pelorum and Lily- 
baeum. By the side of Pachynus was a bay, 
which was used as a harbour, and which is called 
by Cicero Portus Pacliyni (Porto di Palo). 

Pacflus, tr£ liarue of a family of the patrician 
Furia gens, raeniioried. in the esrly history of the 
republic. 

Pacoms. L Son of Orodes I., king of Parthia. 
His history is given xmder Arsaces XIV. — 
2. King of Parthia. [.Usages XXIV.] 

Pactolus {UoKTccKos : Sarabat), a smaU but 
celebrated river of Lydia, rose on the N. side of 
Mt. Tmolus. and flowed N. past Sardis into the 
Hermus, which it joined 30 stadia below Sardis. 
The golden sands of Pactolus have passed into a 
proverb. Lydia was long the California of the 
ancient ^rorld, its streams forming so many gold 
" washings ; " and hence the wealth of the Lydian 
kings, and the alleged origin of gold money in that 
country. But the supply of gold was only on the 
surface, and by the beginning of our era, it was so 
far exhausted as not to repay the trouble cf col- 
lecting it 

Pactyas (Ilajcrvas), a Lydian, who on the con- 
quest of Sardis (b.c, 546), was charged by Cyrus 
with the collection of the revenue of the province. 
When Cyrus left Sardis on his return to Ecbatana, 
Pactyas induced the Lydians to revolt against 
Cyrus ; but when an army was sent against him he 
first fled to Cyme, then to Mytilene, and eventually 
to Chios. He was surrendered by the Chians to 
the Persians. 

Pactye (TlaKrvr] : St. George), a town in the 
Thracian Chersonesus, on the Propontis, 36 stadia 
from Cardia, to which Alcibiades retired when he 
was banished by the Athenians, b. c. 407. 

Pactyica {UaKTvXta]), the country of the Pac- 
tyes {TlaKTves), in the N.W. of India, W. of the 
Indus, and in the 13th satrapy of the Persian 
Empire, is most probably the N.E. part of Af- 
ghanistan, about Jellalabad. 

M. Pacuvitis, one of the early Roman trage- 
dians, was bom about B. c. 220, at Brundisium, 
and is said to have been the son of the sister of 
Ennius. Pacuvius appears to have been brought 
up at Brundisium, but he afterwards repaired to 
Rome. Here he devoted himself to painting and 
■Doetry, and obtained so much distinction in the 
former art, that a painting of his in the temple of 
Hercules, in the forum boarium, was regarded 
as only inferior to the celebrated painting of Fabius 
Pictor. After living many years at Rome, for he 
was still there in has 80th year, he returned to 
Brundisium, on account of the failure of his health, 
and died in his native town, in the 90th year of 
his age, b. c. 130. "We have no further particulars 
of his life, save that his talents gained him the 
friendship of Laeliu^, and that he lived on the 
most intimate terms with his vounger rival Accius. 
Pacuvius was universally allowed by the ancient 
writers to have been one of the greatest of the 
Latin tragic poets. (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 56.) He is 
especially praised for the loftiness of his thoughts, 
the vigour of his language, and the extent of his 



PAEAN. 

knowledge. Hence we find the epithet doctm 
frequently applied to him. He was also a favourite 
with the people, with whom his verses continued 
to be esteemed in the time of Julius Caesar. His 
tragedies were taken from the great Greek ^vriters ; 
but he did not confine himself, like his predecessors, 
to a mere translation of the latter, but worked up 
his materials with more freedom and independent 
judgment. Some of the plays of Pacuvius were 
not based upon the Greek tragedies, but belonged 
to the class called Praetextatae, in which the sub- 
jects were taken fi-om Roman story. One of these 
was entitled Patdus, which had as its hero L. Ae- 
mUius Paulus, the conqueror of Perseus, king of 
Macedonia. The fragments of Pacuvius are pub- 
lished bv Bothe, Pott. Lat. Scenic. Fragm. Lips. 
1834. 

Padus (Po), the chief river of Italy, whose 
name is said to have been of Celtic origin, and to 
have been given it on account of the pine trees (in 
Celtic padi) which grew on its banks. In the 
Ligurian language it was called Bodenctts or Bo- 
dincus. Almost all later writers identified the 
Padus with the fabulous Eridanus, from which 
amber was obtaiaed ; and hence the Roman poets 
frequently give the name of Eridanus to the Padus. 
The reason of this identification appears to have 
been, that the Phoenician vessels received at the 
mouths of the Padus the amber which had been 
transported by land from the coasts of the Baltic to 
those of the Adriatic. The Padus rises from 2 
springs on the E. side of Mt. Vesula {Monte Viso) 
in the -Alps, and flows with a general E.-ly direction 
through the great plain of Cisalpine Gaul, which 
it divides into 2 parts, GaUia Cispadana and Gallia 
Transpadana. It receives numerous affluents, which 
drain the whole of this vast plain, descending from 
the Alps on the N. and the Apennines on the S. 
These afiBuents, increased in the summer by the 
melting of the snow on the mountains, frequently 
bring down such a large body of water as to cause 
the Padus to overflow its banks. The whole course 
of the river, including its windings, is about 450 
miles. About 20 miles from the sea the river 
divides itself into 2 main branches, of which the N. 
one was called Padoa (Maestro, Po Ch-ande, or 
Po delle Fornaci) and the S. one Olana (Po 
d''Ariano) ; and each of these now falls into the 
Adriatic by several mouths. The ancient writers 
enumerate 7 of these mouths, some of which were 
canals. They lay between Ravenna and Altinum, 
and bore the following names, according to Pliny, 
beginning with the S. and ending with the N. 1. 
Padusa, also called Augusta Fossa, was a canal dug 
by Augustus, which connected Ravenna with the Po. 
2. Vatrenus, also called Eridanum Ostium or Spine- 
ticum Ostium (Po di Primaro), from the to-mi of 
Spina at its mouth. 3. Ostium Caprasiae (Porio 
Interito di helP Ochio). 4. Ostium Sagis (Porio di 
Magnavacca), 5. Olane or Volane, the S. main 
branch of the river, mentioned above. 6. Padoa, 
the X. main branch, subdivided into several small 
branches called Ostia Carbonaria. 7. Fossae Phi- 
listinae, connecting the river, by means of the Tar- 
tarus, with the Athesis. 

Padusa. [Padus.] 

Paean (riaiaV, Hairiwi' or Uaidov), that is, the 
healing," is according to Homer the designation of 
the physician of the Olympian gods, who heals, for 
example, the wounded Ares and Hades. After 
the time of Homer and Hesiod, the word Paean 



PAEANIA. 



PAETUS. 



511 



became a surname of Aesculapius, the god who had 
the power of healing. The name was, however, 
used also in the more general sense of deliverer 
from any evil or calamity, and Avas thus applied to 
Apollo and Thanatos, or Death, who are conceived 
as delivering men from the pains and sorrows of 
life. With regard to Apollo and Thanatos, how- 
ever, the name may at the same time contain 
an allusion to iraieiu, to strike, since both are 
also regarded as destroyers. From Apollo himself 
the name Paean was transferred to the song 
dedicated to him, that is, to hymns chaimted to 
Apollo for the purpose of averting an evil, and to 
warlike songs, which were sung before or during a 
battle. 

Paeania (Tlaiavia : Uaiavi^vs), a demus in 
Attica, on the E. slope of Mt. Hymettus, belong- 
ing to the tribe Pandionis. It was the demus of 
the orator Demosthenes. 

Paemani, a people of German origin in Gallia 
Belgica. 

Paeones (Ilaioi/es), a powerful Thracian people, 
who in early times were spread over a great part of 
Macedonia and Thrace. According to a legend 
preserved by Herodotus, they were of Teucrian 
origin ; and it is not impossible that they were a 
branch of the great Phrygian people, a portion of 
which seems to have settled in Europe. In Homer 
the Paeonians appear as allies of the Trojans, and 
are represented as having come from the river 
Axius. In historical times they inhabited the 
whole of the N. of Macedonia, from the frontiers 
of lUyria to some little distance E. of the river 
Strymon. Their country was called Paeonia 
(UaiovLo). The Paeonians were divided into se- 
veral tribes, independent of each other, and go- 
verned by their own chiefs ; though at a later 
period they appear to have owned the authority of 
one king. The Paeonian tribes on the lower 
course of the Str3^mon were subdued by the Per- 
sians, B.C. 513, and many of them were trans- 
planted to Phrygia ; but the tribes in the N. of 
the country maintained their independence. They 
were long troublesome neighbours to the Mace- 
donian monarchs, whose territories they frequently 
invaded and plundered ; but they were eventually 
Bubdued by Philip, the father of Alexander the 
Great, who allowed them nevertheless to retain 
their own monarchs. They continued to be governed 
by their own kings till a much later period ; and 
these kings were often virtually independent of the 
Macedonian monarchy. Thus we read of their 
king Audoleon, whose daughter P}Trhus married. 
After the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 
168, the part of Paeonia E. of the Axius formed 
the 2nd, and the part of Paeonia W. of the Axius 
formed the 3rd, of the 4 districts into Avhich Ma- 
cedonia was divided by the Romans. 

Paeomus {Uaiwvios). 1. Of Ephesus, an archi- 
tect, probably lived between b. c. 420 and 380. 
In conjunction with Demetrius, he finally com- 
pleted the great temple of Artemis, at Ephesus, 
which Chersiphron had begun ; and, with Daphnis 
the Milesian, he began to build at Miletus a tem- 
ple of Apollo, of the Ionic order. The latter was 
the famous Didymaeum^ or temple of Apollo Didy- 
mus, the ruins of which are still to be seen near 
Miletus. The former temple, in which the Bran- 
chidae had an oracle of Apollo, was burnt at the 
capture of Miletus by the army of Darius, 498. 
The new temple, which was on a scale only in- 



ferior to that of Artemis, was never finished. — 2. 
Of Mende, in Thrace, a statuary and sculptor, 
flourished about 435. 

Paeoplae {UaidirXaL), a Paeonian people on the 
lower course of the Strymon and the Angites, who 
were subdued by the Persians, and transplanted to 
Phrygia by order of Darius, b. c. 513. They re- 
turned to their native country witli the help of 
Aristagoras, 500 ; and we find them settled N. ot 
Mt. Pangaeus in the expedition of Xerxes, 480. 

Paerisades or Parisades (Tlaipi(Ta.Zt]s or Uapi- 
adhi]s), the name of 2 kings of Bosporus. 1. Son 
of Leucon, succeeded his brother Spartacus b, c. 
349, and reigned 38 years. He continued the 
same friendly relations with the Athenians which 
were begun by his father Leucon. — 2. The last 
monarch of the first dynasty that ruled in Bos- 
porus. The pressure of the Scythian tribes induced 
Paerisades to cede his sovereignty to Mithridates 
the Great. The date of this event cannot be 
placed earlier than 112, nor later than 88. 

Paestanus Sinus. [Paestum.] 

Paestum (Paestanus), called Posidonia (IIo- 
creiScoj/ja : IlocrejScowaTTjs) originally, was a city 
in Lucania, situated between 4 and 5 miles S. E. 
of the mouth of the Silarus, and near the bay 
which derived its name from the town {YloaeiBoo- 
UiUT-ns koAttos, Paestanus Sinus : G. of Salerno). 
Its origin is uncertain, but it was probably in ex- 
istence before it was colonized by the Sybarites 
about B. c. 524. It soon became a powerful and 
flourishing city ; but after its capture by the 
Lucanians (between 438 and 424), it gradually 
lost the characteristics of a Greek city, and its in- 
habitants at length ceased to speak the Greek lan- 
guage. Its ancient name of Posidonia was pro- 
bably changed into that of Paestum at this time. 
Under the supremacy of the Romans, who founded 
a Latin colony at Paestum about b. c. 274, the 
toAvn gradually sank in importance ; and in the 
time of Augustus it is only mentioned on account 
of the beautiful roses grown in its neighbourhood. 
The ruins of Paestum are striking and magnifi- 
cent. They consist of the remains of walls, of an 
amphitheatre, of 2 fine temples, and of another 
building. The 2 temples are in the Doric style, 
and are some of the most remarkable ruins of an- 
tiquity. 

Paesus (UaLaSs), a town in the Troad, men- 
tioned by Homer, but destroyed before the time 
of Strabo, its population having been transplanted 
to Lampsacus. Its site was on a river of the same 
name (Beiram-Dere) between Lampsacus and Pa- 
rium. 

Paetinus, the name of a family of the Fulvia 
Gens, which was eventually superseded by the 
name of Nobilior. [Nobilior.] 

Paetus, a cognomen in many Roman gentes, 
signified a person who had a slight cast in the eye. 

Paetus, Aelius. I. P., probably the son of Q. 
Aelius Paetus, a pontifex, who fell in the battle of 
Cannae. He was plebeian aedile b. c. 204; praetor 
203; magister equitum 202; and consul 201. In 
his consulship he fought a battle with the Boii, and 
made a treaty with the Ingauni Ligures. In 199, 
he was censor with P. Scipio Africanus. He after- 
wards became an augur, and died 174, during a 
pestilence at Rome. He is mentioned as one of 
the Roman jurists. — 2. Sex., brother of the last, 
curule aedile 200; consul 198; and censor 193 
with Cn, Cethegus. He was a jurist of eminence, 



PAETUS. 



PALAESTE. 



and a pradent man, whence he got the cognomen 
Catus. He is described in a line of Ennius as 
" Egregie cordatus homo Catns Aelius Sextus." 
He is enumerated among the old jurists who col- 
lected or arranged the matter of law, which he did 
in a work entitled Tripartita or Jus Aelianum. 
This was a work on the Twelve Tables, which 
contained the original text, an interpretation, and 
the Legis actio subjoined. It was probably ths 
first commentary written on the Twelve Tables. — 
3. Q., son of No. 1., was elected augur 174, in 
place of his father, and was consul 167, when he 
laid waste the territory of the Ligurians. 

Paetus, P. Autronius, was elected consul for 
B. c. 65 with P. Cornelius Sulla ; but he and Sulla 
were accused of bribery by L. Aurelius Cotta and 
L. Manlius Torquatus, and condemned. Their 
election was accordingly declared void : and their 
accusers v.-ere chosen consuls in their stead. En- 
raged at his disappointment Paetus conspired with 
Catiline to murder the consuls Cotta and Tor- 
quatus ; and this design is said to have been 
frustrated solely by the impatience of Catiline, 
v,-ho gave the signal prematurely before the whole 
of the conspirators had assembled. [Catilixa.] 
Paetus afterwards took an active part in the Cati- 
linarian conspirac)', which broke out in Cicero's 
consulship, 63. After the suppression of the con- 
spiracy Paetus was brought to trial for the share 
he had had in it ; he was condemned, and went 
into exile to Epirus, where he was living when 
Cicero himself went into banishment in 58. Cicero 
was then much alarmed lest Paetus should make 
an attempt upon his life. 

Paetus, C. Caesenmus, sometimes called Cae- 
sonius, consul a. d. 61, was sent by Nero in 63 
to the assistance of Domitius Corbulo in Armenia. 
He was defeated by Vologeses, king of Parthia, 
and purchased peace of the Parthians on the most 
disgraceful terms. After the accession of Ves- 
pasian, he was appointed governor of Syria, and 
deprived Antiochus IV., king of Commagene, of 
his kingdom. 

Paetus Thrasea. [Thrasea.] 

Pagae or Pegae (110701', Att. Tlr]yai : Uayaios : 
Psaiho), a town in Megaris, a colony from Megara, 
was situated at the E. extremity of the Alcyonian 
sea, and was the most important town in the 
countr}' after Megara. It possessed a good harbour. 

Pagasae, called by the Romans Pagasa -ae 
(n.aya<xa'L : Volo), a town of Thessaly, on the 
coast of Magnesia, and on the bay called after it 
Sinus Pagasaeus or Pagasicus (Tlaya<j7}TiKbs 
koXttos: G.ofVolo). It was the port of lolcos, 
and afterwards of Pherae, and is celebrated in 
mythology as the place where Jason built the 
ship Argo. Hence some of the ancients derived 
its name from iriiyvvixi ; but others connected 
the name with the fountains {Trtiyai) in the neigh- 
bourhood. — The adjective Pagasaeus is applied 
to Jason on account of his building the ship Argo, 
and to Apollo because he had a sanctuary at 
Pagasae. The adjective is also used in the general 
sense of Thessalian : thus Alcestis, the wife of 
Admetus, is called by Ovid Pagasaea conjnx. 

Pagrae (na7pa£ : Pagras, Bagras, Bargas), a 
city of Syria, on the E. side of Mt. Amanus,at the 
foot of the pass called by Ptolemy the Syrian 
Gates, on the road between Antioch and Alex- 
andria : the scene of the battle betAveen Alexander 
Balas and Demetrius Nicator, b. c. 145. 



Pagus (Udyos), a remarkable conical hill, about 
500 — 600 feet high, a little N. of Smyrna in 
Ionia. It was crowned Avith a shrine of Nemesis, 
and had a celebrated spring, 

Palaemon (UaXaiixui/). 1. Son of Athamap 
and Ino, was originally called Melicertes. When 
his mothei', who was driven mad by Hera, had 
thrown herself, with her boy, into the sea, both 
were changed into marine divinities, Ino becoming 
Leucothea, and Melicertes Palaemon. [For details 
see Athamas.] According to some, Melicertes 
after his apotheosis was called Glaucus, whereas, 
according to another version, Glaucus is said to 
have leaped into the sea from his love of Meli- 
certes. The bod}' cl' Melicertes, according to the 
common tradition, was v.^ashed by the waves, or 
carried by dolphins into the port Schoenus on the 
Corinthian isthmus, or to that spot on the coast 
where the altar of Palaemon subsequently stood. 
There the body was found by his uncle Sisyphus, 
who ordered it to be carried to Corinth, and on 
the command of the Nereides he instituted the 
Isthmian games and sacrifices of black bulls in 
honour of the deified Palaemon. In the island of 
Tenedos, it is said that children were sacrificed to 
him, and the Avhole worship seems to have had 
something gloomy about it. The Romans identified 
Palaemon with their ovm god Portunus, or Por- 
tumnus. [Portunus.] — 2. Q. Remmius Pa- 
laemon, a grammarian in the reigns of Tiberius, 
Caligula, and Claudius. He was a native of Vi- 
centia ( Vicenza), in the north of Italv, and was 
originally a slave ; but having been manumitted, 
he opened a school at Rome, where he became the 
most celebrated grammarian of his time, though 
his moral character was infamous. He is twice 
mentioned by Juvenal (vi. 451, vii. 251). He 
was the master of Quintilian. 

Palaeopolis. [Neapolis.] 

Palaephatus {UaXa'Kparos). 1. Of Athens, a 
mj'thical epic poet of the ante-Homeric period. 
The time at which he lived is uncertain, but he 
appears to have been usually placed after Phe- 
monoe [Phemonoe], though some writers assigned 
him even an earlier date. — 2. Of Paros, or Priene, 
lived in the time of Artaxerxes. Suidas attributes 
to him the work " On Incredible Tales," spoken 
of below. — 3. Of Abydus, an historian, lived in 
the time of Alexander the Great, and is stated to 
have been loved by the philosopher Aristotle, ~ 
4. An Egyptian or Athenian, and a grammarian. 
His most celebrated work was entitled Troica 
(TpuHKci), which is frequently referred to by the 
ancient grammarians. — There is extant a small 
work in 51 sections, entitled HaXaicparos Trepl 
ania-Tcov, or " On Incredible Tales," giving a 
brief account of some of the most celebrated Greek 
legends. It is an abstract of a much larger work, 
which is lost. It was to the original work to 
which Virgil refers {Ciris, 88) : " Docta Palae- 
phatia testatur voce papyrus." It is doubtful who 
was the author of this work ; but as he adopts the 
rationalistic interpretation of the myths, he must 
be looked upon as a disciple of Evemerus [EvE- 
merus], and may thus have been an Alexandrine 
Greek, and the same person as No. 4. The best 
edition is bv Westermann, in the Mythographi, 
Brunswick, 1843. 

Palaerus {YlaXo.Lpos UaXaipevs)^ a town on 
the coast of Acamania near Leucaij, 

Palaeste (Paluia), a town of Epirus, on the 



PARIS. PEGASUS. PELEUS. PENATES. 





Judgment of Paris. (From a painted Vase.") Page 523. 



{.To face p. 512. 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. ODESSUS — PAEOS. 




Odessns. PcOge 491 




(Jeniadae. Ta-e 402. 




Orchomeuus in Eoeotia, Page 500, 




Orippo in Spain. Page 503 




Ossa. Page 506, 




Osset in Spain. Page 500. 
face p. 51.8.] 




Panormus in Sicily. Page 520. 




Panticapaeum in the Tanric Cliersonesus. Page 521. 




Pavium in Mysia. Page 524. 




Paros. Page 526. 



PALAESTIN.A. 

coast of Chaoiiia, and a little S. of the Atrocerau- 
nian mountains : here Caesar landed his forces t 
when he crossed over to Gr, ece to carry on the j 
war against Pompey. 

Palaestina (UaXaia-Tii/ri, vnaXaiarLvr] SvptT) : 
UaXaiarivos, Palaestinus, and rarely Palaestinensis : 
Palestine, or the Holy Land), is the Greek and 
Roman form of the Hebrew word which was used 
to denote the country of the Philistines, and which 
was extended to the whole countr}'. In the Scrip- 
tures it is called Canaan, from Canaan, the son of 
Ham, whose descendants were its first inhabitants ; 
the Land of Israel, the Land of Promise, the 
Land of Jehovah, and the Holy Land. The 
Romans usually called it Judaea, extending to the 
whole country the name of its S. part. It was 
regarded by the Greeks and Romans as a part of 
Syria. Its extent is pretty well defined by natural 
boundaries ; namely, the Mediterranean on the 
W. ; the mountains of Lebanon on the N. ; the 
Jordan and its lakes on the E., in the original 
extent of the country as defined in the 0. T., 
but in the wider and usual extent of the coun- 
try, the Arabian Desert was its boundary on 
the E. ; and on the S. and S.W. the deserts 
which stretch N. of the head of the Red Sea 
as far as the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean : 
here it was separated from Egypt by the small 
stream called in Scripture the River of Egypt 
(prob. the brook El-Arisli), which fell into the 
Mediterranean at Rhinocolura {El-Arish), the 
frontier town of Egypt. The S. bound.iry of the 
territory E. of Jordan was the river Arnon {Wady- 
elMojib). The extent of country w^ithin these 
limits was about 11,000 square miles. The poli- 
tical boundaries varied at different periods. By 
the covenant of God with Abraham (Gen. xv. 18), 
the whole land was given to his descendants, from 
the river of Egypt to the Euphrates; but the Is- 
raelites never had the faith or courage to take 
permanent possession of this their lot ; the nearest 
approach made to the realisation of the promise 
was in the reigns of David and Solomon, when the 
conquests of the former embraced a large part of 
Syria, and the latter built Tadmor (aft. Palmyra) 
in the Syrian Desert ; and, for a time, the Eu- 
phrates seems to have been the border of the king- 
dom on the N.E. (See 2 Sam. viii. 3, 1 Chron. 
xviii. 3). On the W. again, the Israelites never had 
full possession of the Mediterranean coast, a strip of 
which, N.of Mt.Carmel, was alwaj^s retained by the 
Phoenicians [Phoenice] ; and another portion in 
the S.W. was held by the Philistines, who v/ere in- 
dependent, except during brief intervals. On the S. 
and E. again, portions of the land were frequently 
subjugated by the neighbouring peoples of Ama- 
lek, Edora, Midian, Moab, Ammon, &c. On the 
N., except during the reigns of David and Solomon, 
Palestine ceased at the S. entrance of the valley of 
Coelesyria, and at M. Hermon in Antilibanus. — 
In the physical formation of Palestine, the most 
remarkable feature is the depression which forms 
by the valley of the Jordan and its lakes [Jor- 
DANEs], between which and the Mediterranean 
the country is intersected by mountains, chiefly 
connected with the Lebanon system, and running 
N. and S. Between these ranges, and between 
the central range and the W. coast, are some 
comparatively extensive plains, such as those of 
Esdraelon and Sharon, and several smaller valleys ; 
in the S. of the country the mountains gradually 



PALAESTINA. 

subside into the rocky deserts of Arabia Potraea. 
The valleys and slopes of the hills are extreme. y 
fertile, and were much more so in ancient times, 
when the soil on the mountain sides was preserved 
bj^ terraces which are now destroyed through neglect 
or wantonness. Tiiis division of the country lias 
only a few small rivers (besides mountain streams ), 
which fall into the Mediterranean : the chief of 
them are the Belus, just S. of Ptolemais {Acre^^ 
the Kishon, flowing from M. Tabor, through the 
plain of Esdraelon, and falling into the Bay of 
Acre N. of M. Carmel, the Chorseus, N. of Caesarea. 
the Kanah, W. of Sebaste (Samaria), the Jarkon, 
N. of Joppa, the Eshcol, near Askelon, and the 
Besor, near Gaza. On the E. of the Jordan, the 
land rises towards the rocky desert of the Haiiran 
(the ancient Auraiiitis), and the hills bordering the 
Syrian Desert, its lower portion, near the river, 
forming rich pastures, watered by the E. tribu- 
taries of the Jordan, the chief of which are the 
Hieromax, the .Tabbok, and the Arnon, the last 
flowing into the Dead Sea. — The earliest inhabitants 
of Palestine were the several tribes of Canaanites. 
It is unnecessary to recount in detail those events 
with which we are familiar through the sacred his- 
tory : the divine call of Abraham from Mesopotamia 
to liveas a stranger in the land which God promised 
to his descendants, and the story of his and his 
son's and his grandson's residence in it, till Israel 
and his family removed to Egypt:. their return 
and conquest of the land of Canaan and of the 
portion of territory E. of the Jordan, and the parti- 
tion of the whole am.ong the 12 tribes : the contests 
Avith the surrounding nations, and the government 
by Judges, till the establishment of the monarchy 
under Saul : the conquests of David, the splendid 
reign of Solomon, and the division of the king- 
dom under Rehoboam into the kingdom of Israel, 
including 2-3rds of the country W. of Jordan, and 
all E. of it, and the kingdom of Judah, including 
the S. portion which was left, between the Medi- 
terranean on the W. and the Dead Sea and a small 
extent of Jordan on the E. : and the histories or 
these 2 monarchies down to their overthrov/ by 
the Assyrians and Babylonians respectively. The 
former of these conquests made an important 
change in the population of Palestine, by the 
removal of the greater part of the inhabitants of 
the kingdom of Israel, and the settlement in their 
place of heathen peoples from other parts of the 
Assj'rian empire, thus restricting the country occu- 
pied by the genuine Israelites within the limits of 
the kingdom of Judah. Hence the names of Judaea 
and Jews applied to the country and the people in 
their subsequent history. Between these last and 
the mixed people of N. Palestine a deadly enmity 
arose ; the natural dislike of the pure race of Israel 
to heathen foreigners being aggravated by the 
v/rongs they suffered from them, especially at their 
return from the Babylonish captivity, and still 
more by the act of religious usurpation of which 
the remnant of the N. Israelites were guilty at a 
later period, in setting up a temple for themselves, 
on M. Gerizirn [Samaria]. The date assigned 
to the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel 
is B. c. 721. The remainder of the history of the 
kingdom of Judah (passing over its religious his- 
tory, v/hich is most important during this period) 
consists of alternate contests with, and submissions 
to, the kings of Assyria, Egypt, and Babylon, till 
the conquest of the country by Nebuchadnezznr 

L I. 



nU PALAESTINA. 

and the removal of a part of its people to Baby- 
lonia, in 598, and tlie destruction of Jerusalem 
and the temple, after the rebellion of Zcdckiah. in 
58(5, wlien a still larger portion of the people were 
carried captive to Babylon, while others escaped to 
Egypt. In 584, during the siege of Tyre, Ne- 
buchadnezzar sent a further portion of the Jews 
into captivity ; but there was still a considerable 
remnant left in the land, and (what is very im- 
portant) foreign settlers were not introduced ; so 
that, when Cyrus, after overthrowing the Baby- 
Ionian empire, issued his edict for the return of the 
Jews to their own land (b. c. 5;;G), there was no 
great obstacle to their quiet settlement in it. They 
experienced some trouble from the jealousy and 
attacks of the Samaritans, and the changeful dis- 
positions of the Persian court ; but at length, by 
the efforts of Zerubbabel and Joshua, and the 
preaching of Haggai and Zeciiariah, the new 
temple was finished and dedicated, in 516, and Je- 
rusalem was rebuilt. Fresli bands of Jewish exiles 
returned under Ezra, 458, and Nehemiah, 445 ; 
and, between this time and that of the Macedonian 
conquest, Judaea was rcpeopled by the Jews, and 
through the tolerance of the Persian kings, it was 
governed virtually by the high-priests. In b. c. 
332, after Alexander had taken Tyre and Gaza, 
he visited Jerusalem, and received the quiet sub- 
mission of the Jews, paying the most marked 
respect to their religion. Under the successors of 
Alexander, Palestine belonged alternately to Egypt 
and S3'ria, the contests between whose kings for 
its possession are too complicated to recount here ; 
but its internal government seems to liave been 
pretty much in the liands of the high-priests, until 
the tyranny of Antiochus Epiphanes provoked the 
successful revolt under the Maccabees, or Asmo- 
nacans, whose history is given under Maccabaei, 
and the history of the Idumaean dynasty, who 
succeeded them, is given under Antipater, He- 
RODES, and Archelaus. The later Asmonaean 
princes had regained the whole of Palestine, in- 
cluding the districts of Judaea, Samaria, and 
Galilee (besides Idumaea), W. of the Jordan, and 
the several districts of Peraea, Batanea, Gauloniiis, 
Ituraea, and Trachonitis or Auranitis, E. of it ; and 
this was the extent of Herod's kingdom. But, 
from B. C. 63, when Pompey took Jerusalem, the 
country was really subject to the Romatis. At 
the death of Herod, his kingdom was divided 
between his sons as tetrarchs, under the sanction of 
Augustus, Archelaus receiving Judaea, Samaria, 
and Idumaea, Herod Antipas Galilee and Peraea, 
and Philip Batanaea, Gaulonitis, and Trachonitis ; 
all standing to the Roman empire in a relation of 
virtual subjection, which successive events converted 
into an integral union. First, a.d. 7, Archelaus was 
deposed byAugustus, and Judaea was placed under a 
Roman procurator : next, about 31, Philip died, and 
his government was united to the province of Syria, 
and was in 37 again conferred on Herod Agrippa 
I., with the title of king, and with the addition of 
Abilene, the district round Damascus. In 39, 
Herod Antipas was banished to Gaul, and his 
tetrarchy was added to the kingdom of Herod 
Agrippa ; and 2 years later he received from 
Claudius the government of Judaea and Samaria, 
and thus Palestine was reunited under a nominal 
king. On his death, in 44, Palestine again be- 
came a part of the Roman province of Syria, 
under the name of Judaea, which was governed 



PALES. 

by a procurator. The Jews were, however, most 
turbulent subjects of the Roman empire, and at 
last they broke out into a general rebellion, which, 
after a most sanguinary war, was crushed by Ves- 
pasian and Titus ; and the latter took and destroyed 
Jerusalem in a. d. 70. Under Constantine, Pales- 
tine was divided afresh into the three provinces 
of P. Prima in the centre, P. Secunda in the N., 
and P. Tertia, the S. of Judaea, with Idumaea. 

Palamedes {Ua\aiu.'nd7]s). 1. Son of Nauplius 
and Clymene. He joined the Greeks in their 
expedition against Troy ; but Agamemnon, Dio- 
medes, and Ulysses, envious of his fame, caused 
a captive Phrygian to write to Palamedes a letter 
in the name of Priam, and bribed a servant 
of Palamedes to conceal the letter under his 
master's bed. They then accused Palamedes of 
treachery ; upon searching his tent they found 
the letter which they themselves had dictated ; 
and thereupon they caused him to be stoned to 
death. When Palamedes was led to death, he 
exclaimed, " Truth, I lament thee, for thou hast 
died even before me." According to some tra- 
ditions, it was Ulysses alone who hated and 
persecuted Palamedes. The cause of this hatred 
is also stated differently. According to some, 
Ulysses hated him because he had been compelled 
by him to join the Greeks against Troy ; according 
to others, because he had been severely censured 
by Palamedes for returning with empty hands 
from a foraging excursion into Thrace. The 
manner in which Palamedes perished is likewise 
related differently. Some say that Ulysses and 
Diomedes induced him to descend into a well, 
where they pretended they had discovered a trea- 
sure, and when, he was below they cast stones 
upon him, and killed him ; others state that he 
was drowned by them whilst fishing ; and others 
that he was killed by Paris with an arrow. The 
place where he was killed is either Colonae in 
Troas, or in Tenedos, or at Geraestus. The story 
of Palamedes, which is not mentioned by Homer, 
seems to have been first related in the Cypria, and 
was afterwards developed by the tragic poets, 
especially by Euripides, and lastly by the sophists, 
who liked to look upon Palamedes as their pattern. 
The tragic poets and sophists describe him as a 
sage among the Greeks, and as a poet ; and he is 
said to have invented light-houses, measures, scales, 
tiic discus, dice, the alphabet, and the art of regu- 
lating sentinels. — 2. A Greek grammarian, was a 
contemporary of Athenaeus, who introduces him 
as one of the speakers in his work. 

Palatinus Mons. [Roma.] 

Palatium. [Roma.] 

Pale {UdXr] : IlaAets, Ion. RaAees, Att. IIcAtjs, 
in Polyb. na\aie7s : nr. Lixuri^ Ru.), one of the 

4 cities of Cephallen:a, situated on a height op- 
posite Zacynthus. 

Palss, a Roman divinity of flocks and shep 
herds, is described b}^ some as a male, and by 
others as a female divinity. Hence some modern 
writers have inferred that Pales was a combination 
of both sexes ; but such a monstrosity is altogether 
foreign to the religion of the Romans. Some of 
the rites performed at the festival of Pales, which 
was celebrated on the 21st of April, the birth-day 
of the c\iy of Ronie, would seem to indicate, that 
the divinity was a female ; but besides the express 
statements to the contrary, there are also other 
reasons for believing that Pales was a male divi- 



PALICANUS. 



PALLADIUS. 



515 



nity. The name seems to be connected with 
Palatinus, the centre of all the earliest legends of 
Rome, and the god himself was with the Romans 
the embodiment of tlie same idea as Pan among 
the Greeks. Respecting tlie festival of the Paliiia 
see Diet, of Antiq. s. v. 

Palicanus, LoUius. [Lor.f.ius.J 

Falici (IlaAtKoi), were Sicilian gods, twin sons 
of Zeus and the nymph Thalia, the daughter of 
Hephaestus. Sometimes they are called sons of 
Hephaestus by Aetna, the daughter of Oceanus. 
Thalia, from fear of Hera, prayed to be swallowed 
up by the earth ; her prayer was granted ; but in 
due time she sent forth from the earth twin buys, 
who, according to the absurd etymology of the 
ancients, were called XiaKiKol, from rov iraXiv 
iKeadai. They were worshipped in the neigh- 
bourhood of Mt. Aetna, near Palice; and in the 
earliest times human sacrifices were oflFered to 
them. Their sanctuary was an asylum for lun- 
away slaves, and near it there gushed forth from 
the earth two sulphureous fountains, called Deilloi, 
or brothers of the Palici ; at which solemn oaths 
were taken. The oaths were written on tablets, 
and thrown into one of the fountains ; if the tablet 
swam on the water, the oath was considered to be 
true, but if it sank down, the oath was regarded 
as a perjury, and was believed to be punished in- 
stantaneously by blindness or death. 

Palinuruni (C. Faiinuro), a promontory on the 
W. coast of Lucania, which was said to have de- 
rived its name from Palinurus, the son of Jasus, 
and pilot of the ship of Aeneas, who fell into the 
sea, and was murdered on the coast by the natives, 

Pallacopas (naA.Aa/c(57ras), a canal in Baby- 
lonia, cut from the Euphrates, at a point 800 stadia 
(80 geog. miles) S. of Babylon, W.-ward to the 
edge of the Arabian Desert, where it lost itself in 
marshes. 

Palladas (JlaWddas) , the author of a large 
number of epigrams in tlie Greek Anthology, was 
a pagan and an Alexandrian grammarian. He 
lived at the beginning of the 5th century of the 
Christian era, for in one of his epigrams he speaks 
ofHypatia, the daughter of Theon, as still alive. 
Hypatia was murdered in a. d. 415. 

Palladium. {UaWaSioi/), properly any image of 
Pallas Athena (Minerva), but generally applied to 
an ancient image of this goddess, whicli was kept 
hidden and secret, and was revered as a pledge of the 
safety of the town, where it existed. Among these 
ancient images of Pallas none is more celebrated than 
the Trojan Palladium, concerning which there was 
the following tradition. Athena was brought up 
by Triton; and when his daughter, Pallas, and 
Athena were once wrestling together for the sake 
of exercise, Zeus interfered in the strusrgle, and 
suddenly held the aegis before the face of Pallas. 
Pallas, while looking up to Zeus, was wounded by 
Athena, and died. Athena in her sorrow caused 
an image of the maiden to be made, round which 
she hung the aegis. When Electra had come as 
a suppliant to the Palladium, Zeus hurled it down 
from heaven upon the earth, because it had been 
sullied by the hands of one, who was no longer a 
pure maiden. The image fell upon the earth at 
Troy, when Uus was just beginning to build the 
city. Ilus erected a sanctuary to it. According 
to some, the image was dedicated by Electra, and 
according to others it was given by Zeus to Dar- 
danus. The image itself is said to have been 3 



cubits in height, with its legs close together, and 
holding in its ri<;ht hand a spear, and. in the left a 
spindle and a distaff. This Palladium remained 
at Troy until Ulysses ana Uiomedes contrived to 
carry it away, because the city could not be taken 
so long as it was in the possession of that sacred trea- 
sure. According to some accounts Troy contained 
two Palladia, one of which was carried off by 
Ulysses and Diomedes, while the other was con- 
veyed by Aeneas to Italy, or the one taken by 
the Greeks was a mere imitation, while that which 
Aeneas brought to Italy was the genuine image. 
But this twofold Palladium was probably a mere 
invention to account for its existence in more than 
one place. Several towns both in Greece and Italy 
claimed the honour of possessing the genuine 
Trojan Palladium ; as for example, Argos and 
Athens, where it was believed that Demophon 
took it from Diomedes on his return from Troy. 
[Demophon.] This Palladium at Athens, how- 
ever, was different from another image of Pallas 
there, which was also called Palladium, and stood 
on the acropolis. In Italy the cities of Rome, 
Lavinium, Luceria, and Siris likewise pretended 
to possess the Trojan Palladium. 

Palladius (naAAdSios). — 1. Of Methone, a 
sophist or rhetorician, who lived in the reign of 
Constantine the Great.— 2. Bishop of Helenopolis, 
in Bithynia, to which he was raised A. D. 400. 
He was ordained by Chrysostom ; and on the 
banishment of the latter, Palladius was accused of 
holding the opinions of Origen, and, fearful of the 
violence of his enemies, he fled to Rome, 405. 
Shortly afterwards he ventured to return to the 
East, but was arrested and banished to the extre- 
mity of Upper Egypt. He was afterwards re- 
stored to his bishopric of Helenopolis, from which 
he was translated to that of Aspona or Aspuna in 
Galatia, perhaps about 419 or 420. Three works 
in Greek have come down to us under the name 
of Palladius ; but there has been considerable 
dispute, whether they were written by one indi- 
vidual or more : — (I.) Hisioria Lausiaca, '''' the 
Lausiac History,'''' so called from its being dedi- 
cated to Lausus, a chamberlain at the imperial 
court. This work contains internal proofs of 
having been written by the bishop of Helenopolis, 
It gives biographical notices or characteristic anec- 
dotes of a number of ascetics, with whom Palladius 
was personally acquainted, or concerning whom he 
received information from those who had known 
them personally. Edited by.Mearsius, Lugd. Bat. 
1616. (2.) Tlte Life of Chrysostom^ was probably 
written by a different person from the bishop of 
Helenopolis. Edited by Bigotius, Paris, 1680, 
(3.) De Gentibus Indiae et Dragmanibus {^Brali- 
mans). The authorship of this work is uncertain. 
It appears that the writer himself had visited 
India. Edited by Camerarius in Liber Gnomo- 
{ooicus^ 8vo. Lips, without date ; and by Bissaeus, 
London, 1665. —3. Surnamed latrosophista, a 
Greek medical writer, of whose life nothing is 
known. He lived after Galen. We possess 3 
works commonly attributed to him: namely, 2 
books of commentaries on Hippocrates, and a short 
treatise on Fevers, al! of which are taken chiefly 
from Galen. — 4. Palladius Rutilius Taurus 
Aemilianus, the author of a treatise Be Re 
Rustica, in the form of a Farmer's Calendar, the 
various operations connected with agriculture and 
a rural life being arranged in regular order, ao 



51C 



PALLANTIA. 



PALMYRA. 



cording to the seasons in which thej'- ought to be 
performed. It is comprised in 14 books: the first 
is Introductor}-, the 12 following contain the duties 
of the 12 months in succession, commencing with 
January ; the last is a poem, in 85 elegiac couplets, 
upon the art of grafting {De Iiisitione). A con- 
siderable portion of the work is taken from 
Columella. The date of the author is uncertain ; 
but it is most probable that he lived in the middle 
of the 4th century of the Christian aera. The 
work was very popular in the middle ages. Edited 
in the Scn'piores Rei Rusticae by Gesner, Lips. 
1735 ; reprinted by Emesti in 1773, and by 
Schneider, Lips. 1794. 

Pallantia (Pallantinus: Pahncla). the chief 
town of the Vaccaei in ilieX. of Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, and on a tributary of the Darius. 

Pallantias and PaUantis, patronymics, given 
to Aurora, the daughter of the giant Pallas. 

Pallantium {UaWavnov UaWavTievs). an 
ancient town of Arcadia, near Tegea, said to have 
been founded by Pallas, the son of Lycaon. Evander 
is said to have come from this place, and to have 
called the town, which he founded on the banks of 
the Tiber, Pallanteum (afterwards PaJantlum and 
Palaiium), after the Arcadian tovra. On the foun- 
dation of Megalopolis, most of the inhabitants of 
Pallantium settled in the new city ; and the town 
remained almost deserted, till it was restored by 
Antoninus Pius, and exempted from taxes on ac- 
count of its supposed connection with the imperial 
city. 

Pallas (ITaAXas). — 1. One of the Titans, son 
of Crius and Eurybia, husband of Styx, and father 
of Zelus, Cratos, Bia, and Nice. — 2. A giant, 
slain by Athena in the battle witli the gods. — 3. 
According to some traditions, the father of Athena, 
who slew him when he attempted to violate her. 
— 4. Son of Lycaon, and grandfather of Evander, 
is said to have founded the town of Pallantium in 
Arcadia. Hence Evander is called by the poets 
Pallantius heros. — b. Son of Evander, and an ally 
of Aeneas, was slain by the Rutulian Tumus. — 6. 
Son of the Athenian king Pandion, and father of 
Clytus and Butes. His 2 sons were sent with 
Cephalus to implore assistance of Aeacus against 
Minos. Pallas was slain by Theseus. The cele- 
brated family of the Pallantidae at Athens traced 
their origin from this Pallas. 

Pallas (riaXAaj), a surname of Athena. In 
Homer this name always appears united with that 
of Athena, as YiaXXas 'AB-rjvri or ITaAAas 'Adr]- 
vair) ; but in later writers we also find Pallas 
alone instead of Athena. Some ancient writers 
derive the name from TraAA-eir, to brandish, in 
reference to the goddess brandishing the spear or 
aegis, others derive it from the giant Pallas, who 
was slain by Athena. But it is more probable 
that Pallas is the same word as 7raA.\a|, i. e. a 
virgin or maiden. 

Pallas, a favourite freedman of the emperor 
Claudius. In conjunction with another freedman, 
Narcissus, he administered the affairs of the em- 
pire. After the death of Messalina, Pallas per- 
suaded the weak emperor to marry Agiippina ; and 
as Narcissus had been opposed to this marriage, he 
now lost his former power, and Pallas and Agrip- 
pina became the rulers of the Roman world. It 
was Pallas who persuaded Claudius to adopt the 
young Domitius (afterwards the emperor Nero), 
the son of Agrippina ; and it was doubtless with 



tlie assistance of Pallas that Agrippina poisoned 
her husband. Nero soon after his accession be- 
came tired of his mother's control, and as one step 
towards emancipating himself from her authority, 
he deprived Pallas of all his public offices, and 
dismissed him from the palace in 50. He was 
suffered to live unmolested for some years, till at 
length his immense wealth excited the rapacity of 
Nero, who had him removed by poison in 63. 
His enormous wealth, which was acquired durino; 
the reign of Claudius, had become proverbial, as 
we see from the line in Juvenal (i. 107), ego pos- 
sideo plus Pallante et Licinio. The brother (.f 
Pallas was Antonius or Claudius Felix, who was 
appointed by Claudius procurator of Judae.i. 
[Felix, Antonius.] 
Pallas Lacus. [Triton.] 

Pallene {YlaXX-hvi]). 1. {UaXXrivalos, TiaX\<)- 
vLQs), the most "W.-Iy of the 3 peninsulas nmning 
out from Chalcidice in ^Macedonia. It is said to 
have been formerly called Phlegra (^Xeypa)^ and 
on the narrow isthmus, which connected it with 
the main land, stood the important town of Poti- 
daea. — 2. {UaXXr,u€vs, rarely UaXXTjvaios)^ a 
demus in Attica belonging to the tribe Antiochis, 
was situated on one of the slopes of Pentelicus, a 
few miles S. "W. of ^Marathon. It possessed a 
temple of Athena, surnamed PaUmis (HoAAtji'/s) 
from the place ; and in its neighbourhood took 
place the contest between Pisistratus and the party 
opposed to him. 

Palma (PaJ-ma), a Roman colony on the S.AV. 
coast off the island Balearis Major {Majorca). 

Palmaria {Palmamola), a small iminhabited 
island off the coast of Latium and the promontory 
Circeium. 

Palmyra {TlaXixvpa : 'n.aXuvpi]v6i, Palmyrenus: 
0. T. Tadmor : Tadmor^ Ru.), a celebrated city ot 
Syria, stood in an oasis of the great Syrian Desert, 
which from its position must have been in the 
earliest times a halting place for the caravans be- 
tween Syria and Mesopotamia. Here Solomon 
built a city, which was called in Hebrew Tadmor, 
that is, the city of palm-trees ; and of this name 
the Greek TidXuvpa. is a translation. It lies in 34° 
18' N. lat, and 38^^ 14' E. long., and was reckoned 
237 Roman miles from the coast of Syria, 176 
N.E. of Damascus, 80 E. of Emesa, and '113 S.E. 
of Apamea. With the exception of a tradition 
that it was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, we hear 
nothing of it till the time of the government of the 
East by M. Antonius, who marched to surprise it, 
but the inhabitants retreated with their moveable 
property beyond the Euphrates. LTnder the early 
Roman emperors it was a free city and a great 
commercial emporium. Its position on the border 
betv/een the Parthian and Roman dominions gave 
it the command of the trade of both, but also sub- 
jected it to the injuries of war. Under Hadrian 
and the Antonines it was highly favoured and 
reached its greatest splendour. The history of its 
temporary- elevation to the rank of a capital, in the 
3rd century, is related under Odenathus and Ze- 
NOBiA. On its capture by Aurelian, in 270, it T»'as 
plundered, and soon afterwards an insurrection of 
its inhabitants led to its partial destruction. It 
was fortified by Justinian, but never recovered 
from its fall. In the Arabian conquest it was one 
of the first cities taken ; but it was still inhabited 
by a small population, chiefly of Jews, till it waa 
taken and plundered by Timour (Tamerlane) in 



PAMISUS. 



PAMPHYLIUM. 517 



1400. It has long been entirely deserted, except 
when a horde of Bedouins pitch their tents among 
its splendid ruins. Those ruins, whicli form a 
most striking object in the midst of the Desert, are 
of the Roman period, and decidedly inferior in the I 
style of architecture, as -well as in grandeur of 
effect, to those of Baalbek [Heliopolis], the sister 
deserted city of Syria. The finest remains are 
those of the temple of the Sun ; the most interest- 
ing are the square sepulchral towers of from 3 to 
.5 stories. The streets and the foundations of the 
houses are traceable to some extent ; and there are 
several hiscriptions in Greek and in the native 
Palmyrene dialect, besides one in Hebrew and one 
or two in Latin. The surrounding district of 
Palmyrene contained the Syrian Desert from the 
E. border of Coelesj-ria to the Euphrates. 

Pamisus (UdiJLiaos). 1. A southern tributary of 
the Peneus in Thessaly. 2. (Fimafza), the chief 
river of Messenia, rises in the E. part of the coun- 
try, 40 stadia E. of Ithome, flows first S. W,, and 
then S. through the Messenian plain, and falls 
into the Messenian gulf. — 3, A small river in 
Laconia, falls into the Messenian gulf near Leuc- 
tra. It was at one time the ancient boundary be- 
tween Laccnia and Messenia. 

Pamphia or Pamphium (nau<pia^ nci,ucbiop), a 
village of Aetolia, destroyed by the Macedonians. 

Pamphila {Ua/uLcpiXT]), a female historian of con- 
siderable reputation, who lived in the reign of 
Nero. She is described by some writers as a 
native of Epidaurus, by others as an Egyptian, 
Her principal work, of which Photius has given 
some extracts, was a kind of Historical Miscellany 
(entitled (TVjXjxucTwv larcpiKS>vviroi.Lvr]ixdTuvK6yoi). 
It was not arranged according to subjects or ac- 
cording to any settled plan, but it was more like a 
common-place book, in which each piece of in- 
formation was set down as it fell imder the notice 
of the writer. Modern scholars are best acquainted 
with the name of Pamphila, from a statement in 
her work, preserved by A. Gellius (xv. 23), by 
which is ascertained the year of the birth of Ilel- 
lanicus, Herodotus, and Thucydides respectively. 

Pampkilus (na/^(^£?(.os). 1. A disciple of 
Plato, who is only remembered by the circum- 
stance that Epicurus, when a young man, heard 
him at Samos. Epicurus used to speak of him 
with great contempt, that he might not be thought 
to owe anything to his instruction ; for it was the 
great boast of Epicurus, that he was the sole 
author of his own philosophy.— 3. An Alexandrian 
grammarian, of the school of Aristarchus, and the 
author of a lexicon, which is supposed by some 
scholars to have formed the foundation of the 
lexicon of Hesj'chius. He appears to have lived 
in the 1st centmy of our era.— 3. A philosopher 
or grammarian of Nicopolis, the author of a work 
on agriculture, of which there are considerable 
fragments in the Geoponica. — ^. Presbyter of 
Caesarea, in Palestine, saint and martyr, and cele- 
brated for his friendship with Eusebius, who, as a 
memorial of this intimacy, assumed the surname of 
PampMlus. [Eusebius.] He suffered martyrdom 
A. D. 307. The life of Pamphilus seems to have 
been entirely devoted to the cause of biblical 
literature. He was an ardent admirer and follower 
of Origen. He formed, at Caesarea, an impor- 
tant public library chiefly of ecclesiastical authors. 
Perhaps the most valuable of the contents of this 
library were the Teirapla and Hexapla of Origen, 



from which Pamphilus, in conjunction with Euse- 
bius, formed a new recension of the Septuagint, 
numerous copies of which were put ir.to circulation. 
— 5. Of Amphipolis, one of the most distinguished 
of the Greek painters, flourished about B. c. 390 — 
350. He Avas the disciple of Eupompus, the 
founder of the Sicyonian school of painting, for 
the establishment of Avhich, however, Pamphilus 
seems to have done much mure than even Eupompus 
himself. Of his own works we have most scanty 
accounts ; but as a teacher of his art he was sur- 
passed by none of the ancient masters. According 
to Pliny, he was the first artist who possessed 
a thorough acquaintance with all branches of 
knowledge, especially arithmetic and geometry, 
without which he used to say that the art could 
not be perfected. All science, therefore, which 
could in any way contribute to form the perfect 
artist, was included in his course of instruction, 
which extended over ten years, and for Avhich the 
fee was no less than a talent. Among those who 
paid this price for his tuition were Apelles and 
Melanthius. Not only was the school of Pam- 
philus remarkable for the importance which the 
master attached to general learning, but also for 
the minute attention which he paid to accuracy in 
drawing. 

PampllOS (na,u^a>s), a mythical poet, who is 
placed by Pausanias later than Olen, and much 
earlier than Homer. His name is connected par- 
ticularly with Attica. 

Pamphylia {Ylap-^vKia. : Ila/^'puAo?, Ua^cpv- 
Xios, Pamphylms), in its original and more re- 
stricted sense, was a narrow strip of the S. coast of 
Asia Minor, extending in a sort of arch along the 
Sinus Pamphylius (6^. q/'^c/a/w), between Lycia 
on the W., and Cilicia on the E., and on the N. 
bordering on Pisidia. Its boundaries, as commonly 
stated, were Mt. Climax on the W., the river 
Melas on the E., and the foot of Mt. Taurus on the 
N. ; but the statements are not very exact : Strabo 
gives to the coast of Pamphylia a length of 640 
stadia, from Olbia on the W. to Ptolemai's, some 
distance E. of the Melas, and he makes its width 
barely 2 miles ; and there are still other different 
accounts. It was a belt of mountain coast land, 
intersected by rivers flowing down from the Taurus 
in a short course, but several of them with a con- 
siderable body of water : the chief of them, going 
from AV. to E., were the Catarrhactes, Oes- 
trus, EuRYMEDON, and Melas [No. 6J, all 
navigable for some distance from their mouths. 
The inhabitants were a mixture of races, whence 
their name HdiicpvXoi, of all races ( the genuine old 
form, the other in -iol is later). Besides the abori- 
ginal inhabitants, of the Semitic (Syro- Arabian) 
family, and Cilicians, there were very early Greek 
settlers and later Greek colonies in the land. Tra- 
dition ascribed the first Greek settlements to Mop- 
sus, after the Trojan War, from whom the country 
was in early times called Mopsopia. It Avas suc- 
cessively a part of the Persian, Macedonian, Greco- 
Syrian, and Pergamene kingdoms, and passed by 
the will of Attains III. to the Romans (b. c. 130), 
under whom it was made a province ; but this pro- 
vince of Pamphylia included also Pisidia and Isau- 
ria, and afterwards a part of Lycia. Under Con- 
stantine Pisidia was again separated from Pam- 
phy'lia. 

Pamphylium Mare, Pamphylms Sinus (to 

Ylaix<pvKiov TreAoyos, UaficpvAios kSKttos : Gul/ (>J 

L L 3 



518 



PAMPHYLUS. 



PANDAREOS. 



Adalia), the great gulf formed in the S. coast of 
Asia Minor by the direction of th • Taurus chain 
and by Mt. Solyma. between the Pr. Sacrum or 
Clielidonium (C. Khelidonia), the S.E. point of 
Lycia, and Pr. Anemurium (C J ??emoMr), the S. 
point of Cilicia. Its depth from N. to S., from 
Pr, Sacrum to Olbia, is reckoned by Strabo at 
367 stadia (367 geog. miles), which is too little. 

Pampliylus {UaiupvXos), son of Aegimius and 
brother of Dymas, was king of the Dorians at the 
foot of Mt. Pindus, and along with the Heraclidae 
invaded Peloponnesus. 

Pan (ndi'), the great god of flocks and shep- 
herds among the Greeks. He is usually called a 
son of Hermes by the daughter of Dryops ; but he 
is also described as a son of Hermes by Callisto, 
by Oeneis or Thj'rabris, or by Penelope, whom the 
god visited in the shape of a ram, or as a son of 
Penelope by Ulysses, or by all her suitors in com- 
mon. He was perfectly developed from his birth ; 
and when his mother saw him, she ran away 
through fear; but Hermes carried him to Olympus, 
Avhere all the gods were delighted with him, and 
especially Dionysus. From his delighting all the 
gods, the Homeric hymn derives his name. He 
was originally only an Arcadian god ; and Arcadia 
was always the principal seat of his worsliip. 
From this country his name and worship after- 
wards spread over other parts of Greece ; but at 
Athens his worship was not introduced till the 
time of the battle of Marathon. In Arcadia he 
was the god of forests, pastures, flocks, and shep- 
herds, and dwelt in grottoes, wandered on the 
summits of mountains and rocks, and in valleys, 
either amusing himself with the chase, or leading 
the dances of the nymphs. As the god of flocks, 
both of wild and tame animals, it was his province 
to increase and guard them ; but he was also a 
hunter, and hunters owed their success or failure 
to him. The Arcadian hunters used to scourge 
the statute of the god, if they had been disap- 
pointed in the chase. During the heat of mid-day 
he used to slumber, and was very indignant when 
any one disturbed liim. As the god of flocks, bees 
also were under his protection, as well as the coast 
where fishermen carried on their pursuit. As the 
god of every thing connected with pastoral life, he 
was fond of music, and the inventor of the syrinx 
or shepherd's flute, which he himself played in a 
masterly manner, and in which he instructed 
others also, such as Daphnis. He is thus said to 
have loved the poet Pindar, and to have sung and 
danced liis lyric songs, in return for which Pindar 
erected to him a sanctuary in front of his house. 
Pan, like other gods who dwelt in forests, v/as 
dreaded by travellers to whom he sometimes ap- 
peared, and Avhom he startled with sudden awe or 
terror. Thus when Phidippides, the Athenian, 
was sent to Sparta to solicit its aid against the 
Persians, Pan accosted him, and promised to terrify 
the barbarians, if the Athenians would worship 
him. Hence sudden fright without any visible 
cause was ascribed to Pan, and was called a Panic 
fear. He is further said to have had a terrific 
voice, and by it to have frightened the Titans in 
their fight with the gods. It seems that this fea- 
ture, namelj', his fondness of noise and riot, was 
the cause of his being considered the minister 
and companion of Cybele and Dionysus. He was 
at the same time believed to be possessed of pro- 
phetic powers, and to have even instructed Apollo 



in this art. While roaming in his forests he fell 
in love with Echo, by whom or by Pitho he be- 
came the father of lynx. His love of Syrinx, after 
whom he named his flute, is well known from 
Ovid {Met. i. G9I, seq.). Fir-trees were sacred to 
him, since the nymph Pitys, whom he loved, had 
been metamorphosed into that tree ; and the sacri- 
fices offered to him consisted of cows, rams, lambs, 
milk, and honey. Sacrifices were also offered to 
him in common with Dionysus and the nymphs. 
The various epithets which are given him by the 
poets refer either to his singular appearance, or are 
derived from the names of the places in which he 
was worshipped. The Romans identified with 
Pan their own god Tnuus, and also Faunus, which 
name is merely another form of Pan. In works 
of art Pan is represented as a voluptuous and 
sensual being, with horns, puck-nose, and goat'? 
feet, sometimes in the act of dancing, and some- 
times playing on the syrinx. 

Panacea ^(Ilaj'a/cem), i.e. " the all-healing," a 
daughter of Aesculapius, who had a temple at 
Oropus. 

Panacliaicus Mons {rh Tiavaxainhv opos), a 
mountain in Achaia, 6300 feet high, iramediatelj 
behind Patrae. 

Panacra (ndvaKpa), a mountain in Crete, s 
branch of Mt. Ida. 

Panactum (UdmKTov), a town on the frontier: 
of Attica and Boeotia, oi'igiiially belonged t( 
Boeotia, and after being a frequent object of con- 
tention between the Athenians and Boeotians, at 
length became permanently annexed to Attica. 

Panaenus (Uduaivos), a distinguished Athenian 
painter, who flourished B. c. 448. He was the 
nephew of Phidias, whom he assisted in decorating 
the temple of Zeus, at Olympia. He was also the 
-author of a series of paintings, of the battle of 
Marathon, in the Poecile at Athens. 

Panaetius (UavaiTios), a native of Rhodes, and 
a celebrated Stoic philosopher, studied first at 
Pergamum under the grammarian Crates, and 
subsequently at Athens under the stoic Diogenes, 
of Babylon, and his disciple Antipater of Tarsus. 
He afterwards went to Rome, where he became 
an intimate friend of Laelius and of Scipio 
Africanus the younger. In B. c. 144 he accom- 
panied Scipio on the embassy which he undertook 
to the kings of Egypt and Asia in alliance with 
Rome. Panaetius succeeded Antipater, as head 
of the stoic school, and died at Athens, at all 
events before 111. The principal work of Panae- 
tius was his treatise on the theory of moral obli- 
gation (irepl Tov Ka6riKovTos),'m 3 books, from which 
Cicero took the greater part of his wovkDe Officiis. 
Panaetius had softened down the harsh severity of 
the older stoics, and, without giving up their 
fundamental definitions, had modified them so as 
to make them applicable to the conduct of life, and 
had clothed them in the garb of eloquence. 

Panaetolmm, a mountain in Aetolia nearTher- 
mon, in which town the Panaetoliura or general 
assembly of the Aetolians was held. 

Panda, a river in the country of the Siraces in 
the interior of Sarmatia Asiatica (Tac. Ann. xii. 

Pandareos (na^/Sapews), son of Merops of Mi- 
letus, is said to liave stolen from the temple of Zeus 
in Crete the golden dog which Hephaestus had 
made, and to have carried it to TantJilus. When 
Zeus sent Herjnes to Tantalus to claim the dog 



PANDARUS. 



PANIUM. 



5VJ 



back, Tantalus declared that it was not in his pos- 
session. Tiie god, however, took the animal by 
force, and ttirew mount Sipylus upon Tantalus. 
Pandareos fled to Atliens, and thence to Sicily, 
where he perished v/ith his wife Harmothoe. The 
story of Pandareos derives more interest from that 
of his 3 daughters. Aedon, the eldest of them, 
was married to Zethus. the brother of Amphion, 
by Avhom she became tlie mother of Itylns. From 
envy of Amphion, who had many ciiildren, siio 
determined to murder one of his sons, Amaleus, 
but in the night she mistook her OAvn son for her 
nephew, and killed him. The 2 otlicr dimohters 
of Pandareos, Merope and Cleodora (according to 
Pausanias, Camira and Clytia), Avere, according 
to Homer, deprived of their parents by the gods, 
and remained as helpless orphans in the palace. 
Aphrodite, however, fed them Avith milk, honey, 
and wine. Hera gave them beauty and under- 
standing far above other women. Artemis gave 
them dignitj'^, and Athena skill in the arts. When 
Aphrodite went up to Olympus to arrange the 
nuptials for her maidens, they Avere carried off by 
the Harpies, 

PandarUS (Tidy^apos.) 1. A Lycian, son of 
Lycaon, commanded the inhabitants of Zelea on 
Mt. Ida, in the Trojan Avar. He Avas distinguished 
in the Trojan army as an archer, and was said to 
have received his bow from Apollo. He Avas slain 
by Diomedes, or, according to others, by Sthenelus. 
He was afterAvards honoured as a hero at Pinara 
in Lycia. — 2. Son of Aicanor, and tAvin-brother of 
Bitias, was one of the companions of Aeneas, and 
Avas slain by Turnus. 

Pandataria ( Vendutene)^ a small islivnd in the 
Tyrrhenian sea off the coast of Campania, to Avhich 
Julia, the daughter of Augustus, was banished. 

Pandemos (ricij/CTj/xos), i. e. " common to all 
the people," a surname of Aphrodite, used in a 
tAvofold sense: 1. as the goddess of low sensual 
pleasures as Ve?ius vulyivaga or popularis, in oppo- 
sition to Venus Urania, or the heavenly Aphrodite; 
2. as the goddess uniting all the inhabitants of a 
country into one social or political body. Under 
the latter view she was Avorsliipped at Athens 
along T/ith Peitho (persuasion), and her worship 
was said to have been instituted by Theseus at the 
time when he united the scattered townships into 
one great body of citizens. The sacrifices offered 
to her consisted of Avhite goats. 

Pandion (TlavBiwv). 1. I. King of Athens, son 
of Erichthonius, by the Naiad Pasithea, Avas mar- 
ried to Zeuxippc, by Avhom he became the father 
of Procne and Philomela, and of the twins Ei-ech- 
theus and Butes. In a Avar against Labdacus, 
king of Thebes, he called upon Tereus of Daulis 
in Phocis, for assistance, and afterwards rcAA'arded 
him by givmg him his daughter Procne in marriage. 
[Tereus.] It Avas in his reign that Dionysus and 
Demeter Avere said to have come to Attica. —2. II. 
King of Athens, son of Cecrops and Metiadusa. 
Being expelled from A.thens by the Metionidae, he 
fled toMegara, andtliere married Pylia, the daughter 
of king Pylas. When the latter, in consequence 
of a murder, migrated into Peloponnesus, Pandion 
obtained the government of Megara. He became 
the father of Aegens, Pallas, Nisus, Lycus, and a 
natural son, Oencus, and also of a daughter, Avho 
Avas married to Sciron. After his death his 4 sons, 
called the Pandionidae {Hav^ioviZai)^ returned from 
Megara to Athens, and expelled the Metionidae. 



Aegeus obtained Athens, Lycus the E. coast of 
Attica, Nisi'.s Megaris, and Pallas the S. coast. 

Pandora [Uavowpa.)^ the name of the first 
Avoman on earth. When Prometheus had stolen 
the fire from heaven, Zeus in reA-enge caused He- 
phaestus to make a Avoman out of earth, Avho by 
her charms and beautj-- should bring misery upon 
the human race. Aphrodite adorned her Avith 
beauty; Hermes bestowed upon iier boldness and 
cunning; and the gods called her Pandora, or All- 
gifted, as each of the gods had given her some 
power by Avhich she Avas to Avork the ruin man. 
ilermes took her to Epimetheus, Avho made her 
his Avife, forgettin? the advice of his brother Pro- 
m.etlieus that he should not receiA'e any gilts from 
Zeus. In the house of Epimetheus Avas a closed 
jar, which he had been forbidden to open. But 
the curiosity of a Avoman could not resist the 
temptation to know its contents ; and Avhen she 
opened the lid all the evils incident to man poured 
out. She had only time to shut down the lid, and 
prevent the escape of hope. Later writers relate 
that Pandora brought Avith her from heaven a box 
(and not a jar), containing all liuman ills, upon 
opening Avhich all escaped and spread over the 
earth, Hope alone remaining. At a still later pe- 
riod, the box is said to have contained all the 
blessings of the gods, Avhich Avould have been pre- 
serA-ed for the human race, had not Pandora opened 
the vessel, so that the winged blessings escaped. 

Pa,lldosia {UavZoaia). 1. (Kastri), a town of 
Epirus in the district Thesprotia, on the ri\'er 
Acheron, and in the territory of the Cassopaei.-— 
2. [Casiel Franco ?), a town in Bruttium near the 
frontiers of Lucania, situated on the riA'er Acheron, 
and also either upon or at the foot of '6 hills, Avas 
originally a residence of native Oenotrian chiefs. 
It Avas here that Alexander of Epirus fell, B. c. o26, 
in accordance Avith an oracle. 

Pandrosos {Tlav^poaos), i.e. "the all-bedeAving,'" 
or " refreshing," Avas a daughter of Cecrops and 
Agraulos, and a sister of Erysichthon, Herse, and 
Aglauros. She Avas worshipped at Athens, along 
Avith Thallo, and had a sanctuary there near the 
temple of Athena Polias. 

Paneas. [Caesarea, No. 2.] 
Paneum or -iuni {Tidviiov, Udviov, i. e, Pan''s- 
abode), the Greek name of the cave, in a mountain 
at the S, extremity of tlie range of Antilibanus, out 
of Avhich the river Jordan takes its rise, a little 
above the town of Paneas or Caesarea Philippi. 
The mountain, in Avhose S. side the caA-e is, Avas 
called by the same name ; and the surrounding 
district Avas called Paneas. 

Pangaeum or Pangaeus (UayyoAoi^ Udyycios : 
Pufigea), a celebrated range of mountains in JMace- 
donia, between the Strymon and the Nestus, and 
in the neighbourhood of Philippi, with gold and 
sih-er mines, and with splendid roses. 

Panhellenms {Uau€AXv,i'ios), i. e. the god wor- 
shipped by all the Hellenes. Tliis surname is said 
to liaA'ebeen given to Zeus by Aeacus, Avhen he 
offered a propitiatory sacrifice on behalf of all the 
Greeks, for the purpose of averting a famine. In 
Aegina there A\'as a sanctuary of Zeus Panhellenius, 
Avhich Avas said to have been founded by A.eacus; 
and a festival, Panhellenia, Avas celebrated there, 

Panioaiiim. [Mycale : and Diet, of Ant. 
s. V. Panionia.'] 

Paniuia {Udviov), a town on the coast of Thrace 
near Heraclea. 

L L 4 



.'.:() PANNONIA. 

Pannonla, one of the most iir;port:int of the 
rtoraan provinces between the Danube and the 
Alps, was separated on the W. from Noricum hy 
the Mons Cetius, and from Upper Ital}' by the 
Alpes Juliae, en the S. from lUyria by the Savus, 
on the E. from Dacia by the Danube, and on the 
N. from Germany by the same river. It thus 
corresponded to the eastern part of Austria, Sti/ria, 
Carinthia, Carniola, the wliole of Ilunyary between 
the Danube and the Save, Slavonian and a part of 
Croatia and Bosuia. The mountains in the S. and 
\X. of the country on the borders of lUyria, Italy, 
and Noricum, belonged to the Alps, and are therefore 
called by the general name of the Alpes Panno- 
nicae, of which the separate names are Ocra, Car- 
vancas, Cetius, and Albii or Albani Montes. The 
principal rivers of Pannonia, besides the Danube, 
were the Dravus (Drove), Sxws (Save), and 
Arrabo (Raab), all of which flow into the Danube, 
— The Pajmonians (Pannonii), sometimes called 
Paeonians by the Greek writers, were probably of 
llh'rian origin, and were divided into numerous 
tribes. They were a brave and warlike people, 
but are described by the Roman writers as cruel, 
faithless, and treacherous. They maintained their 
independence of Rome, till Augustus, after his 
conquest of the lllyrians (b. c. 35), turned his arms 
against the Pannonians, who were shortly after- 
wards subdued by his general Vibius. In a. d. 7 
the Pannonians joined the Dalmatians and the 
other Illyrian tribes in their revolt from Rome, and 
Avere with difficulty conquered by Tiberius, after a 
desperate struggle, which lasted 3 years (a. d. 
7 — 9). It was after the termination of this war 
that Pannonia appears to have been reduced to the 
form of a Roman province, and was garrisoned by 
several Roman legions. The dangerous mutiny of 
these troops after the death of Augustus (a. b. 14) 
was with difficulty quelled by Drusus. From this 
time to the end of the empire, Pannonia always 
contained a large number of Roman troops, on ac- 
coimt of its bordering on the Quadi and other 
powerful barbarous nations. "We find at a later 
time that Pannonia was the regular quarters of 7 
legions. In consequence of this large number of 
troops always stationed iu the country, several 
towns were founded and numerous fortresses were 
erected along the Danube. Pannonia originally 
formed only one province, but was soon divided 
into 2 provinces, called Patitionia Superior and 
Fannonia Inferior. These were separated from 
one another by a straight line drawn from the river 
Arrabo S. as far as the Savus, the country W. of 
this line being P. Superior, and the part E. 
P. Inferior. Each of the provinces was governed 
by a separate propmetor ; but they were fre- 
quently spoken of in the plural under the name 
of Pamioniae. In the 4th century the part of 
P. Inferior between the Arrabo, the Danube, and 
the Dravus, Avas formed into a separate province 
by Galerius, who gave it the name of Valeria in 
honour of his wife. But as P. Inferior had thus lost 
a great part of its territory, Constantine added to 
it a portion of P. Superior, comprising the upper 
part of the course of the Dravus and the Savus. 
P. Superior was now called Pannonia L, and P. In- 
ferior Pannonia. IL; and all 3 Pannonian pro- 
vinces (together with the 2 Noric provinces and 
Dalmatia) belonged to the 6 Illyrian provinces of 
the Western Empire. In the middle of the 5tli 
century Pannonia was taken possession of by the 



PAXTilEUM. 

Huns. After the death of Attila it passed into 
the hands of the Ostrogoths, and subsequently into 
those of the Langobards. 

Panompliaeus {'n.avoix(paios), i. e. the author of 
ail signs and omens, a surname of Zeus, who had a 
sanctuary on the Hellespont between capes Rlioe- 
teum and Sigeum. 

Panope {Tla.v67n)), a nymph of the sea, daughter 
of Nereus and Doris. 

Panopeus (ITa^'oTreus), son of Phocus and Aste- 
ropaea, accompanied Amphitryon on his expedition 
against the Taphians or Teleboans, and took an 
oath not to embezzle any part of the booty ; but 
having broken his oath, he was punished by his 
son Epeus becoming unwarlike. He is also men- 
tioned among the Calydonian hunters. 

Panopeus (Jlavo-rrivs, Horn.), Panopeae {Tiavo- 
Treat), or Panope (JlavoirT], Thuc. ; ethnic Ilavo- 
Treus, Agio Vlasi), an ancient town in Phocis on 
the Cephissus and near the frontiers of Boeotia, 
20 stadia ^^^ of Chaeronea, said to have been 
founded by Panopeus, son of Phocus. 

Panopolis. [Chemmis.] 

Panoptes. [Argus.] 

Panormus {Tldvopi.i.os), that is, " Ail -Port," or 
a place always fit for landing, the name of several 
harbours. 1. {llavopi.dTris, Panormita, Panorrai- 
tanus : Palermo), an important town on the N. 
coast of Sicily and at the mouth of the river Ore- 
thus, was founded by the Phoenicians, and at a 
later time received its Greek name from its ex- 
cellent harbour. From the Phoenicians it passed 
into the hands of the Carthaginians, in whose 
power it remained for a long time, and who made 
it one of the chief stations for their fleet. It Avas 
taken by the Romans in the 1st Punic war, B. c. 
254, and was subsequently made a Roman colony. 

2. (Porto Raphti), the principal harbour on the 
E. coast of Attica, near the demus Prasiae, and 
opposite the S. extremity of Euboea. — 3. {Tekieh), 
a harbour in Achaia, 15 stadia E. of the promon- 
tory Rhium.-=-4. A harbour in Epirus in the 
middle of the Acroceraunian rocks. — - 5. (Nr. Mylo- 
potamo Rn.), a town and harbour on the- N. coast 
of Crete. — 6. The outer harbour of Ephesus formed 
by the mouth of the river Cayster. [See p. 242, a.] 

Pansa, C. Vibius, a friend and partisan of 
Caesar, was tribune of the plebs b. c. 51, and was 
appointed by Caesar in 46 to the government of 
Cisalpine Gaul as successor to IM. Brutus. Caesar 
subsequently nominated him and Hirtius, consuls 
for 43. Pansa was consul in that year along with 
Hirtius, and fell before Mutina in the month oi 
April. The details are given under Hirtius. 

Pantacyas, Pantagias, or Pantagies {Uav- 
raKvas', Fiume di Porcari), a small river on the 
E. coast of Sicily, which flowed into the sea be- 
tween Megara and Syracuse. 

Pantaleon (navraAecoj/), son of Omphalion, king 
or tyrant of Pisa in Elis at the period of the 34tli 
Olympiad (b. c. 644), assembled an army, with 
which he made himself master of Olympia, and 
assumed by force the sole presidency of the Olympic 
games. The Eleans on this account would not 
reckon this as one of the regular Olympiads. 
Pantaleon assisted the Messenians in the 2nd 
Messenian war. 

Panthea. [Abradatas.] 

Pantheum {ndvOeiov), a celebrated temple at 
Rome in the Campus Martins, which is still extant 
and used as a Christian church. It is in a circular 



PAXTjIOUS. 



PAPHLAGONIA. 



521 



form, surmounted hy a dome, and contains a noble 
Corinthian portico of 16 pillars. In its general 
form it resembles the Colosseum in the Regent's 
Park. It was built by M. Agrippa in his 3rd 
consulship, n. c. 27, as the inscription on the por- 
tico still testifies. All the ancient authors call it 
a temple, and there is no reason for supposing, as 
some modern writers have done, that it was origi- 
nally an entrance to the public baths. The name 
is commonly derived from its being supposed to be 
sacred to all the gods ; but Dion Cassius expressly 
.states that it was dedicated to Mars and Venus. 
The temple of Julius Caesar was erected by Au- 
gustus in the interior of the temple, and that of 
Augustus in the pronaos. It was restored by the 
emperor Septimius Severus, a. p. 202. Between 
()08 and 610 it was consecrated as a Christian 
church by the pope Boniface IV., with the appro- 
bation of the emperor Phocas. In 655, the plates 
of gilded-bronze that covered the roof were carried 
to Constantinople by command of Constans II. 
The Pantheon is the largest circular building of 
antiquity ; the interior diameter of the rotunda is 
142 feet, and the height from the pavement to the 
summit about 148 feet. The portico is 103 feet 
wide, and the columns 47 feet high. 

Panthous contr. Panthus {Uavdoos, Udv9ovs), 
one of the elders at Troy, husband of Phrontis, and 
father of Euphorbus, Polydamas, and Plyperenor. 
Hence both Euphorbus and Polydamas are called 
Panthoi'les. He is said to have been originally a 
priest of Apollo at Delphi, and to have been carried 
to Troy by Antenor, on account of his beauty. He 
continued to be a priest of Apollo, and is called by 
Virgil {Aen. ii. 319) (Jthryailes, or son of Othryas. 

Panticapaeum (Jla.VTUca.Tva<.ov ; TlavriKairalos^ 
Tl:ivTii:aiiaLevs^ IlaPTiicairidTrfs : Kertsch), a town 
in the Tauric Chersonesus, was situated on a hill 
20 stadia in circumference on the Cimmerian Bos- 
porus, and opposite the town of Phanagoria in 
Asia. It derived its name from the river Pan- 
ticapes. It was founded by the Milesians, about 
B. c. 541, and from its position and excellent har- 
bour soon became a place of great commercial im- 
portance. It was the residence of the Greek kings 
of the Bosporus, and hence is sometime called 
Bosporus. Justinian caused it to be surrounded 
with new walls. 

Panticapes {UavTiKairris)^ a river in European 
Sarmatia, which, according to Herodotus, rises in 
a lake, separates the agricultural and nomad Scy- 
thians, flows through the district Hylaea, and falls 
into the Borysthenes. It is usually identified 
with the modern Somara, but without sufficient 
grounds. 

Panyasis (Uavvacris). 1. A Greek epic poet, 
was a native of Halicarnassus, and a relation of tlie 
historian Herodotus, probably his uncle. Panyasis 
began to be known about b. c. 489, continued in 
reputation till 467, and was put to death by Lyg- 
damis, the tyrant of Halicarnassus, about 457. The 
most celebrated of the poems of Panyasis was 
his Heraclea or Heracleas, which gave a detailed 
account of the exploits of Hercules. It consisted 
of 14 books and 9000 verses. Another poem of 
Panyasis bore the name of lonica {'Imnicd), and. 
contained 7000 verses ; it related the history of 
Neleus, Codrus, and the Ionic colonies. In later 
limes the works of Panyasis w^ere extensively read, 
and much admired; the Alexandrine grammarians 
ranked him with Homer, Hesiod, Pisander, and 



Antimachus, as one of the 5 principal epic poets.— 
2. A philosopher, also a native of Halicarnassus, 
who v.rote 2 books " On Dreams " (riepl bveipwv), 
was perhaps a grandson of the poet. 

Paphlagonia {U.a(pXa.yovia : YlacpKaywv, pi. 
-oVes-, Paphlago), a district on the N. side of Asia 
Minor, between Bithynia on the W. and Pontus 
on the E., being separated from the former by the 
river Parthenius, and from the latter by the Halys; 
on the S. it was divided by the chain of Mt, 
Olympus (according to others by Olgassys) from 
Phrygia, in the earlier times, but from Galatia 
afterwards ; and on the N. it bordered on the 
Euxine, These boundaries, however, are not al- 
ways exactly observed. Xenophon brings the 
Paphlagonians as far E. as Themiscyra and the 
Jasonian promontory. It appears to have been 
known to the Greeks in the mythical period. The 
Argonautic legends mentioned Paphlagon, the son 
of Phineus, as the hero eponymus of the country. 
In the Homeric Catalogue, Pylaemenes leads the 
Paphlagonians, as allies of the Trojans, from the 
land of the Heneti, about the river Parthenius, a 
region famed for its mules : and from this Pylae- 
menes the later princes of Paphlagonia claimed 
their descent, and the country itself was sometimes 
called Pylaemenia. Herodotus twice mentions 
the Halys as the boundary between the Paphlago- 
nians and the S3'rians of Cappadocia ; but we 
learn also from him and from other authorities that 
the Paphlagonians were of the same race as the 
Cappadocians (i. e, the Semitic or Syro-Arabian) 
and quite distinct, in their language and their cus- 
toms, from their Thracian neighbours on the W, 
They were good soldiers, especially as cavalry ; 
but uncivilised and superstitious. The country 
had also other inhabitants, probably of a different 
race, namely the Heneti and the Cauconcs ; and 
Greek settlements were established on the coast at 
an early period. The Paphlagonians were first 
subdued by Croesus, Under the Persian empire 
they belonged to the tliird satrapy, but their sa- 
traps made themselves independent and assumed 
the regal title ; maintaining themselves in this 
position (with a brief interruption, during which 
Paphlagonia was subject to Eumenes) until the 
conquest of the country by Mithridates, who added 
the E. part of his own kingdom, and made over 
the W. part to Nicomedes, king of Bith}'nia, who 
gave it to his son Pylaemenes. After the fall of 
Mithridates the Romans added the N. of Paphla- 
gonia, along the coast, to Bithynia ; and the inte- 
rior was left to the native princes, as tributaries to 
Rome ; but, the race of these princes becoming 
soon extinct, the w^hole of Paphlagonia was made 
Roman, and Augustus made it a part of the pro- 
vince of Galatia. It was made a separate province 
under Constantine ; but the E. part, from Sinope 
to the Halys, was assigned to Pontus, under the 
name of Hellespontus. Paphlagonia %vas a moun» 
tainous country, being intersected from W. to E. 
by 3 chains of the Olympus system, namely the 
Olympus itself on the S. border, Olgassys in the 
centre, and a minor chain with no specific name 
nearer to the coast. The belt of land between 
this last chain and the sea was very fertile, and 
the Greek cities of Amastris and Sinope brought a 
considerable commerce to its shore ; but the inland 
parts were chiefly covered with native forests, 
which were celebrated as hunting grounds. The 
country was famed for its horses and nmlea, and 



522 



PAPHUS. 



PAPvAETACENE. 



in some parts liiere were extensive sheepwalks ; 
and its rivers were particularly famous for their 
fish. The coiintrj was divided into 9 districts, 
the names of which are not of enough importance 
to be specified here. 

Paphas {Udfpns), son of Pygmalion "by the 
statue into which life had been breathed by Aphro- 
dite. From him the town of Paphus is said to 
have derived its name ; and Pygmalion himself is 
called the Paphian hero. ( Ov. Met. x. 290.) 

Paphus {'n.d(pos : ndcpios), the name of 2 towns 
on the W. coast of Cyprus, near each other, and 
called respectively " Old Paphos " {na\anrad)os) 
and " New Paphos " {'nd<pos via). Old Paphos 
was situated near the promontory- Zephyrium on 
the river Bocarus 10 stadia from the coast, where 
it had a good harbour ; v/hile New Paphos lay 
more inland, in the midst of a fertile plain, 60 
stadia from the former. Old Paphos was the 
chief seat of the worship of Aphrodite (Venus), 
who is said to have landed at this place after her 
birth among the waves, and who is hence fre- 
quently called the Paphian goddess (Paphia). 
Here she had a celebrated temple, the high priest 
of which exercised a kind of religious superin- 
tendence over the whole island. Every year there 
was a grand procession from New Paphos to the 
temple of the goddess in the old city. There were 
2 legends respecting the foundation of Paphos, one 
describing the Syrian king Cinyras as its founder, 
and the other the Arcadian Agapenor on his 
return from Troy. These statements are reconciled 
by the supposition that Cinyras was the founder of 
Old Paphos and Agapenor of New Paphos. There 
can be no doubt of the Phoenician origin of Old 
Paphos, and that the worship of Aphrodite was 
introduced here from the East ; but an Arcadian 
colony cannot be admitted. When Paphos is 
mentioned by later writers without any epithet, 
they usually mean the New City; but Avhen the 
name occurs in the poets, we are generally to 
understand the Old City, as the poets, for the 
most part, speak of the place in connection with 
the worship of Aphrodite. Old Paphos was de- 
stroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Augustus, 
but was rebuilt by order of the emperor, and called 
Augusta. Under the Romans New Paphos vras 
the capital of one of the 4 districts into which the 
island was divided. Old Paphos corresponds to 
the modem Kukla or KonuMia^ and New Paphos 
to the modern Baffa. 

Papias (IluTrtaj), an early Christian witer, said 
to have been a hearer of the Apostle John, and a 
companion of Polycarp, was bishop of Hierapolis, 
on the border of Phrygia. He taught the doctrine 
of the Millennium, maintaining that there will be for 
1000 years after the resurrection of the dead, a 
bodily reign of Christ on this earth. Only frag- 
ments of his works are extant. 

Papinianus, Aemilius, a celebrated Roman 
jurist, was praefectus praetorio, imder the emperor 
Septimius Severus, whom he accompanied to Britain. 
The emperor died at York a. d. 211, and is said 
to have commended his 2 sons Caracalla and Geta 
to the care of Papinian. On the death of his father, 
Caracalla dism.issed Papinian from his office, and 
shortly afterwards put him to death.. There are 
.595 excerpts from Papinian's works in the Digest. 
These excerpts are from the 37 books of Quaestiones., 
a work arranged according to the order of the Edict, 
the 1 9 books of liesponsa^ the 2 books of Dejinitiones. 



the 2 books Be Jdulteriis^ a single hook De Adul- 
teriis, and a Greek wnik or fragment, wliich pr-i- 
bably treated of the office of Aedile both at Roi!;e 
and in other towns. No Roman jurist had ahighei 
reputation than Papinian. Nor is his reputation 
unmerited. It was not solely because of the high 
station that he filled, his penetration and his know- 
ledge, that he left an imperishable name ; his ex- 
cellent understanding, guided by integrity of pur- 
pose, lias made him the model of a true lawyer. 

Papiiiius Statius. [Statius.] 

Fapiria Gens, patrician and plebeian. The pa- 
trician Papirii were divided into the families of 
Crassits, Cursor, Maso, and Mugillanus ; and the 
I^lebeian Papirii into those of Carlo, Paetus, and 
Tardus. Of these the families of Carbo, Cursor. 
Maso, and Mugillanus, alone require mention. 

Papirianae Fossae, a village in Etruria on the 
Via Aemilia, between Luna and Pisa. 

Papirius. C. or Sez., the author of a supposed 
collection of the Leges Regiae, v/hich was called 
Jus Papirianum, or Jus Civile Papiiianum. He 
is said to have lived in the reign of Tarquinius 
Superbus. 

Papius Mutilus. [Mutilus.] 

Pappua {HaTTTTova), a lofty rugged mountain on 
the extreme border of Numidia, perhaps the same 
as the Thammes of Ptolemj', and as the mountain 
abounding with wild cats, near the city of Meli- 
tene, to which Diodorus Siculus refers (xx. 58), 
but without mentioning its name. 

Pappus (naTTTTos), of Alexandria, one of the 
later Greek geometers, is said by Suidas to have 
lived under Theodosius (a. d. 379 — 395). Of the 
works of Pappus, the only one which has come 
down to us is his celebrated Mathematical Col- 
lections (MaOrifxaTiKcov avvaywycvv ^i€\ia). This 
-work, as we have it now in print, consists of the 
last 6 of 8 books. Only portions of these books 
have been published in Greek. There are 2 Latin 
editions of Pappus ; the first, by Commandinus, 
Pisauri, 1588 ; and the second by Manolessius, 
Bononiae, 1660. 

Papremis (na-n-prj/Lt/s), a city of Lower Egypt, 
capital of the Nomos Papremites, and sacred to the 
Egyptian god whom the Greeks identified with 
Ares. It is onh* mentioned hy Herodotus, and is 
perhaps the same as the Cho'is of later times. 

Papus, Aemilius. 1. M., dictator b. c. 321 . — 

2. Q., tv.'ice consul 282, and 278 ; and censor 
275. In both his consulships and in his censor- 
ship he had as colleague C. Fabricius Luscinus.— 

3. L., consul 225, defeated the Cisalpine Gauls 
with great slaughter. He was censor 220 with C. 
Flaminius. 

Paracheloitis (Uapax^^^co'tTis), the name of the 
plain in Acarnania and Aetolia, near the mouth oi 
the Achelous, and through v/hich that river flows. 

Parachoatliras (UapaxodOpas, ra Uapaxoddpa : 
Mnts. of Louristan), a part of the chain of moun- 
tains forming the E. margin of the Tigris and 
Euphrates valley, was the boundary between Su- 
siana and Media. The same name is given to an 
E. branch of the chain, which formed the boundary 
between Parthia and the desert of Canuania, 
Strabo places it too far N. 

Paraetacene (HapaiTaKrjvi] : naoaroffai, Ua- 
pairaKTjvoi, Paraetacae, Paraetaceni), the name of 
various mountainous regions in the Persian empire, 
is the Greek form of a Persian word, signifyintf 
mountainous. L The best known of those districts 



PARAETONIUM. 



PARIS. 



523 



was on the borders of Media and Persis, and was 
inhabited by a people of Median origin, who are 
mentioned several limes by tlie historians of Alex- 
ander and his successors. — 2. A district between 
the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, on the borders of 
Bactria and Sogdiaiia. — 3. A district between 
Arachosia and Drangiana, also called Sacastana, 
from its inhabitants, the Sjvthian Sacae. 

Paraetonium or AmmSnia (UapaiTSi^Loy, tJ 
^Afxuaiu'ia ; EL- Bardon or jMarsa-Laheit)^ an im- 
portant city on the N. coast of Africa, belonged to 
Marraarica in its widest sense, but politically to 
Egypt, namely to the Nomos Libya : hence this 
city on the W. and Pehisium on the E. are called 
"cornua Aegypti." It stood near the promcntory 
Artos or Pytliis {Ras-el-ITazdt) ; and was reck- 
oned 200 Roman miles W. of Alexandria, between 
70 and 80, or, according to Strabo, 900 stadia (all 
too small) E. of the Catabathmos Major, and 1300 
stadia N. of Ammnnium in the Desert (Skoah), 
Avhich Alexander the Great visited by the way of 
Paraetonium. The city was 40 stadia in circuit. 
It was an important sea port, a strong fortress, and 
a renowned seat of the worship of Isis. It was 
restored by Justinian, and continued a place of some 
consequence till its complete destruction by the 
late Pasha of Egypt, Meheraet Ali, in 1820. 

Paragon Sinus ( Uapaywu KdXiros : GtJf of 
Oman), a gulf of the Indicus Oceanus, on tlie 
coast of Gedrosia, namely, the gulf formed • in 
the N, W. of the Indian Ocean by the approach of 
the N. E. coast of Arabia to that of Bdoocliisian 
and Persia, outside of the entrance to the Persian 
Gulf. ^ 

Paralia (napa\i'a), the sea-coast district of 
Attica, around the promontory of Sunium, extend- 
ing upwards as far as Halae Axonides on the W. 
coast and Prasiae on the E. coast. The inha- 
bitants of this district, the Paralii (JlapdXioi), v/ere 
one of the 3 political parties, into which Attica 
was divided at the time of Pisistratus, the other 2 
being the Diacrii (AiaKpioi), or Highlanders, and 
the Pediasii (IleSiao-joi), or inhabitants of the 
plain. 

Paralns (riapaXos), the j-ounger of the 2 legiti- 
mate sons of Pericles. He and his brother Xan- 
thippus were educated by their father with the 
greatest care, but they both appear to have been 
of inferior capacity, which was anything but com- 
pensated by worth of character, though Paralus 
seems to have been a somewhat more hopeful 
youth than his brother. They both fell victims to 
the plague, b. c. 429. 

Parapotamii or ia {Tiapa-rroTdyiioi, -aiila : Be- 
lissi), an ancient town in Phocis, situated on a 
steep hill, and on the left bank of the river Ce- 
phissus, from which it derives its name. It was 
near the frontiers of Boeotia, being only 40 stadia 
from Chaeronea and 60 stadia from Orchomenus. 
It is probably mentioned by Homer {II. ii. 522). 
It was destroyed by Xerxes, but was rebuilt, and 
was destroyed a second time in the Sacred War. 

Parasopia (JlapacrooiTia), a district in the S. of 
Boeotia, on both banks of the Asopus, the inha- 
bitants of which were called Parasopii {Uapx- 
(Tdoirioi). 

Parcae. [Moirae.] 

Parentium {Parenzo)., a town in Istria, rith a 
good harbour, inhabited by Roman citizei.s, but 
not a Roman colony, 31 miles from Pola. 

Paris (Ilap/s), also called Alexander ('A Xe'^c^- 



hpos), was the second son of Priam and Hecuba. 
Before his birth Hecuba dreamed that she had 
brought forth a firebrand, the flames of which 
spread over the whole city. Accordingly as soon 
as the child was born, ho was given to a shepherd, 
who was to expose him on Mt. Ida. After the 
lapse of 5 days, the shepherd, on returning to 
Mt. Ida, found the child still alive, and fed by 
a she-bear. Thereupon he carried the boy home, 
and brought him up along with his own child, and 
called him Paris. When Paris had grown up, he 
distinguished himself as a valiant defender of the 
flocks and shepherds, and hence received the name 
of Alexander, i. e. tlie defender of men. He also 
succeeded in discovering his real origin, and was 
received by Priam as his son. He now married 
Oenone, the daughter of the river god Cebren, bj 
whom, according to some, he became the father of 
Corythus. But the most celebrated event in the 
life of Paris was his abduction of Helen. This 
came to pass in the following way. Once upon a 
time, Avhen Peleus and Thetis solemnized their 
nuptials, all the gods v/ere invited to the marriage, 
with the exception of Eris, or Strife. Enraged at 
her exclusion, the goddess threw a golden apple 
among the guests, with the inscription, " to the 
fairest." Thereupon Hera, Aphrodite and Athena 
each claimed the apple for herself. Zeus ordered 
Hermes to take the goddesses to Mt. Gargarus, 
a portion of Ida, to the beautiful shepherd Paris, 
who was there tending his flocks, and who was to 
decide the dispute. The goddesses accordingly ap- 
peared before him. Hera promised him the sove- 
reignty of Asia and great riches, Athena great 
glor}' and renown in war, and Aphrodite the fairest 
of women for his wife. Paris decided in favour of 
Aphrodite, and gave her the golden apple. This 
judgment called forth in Hera and Athena fierce 
hatred against Troy. Under the protection of 
Aphrodite, Paris nov/ sailed to Greece, and was 
hospitably received in the palace of Menelaus at 
Sparta. Here lie succeeded in carrying off Helen, 
the wife of Menelaus, who was the most beautiful 
woman in the world. — The accounts of this rape 
are not the same in all writers. According to 
the more usual account Helen followed her seducer 
willingly, owing to the influence of Aphrodite, 
while Menelaus Avas absent in Crete. Others 
relate that the goddess deceived Helen, by 
giving to Paris the appearance of Menelaus ; and 
others ag-ain say that Helen was carried off by 
Paris by force, either during a festival or during 
the chase. — On his return to Troy, Paris passed 
through Egypt and Phoenicia, and at length arrived 
at Troy with Helen and the treasures which he 
had treacherously taken from the hospitable house 
of Menelaus. — In regard to this voyage the ac- 
counts again difi"er, for according to some Paris and 
Helen reached Troy 3 days after their departure ; 
whereas, according to later traditions, Helen did 
not reach Troy at all, for Zeus and Hera allowed 
only a phantom resembling her to accompany 
Paris to Troy, while the real Helen was carried 
to Proteus in Egypt, and remained there until she 
was fetched by Menelaus. — The abduction of 
Helen gave rise to the Trojan Avar. Before her 
marria>je with Monelaus, she liad been Avooed by 
the noblest chiefs in all parts of Greece. Her 
former suitors now resolved to revenge her aV 
duction, and sailed against Troy. [Agamemnon.] 
Homer describes Paris as a handsome man, fond 



PARIS. 



I'AKNASSUS. 



of the female sex and of music, and not ignorant ot 
war, but as dilatory and cowardly, and detested 
by liis own friends for having brought upon them 
the fatal war with the Greeks. He fought with 
iMeiielaus before the. Avails of Troy, and was de- 
feated, but was carried off by Aphrodite. Pie is 
said to have killed Achilles, either by one of his 
arrows, or by treachery in the temple of the 
Thymbraean Apollo. [Achilles.] On the cap- 
ture of Troy, Paris was wounded by Philoctetes 
with an arrow of Hercules, and then returned to 
his long abandoned wife Oenone. But she, re- 
membering the wrongs she had sufffered, or accord- 
ing to others being prevented by her father, refused 
to heal the wound. He then went back to Troy 
and died. Oenone quickly repented, aiid hastened 
after him with remedies, but came too late, and in 
her grief hung herself. According to others she 
threw herself from a tower, or rushed into the 
flames of the funeral pile on which the bodj' of 
Paris was burning. Paris is represented in works 
of art as a beautiful youth, without a beard, with 
a Phrygian cap, and sometimes with an apple in 
his hand, which he presented to Aphrodite. 

Paris, the name of two celebrated pantomimes. 
1. The elder Paris lived in the reign of the em- 
peror Nero, with whom he was a great favourite. 
Ho was originally a slave of Doraitia, the aunt of 
the emperor, and he purchased his freedom by pay- 
ing her a large sum of money. Paris was after- 
wards declared, by order of the emperor, to have 
been free-born [ingenuus), and Domitia was com- 
pelled to restore to him the sum Avhich she had 
received for his freedom. When Nero attempted 
TO become a pantomime, he put Paris to death as a 
dangerous rival. — 2. The younger Paris, and the 
more celebrated of the two, was a native of Egypt, 
and lived in the reign of Domitian, with whom he 
was also a great favourite. He was put to death 
by Domitian, because he had an intrigue with 
Domitia, the Avife of the emperor. 

Parisii. [LuTETiA Parisiorum.] 

Pariuni (rb Udpiou : Uapiduos, 'n.apLr]v6s, Tla- 
pLavevs : Kemer, Ru.), a city of Mysia, on the N. 
coast of the Troad,on the Propontis,betAveen Lamp- 
sacus and Priapus, Avas founded by a colony from 
Miletus, mingled Avith natives of ParosandErythrae, 
and became a flourishing seaport, having a better 
harbour than that of Priapus. Under Augustus it 
AA-as made a Roman colony, by the name of Co- 
lonia Par.iana Julia Augusta. It was a renowned 
seat of the Avorship of Eros, Dionysus, and Apollo. 
The surrounding district was called tj Uapiavi]. 

Parma (Parmensis : Parma), a town in Gallia 
Cispadana, situated on a river of the same name 
and on the Via Aemilia, between Placentia and 
Mutina, Avas originally a town of the Boii, but 
was made a Roman colony B.C. 183, along with 
Mutina, and from that time became a place of 
considerable importance. It suffered some injury 
in the civil AA'ar after Caesar's death, but Avas 
enlarged and embellished by Augustus, and re- 
ceived the name of Colo?iia Julia Augusta. After 
the fall of the Western Empire it was for a time 
called Chrt/sopoUs, or the " Gold-City," but for 
what reason Ave do not knoAv. The country around 
Parma Avas originally marshy; but the marshes 
were drained by the consul Scaurus, and couA-erted 
into fertile land. The avooI of Parma AA'as par- 
ticularly good. 

Parraenides (napjxeviSr,s), a distinguished 



Greek philosopher, Avas a native of Elea in Italy. 
According to Plato, Parnienides, at the age of 65, 
came to Athens to the Panathenaea, accompanied 
by Zeno, then 40 years old, and became acquainted 
Avith Socrates, Avho at that time Avas quite young. 
Supposing Socrates to have been 19 or 20 years of 
age at the time, Ave may place the visit of Par- 
menides to Athens in B. c. 448, and consequently 
his birth in 513. Parnienides AA\as regarded with 
great esteem by Plato and Aristotle ; and his 
fellow-citizens thought so highly of him, that every 
year they bound their magistrates to render obe- 
dience to the laAvs which he had enacted for them. 
The philosophical opinions of Parmenides Avere 
deA-eloped in a didactic poem, in hexameter verse, 
entitled On Nature, of Avhich only fragments re- 
main. In this poem he maintained that the phaeno- 
menaof sense Avere delusive ; and that it AA-as only 
by mental abstraction that a person could attain to 
the knowledge of the only reality, a One and All, 
a continuous and self-existent substance, which 
could not be perceived by the senses. But al- 
though he believed the phaenomena of sense to be 
delusive, nevertheless he adopted 2 elements. 
Warm and Cold, or Light and Darkness. The 
best edition of the fragments of Parmenides is by 
Karsten, in Pliilosophorum Graec. Veterum Oper. 
Reliquiae, Amstelod. 1835. 

Parmenion {Ylapjx^v'ioov). 1. Son of Philotas, 
a distinguished Macedonian general in the service 
of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great. 
Philip held him in high esteem, and used to say 
of him, that he had never been able to find more 
than one general, and that Avas Parmenion. In 
Alexander's iuA'asion of Asia, Parmenion Avas re- 
garded as second in command. At the three great 
battles of the Granicus, Issus and Arbela, Avhile 
the king commanded the right Aving of the army, 
Parmenion Avas placed at the head of the left, and 
contributed essentially to the victoiy on all those 
memorable occasions. The confidence reposed in 
him by Alexander appears to have been unbounded, 
and he is continualh" spoken of as the most attached 
of the king's friends, and as holding, beyond all 
question, the second place in the state. But AA'hen 
Philotas, the only surviving son of Parmenion. 
AA^as accused in Drangiana (b. o. 330) of being 
priA-y to the plot against the king's life, he not 
only confessed his OAvn guilt, Avhen put to the tor- 
ture, but involved his father also in the plot. 
Whether the king really belicA'ed in the guilt of 
Parmenion, or deemed his life a necessary sacrifice 
to policy after the execution of his son, he caused 
his aged friend to be assassinated in Media before 
he could receiA'e the tidings of his son's death. 
The death of Parmenion, at the age of 70 years, 
Avill ever remain one of the darkest stains upon the 
character of Alexander. It is questionable Avhether 
eA-en Philotas AA^as really concerned in the conspi- 
racy, and Ave may safeh^ pronounce that Parmenion 
had no connection Avith it. — 2. Of Macedonia, an 
epigrammatic poet, Avhose A-erses Avere included in 
the collection of Philip of Thessalonica ; Avhence 
it is probable that he flourished in, or shortly be- 
fore, the time of Augustus. 

Parnassus {Ylapva<T(T6s, Uapvaaos, Ion. Flap- 
vr\(T6s), the name, in its Avidest signification, of a 
range of mountains, which extends from Oeta and 
Corax S. E. through Doris and Phocis, and under 
the name of Cirphis (Kipcpis) terminates at the 
Corinthian gulf between Cirrha and Aiiticyra. 



PARNES. 

But in its narrower sense, Parnassus indicates the 
highest part of the range a few miles N. of Delphi. 
Its 2 highest summits were called Tithorea (Tt- 
Oopea: Velitza)^ and Lycorea (AvKwpeia: Liahira), 
the former being N. W. and the latter N. E. of 
Delphi ; and hence Parnassus is frequently de- 
scribed by the poets as double-headed. Imme- 
diately above Delphi the mountain forms a semi- 
circular range of lofty rocks, at the foot of which 
the town was built. These rocks were called 
Phaedriades (4>aiSpjo5es) or the " Resplendent," 
from their facing the S., and thus receiving the 
full rays of the sun during the most brilliant part 
of the day. The sides of Parnassus were well 
wooded : at its foot grew myrtle, laurel and olive- 
trees, and higher up firs ; and its summit was 
covered with snow during the greater part of the 
year. It contained numerous caves, glens and 
romantic ravines. It is celebrated as one of the 
chief seats of Apollo and the Muses, and an 
inspiring source of poetry and song. On Mt. Ly- 
corea was the Corycian cave, from which the 
Muses are sometimes called tlie Corycian nymphs. 
Just above Delphi was the far-famed Castalian 
spring, which issued from between 2 cliffs, called 
Nauplia and Hyamplia. These cliffs are frequently 
called by the poets the summits of Parnassus, 
though they are in reality only small peaks at the 
base of the mountain. The mountain also was 
sacred to Dionysus, and on one of its summits 
the Thyades held their Bacchic revels. Between 
Parnassus Proper and Mt. Cirphis was the valley 
of the Plistus, through which the sacred road ran 
from Delphi to Daulis and Stiris ; and at the 
point where the road branched off to these 2 places 
(called (rx'fTT7), Oedipus slew his father Laius.— 
2. A town in the N. of Cappadocia, on a mountain 
of the same name {Pascha Dagh), probably on the 
river Halys, and on the road between Ancyra and 
Archelais. 

Parnes (ndpvrjs, gen. Udpvr]6os : Ozia or No- 
zia), a mountain in the N. E. of Attica, in some 
parts as high as 4000 feet, was a continuation of 
Mt, Cithaeron, from which it extended E.- wards 
as far as the coast at Rhamnus. It was well 
wooded, abounded in game, and on its lower slopes 
produced excellent wine. It formed part of the 
boundary between Boeotia and Attica ; and the 
pass through it between these 2 countries was 
easy of access, and was therefore strongly fortified 
by the Athenians. On the summit of the moun- 
tain there was a statue of Zeus Parnethius, and 
there were likewise altars of Zeus Semaleos and 
Zeus Ombrius or Apemius. 

Pamon (ndprwv: Malevo), a mountain 6335 
feet high, forming the boundary between Laconia 
and the territory of Tegea in Arcadia. 

Paropamisadae {UaponanKTaSai) or Paropa- 
misii, the collective name of several peoples dwell- 
ing in the S. slopes of Mt. Paropamisus (see next 
article), and of the country they inhabited, which 
was not known by any other name. It was divided 
on the N. from Bactria by the Paropamisus ; on 
the W. from Aria, and o the S., from Drangiana 
and Arachosia, by indefinite boundaries ; and on 
the E. from India by the river Indus : thus cor- 
respondmg to the E. part of Afghanistan and the 
strip of the Punjab W. of the Indus. Under the 
Persian empire it was the N.E.-most district of 
Ariana. It was conquered by Alexander, when 
he passed through it on his march to India ; but 



PAROPtEA. 525 

tiie people soon regained their independence, though 
parts of the country were nominally included in 
the limits of tlie Greco- Syrian and Bactrian king- 
doms. It is a rugged mountain region, intersected 
by branches of the Paropamisus. In the N. the 
climate is so severe that, according to the ancient 
writers, confirmed by modern travellers, the snow 
almost buries the houses ; but in the S. the vallej^s 
of the lower mountain slopes yield all the products 
of the warmer regions of Asia. In its N. was the 
considerable river Cophes or Cophen (Cabool), 
flowing into the Indus, and having a tributary, 
Choas, Choes, or Choaspes (No. 2). The parti- 
cular tribes, included under the general name of 
Paropamisadae, were the Cabolitae (Ka§oA?rai) in 
the N., whose name and position point to Cabool, 
the Parsii (Uapaio'i) in the S.W., the Ambautae 
('A^gauraj) in the E., on the river Choas, the 
Parsuetae {UapavriTci) on the S., and the 'Apu 
arocpvXoi, probably a dominant tribe of a different 
race, on the W. At the time of the Macedonian 
conquest the people were little civilised, but quiet 
and inoffensive. The chief cities were Ortospana 
and Alexandria, the latter founded by Alexander 
the Great. 

Paropamisus (napond/xia-os, and several other 
forms, of which the truest is probably IlapoirdpLaus ; 
Hindoo- Koosh), a word no doubt derived, as 
many other words beginning like it, from the Old 
Persian paru, a mountain^ is the name of a part of 
the great mountain-chain which runs from W. to 
E. through the centre of the S. portion of the high- 
lands of Central Asia, and divides the part of the 
continent, which slopes down to the Indian Ocean, 
from the great central table-land of Tartary and 
Thibet. It is a prolongation of the chain of Anti- 
Taurus. The name Avas applied to that part of the 
chain between the Sariphi M. (A/, of Kohistan) 
on the W. and M. Imaus {Himalaya) on the E., 
or from about the sources of the river Margus on 
the W. to the point where the Indus breaks 
through the chain on the E. They were believed 
by the ancients to be among the highest mountains 
in the world (which they are), and to contain the 
sources of the Oxus and the Indus ; the last state- 
ment being an error which naturally arose from 
confounding the cleft by which the Indus breaks 
through the chain with its unknown source. When 
Alexander the Great crossed these mountains, his 
followers — regarding the achievement as equiva- 
lent to what a Greek considered as the highest 
geographical adventure, namely the passage of the 
Caucasus — conferred this glory on their chief br 
simply applying the name of Caucasus to the 
mountain chain Avhich he had thus passed ; and 
then, for the sake of distinction, this chain was 
called Caucasus Indicus, and this name has come 
down to our times in the native form of Hindoo- 
Koosh, and in others also. The name Paropamisus 
is also applied sometimes to the great S. branch of 
this chain (Soliman M.) which skirts the valley 
of the Indus on the W., and which is more speci- 
fically called Paryeti or Parsyetae. 

Paropus (Paropinus), a small town in the inte- 
rior of Sicily, N. of the Nebrodes Montes. 

Parorea (Ilapwpeta). 1. A town in Thrace 
on the frontiers of Macedonia, whose inhabitants 
were the same people as the Paroraei of Pliny. ■— 
2. Or Paroria (Tlapwpia), a town in the S. of 
Arcadia, N. of Megalopolis, said to have been 
founded by Paroreus, son of Tricolonus, and ? 



526 PAROREATAE. 
nrandson of Lycaon, the inhabitants of which took 
part in the building of Megalopolis. 

Paroreatae {UapcopeaTaL), the most ancient in- 
habitants of the mountains in Triphylia in Elis, 
who were expelled by the Minyae. 

Parorios. [Phrygia.] 

Paros {Udpos : Udpios : Paro), an island in the 
Aegean sea, one of the larger of the Cyclades, was 
situated S. of Delos and W. of Naxos, being sepa- 
rated from the latter by a channel 5 or 6 miles 
wide. It is about 36 miles in circumference. It 
is said to have been originally colonized by Cre- 
tans, but was afterwards inhabited by lonians, and 
became so prosperous, even at an early period, as 
to send out colonies to Thasos and to Parium on 
the Propontis, In the first invasion of Greece by 
the generals of Darius, Paros submitted to the 
Persians ; and after the battle of Marathon, ]\Iil- 
tiades attempted to reduce the island, but failed 
in his attempt, and received a wound, of which he 
died. [MiLTiADES.] After the defeat of Xerxes, 
Paros came imder the supremacy of Athens and 
shared the fate of the other Cyclades. Its name 
rarely occurs in subsequent history. The most 
celebrated production of Pares was its marble, 
which was extensively used by the ancient sculp- 
tors. It was chiefly obtamed from a mountain 
called Afai-pessa. The Parian figs were alsa highly 
prized. The chief town of Paros was situated on 
the W. coast, and bore the same name as the 
island. The ruins of it are still to be seen at the 
modem ParoiJda. Paros was the birthplace of the 
poet Archilochus.— In Paros was discovered the 
celebrated inscripiion called the Parian Chronicle^ 
which is now preserved at Oxford, The inscrip- 
tion is cut on a block of marble, and in its perfect 
state contained a chronological account of the prin- 
cipal events in Greek history from Cecrops, s. c. 
1582 to the archonship of Diognetus, 264. 

Parrliasia {Jlappaa-'ia : Tlappdaioi), a district in 
the S. of Arcadia, to which, according to Pausanias, 
the to\vns Lycosura, Thocnia, Trapezus, Proseis, 
Acacesium, Acontium, Macaria, and Dasea be- 
longed. The Parrhasii are said to have been one 
of the most ancient of the Arcadian tribes. At 
the time of the Peloponnesian w^ar they were 
under the supremacy of Mantinea, but were ren- 
dered independent of that city by the Lacedae- 
monians. Homer {II. ii. 608) mentions a town 
P.'irrhasia, said to have been founded by Par- 
rhasus, son of Lycaon, or by Pelasgiis, son of 
Arestor. — The adjective Parrliasius is frequently 
used by the poets as equivalent to Arcadian. 

Parrhasius {Yiappdaios), one of the most cele- 
brated Greek painters, was a native of Ephesus, 
the son and pupil of Evenor. He practised his art 
chiefly at Athens: and by some writers he is 
called an Athenian, probably because the Athe- 
nians had bestowed upon him the right of citizen- 
ship. He flourished about b. c. 400. Parrhasius 
did for painting, at least in pictures of gods and 
heroes, what had been done for sculpture by Phi- 
dias in divine subjects, and by Polycletus in the 
human figure : he established a canon of proportion, 
which was follov.'ed by all the artists that came 
fitter him. Several interesting observations on the 
principles of art which he followed are made in a 
dialogue with Socrates, as reported by Xenophon 
{Mem. iii. 10). The character of Parrhasius was 
marked in the highest degree by that arrogance 
which often accompanies the consciousness of pre- j 



PARTHENIUS. 
eminent ability. In epigrams inscribed on his 
works he not only made a boast of his luxurious 
habits, but he also chiimed the honour of having 
assigned with his own hand the precise limits of 
the art, and fixed a boundary which never was to 
be transgressed. Respecting the story of his con- 
test with Zeuxis, see Zeuxis. Of the works of 
Parrhasius, the most celebrated seems to have been 
his picture of the Athenian People. 
Parsii. [Paropa.misadae ] 
Parsici Montes (ra UapaiKo, oprj, Bushkurd M. 
in the W. of Beloocldstan), a chain of mountains 
running N.E. from the Paragon Sinus {G. ofOmaii) 
and forming the boundary between Carmania and 
Gedrosia. At the foot of these mounta:ns, in the 
W. of Gedrosia, were a people called Parsidae, 
with a capital Parsis (perhaps Serbah). 

Parsyetae {JlapavriTai)^ a people on the borders 
of Arachosia and the Paropamisadae, with a moun- 
tain of the same name, which is probably identical 
with the Pakceti M. and with the Soliman 
mountains. 

Parthalis, the chief city of the Calingae, a tribe 
of the Gangaridae, in India intra Gangem, at the 
head of the Sinus Gangeticus {Sea of Bengal). 
Parthenl [Parthini.] 
Parthenias (Uapeepias\ also called Partheaia, 
a small river in Elis, which flows into the Alpheus 
E. of Olympia not far from Harpinna. 

Parthenium (Ilapeeviov). 1, A town in 
Mysia, S. of Pergamum. — 2. (Felenk-huru7i^., a. 
promontory in the Chersonesus Taurica, on which 
stood a temple of the Tauric Artemis, from whom 
it derived its name. It was in this temple that 
human sacrifices v.'ere oitered to the goddess. 

Partheninm Mare (to UapeeuiKou Tr4\ayos), 
the S.E. part of the Mediterranean, between Egypt 
and Cyprus. 

Parthenius {UapOevios), of Nicaea, or accord- 
ing to others, of Myrlea, a celebrated grammarian, 
is said by Suidas to have been taken prisoner by 
Cinna, in the Mithridatic war, to have been 
manumitted on account of his learning, and to 
have lived to the reign of Tiberius. If this state- 
ment is true, Parthenius must have attained a 
great age, since there were 77 years from the 
death of Mithri dates to the accession of Tiberius. 
Parthenius taught Virgil Greek ; and he seems tc 
have been very popular among the distinguished 
Romans of his time. The emperor Tiberius imi- 
tated his poems, and placed his works and statues 
in the public libraries, along with the most cele- 
brated ancient writers. Parthenius wrote many 
poems, but the only one of his works which has 
come down to us is in prose, and entitled Uspl 
ip'xriKwi' TvaQriu.drwv. It contains 36 brief love- 
stories, which ended in an unfortunate manner. 
It is dedicated to Cornelius Gallus, and was com- 
piled for his use, that he might avail hiraselr of 
the materials in the composition of epic and elegiac 
poems. The best edition is by Westermann, in 
the ^^[ythogra'plu, Brunswick, 1843. 

Parthenius (IlapfieVios), 1. A mountain on 
the frontiers of Argolis and Arcadia, through 
which was an important pass leading from Argolis 
to Tegea. This pass is still called Partlieni, but 
the mountain itself, which rises to the height of 
3993 feet, bears the name of Roino. It was on 
this mountain that Telephus, the son of Hercules 
and Auge, w'as said to have been suckled by a 
i hind ; and it was here also that i^he god Pan ia 



PARTHENON 



PARTHIA. 



527 



3aid to have appeared to Phidippides, the Atheiium 
courier, shortly before the battle of Marathon.-— 2. 
(also Uapdevris : CJiati-Su or Daiian-Su), the chief 
river of Paphhigonia, rises in Mt. Olgassys, and 
dows N.W. into the Euxine 90 stadia' W. of 
Amastris, forming in the lower part of its course 
the boundary between Bithynia and Paphlagonia. 

Parthenon (d Tlapdevuv, i. e. the virgin''s diam- 
her), was the usual name of one of the finest and, 
in its influence upon art, one of tlie most important 
edifices ever built, the temple of Athena Parthenos 
on the Acropolis of Athens. It was also called 
Hecatompedon ('E/caro^TreSov) or Hecatompedos 
('EKarojUTreSoy, sc. veus) from its being 100 feet in 
one of its chief dimensions, probably in the breadth 
of the top step on which the front pillars stand. 
It was erected, under the aJministration of Pe- 
ricles, on the site of the older temple of Athena, 
burnt during the Persian invasion, and was com- 
pleted by the dedication of the statue of the god- 
dess, B.C. 438. Its architects were Ictinus and 
Callicrates, but all the works were under the 
superintendence of Phidias. It was built entirely 
of Pentelic marble : its dimensions were, 227 En- 
glish feet long, 101 broad, and 65 high: it was 
50 feet longer than the edifice which preceded it. 
Its arcliitecture was of the Doric order, and of the 
purest kind. It consisted of an oblong central 
building (the eella or ueuis), surrounded on all sides 
by a peristyle of pillars, 46 in number, 8 at each 
end and 17 at each side (reckoning the corner pil- 
lars twice), elevated on a platform, which was 
ascended by 3 steps all round the building. Within 
the porticoes at each end was another row of 6 
pillars, standing on a level with the floor of the 
cella, and 2 steps higher than that of the peristyle. 
The cella was divided into 2 chambers of unequal 
size, the prodomus or pronaos (7rpd5o/xoy, irpovaos), 
and the opisiJiodomus (dinaOo^iuLos) or posticum ; 
the former, which was the larger, contained the 
statue of the goddess, and was the true sanctuary, 
the latter being probably used as a treasury and 
vestry. Both these chambers had inner rows of 
pillars (in 2 stories, one over the other), 16 in the 
former and 4 in the latter, supporting the partial 
roof, for the large chamber, at least, had its centre 
open to the sky. Technically, the temple is called 
peripteral octastyle hjpaethral. It was adorned, 
within and without, with colours and gilding, and 
with sculptures which are regarded as the master- 
pieces of ancient art. The colossal chryselephan- 
tine (ivory and gold) statue of Athena, which 
stood at the end of the prodomus^ opposite to 
the entrance, was the work of Phidias himself, 
and surpassed every other statue in the ancient 
^vorld, except that of Zeus at Olympia by the same 
artist. The other sculptures were executed under 
the direction of Phidias by different artists, as may 
still be seen by differences in their style ; but the 
most important of them were doubtless from the 
hand of Phidias himself. (1.) The tympana of the 
pediments (i. e. the inner flat portion cf the trian- 
gular gable-ends of the roof above the 2 end porti- 
coes), were filled with groups of detached colossal 
statues, those of the E. or principal front repre- 
senting the birth of Athena, and those of the W. 
front the contest between Athena ana roseij m 
for the land of Attica. (2.) In the frieze of the 
entablature (i. e. the upper of the 2 portions into 
which the surface between the columns and the 
rorf is divided), the vietopes between the tiiylyphs (i. e. 



the square spaces between the projections answer- 
ing to the ends of beams if the roof had been of 
wood) were filled with sculptures in high relief, 
92 in all, 14 on each front, and 32 on each side, 
representing subjects from the Attic mythology, 
among which the battle of the Athenians witi^ the 
Centaurs forms the subject of the 15 metopes from 
the S. side, which are now in the British Museum. 
(3.) Along the top of the external wall of the 
ce//o, under the ceiling of the peristyle, ran a frieze 
sculptured with a representation of the Panathenaic 
procession, in very low relief. A large number of 
the slabs of this frieze were brought to England 
by Liird Elgin, with the 15 metopes just men- 
tioned, and a considerable number of other frag- 
ments, including some of the most important, 
though mutilated, statues from the pediments; and 
the whole collection was purchased by the nation 
in 1816, and deposited in the British Museum, 
where may also be seen excellent models of the 
ruins of the Parthenon and of the temple as con- 
jectnrally restored. The worst of the injuries 
which it has suffered from war and pillage was 
inflicted in the siege of Athens by the Venetians 
in 1687, when a bomb exploded in the very centre 
of the Parthenon, and threw down much of both 
the side walls. Its ruins are still, however, in 
sufficient preservation to give a good idea of the 
construction of all its principal parts. 

Parthenopaeus {Uapd^voTTcuus), one of the 7 
heroes who accompanied Adrastus in his expe- 
dition against Thebes. He is sometimes called a 
son of Ares or Milanion and Atalanta, sometimes 
of Meleager and Atalanta, and sometimes of 
Talaus and Lysimache. His son, by the nymph 
Clymene, v/ho marched against Thebes as one of 
the Epigoni, is called Promachus, Stratolaus, The- 
simenes, or Tlesimenes. Piurthenopaeus was killed 
at Thebes by Asphodicus, Amphidicus or Pericly- 
mentis. 

Partlienopolis {UapeevoiroKis)^ a town in 
Moesia Inferior near the Pontus Euxinus, and 
between Calatis and Tomi. 

Parthia, Parthyaea, PartMene (Ilapf.a, riop- 
dva'ia, napQvqvi) : HdpOoi, TlapOvaioi, Parthi, Par- 
thieni : Khorassan), a country of Asia, to the S.E. 
of the Caspian. Its extent was different at dif- 
ferent times ; but, as the term was generally under- 
stood by the ancient geographers, it denoted the 
partly mountainous and partly desert country on the 
S. of the mountains which hem in the Caspian on 
the S.E. (M. Labuta), and which divided Parthia 
on the N. from Hyrcania. On the N.M. and E., a 
branch of the same chain, called jMasdoranus, 
divided it from Aria; on the S. the deserts of 
Parthia joined those of Carmania, and further 
W.-v/ard the M. Parachoathras divided Parthia 
from Persis and Susiana: on the W. and N.W. it 
was divided from Media by boundaries which can- 
not be exactly marked out. Of this district, only 
the N. part, in and below the mountiiins of H\ r- 
cania, seems to have formed the proper countiy of 
the Parthi, who were a peop'e of Scythian origin. 
The ancient writers tell us that the name means 
exiles; but this is uncertain. They were a very 
warlike people, and were especially celebrated as 
horse-archers. Their tactics, of which the Romans 
had fatal experience in their first wars with them, 
became so celebrated as to pass into a proverb. 
Their mail-clad horsemen spread like a cloud 
round the hostile army, and poured in a shower of 



628 



PARTIIINI. 



PASARGADA. 



diirts ; and then evaded any closer conflict by a, 
rapid flight, during which they still shot their 
arrow backwards upon the enemy. Under the 
Persian empire, the Parthians, with the Chorasmii, 
Sogdii, and Arii, formed the .I6th satrapy: under 
Alexander and the Greek kings of Syria, Parthia 
and Hyrcania together formed a £atrap>y. About 
B.C. 250 thej' revolted from the Seleucidae, under 
a chieftain named Arsaces, wlio founded an inde- 
pendent monarchy, the history of which is given 
under Ars.aces. During the period of the down- 
fall of the Syrian kingdom, the Parthians overran 
the provinces E. of the Euphrates, and about 
B.C. 130 they overthrew the kingdom of Bactria, 
so that their empire extended over Asia from the 
Euphrates to the Indus, and from the Indian 
Ocean to the Paropamisus, or even to the Oxus ; 
but on this N. frontier they had to maintain a 
continual conflict with the nomad tribes of Central 
Asia. On the \V. their progress was checked by 
Mithridates and Tigranes, till those kings fell suc- 
cessively before the Romans, who were thus brought 
into collision with the Parthians. A iter the me- 
morable destruction of Crassus and his army, 
B. c. 53 [Crassus], the Parthians threatened 
Syria and Asia Minor; but their progress was 
stopped by 2 signal defeats, which they suffered 
from Antony's legate Ventidius, in 39 and 38. 
The preparations for renewing the war with Rome 
were rendered fruitless by the contest for the Par- 
thian throne between Phraates IV. and Tiridates, 
which led to an appeal to Augustus, and to the 
restoration of the standards of Crassus, B. c. 20 ; 
an event to which the Roman poets often allude 
in terms of flattery to Augustus, almost as if he 
had conquered the Parthian empire. It is to be 
observed that the poets of the Augustan age use 
the names Parthi, Persae, and Medi indifferently. 
The Parthian empire had now begun to decline, 
owing to civil contests and the defection of the 
governors of provinces, and had ceased to be for- 
midable to the Romans. There were, however, 
continual disputes between the 2 empires for the 
protectorate of the kingdom of Armenia. In con- 
sequence of one of these disputes Trajan invaded 
the Parthian empire, and obtained possession for a 
short time of Mesopotamia ; but his conquests were 
surrendered under Hadrian, and the Euphrates 
again became the boundary of the 2 empires. 
There were other wars at later periods, which re- 
sulted in favour of the Romans, who took Seleucia 
and Ctesiphon, and made the district of Osroene a 
Roman province. The exhaustion which was the 
eff'ect of these wars at length gave the Persians 
the opportunity of throwing off the Parthian yoke. 
Led by Artaxerxes (Ardshir) they put an end to 
the Parthian kingdom of the Arsacidae, after it 
had lasted 476 years, and established the Persian 
dynasty of the Sassanidae, A. D. 226. [Arsaces : 
Sassanidae.] 

PartMni or Partheni {nap9ivot, UapBrivoi), 
an Illyrian people in the neighbourhood of Dyr- 
rhachium. 

Parthiscus or Parthissus, a river in Dacia, 
probably the same as the Tibiscus. [TiBiscus.] 

Paryadres {UapvdSprjs : Kara-hel Dagh, or Kut- 
Tag/i),a mountain chain of W. Asia, running S.W. 
and N.E. from the E. of Asia Minor into the 
centre of Armenia, and forming the chief connecting 
link between the Taurus and the mountains of 
Armenia, It was considered as the boundary 



j betwern Cappadocia (i. e. Pontus Cappadocius) and 
Armenia (i. e. Armenia Minor). In a wide sense 

I the name seems sometimes to extend so far N.K 
as to include M. Abus (Jrarat) in Armenia. 

Paryeti Montes (ra UapvnTwu 6pr,, from the 
Indian v/ord jparwta, i. e. a mountain : Soliman J\f.), 
the great mountain chain which runs N. and S. on 
the W. side of the valley of the Indus, and fornis 
the connecting link between the mountains which 
skirt the N. coast of the Persian Gulf and the 

j Indian Ocean, and the parallel chain, further N., 

j called the Paropamisus or Indian Caucasus ; or, be- 
tween the E. extensions of the Taurus and Anti- 
Taurus systems, in the widest sense. This chain 
formed the boundary between Arachosia and the 
Paropamisadae : it now divides Beloochistan and 
Afghanisian on the W. from Scinde and the Punjab 
on the E., and it meets the Hindoo-Koosh in the 
N.E. corner of Afghanistan^ between Cabool and 
Peshaivur. Its ancient inhabitants were called 
Paryttae [Tlapvrirai) ; and the name Panda is 
found in old Persian inscriptions and in the Zend- 
avesta (the old Persian sacred book), as that of a 
people. 

Parysatis {Tlapvaant or liapvcrans)^ daughter 
of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, king of Persia, wa» 
given by her father in marriage to her own brother 
Darius, surnamed Ochus, who in B. c. 424 suc- 
ceeded Xerxes II. on the throne of Persia. The 
feeble character of Darius threw the chief power 
into the hands of Parysatis ; whose administration 
was little else than a series of murders. Four of 
her sons grew up to manhood. The eldest of 
these, Artaxerxes Mnemon, was born before Da- 
rius had obtained the sovereign power, and on this 
pretext Parysatis sought to set aside his claims to 
the throne in favour of her second son Cyrus. 
Failing in this attempt, she nevertheless interposed 
after the death of Darius, 405, to prevent Arta- 
xerxes from putting Cyrus to death ; and prevailed 
with the king to allow him to return to his satrapy 
in Asia Minor. After the death of Cyrus at the 
battle of Cunaxa (401), she did not hesitate to 
display her grief for the death of her favourite son, 
by bestowing funeral honours on his mutilated 
remains ; and she subsequently succeeded in getting 
into her power all the authors of the death of 
Cyrus, whom she put to death by the most cruel 
tortures. She afterwards poisoned Statira, the 
wife of Artaxerxes. The feeble and indolent king 
was content to banish her to Babylon ; and it was 
not long before he recalled her to his court, 
where she soon recovered all her former influence. 
Of this she availed herself to turn his suspicions 
against Tissaphernes, whom she had long hated as 
having been the first to discover the designs of 
Cyrus to his brother, and who was now put to 
death by Artaxerxes at her instigation, 396. She 
appears to have died soon afterwards. 

Pasargada or -ae (JiaaapydM, TlaaapyaZai)^ 
the older of the 2 capitals of Persis (the other 
and later being Persepolis), is said to have been 
founded by Cyrus the Great, on the spot where he 
gained his great victory over Astyages. The tomb 
of Cyrus stood here in the midst of a beautiful 
park. The exact site is doubtful. Strabo describes 
it as lying in the hollow part oi' Persis, on the river 
Cyrus, S.E. of Persepolis, and near the borders of 
Carmania. Most modern geographers identify it 
with MurgJiab,ti.E. of Persepolis, where there are 
the remains of a great sepulchral monument of the 





Phaethon. (Zanuoni, Gal. di Firenze, serie 4, vol. 2.) Page 551. 



[To face p. 528. 



COINS OF PERSONS. PAUS ANIAS — PIXODARUS. 






Philippus nr. Arrliidnens. King of ifacedonia, ob. E.'c. 317. 
Pausanias, King of Macedonia, B. C. 394. Page 533, No. 3. Fuges 561 and 8s. 




Perseus, King of Macedonia, e. c. 17s — l-j' . Page 547. 




Pertinax, Roman Emperor, .\. d. 103. Page 549. 




Philetaerus. founder of the kinsdom of Pergamus. ob. B.C. 2G3. 
Page 55:5. 



M. Julius Philippus I.. Eoman Emperor, a.d. 244 — 249. 
Page 50*2. 




M. Julius Pliilippus II., Roman Emperor, ob. a. d. 249. 
Page 5«2. 




Pliintias, Tyrant of Agiigentum, B. c. 2s9. Page 567 




Pliilipi'U: II., Kii.g of Macedonia, i;.c. .0.': 
To fare p. ."29." 




Page Zc9. Pixodaru-s Prince of Caria, b. c. 340 — 33.5. Page 584. 



PASARGADAE. 



PATERCULUS. Si'ii 



ancient Persians. Others place it at Farsa or at 
Darah-gherd, both S.E, of Persepolis, but not 
answering Strabo's description in other respects so 
well as Murghah. Others identify it with Perse- 
polis; which is almost certainly an error- 

Pasargadae {Tlatrap-yadai)^ the most noble of 
the 3 chief tribes of the ancient Persians, the other 
2 being the Maraphii and Maspii. The ro\-al house 
of the Achaemenidae were of the race of the Pa- 
sargadae. They had their residence chie% in and 
about the city of Pasargada. 

Pasias, a Greek painter, belonged to the Sicy- 
onian school, and flourished about b. c. 220. 

Pasion (riacrtwj/), a wealthy banker at Athens, 
was originally a slave of Antisthenes and Arches- 
tratus, who were also bankers. In their service 
h« displayed great fidelity as well as aptitude for 
business, and was manumitted as a reward. He 
afterwards set up a banking concern on his own ac- 
count, by which, together with a shield manufactory, 
lie greatly enriched himself, while he continued all 
along to preserve his old character for integrity, 
and his credit stood high throughout Greece. He 
did not however escape an accusation of fraudu- 
lently keeping back some money which had been 
entrusted to him by a foreigner from the Euxine. 
The plaintiff's case is stated in an oration of Iso- 
crates (rpaTT^^LriK6s), still extant. Pasion did 
good service to Athens with his money on several 
occasions. He was revvarded witli the freedom 
of the city, and was enrolled in the deraus of 
Achamae. He died at Athens in b. c. 370, after 
a lingering illness, accompanied with failure of 
sight. Towards the end of his life his alfairs 
were administered to a great extent by his freed- 
naan Phormion, to whom he let his banking shop 
and shield manufactory, and settled in his will 
that he should marry his widow Archippe, with a 
handsome dowry, and undertake the guardianship 
of his younger son Pasicles. His elder son, Apol- 
lodorus, grievously diminished his patrimony by 
extravagance and law-suits. 

Pasiphae (Jlaaricpari)^ daughter of Helios (the 
Sun) and Perseis, and a sister of Circe and Aeetes, 
was the wife of Minos, by whom she became the 
mother of Androgeos, Catreus, Deucalion, Glaucus, 
Acalle, Xenodice, Ariadne, and Pliaedra. Hence 
Phaedra is called Pasiphaeia (Ov. Met. xv. 500.) 
Respecting the passion of Pasiphae for the beau- 
tiful bull, and the birth of the Minotaurus, see 
p. 450, a. 

Pasiteles {TiaairiKiis). 1. A statuary, who 
flourished about b. c. 468, and was the teacher of 
Colotes, the contemporary of Phidias. — 2. A sta- 
tuary, sculptor, and silver-chaser, of the highest 
distinction, was a native of Magna Graecia, and 
obtained the Roman franchise with his countrymen 
in B. c. 90. He flourished at Rome ft-ora about 60 
to 30. Pasiteles also wrote a treatise in 5 books 
upon celebrated works of sculpture and chasing. 

Pasithea (ITao-iflea). 1. One of the Chariies, 
or Graces, also called Aglaia. — 2. One of the Ne- 
reids. 

Pasitigris (nacnTi7/57)[s or TlaamypLS : prob. 
Karoo?i), a considerable river of Asia, rising in the 
mountains E. of Mesobatene, on the confines of 
Media and Persis, and flowing first W. by N. to 
M. Zagros or Parachoathras, then, breaking through 
this chain, it turns to the S., and flows through 
Susiana into the head of the Persian Gulf, after 
receiving the Eulacas on its W. side. Some geo- 



graphers make the Pasitigris a tributary of the 
Tigris. 

Passar5n {Ilacra-dpwi' : near Dhramisius S. W. 
of Joa7inina), a town of Epirus in Molossia, and 
the ancient capital of the Molossian kings. It 
was destroj-ed by the Romans, together with 70 
other towns of Epirus, after the conquest of Mace- 
donia, B. c. 168. 

Passienus Crispus. [Crispus.] 

Passienus Paulus. [Paulus.J 

Pataeci (IlaTOiKot), Phoenician divinities whose 
dwarfish figures were attached to Phoenician 
ships. 

Patala, Patalene. [Pattala. Pattalene.] 
Patara (ra Tlarapa : Tlarap^vs : Patara, Ru.), 
one of the chief cities of Lycia, was a flourishing 
sea-port, on a promontory of the same name (J] 
Tlarapoou 6.Kpa), 60 stadia (6 geog. miles) E. of the 
mouth of the Xanthus. It was early colonised by 
Dorians from Crete, and became a chief seat of the 
worship of Apollo, who had here a very celebrated 
oracle, which uttered responses in the winter only, 
and from whose son Patarus the name of the city 
was mythically derived. It was restored and en- 
larged by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who called it 
Arsinoe, but it remained better known by its old 
name. 

Patavium (Patavinus : Padova or Padua\ an 
ancient town of the Veneti in the N. of Italy, on 
the Medoacus Minor, and on the road from Mutina 
to Altinum, was said to have been founded by the 
Trojan Antenor. It became a flourishing and 
important town in early times, and was powerful 
enough in B. c. 302 to drive back the Spartan 
king Cleomenes with great loss, when he attempted 
to plunder the surrounding country. Under the 
Romans Patavium was the most important city in 
the N. of Italy, and, by its commerce and manu- 
factures (of which its woollen stufi's were the most 
celebrated), it attained great opulence. According 
to Strabo it possessed 500 citizens, whose fortune 
entitled them to the equestrian rank. It was 
plundered by Attila ; and, in consequence of a 
revolt of its citizens, it was subsequently destroyed 
by Agilolf, king of the Langobards, and razed to 
the ground ; hence the modem town contains few 
remains of antiquity. — Patavium is celebrated as 
the birth-place of the historian Livy. — In its 
neighbourhood were the Aquae Patavinae, also 
called Aponi Fons, respecting Avhich, see p. 65, b. 

Paterculus, C. Velleius, a Roman historian, 
was probably born about b. c. 19, and was de- 
scended from a distinguished Campanian family. 
He adopted the profession of arms ; and, soon after 
he had entered the army, he accompanied C. Caesar 
in his expedition to the East, and was present with 
the latter at his interview with the Parthian king, 
in A.D. 2. Two years afterwards, a.d. 4, he served 
under Tiberius in Germany, succeeding his father 
in the rank of Praefectus Equitum, having pre- 
viously filled in succession the ofiices of tribune of 
the soldiers and tribime of the camp. For the 
next 8 years Paterculus served imder Tiberius, 
either as praefectus or legatus, in the various cam- 
paigns of the latter in Germany, Pannonia, and 
Dalmatia, and, by his activity and abilitj% gained 
the favour of the future emperor. He was quaestor 
A.D. 7, but he continued to serve as legatus under 
Tiberius. He accompanied his commander on his 
return to Rome in 12, and took a prominent part 
in the triumphal procession of Tiberius, along with 

M M 



PATERNUS. 



PATROCLUS. 



his brother Magius Celer. The 2 brothers were 
praetors in 15. Paterculiis was alive in 30, as he ! 
drew up his histor\' in that year for the use of j 
M. Vinicius, who was then consul ; and it is con- 
jectured, with much probability, that he perished 
in the following year (31), along with the other 
friends of Sejanus. The favourable manner in 
which he had so recently spoken in his histor}- of 
this powerful minister would be sufficient to ensure 
his condemnation on the fall of the latter. The 
work of Paterculus, which has come down to us, 
is a brief historical compendium in two books, and 
bears the title C. Velleii Paterculi Hisioriae Bo- 
manae ad M. Vimcium Cos. Libri II. The be- 
ginning of the work is wanting, and there is also 
a portion lost after the oth chapter of the first I 
book. The object of this compendium was to give 
a brief view of universal history, but more espe- 
cially of the events connected with Rome, the his- 
tory of which occupies the main portion of the 
book. It commenced apparently with the destruc- 
tion of Troy, and ended with the year 30. In the 
execution of his work, Velleius lias shovvn great 
skill and judgment. He does not attempt to give 
a consecutive account of all the events of history ; 
he seizes only upon a lew of the more prominent 
facts, which he describes at sufiicient length to 
leave them impressed upon the recollection of his 
hearers. His style, which is a close imitation of 
Sallust's, is characterised b}' cle:irness, conciseness, 
and energ3^ In his estimate of the characters of 
the leading actors in Roman history he generally 
exhibits botli discrimination and judgment ; but 
he lavishes the most indiscriminate praises, as 
might have been expected, upon his patron Ti- 
berius. Only one manuscript of Paterculus has 
come down to us ; and as this manuscript abounds^ 
with errors, the text is in a very corrupt state. 
The best editions are by Ruhnken, Lugd. Bat. 
1789 ; by Orelli, Lips. 1835; and by Bothe, 
Turici, 1837. 

Patemns, Tarruntenus, a jurist, is probably 
the same person who was praefectus praetorio 
under Commodus, and was put to death by the 
emperor on a charge of treason. He was the author 
of a work in 4 books, entitled De Re Militan or 
Mililarium, from which there are two excerpts in 
the Digest. 

Patmos {UaTjxos : Patmo), one of the islands 
called Sporades, in the Icarian Sea, at about equal 
distances S. of Samos, and W. of the Prom.. Posi- 
dium on the coast of Caria, celebrated as the place | 
to which the Apostle John was banished, and in 
which he wote the Apocalypse. The natives still 
affect to show the cave where St. John saw the 
apocalj-ptic visions (to anriXaiov ttjs a7roicaXv\^ews). 
On the E. side of the island was a city with a 
harbour. 

Patrae (narpat, narpe'e? Herod.: Uarpevs: 
Pairas)^one of the 12 cities of Achaia, was situated 
"VV. of Rhium, near the opening of the Corinthian i 
gulf. It is said to have been originally called 
Aroe ('ApcTj), and to have been founded by the 
autochthon Eumelus ; and after the expulsion of 
the lonians to have been t;iken possession of by 
Patreus, from whom it derived its name. The 
town is rarely mentioned in early Greek history, 
and was chiefly of importance as tlie place from 
which the Peloponnesians directed their attacks 
against the opposite coast of Aetolia. Patrae was 
one of the 4 town,s which took the leading part in 



founding the 2nd Achaean league. In consj- 
! quence of assisting the Aetolians against the Gauls 
j in B.C. 279, Patrae became so weakened that most 
of the inhabitants deserted the town and took up 
their abodes in the neighbouring villages. Under 
the Romans it continued to be an insignificant 
place till the time of Augustus, who rebuilt the 
town after the battle of Actium, again collected 
its inhabitants, and added to them those of Rhypae. 
Augustus further gave Patrae dominion over the 
neighbouring towns, and even over Locris, and 
also bestowed upon it the privileges of a Roman 
colony : hence we find it called on coins Colonia 
Augusta Aroe Pairensis. Strabo describes Patrae 
in his time as a flourishing and populous town 
I with a good harbour ; and it was frequently the 
place at which persons landed sailing from Italy to- 
Greece. The modern Patras is still an im- 
portant place, but contains few remains of anti- 
quity. 

Patrocles (narpo/cATjs), a Macedonian general 
in the service of Seleucus I. and Antiochus I., 
kings of Syria. Patrocles held, both under Se- 
leucus and Antiochus, an important government 
over some of the E. provinces ot the Syrian empire. 
During the period of his holding this position, he 
collected accurate geographical information, which 
he afterwards published to the world ; but though 
he is frequently cited by Strabo, who placed the 
utmost reliance on his accuracy, neither the title 
nor exact subject of his work is mentioned. It 
seems clear, however, that it included a general 
account of India, as well as of the countries on the 
banks of the Oxus and the Caspian Sea. Patrocles 
regarded the Caspian Sea as a gulf or inlet of the 
ocean, and maintained the possibility of sailing 
thither by sea from the Indian Ocean. 

Patrocli Insula (JiarpoKKov vfjaos : Gadaro- 
nesi or Gaidromsi), a small island off the S.W. 
coast of Attica, near Sunium. 

Patroclus {UdrpoKAos or UarpoKXris), the cele- 
brated friend of Achilles, was son of Menoetius of 
Opus, and grandson of Actor and Aegina, whence 
he is called Actorides. His mother is commonly 
called Sthenele, but some mention her under the 
name of Periapis or Polyraele. Aeacus, the 
grandfather of Achilles, Avas a brother of Menoe- 
tius, so that Achilles and Patroclus were kins- 
men as well as friends. While still a boy 
Patroclus involuntarily slew Clysonymus, son of 
Amphidamas. In consequence of this accident he 
I was taken by his father to Peleus at Phthia. 
" here he was educated together with Achilles. 
He is said to have taken part in the expedition 
against Troy on account of his attachment to 
Achilles. He fought bravely against the Trojans, 
until his friend withdrew from the scene of action, 
when Patroclus followed his example. But when 
the Greeks were hard pressed, he begged Achilles 
to allow him to put on his armour, and with his 
i men to hasten to the assistance of the Greeks. 
Achilles granted the request, and Patroclus suc- 
ceeded in driving back the Trojans and extm- 
guishing the fire which was raging among the 
ships. He slew man}- enemies, and thrice made 
an assault upon the walls of Troy ; but on a 
sudden he Avas struck by Apollo, and became 
senseless. In this state Kuphorbus ran him 
through with his lance from behind, and Hector 
gave him the last and fatal blow. Hector also 
took possession of his armour. A long struggle 



PATRON. 



PAULUS. 



531 



now ensued between the Greeks and Trojans for 
the body of Patroclus ; but the former obtained 
possession of it, and brought it to Achilles, who 
was deeply grieved, and vowed to avenge the 
death of his friend. Thetis protected the body 
with ambrosia against decomposition, until Achilles 
had leisure solemnly to burn it with funeral sacri- 
fices. His ashes v/ere collected in a golden urn 
which Dionysus had once given to Thetis, and 
were deposited under a mound, where the remains 
of Achilles were subsequently buried. Funeral 
games were celebrated in his honour. Achilles 
and Patroclus met again in the lower world ; or, 
according to others, they continued after their 
death to live together in the island of Leuce. 

Patron, an Epicurean philosopher, lived for 
some time in Rome, where he became acquainted 
with Cicero and others. From Rome he removed 
to Athens, and there succeeded Phaedrus as pre- 
sident of the Epicurean school, B. c. 52. 
I Pattala. [Pattalene.] 
I Pattalene or Patalene ( UaTraKw^, UaTaXTjvri : 
I Lower Scinde), the name of the great delta formed 
i by the 2 principal arms by which the Indus falls into 
j the sea. At the apex of the delta stood the city 
' Pattala or Patala (prob. HyderaLad). The name 
I is probably a native Indian Avord, namely the 
: Sanscrit joaia/a, which means the W. country^ and 
is applied to the W. part of N. India about the 
I Indus, in contradistinction to the E. part about 
[. the Ganges. 

j Patulcms, a surname of Janns. [Janus.] 
' Patumus {^TldTovjxos: 0. T. Pithom: prob. near 
Habaseyh, or Belbe'is)^ an Egyptian city in the 
Arabian Desert, on the E. margin of the Delta, 
near Bubastis, and near the commencement of 
Necho's canal from the Nile to the Red Sea; built 
l! by the Israelites during their captivity (Exod. i. 11). 
S| Paulina or Panllina. 1. Lollia. [Lollia.] 
I — 2. Pompeia, wife of Seneca the philosopher, 
1 and probably the daughter of Pompeius Paulinus, 
I v/ho commanded in Germany in the reign of Nero. 
I When her husband was condemned to death, she 
I opened her veins along with him. After the blood 
U had flowed some time, Nero commanded her veins 
i' to be bound up ; she lived a few years longer, but 
with a paleness which testified how near she had 
v. been to death. 

[: Paulinus. 1. Pompeius, commanded in Ger- 
I ; many along with L. Antistius Vetus in A. D. 58, and 
\' completed the dam to restrain the inundations of 
; the Rhine, which Drusus had commenced 63 years 
before. Seneca dedicated to him his treatise De 
Brevitate Vifae ; and the Pompeia Paulina, whom 
the philosopher married, was probably the daughter 
of this Paulinus.— 2. C. Suetonius, propraetor in 
Mauretania, in the reign of the emperor Claudius. 
A. D. 42, when he conquered the Moors who had re- 
volted, and advanced as far as Mt. Atlas. He 
had the command of Britain in the reign of 
Nero, from 59 to 62. For the first 2 years all 
his undertakings were successful ; but during his 
absence on an expedition against the island of 
Mona (Anglesey), the Britons rose in rebellion 
under Boadicea (61). They at first met with 
great success, but were conquered by Suetonius 
on his return from Mona. [Boadicea.] In 66 
he was consul ; and after the death of Nero in 68 
he was one of Otho's generals in the war against 
Vitellius. It was against his advice that Otho 
fought the battle pA Bedriacum. He was pardoned 



by Vitellius after Nero's death. — 3. Of Milan (Me - 
diolanensis). was the secretary of St. Ambrose, after 
v/hose death he became a deacon, and repaired to 
Africa, where, at the request of St. Augustine, he 
composed a biography of his former patron. This 
biography, and 2 other small works by Paulinus. 
are still extant. — 4. Meropius Pontius Anicius 
Paulinus, bishop of Nola, and hence generally 
designated Paulinus Nolunits, was born at Bour- 
deaux, or at a neighbouring town, which he calls 
Embromagum, about a. d. 353. His parents were 
wealth}^ and illustrious, and he received a careful 
education, enjoying in particular the instructions of 
the poet Ausonius. After many years spent in 
worldly honours he withdrew from the world, and 
was eventually chosen bishop of Nola in 409. He 
died in 431. The works of Paulinus are still 
extant, and consist of Epistolac (51 in number), 
Carmina (32 in number, composed in a great va- 
riety of metres), and a short tract entitled Passto 
S. Genesii Arelatensis. Edited by Le Brun, 4to. 
Paris, 1685, reprinted at Veron. J736. 

Paullus or Paulus, a Roman cognomen in many 
gentes, but best known as the name of a family of 
the Aemilia gens. The name was originally 
written with a double I, but subsequently with 
only one I. 

Paulus (JlavKos\ Greek writers. 1. Aegineta, 

a celebrated medical writer, of whose personal his- 
tory nothing is known except that he was bom in 
Aegina, and that he travelled a good deal, visiting, 
among other places, Alexandria. He probably 
lived in the latter half of the 7th century after 
Christ. He wrote several medical works in Greek, 
of which the principal one is still extant, with 
no exact title, but commonly called De Re Me- 
dica Libri Septem. This work is chiefly a compila- 
tion from former writers. The Greek text l.aa 
been twice published, Venet. 1528, and Basil. 
1538. There is an excellent English translation by 
Adams, London, 1834, seq. — 2. Of Alexandria, 
wrote, in a. d. 378, an Introduction to Astro- 
logy (E£Va7W7^? 6ts Trjv aTroTeXeaixaTiKrjv), Avhich 
has come down to us, edited by Schatus or Schato, 
Wittenberg, 1586.— 3. Of Samosata, a cele- 
brated heresiarch of the 3rd century, was made 
bishop of Antioch, about A. D. 260. He was 
condemned and deposed by a council held in 
269. Paulus denied the distinct personality cf 
the Son of God, and maintained that the Word, 
came and dwelt in the man Jesus. — 4.-Silen- 
tiarius, so called, because he Avas chief of the si- 
lentiarii, or secretaries of the emperor Justinian. 
He wrote various poems, of which the following 
are extant: — (1.) A Description of the Church 
of St. Sophia {"EKcppacTLS tov vaov ttjs ayias 5a- 
^las), consisting of 1029 verses, of which the 
first 134 are iambic, the rest hexameter. This 
poem gives a clear and graphic description of the 
superb structure which forms its subject, and was 
recited by its author at the second dedication of 
the church (a. d. 562), after the restoration of 
the dome, which had fallen in. Edited by Graefe, 
Lips. 1822, and by Bekker, Bonn, 1837, in the 
Bonn edition of the Byzantine historians. (2.; 
A Description of the Pulpit {""Eiccppaais rov &fx- 
gwz/os), consisting of 304 verses, is a supplement to 
the foi-mer poem. It is printed in the editions 
mentioned above. (3.) Epigrams, 83 in all, given 
in the A nthilogia. Among these is a poem Gn th- 
Pythian Baths (Els ra iv YlvBiois ^ep/u-a). 



532 



PAULUS. 



PAUSANIAS. 



Paulus, Aemilius. 1. M., consul b, c. 302, 
and magister equitum to the dictator Q. Fabius 
Maximu3 Rullianus, 301,-2. M., consul 255 
with Sen Fulvius Paetinus Nobilior, about the 
middle of the 1st Punic war. See Nobimor, 
No. 1. — 3. L., son of No. 2., consul 219, when 
he conquered Demetrius of the island of Pharos in 
the Adriatic, and compelled him to fly for refuge 
to Philip, king of Macedonia. He was consul a 
2nd time in 216 with C. Terentius Varro. This 
was the year of the memorable defeat at Cannae. 
[Hannibal.] The battle was fought against the 
advice of Paulus ; and he was one of the many 
distinguished Romans who perished in the engage- 
ment, refusing to fly from the field, when a tribune 
of the soldiers offered him his horse. Hence we 
find in Horace {Carm. i, 12) : " animaeque magnae 
prodigum Paulum superante Poeno." Paulus was 
a staunch adherent of the aristocracy, and was 
raised to the consulship by the latter part}' to 
counterbalance the influence of the plebeian Te- 
rentius Varro. — 4. L., afterwards surnamed Mace- 
I'JONicus, son of No. 3, was born about 230 or 229, 
since at the time of his 2nd consulship, 1G8, he 
was upwards of 60 years of age. He was one of 
the best specimens of the high Roman nobles. He 
would not condescend to flatter the people for the 
offices of the state, maintained with strictness 
severe discipline in the army, was deeply skilled 
io the law of the augurs, to whose college he be- 
longed, and maintained throughout life a pm-e and 
unspotted character. He was elected curule aedile 
192 ; was praetor 191, and obtained Further Spain 
as his province, where he carried on war with the 
Lusitani ; and was consul 181, when he conquered 
the Ingauni, a Ligurian people. For the next 13 
years he lived quietly at Rome, devoting most of 
liis time to the education of his children. He was 
consul a 2nd time in 168, and brought the war 
:igainst Perseus to a conclusion by the defeat of 
the Macedonian monarch near Pydna, on the 22nd 
of June. Perseus shortly afterwards surrendered 
himself to Paulus. [Perseus.] Paulus remained 
in Macedonia during the greater part of the follow- 
ing year as proconsul, and arranged the affairs of 
Macedonia, in conjunction with 10 Roman commis- 
sioners, whom the senate had despatched for the 
jmrpose. Before leaving Greece, he marched 
into Epirus, where, in accordance with a cruel 
command of the senate, he gave to his soldiers 70 
towns to be pillaged, because they had been in 
alliance with Perseus. The triumph of Paulus, 
Avhich was celebrated at the end of November, 
167, was the most splendid that Rome had yet 
seen. It lasted three days. Before the triumphal 
car of Aemilius walked the captive monarch of 
Macedonia and his children, and behind it were 
his two illustrious sons, Q. Fabius Maximus and 
P. Scipio Africanus the younger, both of whom 
had been adopted into other families. But the 
glory of the conqueror was clouded by family mis- 
fortune. At this very time he lost his two younger 
sons ; one, 1 2 j^ears of age, died only 5 days be- 
fore his triumph, and the other, 14 years of age, 
only 3 days after his triumph. The loss was all 
the severer, since he had no son left to carry his 
name down to posterity. In 1 64 Paulus was censor 
Avith Q. Marcius Philippus, and died in 160, after 
a long and tedious illness. The fortune he left 
behind him was so small as scarcely to be sufficient 
to nay his wife's dowry. The Adelphi of Terence 



was brought out at the funeral games exhibited in 
his honour. Aemilius Paulus was married twice. 
By his first wife, Papiria, the daughter of C. Pa- 
pirius Maso, consul 231, he had 4 children, 2 sons, 
one of whom was adopted by Fabius Maximus and 
the other by P. Scipio, and 2 daughters, one of 
whom was married to Q. Aelius Tubero, and the 
other to M. Cato, son of Cato the censor. He 
afterwards divorced Papiria ; and by his 2nd wife, 
whose name is not mentioned, he had 2 sons, whose 
death has been mentioned above, and a daughter, 
who was a cliild at the time that her father was 
elected to his 2nd consulship, 

Paulus, Julius, one of the most distinguished of 
the Roman jurists, has been supposed, without 
any good reason, to be of Greek origin. He was in 
the auditorium of Papinian, and consequently was 
acting as a jurist in the reign of Septimius Severus. 
He was exiled by Elagabalus, but he was recalled 
by Alexander Severus when the latter became em- 
peror, and was made a member of his consilium. 
Paulus also held the office of praefectus praetorio : 
he survived his contemporary Ulpian. Paulus was 
perhaps the most fertile of all the Roman law 
writers, and there is more excerpted from him in 
the Digest than from any other jurist, except Ul- 
pian. Upwards of 70 separate works by Paulus 
are quoted in the Digest. Of these his greatest 
work was Ad Edichan, in 80 books. 

Paulus, Passienus, a contemporary and friend 
of the younger Pliny, was a distinguished Roman 
eques, and was celebrated for his elegiac and lyric 
poems. He belonged to the same^ municipium 
(Mevania in Umbria) as Propertius, whom he 
numbered among his ancestors. 

Pausanias (Uavaavias). 1. A Spartan of the 
Agid branch of the royal family, the son of Cleom- 
brotus and nephew of Leonidas. Several writers 
incorrectly call him king ; but he only succeeded 
his father Cleombrotus in the guardianship of his 
cousin Plistarchus, the son of Leonidas, for whom 
he exercised the functions of royalty from b. c. 479 
to the period of his death. In 479, when the 
Athenians called upon the Lacedaemonians for aid 
against the Persians, the Spartans sent a body of 
5000 Spartans, each attended by 7 Helots, under the 
command of Pausanias. At the Isthmus Pausa- 
nias was joined by the other Peloponnesian allies, 
and at Eleusis by the Athenians, and forthwith 
took the command of the combined forces, the other 
Greek generals forming a sort of council of war. 
The allied forces amounted to nearly 110,000 men. 
Near Plataeae in Boeotia, Pausanias defeated the 
Persian army under the command of Mardonius. 
This decisive victory secured the independence of 
Greece. Pausanias received as his reward a tenth 
of the Persian spoils. In 477 the confederate 
Greeks sent out a fleet under the command of 
Pausanias, to follow up their success by driving 
the Persians completely out of Europe and the 
islands. Cyprus was first attacked, and the greater 
part of it subdued. From Cyprus Pausanias sailed 
to Byzantium, and captured the city. The capture 
of this city afforded Pausanias an opportunity for 
commencing the execution of the design which he 
had apparenthi- formed even before leaving Greece. 
Dazzled by his success and reputation, his station 
as a Spartan citizen had become too restricted for 
his ambition. His position as regent was one 
which must terminate when the king became of 
age. He therefore aimed at becoming tyrant over 

I 



PAUSANIAS. 

the whole of Greece, with the assistance of the 
Persian king. Among the prisoners taken at By- 
zantium Avere some Persians connected with the 
royal family. These he sent to the king, with a 
letter, in which he offered to bring Sparta and the 
rest of Greece under his power, and proposed to 
marry his daughter. His offers were gladly ac- 
cepted, and whatever amount of troops and money 
he required for accomplishing his designs, Pausa- 
nias now set no bounds to his arrogant and do- 
mineering temper. The allies were so disgusted 
by his conduct, that they all, except the Pelopon- 
nesians and Aeginetans, voluntarily offered to 
transfer to the Athenians that pre-eminence of 
rank Avhich Sparta had hitherto enjoyed. In this 
way the Athenian confederacy first took its 
rise. Reports of the conduct and designs of Pau- 
sanias reached Sparta, and he was recalled and put 
upon his trial ; hut the evidence respecting his 
meditated treachery was not yet thought sufficiently 
strong. Shortly afterwards he returned to By- 
zantium, without tlie orders of the ephors, and 
renewed his treasonable intrigues. He was again 
recalled to Sparta, was again put on his trial, and 
again acquitted. But even after this second escape 
he still continued to carry on his intrigues witli 
Persia. At length a man, who was charged with 
a letter to Persia, having his suspicions awakened 
by noticing that none of those sent previously on 
similar errands had returned, counterfeited the seal 
of Pausanias and opened the letter, in which he 
found directions for his own death. He carried 
the letter to the ephors, who prepared to arrest 
Pausanias : but he took refuge in the temple of 
Athena Chalcioecus. The ephors stripped off the 
roof of the temple and built up the door ; the 
aged mother of Pausanias is said to have been 
among the first who laid a stone for this purpose. 
When he was on the point of expiring, the ephors 
took him out lest his death should pollute the 
sanctuary. He died as soon as he got outside, 
B.C. 470. He left 3 sons behind him, Plistoanax, 
afterwards king, Cleomenes and Aristocles. — 2. 
Son of Plistoanax, and grandson of the preceding, 
was king of Sparta from b. c. 408 to 394. In 403 
he was sent with an army into Attica, and secretly 
favoured the cause of Thrasybulus and the Athe- 
nian exiles, in order to counteract the plans of 
Lysander. In 3.95 Pausanias was sent with an 
army against the Thebans ; but in consequence of 
the death of Lysander, who was slain under the 
walls of Haliartus, on the day before Pausanias 
reached the spot, the king agreed to withdraw 
his forces from Boeotia. On his return to Sparta 
he was impeached, and seeing that a fair trial was 
not to be hoped for, went into voluntary exile, and 
was condemned to death. He was living at Tegea 
in 385, when Mantinea was besieged by his son 
Agesipolis, who succeeded him on the throne. 3. 
King of Macedonia, the son and successor of Aero- 
pus. He was assassinated in the year of his ac- 
cession by Amyntas II., 394.-4. A pretender to 
the throne of Macedonia, made his appearance in 
367, after Alexander II. had been assassinated 
by Ptolemaeus. Eurydice, the mother of Alex- 
ander, sent to request the aid of the Athenian 
general, Iphicrates, who expelled Pausanias from 
the kingdom. —5. A Macedonian youth of dis- 
tinguished family, from the province of Orestis. 
Having been shamefully treated by Attains, he 
r.omplained of the outrage to Philip ; but as Philip 



PAUSILYPUM. o'iy, 

took no notice of his complaints, he directed his 
vengeance against the king himself. He shortly 
afterwards murdered Philip at the festival held at 
Aegae, 336, but was slain on the spot by some 
officers of the king's guard. Suspicion rested on 
Olympias and Alexander of having been privy to the 
deed ; but with regard to Alexander at any rate 
the suspicion is probably totally unfounded. There 
was a story that Pausanias, while meditating re- 
venge, having asked the sophist Hermocrates 
which was the shortest way to fame, the latter re- 
plied, that it was by killing the man who had per- 
formed the greatest achievements. — 6. The traveller 
and geographer, was perhaps a native of Lydia. 
He lived under Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius, 
and wrote his celebrated Avork in the reign of the 
latter emperor. This work, entitled 'EAAaSos Ilepi- 
■nyrjinSf a Periegesii, or Itinerary of Greece, is in 1 
books, and contains a description of Attica and 
Megaris (i.), Corinthia, Sicyonia, Phliasia, and 
Argolis (ii.), Laconica (iii.), Messenia (iv.), Elis 
(v. vi. ), Achaea (vii.), Arcadia (viii.), Boeotia 
(ix.), Phocis (x.). The work shows that Pausa- 
nias visited most of the places in these divisions 
of Greece, a fact which is clearly demonstrated b}-- 
the minuteness and particularity of his description. 
The work is merely an Itinerary. Pausanias gives 
no general description of a country or even of a 
place, but he describes the things as he comes to 
them. His account is minute ; but it mainly refers 
to objects of antiquity, and works of art, such as 
buildings, temples, statues, and pictures. He also 
menti(ms mountains, rivers, and fountains, and tht; 
mythological stories connected with them, Avhicli 
indeed are his chief inducements to speak of them. 
His religious feeling was strong, and his belief 
sure, for he tells many old legends in true good 
faith and seriousness. His style has been much 
condemned by modern critics ; but if we except 
some corrupt passages, and if we allow that his 
order of Avords is not that of the best Greek writers, 
there is hardly much obscurity to a person Avho is 
competently acquainted Avith Greek, except that 
oliscurity Avhich sometimes is owing to the matter. 
AVith the exception of Herodotus, there is no 
Avriter of antiquity, and perhaps none of modern 
times, Avho has comprehended so many valuable 
facts in a small A^olume. The best editions are by 
Siebelis, Lips. 1822— 1828, 5 vols. 8vo. and bV 
Schubartand Walz, Lips. 1838—40, 3 vols. 8vo.' 

Pausias {Tlavaias), one of the most distinguished 
Greek painters, Avas a contemporary of Aristides, 
Melanthius, and Apelles (about B.C. 360—330), 
and a disciple of Pamphilus. He had previously 
been instructed by his Either Brietes, Avho lived at 
Sicyon, Avhere also Pausias passed his life. The 
department of the art Avhich Pausias most prac- 
tised Avas painting in encaustic Avith the eestrum. 
His favourite subjects were small panel-picture.s, 
chiefly of boys. One of his most celebrated pic- 
tures was the portrait of Glycera, a flower-girl of 
his native city, of whom he was enamoured 
Avhen a young man. Most of his paintings Avere 
probably transported to Rome with the other trea- 
sures of Sicyonian art, in the aedileship of Scaurus, 
when the state of Sicyon Avas compelled to sell all 
the pictures which were public property, in order 
to pay its debts. 

Paiisilypum (jh navalXvirov)^ that is, the 
" grief-assuaging," Avas the name of a splendid 
villa near Neapolis in Campania, Avhich Vedius 

M M 3 



i3i 



PAUSON. 



Pollio bequeathed to Augustus. The name was 
transferred to the celebrated grotto (no^y Posilippo) 
betvreen Naples and Puzzuoli, which was formed 
by a tunnel cut through the rock by the architect 
Cocceius, by command of Agrippa. At its entrance 
the tomb of Virgil is still shown. 

Pauson (Ilaucra'i'), a Greek painter, who ap- 
pears from the description of Aristotle (Poet. 2. § 2.) 
to have lived somewhat earlier than the time of this 
philosopher. 

Pausulae (Pausulanus: Monte dell' Olmo), a 
town in the interior of Picenum, between Urbs 
Salvia and Aseulum. 

Favor. [Pallor.] 

Pax, the goddess of Peace, called Irene by the 
Greeks. [Irene.] 

Pas Julia or Pax AugTista (Bpja), a Roman 
co]o:n^ in Lusitania, and the seat of a Conventus 
juridicus, N. of Julia Myrtilis. 

Pazi {Pajco and AntipcLso). the name of 2 small 
islands off the W. coast of Greece, between Corcyra 
and Leucas, 

Peds-eum or Pedaeus (JItjoziov, accus., Horn. 11. 
xiii. 172), a town of the Troad. 

Peialium (II^jSaAioi/). 1. (C. GMyiazi), a pro- 
montory of Caria, on the W. side of the Sinus 
Giaucus, called also Artemisiura from a temple of 
Artemis upon it. =—2. (Capo della Grega) a pro- 
montory on the E. side of Cyprus. 

Pedasa (H-q^aaa : Hr^^aa^vs, pi. n^jSaTeey, 
Herod.), a very ancient city of Caria, was originally 
a chief abode of the Leleges. Alexander assigned it 
to Ha'.icamassus. At the time of the Roman empire 
it had entirely vanished, though its name was pre- 
served in tliat of the district around its site, namely 
Pedasis (TlTjSacrts). Its locality is only known 
thus far, that it must have stood somev/here in the, 
triangle formed by Miletus, Halicamassns, and 
Stratonicea. 

Pedasus (IlTjJao-os), a town of Mysia on the 
Satnio'is, mentioned several times by Homer. It 
was destroyed by the time of Strabo, who says 
that it v/as a settlement of the Leleges on M. Ida. 
Fe^auus, Asconius. [Asccxius.] 
Pedias. 1. Q., the great-nephew of the dic- 
tator C. Julius Caesar, being the grandson of Julia, 
Caesar's eldest sister. He served under Caesar in 
Ghiv.l as his iegatus, B. c. 57. In 55, he was a 
candidate for the curale aedileship with Cn. Plan- 
cius and others, but he lost his election. In the 
civil war he fought on Caesar's side. He was 
praetor in 48, and in that year he defeated and 
slev/ Milo in the neignbourhood of Thurii. In 45, 
he served against the Pompeian party in Spain. 
In Caesar's will Pedius was named one of his heirs 
along with his two other great- nephews, C. Oct:i- 
vius and L. Pinarius, Octavius obtaining 3-4th3 of 
the property, and the remaining l-4th being divided 
between Pinarius and Pedius : the latter resigned 
his share of the inheritance to Octavius. After 
the fail of the consuls, Hiriius and Pansa, at the 
battle of Mutina in April, 43, Octavius marched 
upon Rome at the head of an army, and in the month 
of August he was elected consul along with Pediu-. 
The latter forthwith proposed a law, known by the 
name of theie-a? Pedia^ by which ail the murderers 
of Julius Caesar were punished with aquae el ignis 
inicrdictio. Pedius was left in charge of the city, 
while Octavius marched into the N. of Italy. He 
died towards the end of the year shortly after the 
nowa of the proscription had reached Rome. =— 2 



PEGASUS. 

Sextus, a Roman jurist, frequently cited byPaulus 
and Ulpian. lived before the time of Hadrian. 

Pedlielissus(ne5i'77Xtcrcrcs),acity in the interior 
of Pisidia, and apparently on the Eurymedon, 
above Aspendus and Selge. It formed an inde- 
pendent state ; but was almost constantly at war 
witli Selge. Mr. Fellowes supposes its site to be 
marked by the ruins of the Roman period nea:- 
Bolkas-Koi on the E. bank of the Eurymedon. 
Pedo Albinovanus. [Albinovanus.] 
Peducaeus, Sex. L Propraetor in Sicily, b. c. 
76 and 75, in the latter of which years Cicero 
served vjider him as quaestor.— > 2.' Son of the 
preceding, and an intimate friend of Atticus and 
Cicero. In the civil war Peducaeus sided with 
Caesar, by whom he was appointed in 48 to the 
government of Sardinia. In 39, he was propraetor 
in Spain. 

Pedum (Pedanus: GalUeano), an ancient town 
of Latium on the Via Lavicana, which fell into 
decaj' at an early period. 

Pegae. [Pagae.] 

Pegasis (Tl-oyaais), i. e. sprung from Pegasus, 
was applied to the fountain Hippncrene, which 
was called forth by the hoof of Pegasus. The 
Muses are also called Pegasides. because the foun- 
tain Hippocrene was sacred to them. 

Pegasus (Tl'Tiyaaos). 1. The celebrated winged 
horse, whose origin is thus related. When Perseus 
struck off the head of Medusa, with whom Posei- 
don had had intercourse in the form of a horse or a 
bird, there sprang from her Chrysaor and the horse 
Pegasus. The latter received this name because 
he was believed to have made his appearance near 
the sources (Trriyai) of Oceanus. He ascended to 
the seats of the immortals, and afterwards lived in 
the palace of Zeus, for whom he carried thunder 
and lightning. According to this view, which is 
apparently the most ancient, Pegasus was the 
thundering horse of Zeus ; but later writers de- 
scribe him as the horse of Eos (Aurora), and place 
hira among the stars. — Pegasus also acts a promi- 
nent part in the combat of Bellerophon against the 
Chimaera. In order to kill the Chimaera, it 
was necessary for Bellerophon to obtain possession 
of Pegasus. For this purpose the soothsayer Po- 
lyidus at Corinth advised him to spend a night in 
the temple of Athena. As Bellerophon was asleep 
in the temple, t!ie goddess appeared to him in a 
dream, commanding him to sacrifice to Poseidon, 
and gave him a golden bridle. When he awoke 
he found the bridle, offered the sacrifice, and caught 
Pegasus, while he Avas drinking at the well Pirene. 
According to some Athena herself tamed and bridled 
Pegasus, and surrendered hira to Bellerophon. 
After he had conquered the Chimaera, he endea- 
voured to rise up to heaven upon his winged horse, 
but fell down upon the earth. [Bellerophon.] 
Pegasus however continued his flight to heaven. 
— Pegasus was also regarded as the horse of the 
Muses, and in this connection is more celebrated 
in modem times than in antiquity ; for with the an- 
cients he had no connection with the Muses, except 
producing with his hoof the inspiring fountain 
Hippocrene. The story about this fountain runs 
as follows. When the 9 Muses engaged in a con- 
test with the 9 daughters of Pi eras on Mt. Heli- 
con, all beeame darkness when the daughters of 
Pierus began to sing ; whereas during the song of 
the Muses, heaven, the sen, and all the rivers 
stood still to listen, and Helicon rose heavenward 



PEISO. 

with delight, until Pegasus, on the advice of 
Poseidon, stopped its ascent by kicking it with his 
hoof. From this kick there arose Hippocrene, 
the inspiring well of the Muses, on Mt. Helicon, 
which, for this reason, Persius callsyb;/s cuhallinus. 
Others again relate that Pegasus caused the well 
to gush forth because he was thirsty. Pegasus is 
often seen represented in ancient works of art 
along with Athena and Bellerophon. — 2. A Ro- 
man jurist, one of the followers or pupils of Procu- 
lus and praefectus urbi under Domitian (Juv. iv. 
76). The Senatusconsultura Pegasianum, which 
was passed in the time of Vespasian, Avhen Pegasus 
was consul suffectus with Pusio, probably took its 
name from him. 

Peiso Lacus. [Pelso Lacus.] 

Pelagius, probably a native of Britain, cele- 
brated as the propagator of those heretical opinions, 
which have derived their name from him, and 
which were opposed with great energy by his con- 
temporaries Augustine and Jerome. He first ap- 
pears in history about the beginning of the oth 
century, when we find him residing at Rome. In 
the year 409 or 410, when Alaric was threatening 
the metropolis, Pelagius accompanied by his dis- 
ciple and ardent admirer Coelestius, passed over 
to Sicily, from thence proceeded to Africa, and 
leaving Coelestius at Carthage, sailed for Palestine. 
The fame of his sanctity had preceded him, for 
upon his arrival he was received with great warmth 
by Jerome and many other distinguished fathers 
of the church. Soon afterwards the opinions of 
Pelagius were denounced as heretical ; and in 
A. D. 4 i 7 Pelagius and Coelestius were anathema- 
tized by Pope Innocentius, A very few only of 
the numerous treatises of Pelagius have descended 
to us. They are printed with the works of Je- 
rome. 

Pelagonia {Yl^Xa-yovia : UeXdyoves. pL). 1. A 
district in Macedonia. The Pelagones were an 
ancient people, probably of Pelasgic origin, and 
seem originally to have inhabited the valley of the 
Axius, since Homer calls Pelagon, a son of Axius. 
The Pelagones afterwards migrated W. -wards to 
the Erigon, the country around which received the 
name of Pelagonia, which thus laj' S. of Paeonia. 
The chief town of this district was also called 
Pelagonia (now Vitolia or MonasUr), which was 
under the Romans the capital of the 4th division 
of Macedonia. It v/as situated on the Via Egnatia 
not far from the narrow passes leading into Illyria. 
•—2. A district in Thessaly, called the Pelagonian 
Tripolis, because it consisted of the 3 towns of 
Azorus, Pythium, and Doliche. It Avas situated 
W. of Olympus in the upper valley of the Titare- 
sius, and belonged to Perrhaebia, whence these 3 
towns are sometimes called the Perrhaebian Tri- 
polis. Some of the Macedonian Pelagonians, who 
had been driven out of their homes by the Paeo- 
nians, migrated into this part of Thessaly, which 
was originally inhabited by Dorians. 

Pelasgi (IleAacryoi), the earliest inhabitants of 
Greece who established the worship of the Dodo- 
naean Zeus, Hephaestus, the Cabiri, and other divi- 
nities that belong to the earliest inhabitants of the 
country. They claimed descent from a mythical 
hero Pelasgus, of whom we have different accounts 
in the different parts of Greece inhabited by Pelas- 
gians. The nation was widely spread over Greece 
and the islands of the Grecian archipelago ; and 
the name of Pelasgia was given at one time to 



PELEUS. 



535 



Greece. One of the most ancient traditions repre- 
sented Pelasgus, as a descendant of Phoroneus, king 
of Argos ; and it seems to have been generally be- 
lieved by the Greeks that the Pelasgi spread from 
Argos to the other countries of Greece. Arcadia, 
Attica, Epirus and Thessaly, were, in addition to 
Argos, some of the principal seats of the Pelasgi. 
They were also found on the coasts of Asia Minor, 
and according to some writers in Italy as well. Of 
the language, habits, and civilisation of this people, 
we possess no certain knowledge. Herodotus says 
they spoke a barbarous langunge, that is, a lan- 
guage not Greek ; but from the facility with which 
the Greek and Pelasgic languages coalesced in all 
parts of Greece, and from the fact that the Athe- 
nians and Arcadians are said to have been of pure 
Pelasgic origin, it is probable that the 2 languages 
had a close affinit}'. The Pelasgi are further said 
to have been an agricultural people, and to have 
possessed a considerable knowledge of the useful 
arts. The most ancient architectural remains of 
Greece, such as the treasury or tomb of Athens at 
Mycenae, are ascribed to the Pelasgians, and are 
cited as specimens of Pelasgian architecture, though 
there is no positive authority for these statements. 

Pelasgia [neXaa-yla), an ancient name of the 
islands of Delos and Lesbos, referring, of course, to 
their having been early seats of the Pelasgians. 

Pelasgiotis (n6Aacr7icoTts), a district in Thessaly, 
between Hestiaeotis and Magnesia. [Thessalia.] 

Pelasgus. [Pelasgi.] 

Pelendones, a Celtiberian people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis between the sources of the Durius 
and the Iberus. 

Pelethronmm (UeXeepSviov), a mountainous dis- 
trict in Thessaly, part of Mt. Pelion, where the 
Lnpithae dwelt, and which is said to have derived 
its name from Pelethronius, king of the Lapithae, 
who invented the use of the bridle and the saddle. 

Peleus (IlT/Aeys), son of Aeacus and Endeis, 
was king of the Myrmidons at Phthia in Thessaly. 
He was a brother of Telamon, and step-brother of 
PhoLUs, the son of Aeacus, by the Nereid Psaniathe. 
Peleus and Telamon resolved to get rid of Phocus, 
because he excelled them in their military games, 
and Telamon, or, according to others, Peleus, mur- 
dered their step-brother. The 2 brothers concealed 
their crime by removing the body of Phocus, but 
were nevertheless found out, and expelled by 
Aeacus from Aegina. Peleus went to Phthia in 
Thessalj% where he was purified from the murder 
by Eurytion, the son of Actor, married his daughter 
Antigone, and received with her a 3rd of Eur^nion's 
kingdom. Others relate that he went to Ceyx at 
Trachis ; and as he had come to Thessaly without 
companions, he prayed to Zeus for an army ; and 
the god, to please Peleus, metamorphosed the ants 
(lj.vp/x7]Kes) into men, who were accordingly called 
Myrmidons. Peleus accompanied Eurytion to the 
Calydonian hunt, and involuntarily killed him 
with his spear, in consequence of which he fled 
from Phthia to lolcus, where he was again purified 
by Acastus, the king of the place. While residing 
at lolcus, Astydamia, the Avife of Acastus, fell in 
love with him ; but as her proposals were rejected 
by Peleus, she accused him to her husband of 
having attempted her virtue. Acastus, unwilling 
to stain his hand with the blood of the man whom 
he had hospitably received, and whom he had puri- 
fied from his guilt, took him to Mt. Pelion, Avhere 
they hunted wild beasts ; and when Peleus, over- 

M M 4 



.53(1 PELIADl-S. 

come with fatigue^ had lailen asleep, Acastus left 
him alone, and concealed his sword, that he might 
be destroyed by t!ie wild beasts. "When Peleus 
awoke and sought his sword, he Avas attacked by 
the Centaurs, but was saved by Chiron, who also re- 
stored to him his sword. There are some modifi- 
cations of this account in other writers : instead of 
Astydamia, some mention Hippolyte, the daughter 
of Cretheus ; and others relate that after Acastus 
had concealed the swovd of Peleus, Chiron or Pler- 
mes brought him another, which had been made 
by Hephaestus. "While on Mt. Pelion, Peleus 
married the Nereid Thetis, by whom he became 
the father of Achilles, though some regarded this 
Thetis as different from the marine divinity, and 
called her a daughter of Chiron. The gods took 
part in the mamage solemnity ; Chiron presented 
Peleus with a lance, Poseidon with the immortal 
horses, Balius and Xanthus, and the other gods 
with arms. Eris or Strife was the only goddess 
who was not invited to the nuptials, and she re- 
venged herself by throwing an apple among the 
guests, with the inscription '* to the fairest." 
[Paris.] Homer mentions Achilles as the only 
son of Peleus and Thetis, but later writers state 
that she had already destroyed by fire 6 children, 
of whom she was the mother by Peleus, and that 
as she attempted to make away with Achilles, her 
7th child, she was prevented by Peleus. After 
this Peleus, who is also mentioned among the 
Argonauts, in conjunction with Jason and the 
Dioscuri, besieged Acastus and lolcus, slew Asty- 
damia, and over the scattered limbs of her body 
led his warriors into the city. The flocks of Peleus 
were at one time worried by a wolf, which 
Psamathe had sent to avenge the murder of her sou 
Phocus, but she herself afterAvards, on the request of 
Thetis, turned the animal into stone. Peleus, 
who had in former times joined Hercules in his 
expedition against Troy, was too old to accompany 
his son Achilles against that citj' : he remained at 
home and survived the death of his son. 

Peliades (IleAi'aSes), the daughters of Pelias. 
See Pelias. 

Pelias (IleAtas), son of Poseidon and Tyro, a 
daughter of Salmoneus. Poseidon once visited 
Tyro in the form of the river-god Enipeus, with 
whom she Avas in love, and she became by him the 
mother of Pelias and Neleus. To conceal her 
shame, their mother exposed the 2 boys, but they 
Avere found and reared hx some countrymen. They 
subsequently learnt their parentage ; and after the 
death of Cretheus, king of lolcos, Avho had married 
their mother, they seized the throne of lolcos, to the 
exclusion of Aeson, the son of Cretheus and Tyro. 
Pelias soon afterwards expelled his 0A\'n brother 
Neleus, and thus became sole ruler of lolcos. After 
Pelias had long reigned over lolcos, Jason, the 
son of Aeson, came to lolcos and claimed the king- 
dom as his right. In order to get rid of him, Pe- 
lias sent him to Colchis to fetch the golden fleece. 
Hence arose the celebrated expedition of the Argo- 
nauts. After the return of Jason, Pelias Avas cut 
to pieces and boiled by his oaati daughters (the 
Peliades), who had been told by !Medea that 
in this manner they might restore their father 
to vigour and youth. His son Acastus held 
fimeral games in his honour at lolcus, and ex- 
pelled Jason and Medea from the country. [For 
details, see Jasox ; Medea; Argoxautae.] 
The names of several of the daughters of Pelias 



PELLA. 

are recorded. The most celebrated of them wa>s 
Alcestis, the AA'ife of Admetus, who is therefon- 
called by Ovid I'eliae gencr. 

Pelides (n7jAet5r7s, YlriXe'iuv), a patronymic 
from Peleus, generally giA'en to his son Achilles, 
more rarely to his grandson Neoptolemus. 

Peligni, a brave and vA-arlike people of Sabine 
origin in central Italy, bounded S.E. by the Marsi, 
N. by the Marrucini, S. by Samnium and the 
Frentani. and E. by the Frentani likewise. The 
climate of their country was cold (Hor. Carm. iii., 
19. 8.) ; but it produced a considerable quantity 
of flax and was cek-brated for its honey. The 
Peligni, like their neighbours, the Marsi, Avere 
regarded as magicians. Their principal tOAAnis 
Avere Corfinium and SuLMO. They offered a 
brave resistance to the Romans, but concluded a 
peace AA'ith the republic along Avith their neighbours 
the Marsi, Marrucini and Frentani in B. c. 304. 
They took an active part in the Social war (90, 89), 
and their chief tOAA'n Corfinium Avas destined by the 
allies to be the new capital of Italy in place of 
Rome. They Avere subdued by Pompeius Strabo, 
after Avliich time they are rareh' mentioned. 

Pelinaeus Mons (t6 U.^Klvoiov opos, or IleAA?;- 
vo2ov'. ^^. Elias), the highest mountain of the 
island of Chios, a little N. of the city of Chios, with 
a celebrated temple of Zeus IleKLVouos. 

Pelinna, or more commonly Pelinnaeum (Ile- 
K'lvvcL^ TieKLvvalov ; Gardhiki), a town of Thessaly 
in Hestiaeotis, on the left bank of the Peneus, was 
taken by the Romans in their Avar with Antiochus. 

Pelion, more rarely Pelios {rh Un'^Kiov opos : 
Plcssidlii or Zagora), a lofty range of mountains in 
Thessaly in the districtof Magnesia, was situatedbe- 
j tu'een the lake Boebeis and the Pagasaean gulf, and 
fomed the promontories of Sepias and Aeantium. 
Its sides Avere covered Avith Av^ood, and on its sum- 
mit was a temple of Zeus Actaeus, AS'here the cold 
AA'as so severe, that the persons who went in pro- 
cession to this temple once a year Avore thick skins 
to protect themselves. Mt. Pelion Avas celebrated 
in mythology. The giants in their Avar with the 
gods are said to have attempted to heap Ossa and 
Olympus on Pelion, or Pelion and Ossa on Otyra- 
pus in order to scale heaA-en. Near the summit of 
this mountain Avas the cave of the Centaur Chiron, 
Avhose residence Avas probably placed here on ac- 
count of the number of the medicinal plants which 
grev,' upon the mountain, since he Avas celebrated 
for his skill in medicine. On Pelion also the 
timber Avas felled, Avith which the ship Argo Avas 
built, whence Ovid applies the term Pelias arbor 
to this ship. 

Pella (IleAAa : XleAAaTos, Pellaeus). 1. {Ala- 
Misi), an ancient town of Macedonia in the district 
Bottiaea, AA-as situated upon a hill, and upon a lake 
formed by the river Lydias, r20 stadia from its 
mouth. It continued to be a place of small im- 
portance till the time of Philip, Avho made it his 
residence and the capital of the Macedonian mo- 
narchy, and adorned it Avith many public buildings. 
It is frequently mentioned by subsequent writers 
on account of its being the birtli-place of Alexander 
the Great. It Avas the capital of one of the 4 districts 
into which the Romans divided Macedonia [see p. 
404, a.], and A\'as subsequently made a Roman colony 
under the name of Col Jul "Aug. Pella. — 2. (Ef- 
Bujeh?), the S.-most of the 10 cities Avhich com- 
posed the Decapolis in Peraea, that is in Pales- 
tine E. of the Jordan, stood 5 Roman miles S.E. 



PELLAEUS. 



PELOPONNESUS. 



537 



of Scythopolis, and was also called Bo£ris. It was 
taken by Aiitioclius the Great, in the wars between 
Syria and Egypt, and was held bj^ a Macedonian 
colony, till it was destroyed by Alexander Jannaeus 
on account of the refusal of its inhabitants to em- 
brace the Jewish religion. It was restored and given 
back to its old inhabitants by Poinpey. It was the 
place of refuge of the Christians who fled from 
Jerusalem before its capture by the Romans. The 
exact site of Pella is very uncertain. — 3. A city 
of Syria on the Orontes, formerly called Pharnace, 
was named Pella by the Macedonians, and after- 
wards Apamea (No. 1.) — 4. In Phrj-gia. [Pel- 

TAE.] 

Pellaeus Pagus was the name given by Alex- 
ander, after Pella in Macedonia, to the district of 
Susiana about the mouths of the Tigris ; in which 
he built the city of Alexandria, afterwards called 
Charax. 

Pellana. [Pellene, No. 2.] 

Pellene (rieAATjvT?, Dor. neAAam: UiWrjvevs). 
1. A city in Achaia bordering on Sicj-'onia, the 
most E.-ly of the 12 Achaean cities, was situated 
on a hill 60 stadia from the city, and was strongly 
fortified. Its port-town was Aristonautae. The 
ancients derived its name from the giant Pallas, 
or from the Argive Pellen, the son of Phorbas. It 
is mentioned in Homer ; and the inhabitants of 
Scione in the peninsula of Pallene in Macedonia 
professed to be descended from the Pellenaeans in 
Achaia, who were shipwrecked on the Macedonian 
coast on their return from Troy, In the Pelopon- 
nesian war Pellene sided with Sparta, In the 
later wars of Greece between the Achaean and 
Aetolian leagues, the town was several times taken 
b}' the contending parties. — Between Pellene and 
Aegae there w\is a smaller town of the same name, 
where the celebrated Pellenian cloaks (FleAAT;- 
viaKoi ■)(\aivai) were made, which were given as 
prizes to the victors in the games at this place. 
— 2. Usually called Pellana, a town in Laconia 
on the Eurotas, about 50 stadia N.W. of Sparta, 
belorging to the Spartan Tripolis. 

Felodes (IlTjAwSrjs AijuVji', in App. TlaXSeis : 
Arii}?/ro), a port-town belonging to Buthrotum in 
Epirus, and on a bay which probably bore the 
same name. 

Pelopea or Pelopia (neAoTreta), daughter of 
Thyestes, dwelt at Sicyon, where iier father offered 
her violence, without knowing that she was his 
daughter. While pregnant by her father, she 
married her uncle Atreus. Shortly afterwards she 
bore a son Aegisthus, who eventually murdered 
Atreus. [For details, see Aegisthus.] 

Pelopidas (IleAoTn'Sav), the Theban general and 
statesman, son of Hippoclus, was descended from a 
noble family and inherited a large estate, of which 
he made a liberal use. He lived always in the 
closest friendsliip with Epaminondas, to whose 
simple frugality, as he could not persuade him to 
share his riches, he is said to have assimilated his 
own mode oi life. He took a leading part in ex- 
pelling the Spartans from Thebes, B.C. 379 ; and 
from this time until his death there was not a 
year in which he was not entnisted with some im- 
portant command. In 371 he was one of the 
Theban commanders at the battle of Leuctra, so 
fatal to the Lacedaemonians, and joined Epami- 
nondas in urging the expediency of immediate 
action. In 369, he was also one of the generals in 
the, 1st invfision of Peloponnesus by the Thebaas. 



Respecting his accusation on his return from this 
campaign, see p. 241, b. In 368 Pelopidas was 
sent again into Thessaly, on 2 separate occasions, 
in consequence of complaints against Alexander of 
Pherae. On his 1st expedition Alexander of 
Piierae sought safety in flight ; and Pelopidas ad- 
vanced into Macedonia to arbitrate between Alex- 
ander II. and Ptolemy of Alorus. Among the 
hostages whom he took with him from Macedonia 
was the famous Philip, the father of Alexander 
the Great. On his 2nd visit to Thessaly, Pelo- 
pidas went simpl)' as an ambassador, not expecting 
any opposition, and unprovided with a military 
force. He was seized by Alexander of Pherae, 
and was kept in confinement at Pherae till his 
liberation in 367, by a Theban force under Epa- 
minondas. In the same )'ear in which he was re- 
leased he was sent as ambassador to Susa, to coun- 
teract the Lacedaemonian and Athenian nego- 
tiations at the Persian court. In 364, the Thessalian 
towns again applied to Thebes for protection against 
Alexander, and Pelopidas was appointed to aid 
them. His forces, however, were dismayed by an 
eclipse of the sun (June 13), and, therefore, leaving 
them behind, he took with him into Thessaly only 
300 horse. On his arrival at Pharsalus he col- 
lected a force which he deemed sufficient, and 
marched against Alexander, treating lightly the 
great disparity of numbers, and remarking that it 
was better as it was, since there would be more 
for him to conquer. At Cynoscephalae a battle 
ensued, in which Pelopidas drove the enemy from 
their ground, but he himself was slain as, burning 
with resentment, he pressed rashly forward to 
attack Alexander in person. The Thebans and 
Thessalians made great lamentations for his death, 
and the latter, having earnestly requested leave to 
bury him, celebrated his funeral with extraor- 
dinary splendour. 

Peloponnesus (?? UeXou-dvu-nG-os : Morea), the 
S. part of Greece or the peninsula, which was con- 
nected with Hellas proper by the isthmus of Corinth. 
It is said to have derived its name Peloponnesus 
or the " island of Pelops," from the mythical Pelops. 
[Pelops.] This name does not occur in Homer. 
In his time the peninsula was sometimes called 
Apia, from Apis, son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, 
and sometimes Argos ; which names were given to 
it on accoimt of Argos being the chief power in 
Peloponnesus at that period. Peloponnesus was 
bounded on the N. by the Corinthian gulf, on the 
W. by the Ionian or Sicilian sea, on the S. by the 
Libyan, and on the W. by the Cretan and Myrtoan 
seas. On the E. and S. there are 3 great gulfs, 
the Argolic, Laconian, and Messenian. The ancients 
com^pared the shape of the country to the leaf of 
a plane tree ; and its modern name, the Morea 
(6 Mcope'os), which first occurs in the 12th century 
of the Christian aera, w^as given it on account of 
its resemblance to a mulberr3'-leaf. Peloponnesus 
was divided into various provinces, all of which 
were bounded on one side by the sea, with the ex- 
ception of Arcadia, which was in the centre of 
the countr)'. These provinces were Achaia in 
the N., Elis in the W., Messenia in the W. 
and S., Laconia in the S. and E,, and Corinthia 
in the E. and N, An account of the geography 
of the peninsula is given under these names. The 
area of Peloponnesus is computed to be 7779 Eng- 
lish miles ; and it probably contained a population of 
upwards of a million in the flourishing period of 



-.38 



PELOPS. 



PELORIS. 



Greek history. — Peloponnesus was originally in- 
habited by Pelesgians. Subsequently the Achaeans, 
who belonged to the Aeolic race, settled in the E. 
and S. parts of the peninsula, in Argolis, Laconia, 
and jMessenia ; and the lonians in the N. part, in 
Achaia ; while the remains of the original inhabi- 
tants of the country, the Pelasgians, collected chiefly 
in the central part, in Arcadia. Eighty years after 
the Trojan war, according to mythical chronolog}-, 
the Dorians, under the conduct of the Heraclidae, 
invaded and conquered Peloponnesus, and esta- 
blished Doric states in Argolis, Laconia, and Mes- 
senia, from whence they extended their power over 
Corinth, Sicj'on, and IMegara. Part of the Achaean 
population remained in these provinces as tributary 
subjects to the Dorians under the name of Perioeci : 
while others of th.3 Achaeans passed over to the N. 
of Peloponnesus, expelled the lonians, and settled 
in this part of the country, which was called after 
them Achaia. The Aetolians, who had invaded 
Peloponnesus along with the Dorians, settled in 
Elis and became intermingled with the original 
inhabitants. Th** peninsula remained under Doric 
influence during the most important period of Greek 
history, and opposed to the great Ionic city of 
Atliens. After the conquest of ]\Iessenia by the 
Spartans, it was under the supremacy of Sparta, 
till the overthrow of the power of the latter by the 
Thebans at the battle of Leuctra, B. c. 371. 

Pelops (rieAo;!/), grandson of Zeus, and son of 
Tantalus and Dione, the daughter of Atlas. Some 
writers call his mother Euryanassa or Clytia. He 
was married to Hippodamia, by whom he became 
the father of Atreus, Thyestes, Dias, Cynosurus, 
Corinthius, Hippalmus (Hippalcmus or Hippal- 
cimus), Hippasus, Cleon, Argius, Alcathous, Aelius, 
Pittheus, Troezen, Nicippe, and Lysidice. By 
Axioche or the n3-mph Danais he is said to have 
been the father of Chrysippus. Pelops was king 
of Pisa in Elis, and from him the great southern 
peninsula of Greece was believed to have derived 
its name Peloponnesus. According to a tradition 
which became very general in later times, Pelops was 
a Phrygian, who was expelled by Ilus from Plirj-gia 
(hence called by Ovid, Met. viii. 622, Felope'ia 
arva), and thereupon migrated with his great wealth 
to Pisa. Others describe him as a Paphlagonian, 
and call the Paphlngonians themselves neXoirriioi. 
Othere again represent him as a native of Greece ; 
and there can be little doubt that in the earliest 
traditions Pelops was described as a native of 
Greece and not as a foreign immigrant; and in 
them he is called the tamer of horses and the 
favourite of Poseidon. The legends about Pelops 
consist mainly of the story of his being cut to 
pieces and boiled, of his contest with Oenomaus 
'and Hippodamia, and of his relation to his sons ; 
to which we may add the honours paid to his 
remains. 1. Pelops cut to pieces and boiled 
(Kpsovpy'ia IleAoTros). Tantalus, the favourite of 
the gods, once invited them to a repast, and on 
that occasion killed his own son, and having 
boiled him set the flesh before them that they 
might eat it. But the immortal gods, knowing 
what it was, did not touch it ; Demeter alone, 
being absorbed by grief for her lost daughter, con- 
sumed the shoulder of Pelops. Hereupon the gods 
ordered Hermes to put the limbs of Pelops into a 
cauldron, and thereby restore him to life. When 
the process was over, Clotho took him out of the 
cauldron, and as the shoulder consumed by Demeter 



^^•as wanting, the goddess supplied its place by one 
made of ivory ; his descendants (the Pelopidae), 
as a mark of their origin, were believed to have 
one shoulder as white as ivory. 2. Contest with 
Oeriomaus and Hippodaviia. As an oracle had 
declared to Oenomaus that he should be killed by 
his son-in-law, he refused giving his fair daughter 
Hippodamia in marriage to any one. But since 
many suitors appeared, Oenomaus declared that he 
would bestow her hand upon the man who should 
conquer him in the chariot-race, but that he should 
kill all who were defeated by him. Among other 
suitors Pelops also presented himself, but when he 
saw the heads of his conquered predecessors stuck 
up above the door of Oenomaus, he was seized 
with fear, and endeavoured to gain the favour of 
Myrtilus, the charioteer of Oenomaus, promising 
him half the kingdom if he would assist him in 
conquering his master. Myrtilus agreed, and left 
out the linch-pins of the chariot of Oenomaus. In 
the race the chariot of Oenomaus broke down, and 
he was thrown cut and killed. Thus Hippodamia 
became the wife of Pelops. But as Pelops had 
now gained his object, he was unwilling to keep 
faith with Myrtilus ; and accordingly as they were 
driving along a cliff he threw Myrtilus into the 
sea. As Myrtilus sank, he cursed" Pelops and his 
vv hole race. Pelops returned with Hippodamia to 
Pisa in Elis, and soon also made himself master of 
Olympia, where he restored the Olympian games 
with greater splendour than they had ever been 
celebrated before. 3. The sons of Pelops. Chry- 
sippus was the favourite of his father, and was in 
consequence envied by his brothers. The two 
eldest among them, Atreus and Thyestes, with the 
connivance of Hippodamia, accordingly murdered 
Chrysippus, and threw his body into a well. Pe- 
lops, who suspected his sons of the murder, expelled 
them from the country. Hippodamia, dreading 
the anger of her husband, fled to Midea in Argo- 
lis, from whence her remains were afterwards con- 
veyed by Pelops to Olympia. Pelops, after his 
death, Avas honoured at Olympia above all other 
heroes. His tomb with an iron sarcophagus existed 
on the banks of the Alpheus, not far from the 
temple of Artemis near Pisa. The spot on which 
his sanctuary (rieAoViov) stood in the Altis, was 
said to have been dedicated by Hercules, who also 
offered to him the first sacrifices. The magistrates 
of the Eleans likewise offered to him there an 
annual sacrifice, consisting of a black ram, with 
special ceremonies. The name of Pelops was so 
celebrated that it was constantly used by the poets 
in connection with his descendants and the cities 
they inhabited. Hence we find Atreus, the son 
of Pelops, called Pelopdius Atreus, and Agamem- 
non, the grandson or great-grandson of Atreus, 
called Pelope'ius Aganieiimo7i. In the same way 
Iphigenia, the daughter of Agamemnon, and Her- 
mione, the wife of Menelaus, are each called by 
Ovid Pelope'ia virgo. Virgil {Aen. ii. 193) uses 
the phrase Pelopea moenia to signifj- the cities in 
Peloponnesus, which Pelops and his descendants 
nded over ; and in like manner Mycenae is called 
by Ovid Pelope'iades jSFycenae. 
" Peloris, Pelorias, or Pelorus {UeXtapis., Ile- 
\capids, HeXupos: C. Faro), the N.E. point of 
Sicily, was N.E. of Messana on the Fretum Sicu- 
lum, and one of the 3 promontories which formed 
the triangular figure of the island. According 
to the usual story it derived its name from 



PELORUS. 



PENEUS. 



539 



Pelorus, the pilot of Hannibal's ship, who was 
buried here after being killed by Hannibal in 
a fit of anger; but the name was more ancient 
than Hannibal's time, being mentioned by Thucj- 
dides. On the promontory there was a temple of 
Poseidon, and a tower, probably a light-house, 
from which the modem name of the Cape (Faro) 
appears to have come. 

Pelorus (IleAwpos : prob. Lori or Luri), a river 
of Iberia in As 'a, appears to have been a S. tributary 
of the Cyrus (Kour.) 

Pelso or Peiso {Plattensee\ a great lake in 
Pannonia, the waters of which were conducted into 
the Danube by the emperor Galerius, who thus 
gained a great quantity of fertile land for his newly 
formed province of Valeria. 

Peltae {UiXrai : UsKrrjvos), an ancient and 
flourishing city of Asia Minor, in the N. of Phrj'gia, 
10 parasangs from Celacnae (Xenoph.), and no 
doubt the same place as the Pella of the Roman 
writers, 26 Roman miles N. or N.E. of Apamea 
Cibotus, to the concenlus of which it belonged. 
The surrounding district is called by Strabo ro 
neXTTfiydu irediov. Its site is uncertain. Some 
identify it with the ruins 8 miles S. of Sandakli; 
others with those near Isltekli. 

Peltuinum (Peltulnas, -atis : Monte Bello'). 
a town of the Vestini in central Italy. 

Pelusium (UriXova-iov : Egypt. Peremoun or 
Peromi ; 0. T. Sin. : all these names are derived 
from nouns meaning mud : TLrjAovaudT-qs ; Pelu- 
siota: Tineh, Ru.), also called Abaris in early 
times, a celebrated city of Lower Egypt, stood on 
the E. side of the E.-most mouth of the Nile, which 
was called after it the Pelusiac mouth, 20 stadia 
(2 geog. miles) from the sea, in the midst of mo- 
rasses, from which it obtained its name. As the 
key of Egypt on the N. E., and the frontier city 
towards Syria and Arabia, it was strongly fortified, 
and was the scene of many battles and sieges, in 
the wars of Egypt with Assyria, Persia, Syria, and 
Rome, from the defeat of Sennacherib near it by 
Sethon, down to its capture by Octavianus after 
the battle of Actiura. In laier times it was the 
capital of the district of Augustamnica. It was 
the birth-place of the geographer Claudius Ptole- 
maeus. 

Penates, the household gods of the Romans, 
both those of a private family and of the state, as 
the great family of citizens. Hence we have to 
distinguish between private and public Penates 
The name is connected with penus ; and the images 
of those gods were kept in the penetralia, or the 
central part of the house. The Lares were in- 
cluded among the Penates ; both names, in fact, 
are often used synonyiuously. The Lares, how- 
ever, though included in the Penates, were not the 
only Penates ; for each family had usually no 
more than one Lar, whereas the Penates are 
always spoken of in the plural. Since Jupiter and 
Juno were regarded as the protectors of happiness 
and peace in the family, these divinities were 
worshipped as Penates. Vesta was also reckoned 
among the Penates, for each hearth, being the 
symbol of domestic union, had its Vesta. All other 
Pemites, both public and private, seem to have 
consisted of certain sacred relics connected with 
indefinite divinities, and hence Varro says that 
the number and names of the Penates were indefi- 
nite. Most ancient writers believe that the Penates 
oi the state were brought by Aeneas from Troy 



into Italy, and were preserved first at Lavinium, 
afterwards at Alba Longa, and finally at Rome. 
At Rome they had a chapel near the centre of the 
city, in a place called sub Veiia. As the public 
Lares were worshipped in the central part of the 
city, and at the public hearth, so the private Pe- 
nates had their place at the hearth of every house ; 
and the table ;ilso was sacred to them. On the 
hearth a perpetual fire was kept up in their honour, 
and the table always contained the salt cellar and 
the firstlings of fruit for these divinities. Every 
meal that was taken in the house thus resembled 
a sacrifice offered to the Penates, beginning with a 
purification and ending with a libation which was 
poured either on the table or upon the hearth. 
After every absence from the hearth, the Penates 
were saluted like the living inhabitants of the 
house ; and whoever went abroad prayed to the 
Penates and Lares for a happy return, and when 
he came back to his house, he hung up his armour, 
staff, and the like by the side of their images. 

Peneis, that is, Daphne, daughter of the river- 
god Peneus. 

Feneleos (UrjveXews), son of Hippalcmus and 
Asterope, and one of the Argonauts. He was the 
father of Opheltes, and is also mentioned among 
the suitors of Helen. He was one of the leaders 
of the Boeotians in the war against Troy, where 
he slew Ilioneus and Lycon, and was wounded by 
Polydamas. He is said to have been slain by 
Eurypylus, the son of Telcphus. 

Penelope {UTjveXoirr], Ilej'eAoTrr], H7)veA6ireia), 
daughter of Icarius and Periboea of Sparta, married 
Ulysses, king of Ithaca. [Respecting her mar- 
riage, see Icarius, No. 2.] By Ulysses she had 
an only child, Telemachus, who was an infant when 
her husband sailed against Troy. During the long 
absence of Ul3'sses she was beleaguered by nurae- 
nms and importunate suitors, whom she deceived 
by declaring that she must finish a large robe 
which she was making for Laertes, her aged 
father-in-law, before she could make up her mind. 
Daring the daytime she accordingly worked at the 
robe, and in the night she undid the work of the 
day. By this means she succeeded in putting off 
the suitors. But at length her stratagem was be • 
trayed by her servants ; and when, in consequence, 
the faithful Penelope was pressed more and 
more by the impatient suitors, Ulysses at length 
arrived in Ithaca, after an absence of 20 years. 
Having recognised her husband by several signs, 
she heartily welcomed him, and the days of her 
grief and sorrow were at an end. [Ulysses.] 
While Homer describes Penelope as a most chaste 
and faithful wife, some later writers charge her 
with the very opposite vice, and relate that by 
Hermes or by all the suitors together she became 
the mother of Pan. They add that Ulysses on his 
return repudiated her, whereupon she went to 
Sparta, and thence to Mantinea, where her tomb 
was shown in after-times. According to another 
tradition, she married Telegonus, after he had 
killed his father Ulysses. 

Peneus (IlTjueios). 1. (Salambria or Salamria), 
the chief river of Thessah', and one of the most 
important in all Greece, rises near Alalcomenae in 
Mt. Lacmon, a branch of Mt. Pindus, flows first 
S.E. and then N.E., and after receiving many 
affluents, of which the most important were the 
Enipeus, the Lethaeus, and the Titaresius, forces 
its way througli the vale of Tempe between Mts. 



540 



PENIUS. 



PERAEA. 



Ossa and Ol3'mpus into the se<a. [Tempe.] As ! 
a god Peneus -was called a son of Oceanus and 
Tethys. By the Naiad Crensa he became the 
father of Hypseus, Stilbe, and Daphne. Cyrene 
also is called by some his wife, and by others his 
daughter ; and hence Peneus is described as the 
genitor of Aristaeus.— 2. (Gastuni), a river in 
Elis, which rises on the frontiers of Arcadia, flows 
by the town of Elis, and falls into the sea between 
the promontory Chelonatas and Ichthys. 

Penius, a little river of Pontus falling into the 
Euxine, (Ovid, Ex Ponto, iv. 10.) 

Penninae Alpes. [Alpes.] 

Pentapolis {neuTonro\is)^ the name for any 
association of 5 cities, was applied specifically to 
■ — 1. The 5 chief cities of Cyrenaica in N. Africa, 
Cyrene, Berenice, Arsinoe, Ptolema'is, and Apol- 
lonia, from Avhich, under the Ptolemies, Cyrenaica 
received the name of Pentapolis, or Pentapolis 
Libyae, or, in the Roman writers, Pentapolitana 
Regio. When the name occurs alone, this is its 
usual meaning ; the other applications of it are but 
rare. — 2. The 5 cities of the Philistines in the 
S. W. of Palestine, namely, Gaza, Ashdod (Azo- 
tus), Askalon, Gath, and Ekron. — - 3. In the 
apocryphal Book of tlie Wisdom of Solomon (x. 6.) 
the name is applied to the 5 " cities of the plain " 
of the southern Jordan, Sodom, Gomorrha, Adama, 
Zeboim, and Zoar, all of which (except the last, 
which Avas spared at the intercession of Lot) were 
overthroAvn by fire from heaven, and the valley in 
-which they stood was buried beneath the waters 
of the Dead Sea. 

Penteleum (nej/reAeiov), a fortified place in the 
N. of Arcadia near Pheneus. 

PentellCUS Mons {rh U^VTeXiKov 6pos : Pen- 
teli), a mountain in Attica, celebrated for its marble, 
Avhich derived its name from the demus of Pentele 
(riei'TeAr;), lying on its S. slope. It is a branch 
of Mt. Parnes, from which it runs in a S.E.-ly 
direction between Athens and Marathon to the 
coast. It is probably the same as the mountain 
called Brilessus (BpiATjorros) by Thucydides and 
others. 

Penthesilea (UivOealXeia), daughter of Ares 
and Otrera, and queen of the Amazons. After the 
death of Hector, she came to the assistance of the 
Trojans, but was slain by Achilles, who mourned 
over the dying queen on account of her beauty, 
youth and valour. Thersites ridiculed the grief of 
Achilles, and was in consequence killed by the 
hero. Thereupon Diomedes, a relative of Ther- 
sites, threw the body of Penthesilea into the river 
Scamander ; but, according to others, Achilles him- 
self buried it on the banks of the Xanthus. 

Pentheus (Ilei/Seu?), son of Echion and Agave, 
the daughter of Cadmus. He succeeded Cadmus 
as king of Thebes ; and having resisted the intro- 
duction of the worship of Dionysus into his king- 
dom, he was driven mad by the god, his palace was 
hurled to the ground, and he himself was torn to 
pieces by his own mother and her two sisters, Ino 
and Autonoe, who in their Bacchic frenzy believed 
him to be a wild beast. The place where Pentheus 
suffered death, is said to have been Mt. Cithaeron 
or Mt. Parnassus. It is related that Pentheus got 
upon a tree, for the purpose of witnessing in secret 
the revelry of the Bacchic women, but on being 
discovered by them was torn to pieces. According 
to a Corinthian tradition, ^he women were after- 
wards commanded by an oracle to discover that 



! tree, and to worship it like the god Dionysus ; and 
accordingly out of the tree two carved images of 
the god were made. The tragic fate of Pentheus 
forms the subject of the Bucchae of Euripides. 

PentMlus(neV0/Aos), son of Orestes and Erigone. 
is said to have led a colony of Aeolians to Thrace. 
He was the father of Echelatus and Damasias. 

Pentri, one of the most important of the tribes 
in Samnium, were conquered by the Romans along 
with the other Samnites, and were the only one of 
the Samnite tribes who remained faithful to the 
Romans when the rest of the nation revolted to 
Hannibal in the 2nd Punic war. Their chief town 

was BOVIANUM. 

Peor, a mountain of Palestine, in the land of 
Moab, only mentioned in the Pentateuch. It was 
probably one of the summits of the mountains 
called Abarim, which ran N. and S. through 
Moabitis, along the E. side of the valley of the 
southern Jordan and the Dead Sea. 

Peos Artemidos (Ileos, probably corrupted from 
STreoy, cave, 'Apre/xiSos : Beni Hassan, Ru.), a 
city of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, on the 
E. bank of the Nile, nearly opposite to Hermopolis 
the Great on the W. bank. It is remarkable as 
the site of the most extensive rock-hewn catacombs 
in all Egypt, the walls of which are covered with 
sculptures and paintings of the greatest importance 
for elucidating Egyptian antiquities. 

Peparethus {UeTrdprjOos : UeTrcLprjOios : Piperi), 
a small island in the Aegaean sea, off the coast of 
Thessaly, and E. of Halonesus, with a town of the 
same name upon it and 2 other small places. It 
produced a considerable quantity of wine. It is 
mentioned in connection with Halonesus in the 
war between Philip and the Athenians, [Halo- 
nesus.] 

Pephredo (Ue(pp7id(a). [Graeae.] 
Pepuza (UsTTov^a : Ru. near Besh-Shehr)^ a 
city in the W. of Phrj-^gia, of some note in ecclesi- 
astical history. 

Peraea {v Hepaia, sc. 77} or X'^P"? country/ on 
the opposite side), a general name for any district be- 
longing to or closely connected with a country, from 
the main part of which it was separated by a sea or 
river, Avas used specifically for — 1. The part of 
Palestine E. of the Jordan in general, but usually, 
in a more restricted sense, for a part of that region, 
namely, the district between the rivers Hieromax 
on the N., and Arnon on the S. Respecting its 
political connections with the rest of the country, 
see Palaestina. — 2. Peraea Rhodiorum (1) 
Trepaia twv 'PoStwi/), also called the Rhodian Cher- 
sonese, a district in the S. of Caria, opposite to the 
island of Pthodes, from Mt. Phoenix on the W. to 
the frontier of Lycia on the E. This strip of 
coast, which was reckoned 1500 stadia in length 
(by sea), and Avas regarded as one of the finest 
spots on the earth, was colonised by the Rhodians 
at an early period, and Avas always in close 
political connection Avith Rhodes e\-en under the 
successive rulers of Caria ; and, after the victory 
of the Romans oA'er Antiochus the Great, B.c. 190, 
it Avas assigned, Avith the whole of Carian Doris, 
to the independent republic of the Rhodians. 
[Rhod us.] — 3. P. Tenediorum {inpaia Tej/e5iW), 
a strip of the W. coast of Mysia, opposite to the 
island of Tenedos, betAveen C. Sigeum on the N., 
and Alexandria Troas on the S. — 4. A city on 
the W. coast of Mysia, near Adramyttium, one of 
the colonies of the Mytilenaeans, and not im- 



PERCOTE. 



PERGA. 



541 



probably preserving in its name that of a district 
once called Peraea Mytilenaeorum ; for the people 
of Mytilene are known to have had many settle- 
ments on tiiis coast. 

Percote {UepKwrr], formerly Ilep/faJTrTj, accord- 
ing to Strabo : Boreas or Burgus^ Turk., and Per- 
cale^ Grk.), a very ancient city of Mysia, between 
Abydos and Lampsacus, near the Hellespont, on a 
;iver called Percates, in a beautiful situation. It 
is mentioned by Homei . 

Perdiccas (nepSiKfcas) 1. 1. The founder of the 
Macedonian monarchy, according to Herodotus, 
though later writers represent Caranus as the 1st 
king of Macedonia, and make Perdiccas only the 
4th. [Caranus.] According to Herodotus, Per- 
diccas and his two brothers, Gauanes and Aeropus, 
were Argives of the race of Temenus, who settled 
near Mt. Bermius, from whence they subdued 
the rest of Macedonia (Herod, viii. 137, 138). It 
is clear, however, that the dominions of Perdiccas 
and his immediate successors, comprised but a 
very small part of the country subsequently known 
under that name. Perdiccas was succeeded by 
his son Argaeus. — 2. II. King of Macedonia, 
from about B. c. 454 to 413, was the son and 
successor of Alexander I. Shortly before the com- 
mencement of the Peloponnesian war Perdiccas 
was at war with the Athenians, vi^ho sent a force 
to support his brother Philip, and Derdas, a 
Macedonian chieftain, against the king, Avhile the 
latter espoused the cause of Potidaea, which had 
shaken off the Athenian yoke, b. c. 432. In the 
following year peace was concluded between Per- 
diccas and the Athenians, but it did not last 
long, and he was during the greater part of his 
reign on hostile terms with the Athenians. In 
429 his dominions were invaded by Sitalces, 
king of the powerful Thracian tribe of the Odry- 
sians, but the enemy was compelled, by want of 
provisions, to return home. It was in great 
part at his instigation that Brasidas in 424 set out 
on his celebrated expedition to Macedonia and 
Thrace. In the following year (423) however a 
misunderstanding arose between him and Brasidas ; 
in consequence of which he abandoned the Spartan 
alliance, and concluded peace with Athens. Sub- 
sequently we find him at one time in alliance 
with the Spartans, and at another time with the 
Athenians ; and it is evident that he joined one or 
other of the belligerent parties according to the 
dictates of his own interest at the moment. — 3. 
III. King of Macedonia, B.C. 364 — 359, was the 
second son of Amyntus II., by his wife Eurydice. 
On the assassination of his brother Alexander II., 
by Ptolemy of Alorus, 367, the crown of Mace- 
donia devolved upon him by hereditary right, but 
Ptolemy virtually enjoyed the sovereign power as 
guardian of Perdiccas till 364, when the latter 
caused Ptolemy to be put to death, and took the 
government into his own hands. Of the reign of 
Perdiccas we have very little information. We 
learn only that he was at one time engaged in 
hostilities with Athens on account of Amphipolis, 
and that he was distinguished for his patronage of 
men of letters. He iell in battle against the Illy- 
rians, 359. — 4, Son of Orontes, a Macedonian of 
the province of Orestis, was one of the most dis- 
tinguished of the generals of Alexander the Great. 
He accompanied Alexander throughout his cam- 
paigns in Asia ; and the king on his death-bed 
ia said to have taken the royal signet ring from 



' his finger and given it to Perdiccas. After the 
death of the king (323), Perdiccas had the chief 
authority entrusted to him under the command 
of the new king Anhidaeus, who was a mere 
puppet in his hands, and he still further 
strengthened his power by the assassination of his 
rival Meleager. [Meleager.] The other gene- 
rals of Alexander regarded him with fear and 
suspicion ; and at length his ambitious schemes 
induced Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, to unite 
in a league and declare open war against Perdiccas. 
Thus assailed on all sides, Perdiccas determined to 
leave Eumenes in Asia Minor, to make head against 
their common enemies in that quarter, while he 
himself marched into Egypt against Ptolemy. He 
advanced without opposition as far as Peliisium, 
but found the banks of the Nile strongly fortified 
and guarded by Ptolemy, and was repulsed in re- 
peated attempts to force the passage of the river ; in 
the last of which, near Memphis, he lost great 
numbers of men. Thereupon his troops, who had 
long been discontented with Perdiccas, rose iti 
mutiny and put him to death in his own tent. 

Perdix (ne/j5i|), the sister of Daedalus, and 
mother of Tales, or according to others, the sister's 
son of Daedalus, figures in the mythological period 
of Greek art, as the inventor of various implements, 
chiefly for working in wood. Perdix is sometimes 
confounded with Tales or Calos, and it is best to 
regard the various legends respecting Perdix, Tales, 
and Calos, as referring to one and the same person, 
namely, according to the mythographers, a nephew 
of Daedalus. The inventions ascribed to hira are : 
the saw, the idea of which is said to have been 
suggested to him by the back-bone of a fish, or the 
teeth of a serpent ; the chisel ; the compasses ; the 
potter's wheel. His skill excited the jealousy of 
Daedalus, who threw him headlong from the temple 
of Athena on the Acropolis, but the goddess caught 
him in his fall, and changed him into the bird 
which was named after him, perdix^ the partridge. 

Peregrinus Proteus, a cynic philosopher, born 
at Parium, on the Hellespont, flourished in the 
reign of the Antonines. After a youth spent in 
debauchery and crimes, he visited Palestine, where 
he turned Christian, and by dint of hypocrisy at- 
tained to some authority in the Church. ' He next 
assumed the cynic garb, and returned to his native 
town, where, to obliterate the memory of 'his 
crimes, he divided his inheritance among the popu- 
lace. He again set out on his travels, and after 
visiting many places, and adopting every method 
to make himself conspicuous, he at length resolved 
on publicly burning himself at the Olympic games ; 
and carried his resolution into effect in the 236th 
Olympiad, a. d. 165. Lucian, who knew Pere- 
grinus, and who was present at his strange self- 
immolation, has left us an account of his life. 

Perenna, Anna. [Anna.] 

Perennis, succeeded Paternus in a. D. 183, as 
sole praefect of the praetorians, and Commodus 
being completely sunk in debauchery and sloth, 
virtually ruled the empire. Having, however, 
rendered himself obnoxious to the soldiery, he was 
put to death by them in 186 or 187. Dion Cassius 
represents Perennis as a man of a pure and upright 
life ; but the other historians charge him with 
having encouraged the emperor in all his excesses, 
and urged him on in his career of profligacy. 

Perga {Tiepyn : Uepyaios : Murtana, Ru.) , ati 
ancient and important city of Pamphylia, lay a 



542 



PERGAMA. 



PERIANDEK. 



little inland, N. E. of Attalia. between the rivers 
Catarrhactes and Cestrus, 60 stadia (6 geog. miles) 
from the mouth of the former. It was a cele- 
brated seat of the worship of Artemis. On an 
eminence near the city stood a very ancient and 
renowned temple of the goddess, at which a yearly 
festival was celebrated ; and the coins of Perga 
bear images of the goddess and her temple. Under 
the later Roman empire, it was the capital of 
Paraphylia Secunda. It was the first place in 
Asia Minor visited by the apostle Paul on his 
first missionary journey (Acts, xiii. 13. ; see also 
xiv. 25). Splendid ruins of the city are still 
visible about 16 miles N. E. of Adulia. 

Pergama and Pergamia [Pergamon, No. 1]. 

Pergamon or -um, Pergamos or -us (t^ 
Ilepyajxou, 7] Uepyaixos : the former by far the 
most usual form in the classical writers, though 
the latter is more common in English, probably on 
account of its use in our version of the Bible, 
Rev. ii. 13. ; in Latin it seldom occurs in the 
nominative, but, when used, the form is Perga- 
raum : HepyapL-rivos, Pergaraenus. The word is 
significant, connected with -rrupyos, a tower; it is 
used in the plural form, ir^pyo-iia^ as a common 
noun b}' Aeschylus, Prom. 956 ; Euripides, PUoen. 
1098, 1176).—!. The citadel of Troy, and used 
poetically for Troy itself: the poets also use the 
forms Pergama (ra TUpyafxa) and Pergamia 
Yl^pyafiia^ sc. -n-fjAts) : the king of Troy, Laomedon, 
is called Ilepya.uiSrjs, and the Romans are spoken 
of by Silius Italicus as " sanguis Pergameus." — 
2. {Bergama or Pergamo, Ru.), a celebrated city of 
Asia Minor, the capital of the kingdom of Per- 
gamus, and afterwards of the Roman province of 
Asia, was situated in the district of S. Mysia 
called Teuthrania, in one of the most beautiful 
and fertile vallies in the world. It stood on the 
N. bank of the river Caicus, at a spot where that 
river receives the united waters of 2 small tribu- 
taries, the Selinus, which flowed through the city, 
and the Cetius, which washed its v/alls. The 
navigable river Caicus connected it with the sea, 
at the Elaitic Gulf, from Avhich its distance was 
somewhat less than 20 miles. It was built at the 
foot, and on the lowest slopes, of 2 steep hills, on 
one of which the ruins of the acropolis are still 
visible, and in the plain below are the remains of 
the Asclepieum and other temples, of the stadium, 
the theatre, and the amphitheatre, and of other 
buildings. The origin of the city is lost in my- 
thical traditions, which ascribed its foundation to 
a colony from Arcadia under the Heracleid Te- 
lephus, and its name to Pergamus, a son of Pyr- 
rhus and Andromache, who made himself king of 
Teuthrania by killing the king Arius in single 
combat. There is also a tradition, that a colony 
of Epidaurians settled here under Asclepius. At 
all events, it was alreadj', in the time of Xeno- 
phon, a very ancient city, with a mixed population 
of Tcuthranians and Greeks; but it was not a 
place of much importance until the time of the 
successors of Alexander. After the defeat of An- 
tigonus at Ipsus, in 301, the N.W. part of Asia 
.l\Iinor was united to the Thracian kingdom of 
Lysimachus, who enlarged and beautified the 
city of Pergamus, and used it as a treasury on 
account of its strength as a -fortress. The command 
of the fortress was entrusted to Philetaerus, 
who, towards the end of the reign of Lysimachus, 
revolted to Seleucus, king of Syria, retaining, 



however, the fortress of Pergamus in his own 
hands ; and upon the death of Selczicus, in 280, 
Philetaerus established himself as an independent 
ruler. This is the date of the commencement of 
the kingdom of Pergamus, though the roj-al title 
was only assumed by the second fuccessor of Phi^ 
letaerus, Attai.us I., after his great victory over 
the Gauls. The successive kings of Pergamu.s 
were: Philetaerus, 280 — 263 ; Eumenes 1.. 
263—241 ; AttalusL, 241—197; Eumenes II., 
197 — 159; Attalus II. Philadelphus, 159 — 
138; Attalus III. Philometor, 138 — 133. 
For the outline of their history, see the articles. 
The kingdom reached its greatest extent after the 
defeat of Antiochus the Great by the Romans, in 
B.C. 190, when the Romans bestowed upon Eu- 
menes II, the whole of Mysia, Lydia, both Phry- 
gias, Lycaonia, Pisidia and Pamphylia. It was 
under the same king that Pergamus reached the 
height of its splendour, and that the celebrated 
library was founded, which for a long time rivalled 
that of Alexandria, and the formation of which 
occasioned the invention of parchment, charta Per- 
gamena. This library was afterwards united to 
that of Alexandria, having been presented by An- 
tony to Cleopatra, During its existence at Per- 
gamus, it formed the centre of a great school of 
literature, which rivalled that of Alexandria. On 
the death of Attalus III. in B. c, 133, the king- 
dom, by a bequest in his will, passed to the 
Romans, who took possession of it in 130 after 
a contest with the usurper Aristonicus, and 
erected it into the province of Asia, with the 
city of Pergamus for its capital, which continued 
in such prosperity, that Pliny calls it ''longe 
clarissimum Asiae." The city was an early seat 
of Christianity, and is one of the Seven Churches 
of Asia, to whom the apocalyptic epistles are ad- 
dressed. St. John describes it as the scene of a 
persecution of Christianity, and the seat of gross 
idolatry, which had even infected the Church. 
The expression " where Satan's seat is" is thought 
by some to refer to the worship of the serpent, as 
the symbol of Asclepius, the patron god of the 
city. Under the Byzantine emperors, the capital 
of the province of Asia was transferred to Ephesus, 
and Pergamus lost much of its importance. Among 
the celebrated natives of the city were the rheto- 
rician ApoUodorus and the physician Galen. — 
2. A ver}'- ancient city of Crete, the foundation of 
which was ascribed to the Trojans who survived 
their city. The legislator Lycurgus was Gaid to 
have died here, and his grave was shown. The 
site of the city is doubtful. Some place it at 
Perama, others at Plata7iia. 

Pergamus. [Pergamon.] 

Perge. [Perga.] 

Periander {U^piavZpos). 1. Son of Cypselus, 
whom he succeeded as tyrant of Corinth, B. c. 625, 
and reigned 40 years, to B. c. 585. His rule was 
mild and beneficent at first, but afterwards became 
oppressive. According to the common story this 
change was owing to the advice of Thrasybulus, 
tyrant of Miletus, whom Periander had consulted 
on the best mode of maintaining his power, and 
who is said to have taken the messenger through a 
corn-field, cutting off, as he Avent, the tallest ears, 
and then to have dismissed him without committing 
himself to a verbal answer. The action, however, 
was rightly interpreted by Periander, Avho pro- 
ceeded to rid himself of the m.ost powerful nobles 



PERIBOEA. 



PERICLES. 



546 



in the state. He made his power respected abroad 
as well as at home ; and besides his conquest of 
Epidaurus, mentioned below, he kept Corcyra in 
subjection. He was, like many of the other Greek 
tyrants, a patron of literature and philosophy ; 
and Arion and Anacharsis were in favour at his 
court. He was very commonly reckoned among 
the Seven S;iges, though by some he was excluded 
from their number, and Mysou of Chenae in La- 
conia was substituted in his room. The private 
life of Periander was marked by misfortune and 
craelty. He married Melissa, daughter of Procles, 
tyrant of Epidaurus. She bore iiim two sons, 
Cypseliis and Lycophron, and was passionately 
beloved by him ; but he is said to have killed her 
by a blow during her pregnancy, having been 
roused to a fit of anger by a false accusation brought 
against her. His wife's death embittered the re- 
mainder of his days, partly through the remorse 
which he felt for the deed, partly through the 
alienation of his younger son Lj'cophron, inexorabl}' 
exasperated by his mother's fate. The young 
man's anger had been chiefly excited by Procles, 
and Periander in revenge att'icked Epidaurus, and, 
having reduced it, took his father-in-law prisoner. 
Periander sent Lycophron to Corcyra ; but when 
he was himself advanced in years, he summoned 
Lycophron back to Corinth to succeed to the ty- 
ranny, seeing that Cypselus, feis elder son, was 
unfit to hold it, from deficiency of understanding. 
Lycophron refused to return to Corinth, as long as 
Ms father was there. Thereupon Periander offered 
to withdraw to Corcyra, if Lycophron would come 
tome and take the government. To this he as- 
sented ; but the Corcyraeans, not wishing to have 
Periander among them, put Lycophron to death. 
Periander shortly afterwards died of despondency, 
at the age of 80, and after a reign of 40 years, 
according to Diogenes Laertius. lie was succeeded 
by a relative, Psammetichus, son of Gordias. — 2. 
Tyrant of Ambracia, was contemporary with his 
more famous namesake of Corinth, to whom he was 
also related, being the son of Goigus, who was son 
or brother to Cypselus. Peri.ander was deposed by 
the people, probably after the death of the Corinthian 
tyrant^(585). 

Penboea (UepiSoia). 1. Wife of Tcarius, and 
mother of Penelope. [Icakius, No. 2.]— -2. 
Daughter of Alcathous, and wife of Telamon, by 
whom she became the mother of Ajax and Teucer. 
Some writers call her Eriboen. — 3. Daughter of 
Hipponous, and wife of Oeneus, by whom she be- 
came the mother of Tydeus. [Oeneus.] — 4. 
Wife of king Polybus of Corinth. 

Pericles {n^piicKrjs). 1. The greatest of Athe- 
nian statesmen, was the s;)n of Xanthippus, and 
Agariste, both of whom belonged to the noblest 
families of Athens. The fortune of his parents 
procured for him a careful education, which his 
extraordinary abilities and diligence turned to the 
best account. He received mstruction from Da- 
mon, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras. With An- 
axagoras he lived on temis of the most intimate 
friendship, till the philosopher was compelled to 
retire from Athens. From this great and original 
thinker Pericles was believed to have derived not 
only the cast of his mind, but the character of his 
eloquence, which, in the elevation of its sentiments, 
and the purity and loftiness of its style, was the 
fitting expre.ssion of the force and dignity of his 
character and the grandeur of his conceptions. Of 



the oratory of Pericles no specimens remain to ns, 
but it is described by ancient writers as charac- 
terised by singular force and energy. He was 
described as tliundering and lightning when he 
spoke, and as carrying the weapons of Zeus upon 
his tongue. — In B. c. 469, Pericles began to take 
part in public affairs, 40 years before his death, 
and Avas soon regarded as the head of the more 
democratical part in the state, in opposition to 
Cimon. He gained the favour of the people by the 
laws which he got passed for their benefit. Thus 
it was enacted through his means that the citizens 
should receive from the public treasury the price of 
their admittance to the theatre, amounting to 2 
oboli apiece ; that those who served in the courts of 
the Heliaea should be paid for their attendance ; 
and that those citizens who served as soldiers 
should likewise be paid. It was at his instigation 
that his friend Ephialtes proposed in 461 the 
measure by which the Areopagus was deprived of 
those functions which rendered it formidable as an 
antagonist to the democratical party. This success 
was followed by the ostracism of Cimon, who was 
charged with Laconism ; and Pericles was thus 
placed at the head of public affairs at Athens. 
Pericles was distinguished as a general as well as 
a statesman, and frequently commanded the Athe- 
nian armies in their wars with the neighbouring 
states. In 454 he commanded the Athenians in 
their campaigns against the Sicyonians and Acama- 
nians in 448 he led the army which assisted the 
Phocians in the Sacred War ; and in 445 he 
rendered the most signal service to the state by 
recovering the island of Euboea, which had revolted 
from Athens. Cimon had been previously recalled 
from exile, without any opposition from Pericles, 
but had died in 449. On his death the aristo- 
cratical party was headed by Thucydides, the son 
of Melesias, but on the ostracism of the latter in 
444, the organized opposition of the aristocratical 
party was broken up, and Pericles was left without 
a rival. Throughout the remainder of his political 
course no one appeared to contest his supremacy ; 
but the boundless influence which he possessed was 
never perverted by him to sinister or unworthy 
purposes. So far from being a mere selfish dema- 
gogue, he neither indulged nor courted the multi- 
tude. The next important event in which Pericles 
was engaged was the Avar against Samos, which 
had revolted from Athens, and which he subdued 
after an arduous campaign, 440. The poet Sopho- 
cles was oneof the generals who fought with Pericles 
against Samos. For the next 10 years till the out- 
break of the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians were 
not engaged in any considerable military operations. 
During this period Pericles devoted especial atten- 
tion to the Athenian navy, as her supremacy rested 
on her maritime superiority, and he adopted various 
judicious means for consolidating and strengthening 
her empire over the islands of the Aegaean. The 
funds derived from the tribute of the allies and 
from other sources were to a large extent devoted 
by him to the erection of those magnificent temples 
and public buildings which rendered Athens the 
wonder and admiration of Greece. Under his 
administration the Propylaea, and the Parthenon, 
and the Odeum were erected, as Avell as numerous 
other ternples and public buildings. With the 
stimulus afforded b}' these works architecture and 
sculpture reached their highest perfection, and 
some of the greatest artists of antiquity were era- 



544 



PERICLES. 



PERIPHAS. 



ployed in erecting or adorning the buildings. The 
chief direction and oversight of the public edifices 
was entrusted to Phidias. [Phidias.] These 
works calling into activity almost every branch of 
industry and commerce at Athens, diffused uni- 
versal prosperity while they proceeded, and thus 
contributed in this, as well as in other ways, to 
maintain the popularity and influence of Pericles. 
But he still had many enemies, who were not slow 
to impute to him base and unworthy motives. 
From the comic poets Pericles had to sustain nu- 
merous attacks. They exaggerated his power, 
spoke of his party as Fisistratids, and called upon 
him to swear that he was not about to assume the 
tyranny. His high character and strict probity, 
however, rendered all these attacks harmless. But 
as his enemies were unable to ruin his reputation 
by these means, they attacked him through his 
friends. His friends Phidias and Anaxagoras, 
and his mistress Aspasia were all accused before 
the people. Phidias was condemned and cast into 
prison [Phidias] ; Anaxagoras was also sentenced 
to pay a fine and quit Athens [Anaxagoras] ; 
and Aspasia was only acquitted through the en- 
treaties and tears of Pericles. — The Peloponnesir.n 
war has been falsely ascribed to the ambitious 
schemes of Pericles. It is true that he counselled 
the Athenians not to yield to the demands of the 
Lacedaemonians, and he pointed out the immense 
advantages which the Athenians possessed in carry- 
ing on the war ; but lie did this because he saw that 
war was inevitable ; and that as long as Athens 
retained the great power which she then possessed, 
Sparta would never rest contented. On the out- 
break of the war in 431 a Peloponnesian amiy 
under Archidamus invaded Attica ; and upon his 
advice the Athenians conveyed their moveable 
property into the city, and their cattle and beasts 
of burden to Euboea, and allowed the Peloponne- 
sians to desolate Attica without opposition. Next 
year (430), when the Peloponnesians again invaded 
Attica, Pericles pursued the same policy <as before. 
In this summer the plague made its appearance in 
Athens. The Athenians, being exposed to the 
devastation of the war and the plague at the same 
time, began to turn their thoughts to peace, and 
looked upon Pericles as the author of all their 
distresses, inasmuch as he had persuaded them to 
go to war. Pericles attempted to calm the public 
ferment ; but such was the irritation against him, 
that he was sentenced to pay a fine. The ill feel- 
ing of the people having found this vent, Pericles 
soon resumed his accustomed sway, and was again 
elected one of the generals for the ensuing year 
(429). Meantime Pericles had suffered in common 
with his fellow-citizens. The plague carried off 
most of his near connections. Plis son Xanthippus, 
a profligate and undutiful youth, his sister, and 
most of his intimate friends died of it. Still he 
maintained unmoved his calm bearing and philo- 
sophic composure. At last his only surviving 
legitimate son, Paralus, a youth of greater promise 
than his brother, fell a victim. The firmness of 
Pericles then at last gave way ; as he placed the 
funeral garland on the head of the lifeless youth 
he burst into tears and sobbed aloud. He had one 
son remaining, his child by Aspasia ; and he was 
allowed to enrol this son hi his own tribe and give 
him his own name. In the autumn of 429 Pericles 
himself died of a lingering sickness. When at the 
point of death, as bis friends were gathered round 



his bed, recalling his virtues and enumerating his 
triumphs, Pericles overhearing their remarks, said 
that they had forgotten his greatest praise : that 
no Athenian through his means had been made to 
put on mourning. He survived the commencement 
of the war 2 years and 6 months. The name of 
the wife of Pericles is not mentioned. She luid 
been the wife of Hipponicus, b}' whom she was the 
mother of Callias. She bore two sons to Pericles, 
Xanthippus and Paralus. She lived unhappilv 
with Pericles, and a divorce took place by mutual 
consent, when Pericles connected himself with 
Aspasia. Of his strict probity he left the decisive 
proof in the fact that at his death he was found 
not to have added a single drachma to his here- 
ditary property. — 2. Son of the preceding, by 
Aspasia, was one of the generals at the battle of 
Arginusae, and was put to death by the Athenians 
with the other generals, 406. 

Periclymenus (n€pi/c\i;^teroy). 1. One of the 
Argonauts, was son of Neleus and Chloris, and 
brother of Nestor. Poseidon gave him the power 
of changing himself into different forms, and con- 
ferred upon him great strength, but he was never- 
theless slain by Hercules at the capture of Pylos. 
— 2. Son of Poseidon and Chloris, the daughter 
of Tiresias, of Thebes. In the war of the Seven 
against Thebes he was believed to have killed 
Parthenopaeus ; and when he pursued Amphiaraus, 
the latter by the command of Zeus was swallowed 
up by the earth. 

Perieres {UeptrjpTjs), son of Aeolus and Enarete, 
king of Messene. was the father of Aphareus and 
Leucippus by Gorgophone. In some traditions 
Perieres was called a son of Cynortas, and besides 
the sons above mentioned he is said to have been 
the father of Tyndareos and Icarius. 

Peiilaus (IlepjAaos), son of Icarius and Peri- 
boea, and a brother of Penelope. 

Perillus (UepiWos), a statuary, was the maker 
of the bronze bull of the tj^ant Phalaris, respecting 
which see further under PhaLARIS. Like the 
makers of other instruments of death, Perillus is 
said to have become one of the victims of his own 
handiwork. 

Perintlius {Ut-pwdos : Uep'ivdios : EsH Eregli), 
an important town in Thrace on the Propontis, 
was founded by the Samians about B. c. 559. It 
was situated 22 miles W. of Selynibria on a small 
peninsula, and was built on the slope of a hill with 
rows of houses rising above each other like seats 
in an amphitheatre. It is celebrated for the ob- 
stinate resistance which it offered to Philip of 
Macedon, at which time it was a more powerful 
place than Byzantium. Under the Romans it still 
continued to be a flourishing town, being the point 
at which most of the roads met leading to Byzan- 
tium. The commercial importance of the town is 
attested \>y its numerous coins which are still 
extant. At a later time, but not earlier than the 
4th century of the Christian aera, we find it called 
Heraclea^ which occurs sometimes alone without 
any addition and sometimes in the form of 
Heracica Tliraciac or Hcraclca Perintkus. 

Periphas {Uepicpas), an Attic autochthon, pre- 
vious to the time of Cecrops, was a priest of Apollo, 
and on account of his virtues was made king of the 
country. In consequence of the honours paid to 
him, Zeus wished to destroy him; but at the re- 
quest of Apollo he was metamorphosed bj Zeus 
into an eagle, and his wife into a bird. 




Bird 's-ej e View of the Forum of Fcmpeii. See page GOl. 



A. Temple of Jupiter. 

B. Temple of Venus. 

C. Temple of Mercury. 

D. Basilica. 

E. Edifice of Eumachia. 
r. Thermae. 

G. Pantheon or Temple of Augustus. 
I, K, L. Tribunals or Courts of Justice. 



N. Granaries. 

P. Curia or Senaeulum. 

R. Part not yet excavated. 

S. Street of the Dried Fruits. 

T. Street leading to the Temple of Fortune. 

V. Triumphal Arch. 

W. Pedestals. 

Y. Street of the Silversmiths. 



ITofucep. 544. 




COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. PATR AE — PRAESUS. 




Patrae in Achaia. Page 530. 




Pellene in Acliaia. Page 537. 




Perga in Pamphylia. Page 541. 




Perinthus in Thrace. Page 544. 




Pliaestus in Crete. Page 551. 
To face p. 545.] 




Phaselis in Lycia. Page 554., 




Pheneus in Arcadia. Page 555. 




Philippi in Macedonia. Page 559. 




Populonia in Etruria. Page 607. 




Praesus in Crete. Page 611. 



PERIPHETES. 



PERSEPHONE. 



545 



Periphetes (Uepi^pTjT-ns), son of Hephaestus and 
Anticlea, surnamed Corynetes, that is, Club- 
bearer, was a robber at Epidaurus, who slew 
travellers with an iron club. Theseus at last killed 
him and took his club for his own use. 

Permessus {Ilfpurja-a-Ss : Kefalari)^ a river in 
Boeotia, which descends from Mt. Helicon, unites 
with the Olmius, and falls into the lake Copais 
near Haliartus. 

Perne (Ilepi/Tj), a little island off the coast of 
Ionia, opposite to the territory of Miletus, to which 
an earthquake united it. 

Pero (ITtjp&j), daughter of Neleus and Chloris, 
was married to Bias, and celebrated for her beauty. 

Perperena (IlepTrepTjt/o, and other fonns), a 
small town of Mysia, S. of Adramyttium, in the 
neighbourhood of which there were copper-mines 
and celebrated vineyards. It was said to be the 
place at which Thucydides died. 

Perperna or Perpenna (the former is the pre- 
ferable form). 1. M., praetor B.C. 135, when he 
carried on war against the slaves in Sicily ; and 
consul ] 30, when he defeated Aristonicus in Asia, 
and took him prisoner. He died near Pergamum 
on his return to Rome in 1 29. —2. M., son of the 
last, consul 92, and censor 86. He is mentioned 
by the ancient writers as an extraordinary instance 
of longevity. He attained the age of 98 years, 
and died in 49, the year in which the civil war 
broke out between Caesar and Pompey. He took 
no prominent part in tiie agitated times in which 
ne lived. — 3. M. Perperna Vento, son of the 
last, joined the Marian party in the civil war, and 
was raised to the praetorship. After the conquest 
of Italy by Sulla, in 82, Perperna fled to Sicily, 
-which he quitted however upon the arrival of Pom- 
pey shortly afterwards. On the death of Sulla, in 
78, Perperna joined the consul M. Lepidus in his 
attempt to overthrow the new aristocratical consti- 
tution, and retired with him to Sardinia on the 
failure of this attempt Lepidus died in Sardinia 
in the following year, 77, and Perperna with the 
remains of his army crossed over to Spain and 
joined Sertorius. Perperna was jealous of the 
ascendancy of Sertorius, and after serving under 
him some years he and his friends assassinated 
Sertorius at a banquet in 72. His death soon 
brought the war to a close. Perperna was de- 
feated by Pompey, was taken prisoner, and was 
put to death. 

Perrhaebi (ne^^oi§oi' or riepaigoi), a powerful 
and warlike Pelasgic people, who, according to 
Strabo, migrated from Euboea to the mainland, 
and settled in the districts of Hestiaeotis and Pe- 
lasgiotis in Thessaly. Hence the northern part of 
this country is frequently called Perrbaebia (ITep- 
paiS'ia, riepai^ta), though it never formed one of 
the regular Thessalian provinces. Homer places 
the Perrhaebi in the neighbourhood of the Thes- 
salian Dodona and the river Titaresius ; and at a 
later time the name of Perrhaebia was applied to 
the district boimded by Macedonia and the Cam- 
bunian mountains on the N., by Pindus on the W., 
by the Peneus on the S. and S.E., and by the 
Peneus and Ossa on the E. The Perrhaebi were 
members of the Amphictyonic league. At an early 
period they were subdued by the Lapithae; at the 
time of the Peloponnesian war they were subject 
to the Thessaliuns, and subsequently to Philip of 
Macedon ; but at the time of the Roman wars in 
Greece they appear independent of Macedonia. 



Perrhidae (Ue^piSai), an Attic deraua near 
Aphidna, belonging to the tribe Antiochis. 

Persabora or Perisabora (UepaaSwpa : Anbar), 
a strongly fortified city of Babylonia, on the W. 
side of the Euphrates, at the point where the canal 
called Maarsares left the river. 

Persae. [Persis.] 

Persaeus (nep<ra7os)^ a Stoic philosopher, was 
a native of Cittiura in Crete, and a disciple of 
Zeno. He lived for some years at the court of 
Antigonus Gonatas, v/ith whom he seems to have 
been in high favour. Antigonus appointed him to 
the chief command in Corinth, where he was slain, 
when the city was taken by Aratus, B. c. 243. 

Perse (riepo-Tj), daughter of Oceanus, and wife 
of Helios (the Sun), by whom she became the 
mother of Aeetes and Circe. She is further called 
the mother of Pasiphae and Perses. Homer and 
ApoUonius Rhodius call her Perse, while others 
call her Perseis or Persea. 

Perseis, a name given to Hecate, as the daughter 
of Perses by Asteria. 

Persephone {Uep(re(p6vr]\ called Proserpina 
by the Romans, the daughter of Zeus and Deme- 
ter. In Homer she is called Perseplionta (Ilepo-e- 
(p6veia) ; the form Persephone first occurs in He- 
siod. But besides these forms of the name, Ave 
also find Persephassa, Phersephassa, Persephatta^ 
Pherscphatta, Pherrephassa, Pherephatta, and Phcr- 
sephoma, for which various etymologies have been 
proposed. The Latin Proserpina is probably only 
a corruption of the Greek. In Attica she was 
worshipped under the name of Cora (KdpTj, Ion. 
Kovpri), that is, the Daughter, namely, of Demeter; 
and the two Avere frequently called Tlie Mother 
and tlie Daughter (t] MrjTrjp Koi r\ Kdpri). Being 
the infernal goddess of death, she is also called a 
daughter of Zeus and Styx. In Arcadia she was 
worshipped under the name of Despoena, and was 
called a daughter of Poseidon Hippius and Deme- 
ter, and said to have been brought up by the Titan 
Anytus. Homer describes her as the wife of 
Hades, and the formidable, venerable, and majestic 
queen of the Shades, who rules over the souls of 
the dead, along with her husband. Hence she is 
called by later writers Juno In/erna, Averna, and 
Stygia ; and the Erinnyes are said to have been 
her daughters by Pluto. Groves sacred to her are 
placed by Homer in the western extremity of the 
earth, on the frontiers of the lower world, which 
is itself called the house of Persephone. The story 
of her being carried off by Hades or Pluto against 
her will is not mentioned by Homer, Avho simply 
describes her as the wife and queen of Hades. Her 
abduction is first mentioned by Hesiod. The ac- 
count of her abduction, which is the most celebrated 
part of her story, and the wanderings of her mother 
in search of her, and the worship of the 2 goddesses 
in Attica at the festival of the Eleusinia, are related 
under Demeter. In the mystical theories of the 
Orphics, Persephone is described as the all-per- 
vading goddess of nature, Avho both produces and 
destroys every thing ; and she is therefore men- 
tioned along, or identified with, other mystic divi- 
nities, such as Isis, Rhea, Ge, Hestia, Pandora, 
Artemis, Hecate. This mystic Persephone is fur- 
ther said to have become by Zeus the mother of 
Dionysus, lacchus, Zagreus or Sabazius. — Perse- 
phone frequently appears in works of art. She is 
represented either with the grave and severe cha- 
racter of an infernalJuno, or as a mystical divinity 

N N 



546 



PERSEPOLIS. 



■with a sceptre and a little box, in the act of being 
carried off by Pluto. 

Persepolis (Jlepa-eiroXis, Ilepcra'nroXis : in the 
middle ages, IsiakJiar : now Takhti-Jemshid, i. e. 
Throne of JemsUd, or Chil-3finar, i. e. Forty Pil- 
lars : large Ru.) is the Greek name, probably 
translated from the Persian name, which is not 
recorded, of the great city which succeeded Pasar- 
gada as the capital of Persis and of the Persian 
empire. From the circumstance, however, of the 
conquest of the Babylonian empire taking place 
about the time when Persepolis attained this dig- 
nity, it appears to have been seldom used as the 
royal residence. Neither Herodotus, Xenophon, 
Ctesias, nor the sacred writers during the Persian 
period, mention it at all ; though they often speak 
of Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, as the capitals of 
the empire. It is only from the Greek wTiters 
after the Macedonian conquest that we learn its 
rank in the empire, which appears to have con- 
sisted chiefly in its being one of the 2 burial places 
of the kings (the other being Pasargada), and also 
a royal treasury; for Alexander found in the 
palace immense riches, which were said to have ac- 
cumulated from the time of Cyrus. Its foundation 
is sometimes ascribed to Cyrus the Great, but more 
generally to his son Cambyses. It was greatly 
enlarged and adorned by Darius I. and Xerxes, 
and preserved its splendour till after the Macedo- 
nian conquest, when it was burnt ; Alexander, as 
the story goes, setting fire to the palace with his 
own hand, at the end of a revel, by the instigation 
of the courtezan Thai's, B.C. 331. It was not, 
however, so entirely destroyed as some historians 
represent. It appears frequently in subsequent 
history, both ancient and medieval. It is now 
deserted, but its ruins are considerable, though too 
dilapidated to give any good notion of Persian 
architecture, and they are rich in cuneiform in- 
scriptions. It was situated in the heart of Persis, 
in the part called Hollow Persis (ko'iKt] Uepcns), 
not far from the border of the Carmanian Desert, 
in a beautiful and healthy valley, watered by the 
river Araxes (Bend-Emir), and its tributaries the 
Medus and the CjTnis. The city stood on the N, 
side of the Araxes, and had a citadel (the ruins of 
■which are still seen) built on the levelled surface 
of a rock, and enclosed by triple walls rising one 
above the other to the heights of 1 6, 48, and 60 
cubits, within which was the palace, with its royal 
sepulchres and treasuries, 

Perses (Uepar-ns). 1. Son of the Titan Crius 
and Eurybia, and husband of Asteria, by whom 
he became the father of Hecate. — 2. Son of Per- 
seus and Andromeda, described by the Greeks as 
the foimder of the Persian nation. — 3. Son of 
Helios (the Sun) and Perse, and brother of Aeetes 
and Circe. 

Perseus (riepo-eus), the famous Argive hero, 
was a son of Zeus and Danae, and a grandson of 
Acrisius. An oracle had told Acrisius that he was 
doomed to perish by the hands of Danae's son ; 
and he therefore shut up his daughter in an apart- 
ment made of brass or stone. But Zeus having 
metamorphosed himself into a shower of gold, 
came down through the roof of the prison, and 
became by her the father of Perseus. From this 
circumstance Perseus is sometimes called auriffena. 
As soon as Acrisius discovered that Danae had 
given birth to a son, he put both mother and son 
into a chest, and threw them into the sea : but 



PERSEUS. 

Zeus caused the chest to land in the island of 
Seriphos, one of the Cyclades, where Dictys, a 
fisherman, found them, and carried them to Poiv- 
dectes, the king of the country. They were treated 
with kindness by Polydectes; but the latter hav- 
ing afterwards fallen in love -with Danae, and 
finding it impossible to gratify his desires in con- 
sequence of the presence of Perseus, v/ho had 
meantime groviTi up to manhood, he sent Perseus 
away to fetch the head of Medusa, one of the 
Gorgons. Guided by Hermes and Athena, Per- 
seus first went to the Graeae, the sisters of the 
Gorgons, took from them their one tooth and their 
one eye, and would not restore them until they 
showed him the way to the nymphs, who pos- 
sessed the winged sandals, the magic wallet, and 
the helmet of Hades, which rendered the wearer 
in^^sible. Having received from the Nymphs 
these invaluable presents, from Hermes a sickle, 
and from Athena a mirror, he mounted into the 
air, and arrived at the Gorgons, who dwelt near 
Tartessus on the coast of the Ocean, whose heads 
were covered, like those of serpents, with scales, 
and who had large tusks like boars, brazen hands, 
and golden -wings. He found them asleep, and 
cut oS the head of Medusa, looking at her figure 
through the mirror, for a sight of the monster her- 
self would have changed him into stone, Perseus 
put her head into the wallet which he carried on 
his back, and as he went away he was pursued by 
2 other Gorgons ; but his helmet, which rendered 
him invisible, enabled him to escape in safety, 
Perseus then proceeded to Aethiopia, where he 
saved and married Andromeda, [Andromeda.] 
Perseus is also said to have come to the Hyper- 
boreans, by whom he was hospitably received, and 
to Atlas, whom he changed into the mountain of 
the same name by the Gorgon's head. On his 
return to Seriphos, he found his mother vdth. Dictys 
in a temple, whither they had fled from the vio- 
lence of Polydectes. Perseus then went to the 
palace of Polydectes, and metamorphosed him and 
all his guests, and, some say, the whole island, 
into stone. He then presented the kingdom to 
Dictys. He gave the winged sandals and the 
helmet to Hermes, who restored them to the 
nymphs and to Hades, and the head of Gorgon to 
Athena, who placed it in the middle of her shield 
or breastplate. Perseus then went to Argos, ac- 
companied by Danae and Andromeda. Acrisius, 
remembering the oracle, escaped to Larissa, in the 
country of the Pelasgians ; but Perseus followed 
him, in order to persuade him to return. Some 
vsTiters state that Perseus, on his return to Argos, 
found Proetus, who had expelled his brother 
Acrisius, in possession of the kingdom ; and that 
Perseus slew Proetus, and was afterwards killed 
by Megapenthes, the son of Proetus. The more 
common tradition, however, relates that when Teu- 
tamidas, king of Larissa, celebrated games in honour 
of his guest Acrisius, Perseus, who took part in 
them, accidentally hit the foot of Acrisius with the 
discus, and thus killed him, Acrisius w*as buried 
outside the city of Larissa, and Perseus, leaving 
the kingdom of Argos to Megapenthes, the son of 
Proetus, received from him in exchange the govern- 
ment of Tiryns. According to others, Perseus 
remained in Argos, and successfully opposed the 
introduction of the Bacchic orgies. Perseus is said 
to have founded the towns of Midea and Mycenae. 
By Andromeda he became the father of Perses, 



PERSEUS. 

Alcaeus, Sthenelus, Heleus, Mestor, Electryon, 
Gorgophone, and Autochthe. Perseus was wor- 
shipped as a hero in several places. 

Perseus or Perses (Ilepcreus), the last king of 
Macedonia, was the eldest son of Philip "V., and 
reigned 11 years from b. c. 178 to 168. Before 
his accession he persuaded his father to put to 
death his younger brother Demetrius, whom he 
suspected that the Roman senate intended to set 
up as a competitor for the throne on the death of 
Philip. Immediately after his accession he began 
to make preparations for war with the Romans, 
which he knew to be inevitable, though 7 years 
elapsed before actual hostilities commenced. The 
war broke out in 171. The 1st year of the war 
was marked by no striking action. The consxil 
P. Licinius Crassus first suffered a defeat in Thes- 
saly in an engagement between the cavalry of the 
2 armies, but subsequently gained a slight advan- 
tage over the king's troops. — The 2nd year of the 
war (170), in which the consul A. Hostilius Man- 
cinus commanded, also passed over without any im- 
portant battle, but was on the whole favourable to 
Perseus. — The 3rd year (169), in which the con- 
sul Q. Marcius Philippus commanded, again pro- 
duced no important results. The length to which 
the war had been unexpectedly protracted, and the 
ill success of the Roman arms, had by this time 
excited a general feeling in favour of the Macedo- 
nian monarch ; but the ill-timed avarice of Perseus, 
who refused to advance the sum of money which 
Eumenes, king of Pergamus, demanded, deprived 
him of this valuable ally ; and the same unseason- 
able niggardliness likewise deprived him of the 
services of 20,000 Gaulish mercenaries, who had 
actually advanced into Macedonia to his support, 
but retired on failing to obtain their stipulated 
pay. He was thus led to carry on the contest 
against P..ome single-handed. — 'The 4th year of the 
war (168) was also the last. The new consul, 
L. Aemilius Paulus, defeated Perseus with great 
loss in a decisive battle fought near Pydna on 
June 22, 168. Perseus took refuge in the island of 
Samothrace, where he shortly afterwards surren- 
dered with his children to the praetor Cn. Octa- 
vius. When brought before Aemilius, he is said 
to have degraded himself by the most abject sup- 
plications: but he was treated with kindness by 
the Roman general. The following year he was 
carried to Italy, where he was compelled to adorn 
the splendid triumph of his conqueror (Nov. 30, 
167), and afterwards cast into a dungeon, from 
whence, however, the intercession of Aemilius pro- 
cured his release, and he was permitted to end his 
days in an honourable captivity at Alba. He sur- 
vived his removal thither a few years, and died, 
according to some accounts, by voluntary starva- 
tion, while others — fortunately with less proba- 
bility — represent him as falling a victim to the 
cruelty of his guards, who deprived him of sleep. 
Perseus had been twice married ; the name of his 
first wife, whom he is said to have killed with his 
own hand in a fit of passion, is not recorded ; his 
second, Laodice, was the daughter of Seleucus IV. 
Philopator. He left two children; a son, Alex- 
ander, and a daughter, both apparently by his 
second marriage, as they were mere children when 
carried to Rome. Besides these, he had adopted 
his younger brother Philip, who appears to have 
been regarded by him as the heir to his throne, 
and became the partner of his captivity. 



PERSIS. 547 

Persia. [Persis.] 

Persici Montea. [Parsjci Montes.] 

Persicus Sinus, Persicum Mare (d nep(riK6s 
KoAwoi, 1] UepaiKTj ^d\a(raa, and other forms : the 
Persian Culf), is the name given by the later geo- 
graphers to the great gulf of the Mare Erythraeum 
{Indian Ocean), extending in a S.E. direction from 
the mouths of the Tigris, between the N.E. coast 
of Arabia and the opposite coast of Susiana, Persis, 
and Karmania, to the narrow strait formed by the 
long tongue of land which projects from the N. 
side of Oman in Arabia, by which strait it is con- 
nected with the more open gulf of the Indian 
Ocean called Paragon Sinus [Gulf of Oman). The 
earlier Greek writers know nothing of it. Hero- 
dotus does not distinguish it from the Erythraean 
Sea. The voyage of Alexander's admiral Nearchus 
from the Indus to the Tigris made it better known, 
but still the ancient geographers in general give 
very inaccurate statements of its size and form. 

Persides (IlepcretSrjy, Ilepo-TjtoSTjs), a patrony- 
mic given to the descendants of Perses. 

Persis, and very rarely Persia (tj riepo-is, and 
t) UepaiKT], sc. yrj, the fem. adjectives, the masc. 
being UepaiK6s, from the ethnic noun Ilepo-Tjy, pi. 
Uepcrai, fem. Il4pats, Latin Persa and Perses, 
pi. Persae : in modern Persian and Arabic, Fars 
or Farsistan, i. e. s(an, land of Fars = old Persian 
pars, horse or horseman: Eng. Persia), originally 
a small mountainous district of W. Asia, lying on 
the N.E. side of the Persian Gulf, and surrounded 
on the other sides by mountains and deserts. On 
the N.W. and N. it was separated from Susiana, 
Media, and Parthia, by the little river Oroatis or 
Orosis, and by M. Parachoathras ; and on the E. 
from Carmania by no definite boundaries in the 
Desert. The only level part of the country was 
the strip of sea-coast called Persis Paralia : the 
rest was intersected with branches of M. Para- 
choathras, the valleys between which were watered 
by several rivers, the chief of which were the 
Araxes, Cyrus, and Medus: in this part of 
the country, which was called Koile Persis, stood 
the capital cities Pasargada and Persepolis. 
The country has a remarkable variety of climate 
and of products ; the N, mountainous regions being 
comparatively cold, but Avith good pastures, espe- 
cially for camels ; the middle slopes having a tem- 
perate climate and producing abundance of fruit 
and wine ; and the S. strip of coast being intensely 
hot, and sandy, with little vegetation except the 
palm-tree. The inhabitants were a collection of 
nomad peoples of the Indo-European stock, who 
called themselves by a name which is given in 
Greek as Artaei ('ApTaTot), and which, like the 
kindred Median name of Arii ("Apioi), signifies 
nohle or honourable, and is applied especially to the 
true worshippers of Ormuzd and followers of Zo- 
roaster : it was in fact rather a title of honour 
than a proper name ; the true collective name of 
the people seems to have been Paraca. According 
to Herodotus, they were divided into 3 classes or 
castes : 1st, the nobles or warriors, containing the 
3 tribes of the Pasargadae, who were the most 
noble, and to whom the royal family of the Achae- 
meiiidae belonged, the Maraphii and the Maspii; 
2ndly, the agricultural and other settled tribes, 
namely, the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, andGermanii; 
3rdly, the tribes which remained nomadic, namely, 
the Daae, Mardi, Dropici, and Sagartii, names com- 
mon to other parts of W. and Central Asia. The 

K N 2 



548 



PERSIS. 



PERSIUS. 



Persians had a close ethnical affinity to the Medes, 
and followed the same customs and religion [Magi; 
Zoroaster]. The simple and warlike habits, 
which they cultivated in their native mountains, 
preserved them from the corrupting influences 
which enervated their Median brethren; so that 
from being, as we find them at the beginning of 
their recorded history, the subject member of the 
Medo-Persian kingdom, they obtained the supre- 
macy under Cyrus, the founder of the great Per- 
sian Empire, B. c. 559. Of the Persian history 
before this date, we know but little : the native 
poetical annalists of a later period are perfectly 
untnistworthy : the additional light lately ob- 
tained from the Persian inscriptions is, so far as it 
goes, confirmatory of the Greek writers, from whom, 
and from some small portions of Scripture, all our 
knowledge of ancient Persian history is derived. 
According to these accounts, the Persians were 
first subjected by the Medes under Phraortes, about 
B. c. 688, at the time of the formation of the Great 
Median Empire ; but they continued to be governed 
by their own princes, the Achaemenidae. An 
account of the revolution, by which the supremacy 
was transferred to the Persians, is given under 
Cyrus. At this time there existed in W. Asia 
two other great kingdoms, the Lydian, which com- 
prised nearly the whole of Asia Minor, W. of the 
river Halys, which separated it from the j\Iedo- 
Persian territories ; and the Babylonian, M-hich, 
besides the Tigris and Euphrates valley, embraced 
Syria and Palestine. By the successive conquest 
of these kingdoms, the dominions of Cyrus were 
extended on the W. as far as the coasts of the 
Euxine, the Aegean, and the Mediterranean, and 
to the frontier of Egypt. Turning his arms in the 
opposite direction, he subdued Bactria, and effected 
some conquests beyond the Oxus, but fell in battle 
with the Massagetae. [Cyrus.] His son Cam- 
by'ses added Egypt to the empire. [Cambyses.] 
Upon his death the Magian priesthood made an 
effort to restore the supremacy to the Medes 
[Magi ; Smerdis], which was defeated by the 
conspiracy of the 7 Persian chieftains, whose success 
conferred the c^o^\^l upon Darius, the son of Hys- 
taspes. This king was at first occupied with 
crushing rebellions in everj'' part of the empire, 
and with the two expeditions against Scythia and 
Cyrenai'ca, of which the former entirely failed, and 
the latter was only partially successful. He con- 
quered Thrace ; and on the E. he added the valley 
of the Indus to the kingdom; but in this quarter 
the power of Persia seems never to have been 
much more than nominal. The Persian Empire 
had now reached its greatest extent, from Thrace 
and Cyrenaica on the W. to the Indus on the E., 
and from the Euxine, the Caucasus (or rather a 
little below it), the Caspian, and the Oxus and 
.laxartes on the N. to Aethiopia, Arabia, and the 
Erythraean Sea on the S., and it embraced, in Eu- 
rope, Thrace and some of the Greek cities N. of 
the Euxine ; in Africa, Egypt and Cj-renai'ca ; in 
Asia, on the "W.. Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria, the 
several districts of Asia Minor, Armenia, Mesopo- 
tamia, Assyria, Babj'lonia, Susiana, Atropatene, 
Great Media; on the N., Hyrcania, Margiana, 
Bactriana, and Sogdiana ; on the E., the Paropa- 
misus, Arachosia, and India (i. e. part of the Punjab 
and Scinde); on the S. Persis, Carmania and 
Gedrosia ; and in the centre of the E. part, Parthia, 
Aria, ?.nd Drangiana. The capital cities of the 



empire were Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana in Media, 
and, though these were seldom, if ever, used as 
residences, Pasargada and Persepolis in Persis, 
(See the several articles.) Of this vast empire 
Darius undertook the organisation, and divided it 
into 20 satrapies, of which a full account is given 
by Herodotus. For the other details of his reign, 
and especially the commencement of the wars with 
Greece, see Darius. Of the remaining period of 
the ancient Persian history, till the Macedonian 
conquest, a sufficient abstract will be found under 
the names of the several kings, a list of whom is 
now subjoined: — (1) Cyrus, b. c. 559 — 529: 
(2) Cambyses, 529 — 522 : (3) Usurpation of the 
pseudo-SMERDis, 7 months, 522 — 521 : (4) Da- 
rius I., son of Hystaspes, 521 — 485 : (5) Xerxes 
I. 485 — 465 : (6) Usurpation of Artabanus, 
7 months, 465 — 464 : (7) Artaxerxes I. Lon- 
GiMANUS,464 — 425: (8) Xerxes II., 2 months: 
(9) SoGDiANUs, 7 months, 425— 424 : (10) Ochus, 
or Darius II. Nothus, 424 — 405: (11) Artax- 
erxes II. Mnemon, 405 — 359: (12) Ochus, or 
Artaxerxes III., 359—338: (13) Arses, 338 
—336: (14) Darius III. Codomannus, 336— 
331 [Alexander]. Here the ancient history of 
Persia ends, as a kingdom ; but, as a people, the 
Persians proper, under the influence especially of 
their religion, preserved their existence, and at 
length regained their independence on the downfall 
of the Parthian Empire [Sassanidae]. — In read- 
ing the Roman poets it must be remembered that 
they constantly use Persae, as well as Medi, as a 
general tenn for the peoples E. of the Euphrates 
and Tigris, and especially for the Parthians. 

A. Persius Flaccus, the poet, was a Roman 
knight connected by blood and marriage with per- 
sons of the highest rank, and was bom at Vola- 
terrae in Etruria on the 4th of December, a. d. 34. 
He received the first rudiments of education in his 
native town, remaining there until the age of 12, 
and then removed to Rome, where he studied 
grammar under the celebrated Remmius Palaemon, 
and rhetoric under Verginius Flavins. He was 
afterwards the pupil of Comutus the Stoic, who be- 
came the guide, philosopher, and friend of his future 
life, and to whom he attached himself so closely 
that he never quitted his side. While yet a youth 
he was on familiar terms with Lucan, with Caesius 
Bassus the lyric poet, and with several other per- 
sons of literary eminence. He was tenderly be- 
loved by the high-minded Paetus Thrasea, and 
seems to have been well worthy of such affection, 
for he is described as a virtuous and pleasing youth. 
He died of a disease of the stomach, on the 24th 
of November. A. D. 62, before he had completed his 
28th year. The extant works of Persius, who, we 
are told, wrote seldom and slowly, consist of 6 short 
satires, extending in all to 650 hexameter lines, 
and were left in an unfinished state. They were 
slightly corrected after his death by Comutus, while 
Caesius Bassus was permitted, at his own earnest 
request, to be the editor. In boyhood Persius had 
written some other poems, which were destroyed 
by the advice of Cornutus. Few production: have 
ever enjoyed more popularity than the Satires ; 
but it would seem that Persius owes not a little of 
his fame to a cause which naturally might have 
produced an effect directly the reverse, we mean 
the multitude of strange terms, proverbial phrases, 
far-fetched metaphors, and abrupt transitions which 
ever}' where embarrass our progress. The difficulty 



PERTINAX. 



PETRA. 



549 



experienced in removing these impediments neces- 
sarily impresses both the words and the ideas upon 
every one who has carefully studied his pages, and 
hence no author clings more closely to our memory. 
The first satire is superior both in plan and exe- 
cution to the rest ; and those passages in the 5th, 
where Persius describes the process by which his 
own moral and intellectual faculties were ex- 
panded, are remarkable for their grace and beauty. 
The best editions are by Jahn, Lips. 1843, and by 
Heinrich, Lips. 1844. 

Pertinax, Helvius, Roman emperor from Ja- 
nuary 1st to March 28th, a. d. 193, was of humble 
origin, and rose from the post of centurion both to 
the highest military and civil commands in the 
reigns of M. Aurelius and Commodus. On the 
murder of Commodus on the last day of December, 
192, Pertinax, who was then 66 years of age, was 
reluctantly persuaded to accept the empire. He 
commenced his reign by introducing extensive 
reforms into the civil and military administration 
of the empire ; but the troops, who had been accus - 
tomed both to ease and license under Commodus, 
were disgusted with the discipline which he at- 
tempted to enforce upon them, and murdered their 
new sovereign after a reign of 2 months and 27 
days. On his death the praetorian troops put up 
the empire to sale, which was purchased by M. 
Didius Salvius Julianus. [See p. 219, b.] 

Ferdsia (Peruslnus : Perugia)^ an ancient city 
in the E. part of Etruria between the lake Trasi- 
menus and the Tiber, and one of the 12 cities of 
the Etruscan confederacy. It was situated on a 
hill, and was strongly fortified by nature and by 
art. In conjunction with the other cities of Etruria, 
it long resisted the power of the Romans, and at a 
later period it was made a Roman colony. It is 
memorable in the civil wars as the place in which 
L. Antonius, the brother of the triumvir took 
refuge, when he was no longer able to oppose Oc- 
tavianus in the field, and where he was kept closely 
blockaded by Octavianus for some months, from 
the end of b. c. 41 to the spring of 40. Famine 
compelled it to surrender ; but one of its citizens 
having set fire to his own house, the flames spread, 
and the whole city was burnt to the ground. The 
war between L. Antonius and Octavianus is known 
from the long siege of this town by the name of 
the Bellum Perusinum. It was rebuilt and colo- 
nised anew by Augustus, from whom it received 
the surname of Augusta. In the later time of the 
empire it was the most important city in all Etruria, 
and long resisted the Goths. Part of the walls 
and some of the gates of Perusia still remain. The 
best preserved of the gates is now called Arco 
d''Augusta, from the inscription Avgvsta Per- 
vvsiA over the arch : the whole structure is at 
least 60 or 70 feet high. Several interesting tombs 
with valuable remains of Etruscan art have been 
discovered in the neighbourhood of the city. 

Pescennms Niger. [Niger.] 

Pessinus or Fesinus (Heaaivovs, Ilea-ivovs : 
TleaffivovvTios, fern. HiacrivovvT'is : Bala-Hisar 
Ru.), a city of Asia Minor, in the S.W. comer of 
Galatia, on the S. slope of M. Dindymus or Agdis- 
tis, was celebrated as a chief seat of the worship of 
Cybele, under the surname of Agdistis, whose 
temple, crowded with riches, stood on a hill out- 
side the city. In this temple was a wooden (Livy 
says stone ) image of the goddess, which was re- 
moved to Rome, to satisfy an oracle in the Sibyl- 



line books. Under Constantine the city was made 
the capital of the province of Galatia Salutaris, but 
it gradually declined until the 6th century, after 
which it is no more mentioned. 

Petalia or Petaliae {Petalius)^ an uninhabited 
and rocky island off the S.W. coast of Euboea at 
the entrance into the Euripus. 

Petelia or Petilia (nexTjAta : Petelinus : Strm- 
goli), an ancient Greek town on the E. coast of 
Bruttium, founded, according to tradition, by Phi- 
loctetes. (Virg. Aen. iii. 402.) It was situated 
N. of Croton, to whose territory it originally be- 
longed, but it was afterwards conquered by tht- 
Lucanians. It remained faithful to the Romans, 
when the other cities of Bruttium revolted to 
Hannibal, and it was not till after a long and 
desperate resistance that it was taken by one of 
Hannibal's ger.erals. It was repeoplcd by Han- 
nibal with Bruttians; but the Romans subsequently 
collected the remains of the former population, and 
put them again in possession of the town. 

Peteon (TleTewv : nerewnos), a small town in 
Boeotia, of uncertain site, dependent upon Hali- 
artus, according to some, and upon Thebes, ac- 
cording to others. 

Peteos (Uerews), son of Orneus, and father of 
Menestheus, was expelled from Athens by Aegeus, 
and went to Phocis, where he founded Stiris. 

Petilms or Petillius. 1. Capitolinus. [Capi- 
TOLiNus.]— 2. Cerealis. [Cerealis.]— 3. Spu- 
rinus. [Spurinus.] 

Petosiris (UeTdcripis), an Egyptian priest and 
astrologer, generally named along with Nechepsos, 
an Egyptian king. The two are said to be the 
founders of astrology. Some works on astrology 
were extant under his name. Like our own Lilly, 
Petosiris became the common name for an astro- 
loger. (Juv. vi. 580.) 

Petovio or Poetovio {Peltau), a town in Pan- 
nonia Superior, on the frontiers of Noricum, and on 
the Dravus (Di-ave), was a Roman colony with the 
surname Ulpia, having been probably enlarged and 
made a colony by Trajan or Hadrian. It was one 
of the chief towns of Pannonia, had an imperial 
palace, and was the head-quarters of a Roman 
legion. The ancient town was probably on the 
right bank of the Drave, opposite the modem 
Petiau, as it is only on the former spot that in- 
scriptions, coins, and other antiquities have been 
found. 

Petra (v neVpa : nerpaioy, Petraeus, later Pe- 
trensis), the name of several cities built on rocks, 
or in rocky places.— 1. A small place in the Co- 
rinthian territory, probably on the coast, near the 
borders of Argolis. — 2. A place in Elis, not far 
from the city of Elis, of which some suppose it 
to have been the Acropolis. The sepulchral mo- 
nument of the philosopher Pyrrho was shown here. 
— 3. (Casa della Pietra), also called Petraea and 
Petrine (the people UeTp7voi and Petrini), an in- 
land town of Sicily, on the road from Agrigentum 
to Panormus. —4. A town on the coast of Illyri- 
cum, with a bad harbour. — 5. A city of Pieria in 
Macedonia. — 6. A fortress of the Maedi, in 
Thrace. — 7. (PI. neut.), a place in Dacia, on one 
of the 3 great roads which crossed the Danube. — 
8. In Pontus, a fortress built by Justinian, on a 
precipice on the sea-coast, between the rivers Ba- 
thys and Acinasis. — 9. In Sogdiana, near the 
Oxus (Q. Curt. vii. 11). — 10. By far the most 
celebrated of all the places of this name was Petra 

N N 3 



550 



PETREIUS. 



PEUCESTAS. 



or "Petr&e (Wadi/-Musa)^ in Arabia Petraea, the ca- 
pital, first of the Idumaeans, and afterwards of the 
Nabathaeans. It is probably the same place which 
is called Selah (which means, like TreVpa, a rock) 
and Joktheel, in the 0, T. It lies in the midst of 
the mountains of Seir, at the foot of Mt. Hor, just 
half-way between the Dead Sea and the head of 
the Aelanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, in a valley, or 
rather ravine, surrounded by almost inaccessible 
precipices, which is entered by a narrow gorge on 
the E., the rocky walls of which approach so 
closely as sometimes hardly to permit 2 horsemen to 
ride abreast. On the banks of the river which runs 
through this ravine stood the city itself, a mile in 
length, and half-a-mile in breadth between the 
sides of the valley, and some fine ruins of its public 
buildings still remain. But this is not all : the 
rocks which surround, not only the main valley, 
but all its lateral ravines, are completely honey- 
combed with excavations, some of which were 
tombs, some temples, and some private houses, at 
the entrances to which the surface of the rock is 
sculptured into magnificent architectural facades, 
and other figures, whose details are often so 
well preserved as to appear but just chiselled, 
while the effect is Avonderfully heightened by 
the brilliant variegated colours of the rock, where 
red, purple, yellow, sky-blue, black, and white, are 
seen in distinct layers. These ruins are chiefly of 
the Roman period, when Petra had become an im- 
portant city as a centre of the caravan traffic of the 
Nabathaeans. At the time of Augustas, as Strabo 
learnt from a friend who had resided there, it con- 
tained many Romans and other foreigners, and was 
governed by a native prince. It had maintained 
its independence against the Greek kings of Syria, 
and retained it under the Romans, till the time of 
Trajan, by whom it was taken. It was the chief 
city of the whole country of Arabia Petraea, which 
probably derived its name from Petia ; and under 
the later empire, it was the capital of Palaestina 
Tertia. 

M. Petreius, a man of great military experience, 
is first mentioned in b. c. 62, when he served as 
legatus to the proconsul C. Antonius, and com- 
manded the army in the battle in which Catiline 
perished. He belonged to the aristocratical party; 
and in 55 he was sent into Spain along with L. 
Afranius as legatus of Pompey, to whom the pro- 
vinces of the tvv^o Spains had been granted. Soon 
after the commencement of the civil war in 49, 
Caesar defeated Afranius and Petreius in Spain, 
whereupon the latter joined Porapey in Greece. 
After the loss of the battle of Pharsalia (48) Pe- 
treius crossed over to Africa, and took an active part 
in the campaign in 46, which was brought to 
an end by the decisive defeat of the Pompeian 
army at the battle of Thapsus. Petreius then fled 
with Juba, and despairing of safety they fell by 
each other's hands. 

Petrinus (Rocca di monti Ragoni), a mountain 
near Sinuessa on the confines of Latium and Cam- 
pania, on which good wine was grown. 

Petrocorii, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, in 
the modern Perigord. Their country contained 
iron-mines, and their chief town was Vesunna 
(^Perigueux), 

Petronius, C, or T., an accomplished voluptuary 
at the court of Nero. He was one of the chosen 
companions of Nero, and was regarded as director- 
in-chief of the imperial pleasures, the judge Avhose 



decision upon the merits of any proposed scheme 
of enjoyment was held as final {Elegantiae arbiter). 
The influence thus acquired excited the jealous 
suspicions of Tigellinus: he was accused of treason; 
and believing that destniction was inevitable, he 
resolved to die as he had lived, and to excite ad- 
miration by the frivolous eccentricity of his end. 
Having caused his veins to be opened, he from 
time to time arrested the flow of blood by the ap- 
plication of bandages. During the intervals he 
conversed with his friends, and even showed him- 
self in the public streets of Cumae, where these 
events took place ; so that at last, when he sunk 
from exhaustion, his death (a. d. 66), although 
compulsory, appeared to be the result of natural 
and gradual decay. He is said to have despatched 
in his last moments a sealed document to the 
prince, taunting him with his brutal excesses. — A 
work has come down to us bearing the title Pe- 
tronii Arbitri Satyricon^ which, as it now exists, is 
composed of a series of fragments, chiefly in prose, 
but interspersed with numerous pieces of poetry. 
It is a sort of comic romance, in which the adven- 
tures of a certain Encolpius and his companions 
in the S. of Italy, chiefly in Naples or its environs, 
are made a vehicle for exposing the false taste and 
vices of the age. Unfortunately the vices of the 
personages introduced are depicted with such fi- 
delity that we are perpetually disgusted by the 
obscenity of the descriptions. The longest section 
is generally known as the Supper of Trimalchio, 
presenting us with a detailed account of a fantastic 
banquet, such as the gourmands of the empire were 
wont to exhibit on their tables. Next in interest 
is the well-known tale of the Ephesian Matron. — 
A great number of conflicting opinions have been 
formed by scholars with regard to the author of 
the Satyricon. Many suppose that he is the same 
person as the C. or T. Petronius mentioned above; 
and though there are no proofs in favour of this 
hypothesis, yet there is good reason to believe that 
the work belongs to the first century, or, at all 
events, is not later than the reign of Hadrian. 
The best edition is by P. Burmannus, 4to. Traj. ad 
Rhen. 1709, and again Amst. 1743. 

Peuce iJlevKt] : Piczina), an island in Moesia 
Inferior formed by the 2 southern mouths of the 
Danube, of which the most southernly was also 
called Peuce, but more commonly the Sacred Mouth. 
This island is of a triangular form, and is said by 
the ancients to be as large as Rhodes. It was in- 
habited by the Peucini, who were a tribe of the 
Bastamae, and took their name from the island. 

Peucela, Peucelaotis (Ileu/ceAa, UevKeXauTLS : 
Pekheli or Pakkoli), a city and district in the N.W. 
of India intra Gangem, between the rivers Indus 
and Suastus. 

Peucestas (neu/ceVTas), a Macedonian, and a 
distinguished officer of Alexander the Great. He 
had the chief share in saving the life of Alexander 
in the assault on the city of the Malli in India, 
and was afterwards appointed by the king to the 
satrapy of Persia. In the division of the provinces 
after the death of Alexander (b. c. 323) he ob- 
tained the renewal of his government of Persia. 
He fought on the side of Eumenes against Anti- 
gonus (317—316), but displayed both arrogance 
and insubordination in these campaigns. Upon 
the surrender of Eumenes by the Argyraspids, 
Peucestas fell into the hands of Antigonus, who 
deprived him of his satrapy. 



PEUCETIA. 



PHAETHONTIADES. 



551 



Peucetia. [Apulia.] 
Peucini. [Peuce.] 

Phacium {^dKiov : i>aKievs : Ali/aka\ a movm- 
tain fortress of Thessaly in the district Hestiaeotis 
on the right bank of the Peneus, N.E. of Limnaea. 

Phacussa {^aKova-cra : Fecussa), an island in 
the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades. 

Phaea (#aia), the name of the sow of Cromniyon 
in Megaris, which ravaged the neighbourhood, and 
was slain by Theseus. 

Phaeaces (*a^a/cey, 4»ot77/cej), a fabulous people 
immortalised by the Odyssey, who inhabited the 
island Scheria (Sx^pta), situated at the extreme 
western part of the earth, and who were governed 
by king Alcinous. [Alcinous.] They are de- 
scribed by Homer as a people fond of the feast, the 
lyre, and the dance, and hence their name passed 
into a proverb to indicate persons of luxurious and 
sensual habits. Thus a glutton is called Fhaeax 
by Horace (Ep. i. 15. 24). — The ancients identified 
the Homeric Scheria with Corcyra, whence the 
latter is called by the poets Phaeacia tellus ; but 
there is no sound argument in favour of the identity 
of the 2 islands, and it is better to regard Scheria 
as altogether fabulous. 

Phaeax (*aia|), an Athenian orator and states- 
man, and a contemporary of Nicias and Alcibiades. 
Some critics maintain that the extant speech against 
Alcibiades, commonly attributed to Andocides was 
written by Phaeax. 

Phaedon (*at5wf), a Greek philosopher, was a 
native of Elis, and of high birth, but was taken 
prisoner, probably about b. c. 400, and was brought 
to Athens. It is said that he ran away from his 
master to Socrates, and was ransomed by one of 
the friends of the latter. Phaedon was present at 
the death of Socrates, while he was still quite a 
youth. He appears to have lived in Athens some 
time after the death of Socrates, and then returned 
to Elis, where he became the founder of a school 
of philosophy. He was succeeded by Plistanus, 
after whom the Elean school was merged in the 
Eretrian. The dialogue of Plato, which contains 
an account of the death of Socrates, bears the name 
of Phaedon. 

Phaedra (*atSpa), daughter of Minos by Pasi- 
phae or Crete, and the wife of Theseus. She was 
the stepmother of Hippolytus, the son of Theseus, 
with whom she fell in love ; but having been re- 
pulsed by Hippolytus, she accused him to Theseus 
of having attempted her dishonour. After the 
death of Hippolytus, his innocence became known 
to his father, and Phaedra made away with herself. 
For details see Hippolytus. 

Phaedriades. [Parnassus.] 

Phaedrias {^rnhpias), a town in the S. of Ar- 
cadia, S.W. of Megalopolis, 15 stadia from the 
Messenian frontier. 

Phaedrus {^aihpos.) 1. An Epicurean philoso- 
pher, and the president of the Epicurean school 
during Cicero's residence in Athens, b. c. 80. 
He died in 70, and was succeeded by Patron. He 
was the author of a work on the gods (Ilepi ^eoou)^ 
of which an interesting fragment was discovered at 
Herculaneum in 1 806, and published, by Petersen, 
Hamb. 1833. Cicero was largely indebted to this 
work for the materials of the first book of the De 
Natura Deorum.'^2. The Latin Fabulist, of whom 
we know nothing but what is collected or inferred 
from his fables. He was originally a slave, and 
was brought from Thrace or Macedonia to Rome, 



where he learned the Latin language. As the title 
of his work is Phaedri Aiig. Liberti Fabulae Aeso- 
piae, we must conclude that he had belonged to 
Augustus, who manumitted him. Under Tiberius 
he appears to have undergone some persecution 
from Sejanus. The fables extant under the name 
of Phaedrus are 97 in number, written m iambic 
verse, and distributed into o books. Most of the 
fables are transfusions of the Aesopian fables, or 
those which pass as such, into Latin verse. The 
expression is generally clear and concise, and the 
language, with some few exceptions, as pure and 
correct as we should expect from a Roman writer 
of the Augustan age. But Phaedrus has not es- 
caped censure, when he has deviated from his Greek 
model, and much of the censure is just. The best 
fables are those in which he has kept the closest to 
his original. Many of the fables, however, are not 
Aesopian, as the matter clearly shows, for the}-- 
refer to historical events of a much later period 
(v. 1, 8, iii. 10) ; and Phaedrus himself, in the 
prologue to the 5th book, intimates that he had 
often used the name of Aesop only to recommend 
his verses. — There is also another collection of 32 
fables, attributed to Aesop, and entitled Epitome 
Fabularum, which was first published at Naples, 
in 1809, by Cassitti. Opinions are much divided 
as to the genuineness of this collection. The pro- 
bability is, that the Epitome is founded on genuine 
Roman fables, which, in the process of transcription 
during many centuries, have undergone considerable 
changes. — The last and only critical edition of 
Phaedrus is by Orelli, Zurich, 1831. 

Phaenarete. [Socrates.] 

Phaenias. [Phanias.] 

Phaestus {^aiaros : ^a'laTios). 1. A town m 
the S. of Crete near Gortyna, 20 stadia from the 
sea, with a port- town Matala or Matalia, said to 
have been built by the Heraclid Phaestus, who 
came from Sicyon to Crete. The town is mentioned 
by Plomer, but was destroyed at an early period 
by Gortyna. It was the birth-place of Epimenides, 
and its inhabitants Avere celebrated for their wit 
and sarcasm. — 2. A town of Thessaly in the 
district Thessaiiotis. 

Phaetlion {^aiQo3v\ that is, " the shining," 
occurs in Homer as an epithet or surname of Helios 
(the Sun), and is used by later writers as a proper 
name for Helios ; but it is more commonly known 
as the name of a son of Helios by the Oceanid 
Clymene, the wife of Merops. The genealogy of 
Phaethon, however, is not the same in all writers, 
for some call him a son of Clyraenus, the s.»u of 
Helios, by Merope, or a son of Helios by Prote, 
or, lastly, a son of Helios by the nymph Rhode or 
Rhodos. He received the signiricant name of 
Phaethon from his father, and was afterwards 
presumptuous and ambitious enough to request his 
father to allow him for one da}^ to drive the chariot 
of the sun across the heavens. Helios was induced 
by the entreaties of his son and of Clymene to 
yield, bat the youth being too weak to check the 
horses, they rushed out of their usual track, and 
ceone so near the earth, as almost to set it on 
fire. Thereupon Zeus killed him with a flash of 
lightning, and hurled him down into the river 
Eridanus. His sisters, the Heliadae or Phaethon- 
tiades, who had yoked the horses to the chariot, 
were metamorphosed into poplars, and their tears 
into amber. [Heliadae.] 

Phaethontiades. [Heliapae.] 

N N 4 



552 



PHAETHUSA. 



PHANIAS. 



Phaethusa. [Heliadae.] 

Phagres {^dyprjs : Orfan or Or/ana)^ an ancient 
and fortitied town of the Pierians in Macedonia at 
the foot of Mt. Pangaeon. 

Phalaecus (i-aXaiKos). 1. Son of Onomarchus, 
succeeded his uncle Phayllus as leader of the 
Phocians in the Sacred War, B. c. 351. In order 
to secure his own safety, he concluded a treaty 
with Philip, by which he was allowed to withdraw 
into the Peloponnesus with a body of 8000 merce- 
naries, leaving the unhappy Phocians to their fate, 
346. Phalaecus now assumed the part of a mere 
leader of mercenary troops, in which character we 
find hira engaging in various enteqmses. He was 
slain at the siege of Cydonia in Crete. — 2. A 
l3Tic and epigrammatic poet, from whom the metre 
called Pkdaecian took its name. Five of his epi- 
grams are preserved in the Greek Anthology. His 
date is uncertain ; but he was probably one of the 
principal Alexandrian poets. 

Phalaesiae {^aXaicriai), a town in Arcadia, S. 
of Megalopolis on the road to Sparta, 20 stadia 
from the Laconian frontier. 

Pkalanna ( : ^aXawalos: Karadjoli)^ 
a town of the Perrhaebi in the Thessalian district 
of Hestiaeotis on th.^ left bank of the Peneus, not 
far from Tempe. 

Phalanthus {'^aKavQos), son of Aracus, was 
one of the Lacedaemonian Partheniae, or the off- 
spring of some marriages of disparagement, which 
the necessity of the first Messenian war had in- 
duced the Spartans to permit. (See Diet, of Antiq. 
art. Partheniae.) As the Partheniae were looked 
down upon by their fellow-citizens, they formed a 
conspiracy under Phalanthus, against the govern- 
ment. Their design having been detected, they 
went to Italy under the guidance of Phalanthus, 
and founded the city of Tarentum, about B.C. 708. 
Phalanthus was afterwards driven out from Ta- 
rentum by a sedition, and ended his days atBrim- 
disium. 

Phalara (to ^dXapa : iaXapevs), a town in the 
Thessalian district of Phthiotis on the Sinus Ma- 
liacus, served as the harbour of Lamia. 

Phalaris {^a.\apis), ruler of Agrigentum in 
Sicily, has obtained a proverbial celebrity as a 
cruel and inhuman tyrant ; but we have scarcely 
any real knowledge of his life and history. His 
reign probably commenced about B. c. 570, and is 
said to have lasted 16 years. He was a native of 
Agrigentum, and appears to have been raised by 
his fellow-citizens to some high office in the state, 
of which he afterwards availed himself to assume 
a despotic authority. He was engaged in frequent 
wars with his neighbours, and extended his power 
and dominion on all sides, though more frequently 
by stratagem tlian open force. He perished by a 
sudden outbreak of the popular fury, in which it 
appears that Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron, 
must have borne a conspicuous part. No circum- 
stance connected with Phalaris is more celebrated 
than the brazen bull in which he is said to have 
burnt alive the victims of his cruelty, and of which 
we are told that he made the first experiment upon 
its inventor Perillus. This latter story has much 
the air of an invention of later times; but the fame 
of this celebrated engine of torture was inseparably 
associated with the name of Phalaris as early as 
the time of Pindar. (Pind. Fyth. i. 185.) That ipoet 
also speaks of Phalaris himself in terms which 
clearly prove that his reputation as a barbarous 



tyrant was then already fully established, and ali 
subsequent writers, until a very late period, allude 
to him in terms of similar import. But in the later 
ages of Greek literature, there appears to have 
existed or arisen a totally different tradition con- 
cerning Phalaris. which represented him as a man 
of a naturally mild and humane disposition, and 
only forced into acts of severity or occasional cruelty, 
by the pressure of circumstances and the machina- 
tions of his enemies. Still more strange is it that 
he appears at the same time as an admirer of lite- 
rature and philosophy, and the patron of men of 
letters. Such is the aspect under which his cha- 
racter is presented to us in 2 declamations commonly 
ascribed to Lucian, and still more strikingly in the 
well-known epistles which bear the name of Pha- 
laris himself. These epistles are now remembered 
chiefly on account of the literary controversy to 
which they gave rise, and the masterly dissertation 
in which Bentley exposed their spuriousness. They 
are evidently the composition of some sopliist ; 
though the period at which this forgery was com- 
posed cannot now be determined. The first author 
who refers to them is Stobaeus. The best edition 
is by Schaefer, Lips. 1823. 

Pkalariuju. ('PaXdpiov), a fortress named after 
Phalaris near the S. coast of Sicily, situated on a 
hill 40 stadia E. of the river Him era. 

Phalasama (to 4>oAo(ropyo), a town on the 
N.W. coast of Crete. 

Phalerum {^dKripov. 4>aA77/3€us), the most E.-ly 
of the harbours of Athens, and the one cliiefly 
used by the Athenians before the time of the 
Persian wars. Phalerum is usually described as 
the most E.-ly of the 3 harbours in the peninsula 
of Piraeus; but this appears to be incorrect. The 
names of the 3 harbours in the peninsula were 
Piraeus, Zea, and Munychia ; while Phalerum lay 
S.E. of these 3, nearer the city at Hagios Georgios. 
After the establishment by Themistocles of the 3 
harbours in the peninsula of Piraeus, Phalerum 
was not much used; but it was connected with the 
city by means of a wall called the Plialerian Wall 
{^aKr]piKov Tei'xos). Paleron or Phalerus was also 
an Attic demus, containing temples of Zeus, De- 
meter, and other deities. 

Phaloria (^>aAc«)pta), a fortified town of Thessaly 
in Hestiaeotis, N. ofTricca on the left bank of the 
Peneus. 

Phanae {^avai^ rf Zavala &Kpa : C. Mastico), 
the S. point of the island of Chios, celebrated for 
its temple of Apollo, and for its excellent wine 

Phanagoria {^avay6p€ia^ and other forms : Pka- 
nagori, Ru„ near Taman., on the E. side of the 
Straits of Kaffa)., a Greek city, foimded by a co- 
lony of Teians under Phanagoras, on the Asiatic 
coast of the Cimmerian Bosporus. It became the 
great emporium for all the traffic between the coasts 
of the Palus Maeotis and the coimtries on the S. 
side of the Caucasus, and was chosen by the kings 
of Bosporus as their capital in Asia. It had a 
temple of Aplirodite Apaturos, and its neighbour- 
hood was rich in olive yards. In the 6 th century 
of our era, it was destroyed by the surrounding 
barbarians. 

Phanaroea (4>ai/a/)oio), a great plain of Pontus 
in Asia Minor, enclosed by the mountain chains of 
Paryadres on the E., and Lithnis and Ophlimus on 
the W., was the most fertile part of Pontus. 

Phanias or Phaenias {^avias., ^aivias), of 
Eresos in Lesbos, a distinguished Peripatetic phi- 



PHANOCLES. 



PHARNACIA. 



losopher, the immediate disciple of Aristotle, and 
the contemporary, fellow-citizen, and friend of 
Theophrastus. He flourished about b. c, 336. 
Phanias does not seem to have founded a distinct 
school of his own, but he was a most diligent 
writer upon every department of philosophy, as it 
was studied by the Peripatetics, especially logic, 
physics, history, and literature. His works, all of 
which are lost, are frequently quoted by later 
writers. One of his works most frequently cited 
was a sort of chronicle of his native city, bearing 
the title of UpvTavtis 'Epeaioi. 

Phanocles (*aj/o>c/\7js), one of the best of the 
later Greek elegiac poets, probably lived in the 
time of Philip and Alexander the Great. He seems 
only to have written one poem, which was entitled 
"Efjwres ^) Ka\oi. The work was upon paederasteia ; 
but the subject was so treated as to exhibit the 
retribution which fell upon those who addicted 
themselves to the practice. We still possess a 
considerable fragment from the opening of the 
poem, which describes the love of Orpheus for 
Calais, and the vengeance taken upon him by the 
Thracian women. The fragments of Phanocles are 
edited by Bach, Pkiletae, Hertnesianactis, atque 
Plianoclis Reliquiae ; and by Schneidewin, Delectus 
Foes. Graec. p. 158. 

Phanodemus (^oj/c^Stj^uos), the author of one of 
those works on the legends and antiquities of 
Attica, known under the name of Atthides. His 
age and birthplace are uncertain, but we know 
that he lived before the time of Augustus, as he is 
cited by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. 

Phanote (Gardhiki), a fortified town of Epirus 
in Chaonia near the Illyrian frontier. 

Phantasia (^avracria), one of those numerous 
mythical personages, to whom Homer is said to 
have been indebted for his poems. She is said to 
have been an Egyptian, the daughter of Nicari.hus, 
an inhabitant of Memphis, and to have written an 
account of the Trojan war, and the wanderings of 
Ulysses. 

Phaon. (^d(A)v), a boatman at Mytilene, is said 
to have been originally an uglj^ old man ; but in 
consequence of his carrying Aphrodite across the 
sea without accepting payment, the goddess gave 
him youth and beauty. After this Sappho is said 
to have fallen in love with him, and to have leapt 
from the Leucadion rock, when he slighted her; 
but this well-known story vanishes at the first 
approach of criticism. [Sappho.] 

Pharae (4>apot or ^-npat). 1. {^apaievs or *a- 
peuj), an ancient town in the W. part of Achaea, 
and one of the 12 Achaean cities, was situated on 
the river Pierus, 70 stadia from the sea, and 150 
from Patrae. It was one of the states which took 
an active part in reviving the Achaean League in 
B.C. 281. Augustus included it in the territory 
of Patrae. —2. (^apa/rrjs, 4>opataT7jy, 4>apaT7]s : 
Kalamaia), an ancieist town in Messenia mentioned 
by Homer, on the river Nedon, near the frontiers 
of Laconia, and about 6 miles from the sea. In 
B.C. 180 Pharae joined the Achaean League to- 
gether with the neighbouring towns of Thuria and 
Abia. It W.1S annexed by Augustus to Laconia. 
— 3. Originally Pharis {^dpis: 4>aptT7jy, ^api- 
aTTjs), a town m Laconia in the valley of the 
Eurotas, S. of Sp;irta. — 4. A to^^'n in Crete, 
founded by the Messenian Pharae. 

Pharbaethus (*ap§ai0os: Horheytf Ru.), the 
capital of the Nomos Pharbaethites in Lower 



Egypt, lay S. of Tanis, on the W. side of the Pe- 
lusiac branch of the Nile. 

Pharcadon (4>ap;fa5wj/), a town of Thc-ssaly, in 
the E. part of Hestiaeotis. 

Pharis. [Pharae, No. 3.] 

Pharmacussae (^ap/uLaKova-aai). 1. Two small 
islands off the coast of Attica, near Salamis, in the 
bay of Eleusis, now called Kyradlies or Megali and 
Mih-i Kyra : on one of them was shown the tomb 
of Circe —2. Pharmacusa {^ap/naKovaa), an 
island off the coast of Asia Minor, 120 stadia from 
Miletus, where king Attains died, and where Julius 
Caesar was taken prisoner by pirates, when a very 
voung man. The whole adventure is related by 
Plutarch (Caes. 1,2). 

Phamabazus {^apvd§a^os), son of Phamaces, 
succeeded his father as satrap of the Persian pro- 
vinces near the Hellespont. In B.C. 411 and the 
following years, he rendered active assistance to 
the Lacedaemonians in their war against the 
Athenians. When Dercyllidas, and subsequently 
Agesilaus, passed over into Asia, to protect the 
Asiatic Greeks against the Persian power, we find 
Pharnabazus connecting himself with Conon to 
resist the Lacedaemonians. In 374 Pharnabazus 
invaded Egypt in conjunction with Iphicrates, but 
the expedition failed, chiefly through the dilatory 
proceedings and the excessive caution of Phama- 
bazus. The character of Pharnabazus is eminently 
distinguished by generositj' and openness. He 
has been charged, it is true, with the murder of 
Alcibiades ; but the latter probably fell by the 
hands of others. [Alcibiades.] 

Phamaces (^apvdKr]s). 1. King of Pontus, 
was the son of Mithridates IV., whom he suc- 
ceeded on the throne, about B. c. 190. He carried 
on war for some years with Eumenes, king of 
Pergamus, and Ariarathes, king of Cappadocia, 
but was obliged to conclude with them a disad- 
vantageous peace in 1 79. The year of his death 
is uncertain ; it is placed by conjecture in 156. 
— 2. King of Pontus, or more properly of the 
Bosporus, was the son of Mithridates, the Great, 
whom he compelled to put an end to his life in 63. 
[Mithridates VI.] After the death of his 
father, Phamaces hastened to make his submission 
to Pompey, who granted him the kingdom of the 
Bosporus with the titles of friend and ally of the 
Roman people. In the civil war between Caesar 
and Pompey, Phamaces seized the opportunity to 
reinstate himself in his father's dominions, and 
made himself master of the whole of Colchis and 
the lesser Armenia. He defeated Domitius Cal- 
vinus, the lieutenant of Caesar in Asia, but was 
shortly afterwards defeated by Caesar himself in 
a decisive action near Zela (47). The battle was 
gained with such ease by Caesar, that he informed 
the senate of his victory by the words, Veni, vidi, 
vici. In the course of the same year, Phamaces 
was again defeated and was slain by Asander, one 
of his generals, who hoped to obtain his master's 
kingdom. [Asander.] 

Pharnacia {^apvaKia : Kheresoun or Kerasun- 
da), a flourishing city of Asia Minor, on the coast 
of Pontus Poleraoniacus, was built near (some think 
on) the site of Cerasus, probably by Phamaces, the 
grandfather of Mithridates the Great, and peopled 
by the transference to it of the inhabitants of Co- 
tyora. It had a large commerce and extensive 
fisheries ; and in its neighbourhood were the iron 
mines of the Chalybes. It was strongly fortified 



554 



PHARSALUS. 



PHEA. 



and was used by Mithridates, in the war with 
Rome, for the place of refuge of his harem. 

Pharsalus {^dpcra\os. Ion. ^dpariXos: ^apad- 
Xios : Pharsa or Fersala), a town in Thessaly in 
the district Thessaliotis, not far from the frontiers 
of Phthiotis, W. of the river Enipeus, and on the 
N. slope of Mt. Narthacius. It was divided into 
an old and new city, and contained a strongly for- 
tified acropolis. In its neighbourhood, N.E. of the 
town and on the other side of the Enipeus was a 
celebrated temple of Thetis, called Thetidium. 
Near Pharsalus was fought the decisive battle be- 
tween Caesar and Pompey, B. c. 48, which made 
Caesar master of the Roman world. It is frequently 
called tlie battle of Pharsalia, which was the name 
of the territory of the town. 

Pharus {^dpos). 1. {Pharos or Raudhai-el- 
iin^ i. e. Fig-garden)^ a small island off the Medi- 
terranean coast of Egypt, mentioned by Homer, 
who describes it as a whole day's sail distant from 
Aegyptus, meaning probably, not Egypt itself, but 
the river Nile. When Alexander the Great 
planned the city of Alexandria, on the coast oppo- 
site to Pharos, he caused the island to be united to 
the coast by a mole 7 stadia in length, thus form- 
ing the 2 harbours of the city. [Alexandria.] 
The island was chiefly famous for the lofty tower 
built upon it by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, for a 
light-house, whence the name of pliarus was applied 
to all similar structures. It was in this island too 
that, according to the common story, the 70 trans- 
lators of the Greek version of the Old Testament, 
hence called the Septuagint, were confined till their 
work was finished. The island was well peopled, 
according to Julius Caesar, but soon afterwards 
Strabo tells us that it was inhabited only by a few 
fishermen.— 2. {Lesina or Hvar\ an island of the 
Adriatic, off the coast of Dalraatia, E. of Issa, 
with a Greek city of the same name (Civita Vec- 
chia, Ru.), which was taken and destroyed by the 
Romans under Aemilius Paulus, but probably 
rebuilt, as it is mentioned by Ptolemy under the 
name of Pharia, 

Phamsii (^apoticrioi), a people in the interior 
(prob. nr. the W. coast) of N. Africa, who carried 
on a considerable traffic with Mauritania. 

Phasaelis (^aa-a-nXis : prob. Ain-el-Fusail), a 
city of Palestine, in the valley of the Jordan, N. of 
Jericho, built by Herod the Great. 

Phaselis (^atrrjAt?, *a(rrjAir7}s : Tekrova^'Rn.)^ 
an important sea-port town of Lycia, near the 
borders of Pamphylia, stood on the gulf of Pam- 
phylia, at the foot of Mt. Solyma, in a narrow pass 
between the mountains and the sea. It was 
founded by Dorian colonists, and from its position, 
and its command of 3 fine harbours, it soon gained 
an extensive commerce. It did not belong to the 
Lycian confederacy, but had an independent go- 
vernment of its own. It became afterwards the 
head-quarters of the pirates who infested the S. 
coasts of Asia Minor, and was therefore destroyed 
by P. Servilius Isauricus ; and though the city 
was restored, it never recovered its importance. 
Phaselis is said to have been the place at which 
the light quick vessels called (pdarjAoi were first 
built, and the figure of such a ship appears on its 
coins. 

Phasis (*a(rts). 1. (Faz ovRiorJ), a renowned 
river of the ancient world, rose in the Moschici M. 
(or according to others in the Caucasus, where, in 
fact, its chief tributaries rise), and flowed W.-ward 



through the plain of Colchis into the E. end of the 
Pontus Euxinus (Black ^Sm), after receiving several 
affluents, the chief of which were the Glaucus and 
the Rion : the name of the latter was sometimes 
transferred, as it now is, to the main river. It 
was navigable about 38 miles above its mouth for 
large vessels, and for small ones further up, as far 
as Sarapana {Sliarapan\ whence goods were con- 
veyed in 4 days across the Moschici M. to the 
river Cyrus, and so to the Caspian. It was 
spanned by 120 bridges, and had many towns 
upon its banks. Its waters were celebrated for 
their piirity and for various other supposed qualities, 
some of a very marvellous nature ; but it was most 
famous in connection with the story of the Argo- 
nautic expedition. [Argonautae.] Some of the 
early geographers made it the boundary between 
Europe and Asia ; it was afterwards the N.E. limit 
of the kingdom of Pontus, and, under the Romans, 
it was regarded as the N. frontier of their empire 
in W. Asia. Another notable circumstance con- 
nected with it, is that it has given name to the 
pheasant (phasianus, (paaiavSs, (pa<riauiKhs opuis), 
which is said to have been first brought to Greece 
from its banks, where the bird is still found in 
great numbers. — When the geography of these 
regions was comparatively unknown, it was natural 
that there should be a doubt as to the identification 
of certain celebrated names ; and thus the name 
Phasis, like Araxes, is applied to different rivers. 
The most important of these variations is Xeno- 
phon's application of the name Phasis to the river 
Araxes in Armenia. (Anab. iv. 6.) — 2. Near the 
mouth of the river, on its S. side, was a town of 
the same name, founded and fortified by the Mile- 
sians as an emporium for their commerce, and used 
under the Kings of Pontus, and under the Romans, 
as a frontier fort, and now a Russian fortified sta- 
tion, under the name of Pati. Some identify it 
with Sebastopolis, but most likely incorrectly.— 3. 
There was a river of the same name in the island 
of Taprobane {Ceylon). 

Phavorinus. [Favorinus.] 

Phayllus {^dvWos). 1. A celebrated athlete 
of Crotona, who had thrice gained the victory at 
the Pythian games. He fought at the battle of 
Salamis, b. c. 480, in a ship fitted out at his own 
expense. ■= 2. A Phocian, brother of Onomarchus, 
whom he succeeded as general of the Phocians in 
the Sacred War, 352. He died in the following 
year after a long and painful illness. Phayllus 
made use of the sacred treasures of Delphi with a 
far more lavish hand than either of his brothers, 
and he is accused of bestowing the consecrated 
ornaments upon his wife and mistresses. 

Phazania {Fezzan), a district of Libya Interior. 
[Garamantes.] 

Phazemon (^a^Tj/xwi/ : prob. Marsiwan\ a city 
of Pontus in Asia Minor, N.W. of Amasia, and 
the capital of the W. district of Pontus, called 
Phazemonitis (Ila^Tj^oj/iTis), which lay on the E. 
side of the Halys, S. of Gazelonitis, and was cele- 
brated for its warm mineral springs. Pompey 
changed the name of the city to Neapolis, and the 
district was called Neapolitis ; but these names 
seem to have been soon dropt. 

Phea (^eitt, €>ea, <J>ea^ : *ea?os), a town on the 
frontiers of Elis and Pisatis with a harbour situated 
on a promontory of the same name, and on the 
river lardanus. In front of the harbour was a 
small island called Pheas (4>etas.) 



PHECA 



PHERON 



555 



Fheca or Phecadum, a fortress in Thessaly in 
the district Hestiaeotis. 

Phegeus (^-nyevs), king of Psophis in Arcadia, 
father of Alphesiboea or Arsinoe, of Pronons and 
Agenor, or of Temenus and Axion, He purified 
Alcmaeon after he had killed his mother, and gave 
him his daughiter Alphesiboea in marriage. Alc- 
maeon presented Alphesiboea with the celebrated 
necklace and peplus of Harmonia ; but when Alc- 
maeon afterwards wished to obtain them again for 
his new wife Callirrhoe, he was murdered by the 
sons of Phegeus, by their father's command. Phe- 
geus was himself subsequently put to death by the 
sons of Alcmaeon. B^or details see Alcmaeon. 

Phellus (4>eAAos or ^e\\6s : ^eAAirrys: Ru. 
near Saaret)^ an inland city of Lycia, on a moun- 
tain between Xanthus and Antiphellus ; the latter 
haying been at first the port of Phellus, but after- 
wards eclipsing it. 

Phellusa, a small island near Lesbos. 

Phemius (^-rj/ujos), a celebrated minstrel, son of 
Terpius, who entertained with his song the suitors 
in the palace of Ulysses in Ithaca. 

Phemonde {ir}^iov6-n)^ a mythical Greek poetess 
of the ante-Homeric period, was said to have been 
the daughter of Apollo, and his first priestess at 
Delphi, and the inventor of the hexameter verse. 
There were poems which went under the name of 
Phemonoe, like the old religious poems which were 
ascribed to Orpheus, Musaeus, and the other my- 
thological bards. 

Pheneus (^eVeos or ^^veos : ^evearrjs : Fonia), 
a town in the N.E. of Arcadia, at the foot of Mt. 
Cyllene, and on the river Aroanius. Its territory 
was called Pheneatis (^ei/earts). There were 
extensive marshes in the neighbourhood, the waters 
of which were partly carried off by a subterraneous 
emissary, which was supposed to have been made 
by Hercules. The town was of great antiquity. 
It is mentioned by Homer, and was said to have 
been built by an autochthon Pheneus. It contained 
a strongly fortified acropolis with a temple of 
Athena Tritonia ; and in the town itself were the 
tombs of Iphicles and Myrtilus, and temples of 
Hermes and Demeter. 

Pherae (*epai : Oepatos : Valestino), an ancient 
town of Thessaly in the S.E. of the Pelasgian 
plain, W. of Mt. Pelion, S. W. of the lake Boebeis, 
and 90 stadia from its port-town Pagasae on the 
Pagasaean gulf. Pherae is celebrated in mythology 
as the residence of Admetus, and in history on 
account of its tyrants who extended their power 
over nearly the whole of Thessaly. Of these the 
most powerful was Jason, who was made Tagus or 
generalissimo of Thessaly about B. c. 374. Jason 
was succeeded in 370 by his 2 brothers Polydorus 
and Polyphron. The former was soon after assas- 
sinated by Polyphron. The latter was murdered 
in his turn in 369 by his nephew Alexander, who 
was notorious for his cruelty, and who was put to 
death in 367 by his wife Thebe and her 3 brothers. 
At a later period we read that Pherae was sur- 
rounded by a number of gardens and country 
houses. 

Pherae. [Pharae.] 

Pherecrates ctejaeKpoTrjs), of Athens, one of 
the best poets of the Old Comedy, was contempo- 
rary with the cornic poets Cratinus, Crates, Eupolis, 
Plato, and Aristophanes, being somewhat younger 
than the first two, and somewhat older than the 
others. He gained his first victory B. c. 438, and 



he imitated the style of Crates, whose actor he had 
been. Crates and Pherecrates very much modified 
the coarse satire and vituperation of which this 
sort of poetry had previously been the vehicle, 
and constructed their comedies on the basis of a 
regular plot, and with more dramatic action. Phe- 
recrates did not, however, abstain altogether from 
personal satire, for we see by the fragments of his 
plays that he attacked Alcibiades, the tragic poet 
Melanthius, and others. He invented a new metre, 
which was named, after him, the Pherecraiean. 
The system of the verse is£_.lf sj \j 1 ^ 
which may be best explained as a choriambus, with 
a spondee for its base, and a long syllable for its 
termination. The metre is very frequent in the 
choruses of the Greek tragedians, and in Horace, 
as, for example — Grato Pyrrlia sub antro. The 
extant titles of the plays of Pherecrates are 18. 

Pherecydes {^ep^Kvh-ns). 1. Of Syros, an island 
in the Aegean, an early Greek philosopher or rather 
theologian. He flourished about b. c. 544. He is 
said to have obtained his knowledge from the 
secret books of the Phoenicians, and to have tra- 
velled in Egypt. Almost all the ancient writers 
who speak of him state that he was the teacher of 
Pythagoras. According to a common tradition he 
died of the lousy disease or Morbus Pediculosus ; 
though others give different accounts of his death. 
The most important subject which he is said to 
have taught was the doctrine of the Metempsy- 
chosis, or, as it is put by other writers, the doctrine 
of the immortality of the soul. He gave an ac- 
count of his views in a work, which was extant in 
the Alexandrian period. It was written in prose, 
which he is said to have been the first to employ 
in the explanation of philosophical questions.— 
2. Of Athens, one of the most celebrated of the 
early Greek logographers. He lived in the former 
half of the 5th century b. c, and was a contempo- 
rary of Hellanicus and Herodotus. His principal 
work was a mythological history in 10 books. It be- 
gan with a theogony, and then proceeded to give an 
account of the heroic age and of the great families 
of that time. His fragments have been collected 
by StviXtz, Phereci/dis Frag7nenta, Lips. 1824, 2nd 
ed. ; and by C. and T. Miiller in Fragmenta His- 
ioricum Graecorum, vol. i. 

Pheres (^ep^js). 1, Son of Cretheus and Tyro, 
and brother of Aeson and Amythaon ; he was 
married to Periclymene, by whom he became the 
father of Admetus, Lycurgus, Idomene, and Pe- 
riapis. He was believed to have founded the town 
of Pherae in Thessalj\-— 2. Son of Jason and 
Medea. 

Pheretiades (^>eprjTia57js), i. e. a son of Pheres, 
is especially used as the name of Admetus. 

Pheretima {^eperi/xa), wife of Battus III., and 
mother of Arcesilaus III., successive kings of Cy- 
rene. After the murder of her son by the Bar- 
caeans [Battiadae, No. 6], Pheretima fled into 
Egypt to Aryandes, the viceroy of Darius Hystas- 
pis, and representing that the death of Arcesilaus 
had been the consequence of his submission to the 
Persians, she induced him to avenge it. On the 
capture of Barca by the Persian army, she caused 
those who had the principal share in her son's 
murder to be impaled, and ordered the breasts of 
their wives to be cut off. Pheretima then returned 
to Egypt, where she soon after died of a painful 
and loathsome disease. 

Pheron or Pheros {^4pwv, ^epas), king of 



556 



PHIDIAS. 



PHIDIAS. 



Egypt, and son of Sesostris. He was visited with 
blindness, an hereditary complaint, though, ac- 
cording to the legend preserved in Herodotus, it 
was a punishment for his presumptuous impiety in 
throwing a spear into the waters of the Nile when 
it had overflowed the fields. By attending to the 
directions of an oracle he was cured ; and he dedi- 
cated an obelisk at Heliopolis in gratitude for his 
recovery. Pliny tells us that this obelisk, together 
with another also made by him but broken in its 
removal, was to be seen at Rome in the Circus of 
Taligiila and Nero at the foot of the Vatican hill. 
Pliny calls the Pheron of Herodotus Nuncoreus, 
or Nencoreus, a name corrupted, perhaps, from 
Menophtheus. Diodorus gives him his father's 
name, Sesoosis. Pheron is of course the same word 
as Pharaoh. 

Phidias (*et5tay), the greatest sculptor and 
statuary of Greece, Of his personal history we 
possess but few details. He was a native of Athens, 
and the son of Charmides, and was bom about the 
time of the battle of Marathon, b. c. 490. He 
began to work as a statuarj^ about 464, and one of 
his first great works was the statue of Athena Pro- 
machus, which may be assigned to about 460. This 
work must have established his reputation ; but it 
was surpassed by the splendid productions of his 
own hand, and of others working under his direc- 
tion, during the administration of Pericles. That 
statesman not only chose Phidias to execute the 
principal statues which were to be set up, but gave 
him the oversight of all the works of art which 
were to be erected. Of these works the chief 
were the Propylaea of the Acropolis, and, above 
all, the temple of Athena on the Acropolis, called 
the Partiienon, on which, as the central point of 
the Athenian polity and religion, the highest eflForts 
of the best of artists were employed. There can 
be no doubt that the sculptured ornaments of this 
temple, the remains of which form the glory of the 
British Museum, were executed under the imme- 
diate superintendence of Phidias ; but the colossal 
statue of the divinity made of ivory and gold, 
which was enclosed within that magnificent shrine, 
was the work of the artist's own hand. The statue 
was dedicated in 438. Having finished his great 
work at Athens, he went to Elis and Olympia, 
wldch he was now invited to adorn. He was 
there engaged for about 4 or 5 years from 437 to 
434 or 433, during which time he finished his 
statue of the Olympian Zeus, the greatest of all 
his works. On his return to Athens, he fell a 
victim to the jealousy against his great patron, 
Pericles, which was then at its height. The 
party opposed to Pericles, thinking him too power- 
ful to be overthrown by a direct attack, aimed at 
him in the persons of his most cherished friends, 
Phidias, Anaxagoras, and Aspasia. [Pericles.] 
Phidias was first accused of peculation, but this 
charge was at once refuted, as, by the advice of 
Pericles, the gold had been affixed to the statue of 
Athena, in such a manner that it could be removed 
and the weight of it examined. The accusers then 
charged Phidias with impiety, in having intro- 
duced into the battle of the Amazons, on the shield 
of the goddess, his ovra likeness and that of Pericles. 
On this latter charge Phidias was throwTi into 
prison, where he died from disease, in 432, — Of 
the numerous works executed by Phidias for the 
Athenians the most celebrated was the statue of 
Athena in the Parthenon, to which reference has 



already been made. This statue was of that kind 
of work which the Greeks called chryselephantine^ 
that is, the statue was formed of plates of ivory 
laid upon a core of wood or stone, for the flesh 
parts, while the drapery and other ornaments were 
of solid gold. The statue stood in the foremost 
and larger chamber of the temple (prodomus). It 
represented the goddess standing, clothed with a 
tunic reaching to the ancles, with her spear in her 
left hand and an image of Victory 4 cubits high in 
her right : she was girded with the aegis, and had 
a helmet on her head, and her shield rested on the 
ground by her side. The height of the statue was 
26 cubits, or nearly 40 feet, including the base. 
The eyes were of a kind of marble, nearl}- resembling 
ivon,', perhaps painted to imitate the iris and pupil ; 
there is no sufficient authority for the statement 
which is frequently made, that they were of pre- 
cious stones. The weight of the gold upon the 
statue, which, as above stated, was removable at 
pleasure, is said by Thucydides to have been 40 
talents (ii. 13). — Still more celebrated than his 
statue of Athena was the colossal ivorj' and gold 
statue of Zeus, which Phidias made for the great 
temple of this god, in the Aliis or sacred grove at 
Olympia. This statue was regarded as the master- 
piece, not only of Phidias, but of the whole range 
of Grecian art ; and was looked upon not so much 
as a statue, but rather as if it were the actual 
manifestation of the present deit}'. It was placed in 
the prodomus or front chamber of the temple, 
directly facing the entrance. It was only visible, 
however, on great festivals, at other times it was 
concealed by a magnificent curtain. The god 
was represented as seated on a throne of cedar 
wood, adorned with gold, ivorj', ebony, stones, and 
colours, crowned with a wreath of olive, holding in 
his right hand an ivory and gold statue of Victory, 
and in his left hand supporting a sceptre, which 
was ornamented with all sorts of metals, and sur- 
mounted by an eagle. The throne was brilliant 
both with gold and stones, and with ebony and 
ivory, and was ornamented with figures both 
painted and sculptured. The statue almost reached 
to the roof, which was about 60 feet in height. 
The idea which Phidias essayed to embody in this, 
his greatest work, was that of the supreme deity 
of the Hellenic nation, no longer engaged in con- 
flicts with the Titans and the Giants, but having 
laid aside his thunderbolt, and enthroned as a 
conqueror, in perfect majesty and repose, ruling 
with a nod the subject world. It is related that 
when Phidias was asked what model he meant to 
follow in making his statue, he replied that of 
Homer (77. i. 528— 530). The imitation of this 
passage by Milton gives no small aid to the compre- 
hension of the idea {Paradise Lost^ 'in. 135 — 1 37) : 

' Thus while God spake, ambrosial fragrance 
fill'd 

All heaven, and in the blessed spirits elect 
Sense of new joy ineffable difiFused." 

The statue was removed by the emperor Theo- 
dosius I. to Constantinople, where it was destroyed 
by a fire in a. d, 475. — The distinguishing character 
of the art of Phidias was ideal beauty, and that of 
the suhlimest order, especially in the representation 
of divinities, and of subjects connected with their 
worship. While on the one hand he set himself 
free from the stiff and unnatural forms which, by 
a sort of religious precedent, had fettered his pre- 



PHIDIPPIDES. 



PHILAENI. 



decessorg of the archaic or hieratic school, he 
never, on the other hand, descended to the exact 
imitation of any human model, however beautiful; 
nor did he ever approach to that almost meretri- 
cious grace, by which some of his greatest fol- 
lowers, if they did not corrupt the art themselves, 
gave the occasion for its corruption in the hands 
of their less gifted and spiritual imitators. 

Phidippides orPMlippides {^eidnnrLSris,^i\nr- 
irl5r]s), a courier, was sent by the Athenians to 
Sparta in B. c. 490, to ask for aid against the Per- 
sians, and arrived there on the 2nd day from his 
leaving Athens. On his return to Athens, he re- 
lated that on his way to Sparta he had fallen in 
with Pan on Mt. Partheniura, near Tegea, and 
that the god had bid him ask the Athenians why 
they paid him no worship, though he had been 
hitherto their friend, and ever would be so. In 
consequence of this revelation, they dedicated a 
temple to Pan after the battle of Marathon, and 
honoured him thenceforth with annual sacrifices 
and a torch-race. 

PMdon (*ef5cyv), 1. Son of Aristodamidas,and 
king of Argos, restored the supremacy of Argos 
over Cleonae, Phlius, Sicyon, Epidaurus, Troezen, 
and Aegina, and aimed at extending his dominions 
over the greater part of the Peloponnesus. The 
Pisans invited him, in the 8th Olympiad (b, c. 
748), to aid them in excluding the Eleans from 
their usurped presidency at the Olympic games, 
and to celebrate them jointly with themselves. 
The invitation quite fell in with the ambitious 
pretensions of Phidon, who succeeded in dispos- 
sessing the Eleans and celebrating the games along 
with the Pisans ; but the Eleans not long after de- 
feated him, with the aid of Sparta, and recovered 
their privilege. Thus apparently fell the power of 
Phidon; but as to the details of the struggle we 
have no information. The most memorable act of 
Phidon was his introduction of copper and silver 
coinage, and a new scale of weights and measures, 
which, through his influence, became prevalent in 
Ihe Peloponnesus, and ultimately throughout the 
greater portion of Greece. The coinage of Phidon 
is said to have been struck in Aegina.— 2. An 
ancient Corinthian legislator of uncertain date. 

Phigalia ('PiyaKia, ^iyd\(ia, ^iya\4a: ^lya- 
\e^s : Paolitza)^ at a later time called Phialia, a 
town in the S W. comer of Arcadia on the frontiers 
of Messenia and Elis, and upon the river Ljaiiax. 
It was taken by the Spartans B. c. 559, but was 
afterwards recovered by the Phigalians with the 
help of the Oresthasians. It is frequently men- 
tioned in the later wars of the Achaean and 
Aetolian Leagues. — Phigalia however owes its 
celebrity in modern times to the remains of a 
splendid temple in its territory, situated about 6 
miles NE. of the town at Bassae on Mt. Cotylum. 
This temple was built by Ictinus, the contemporary 
of Pericles and Phidias, and the architect, along 
with Callicrates, of the Parthenon at Athens. It 
was dedicated to Apollo Epicurius,or the Deliverer, 
because the god had delivered the country from 
the pestilence during the Peloponnesian war. 
Pausanias describes this temple as the most beau- 
tiful one in all Peloponnesus after the temple of 
Athena at Tegea. Most of the columns are still 
standing. In 1812 the frieze round the interior 
of the inner cella Avas discovered, containing a 
series of sculptures in alto-relievo, representing the 
combat of the Centaurs and the Lapithae, and of 



the Greeks and the Amazons. Their height is a 
little more than 2 feet, and their total length is 
] 00 feet. They were found on the ground under 
the spot which they originail}'- occupied, and were 
much injured by their fall, and by the weight of 
the ruins lying upon them. They were purchased 
for the British Museum in 1814, where they are 
still preserved, and are usually known by the name 
of the Phigalian Marbles. They are some of the 
most interesting and beautiful remains of ancient 
art in this country. 

Phila (4>tAa), daughter of Antipater, the regent 
of Macedonia, was married to Craterus in b. c. 322, 
and after the death of Craterus, who survived his 
marriage with her scarcely a j-'ear, she was again 
married to the young Demetrius, the son of Anti- 
gonus. When Demetrius was expelled from Mace- 
donia in 287, she put an end to her own life at 
Cassandrea. She left 2 children by Demetrius j 
Antigonus, surnamed Gonatas, and a daughter, 
Stratonice, married first to Seleucus, and afterwards 
to his son Antiochus. 

Phila (4»i'A.a: ^tAotos, '^iK6.t't\s). 1. A town of 
Macedonia in the province Pieria, situated on a 
steep hill on the Peneus between Dium and Tempe 
and at the entrance into Thessaly, built by Deme- 
trius II. and named after his mother Phila.— 2. 
An island off the S. coast of Gaul, one of the 
Stoechades. 

Philadelphia {<Pi\ad€\(j)eia : *tAa5eA^eus.) 1. 
(Allah Shehr, Ru.), a city of Lydia, at the foot of 
M. Tmolus, on the little river Cogamus, S.E. of 
Sardis. It was built by Attains Philadelphus, 
king of Pergamus. It suffered greatly from earth- 
quakes ; so that in Strabo's time (under Augustus) 
it had greatly declined. In the reign of Tiberius, 
it was almost destroyed by one of these visitations. 
It was an early seat of Christianity, and its 
church is one of the 7 to which the Apocalypse is 
addressed. (Rev. iii. 7.) — 2. A city of Cilicia 
Aspera, on the Calycadnus, above Aphrodisias. — 
3. In Palestine. [Rabbatamana.] 

Philadelphus {^iAd5e\(pos), a surname of Pto- 
lemaeus II. king of Egypt [Ptolemaeus] and of 
Attains II. king of Pergamum [Attalus]. 

Philae {^iXai: Jesiret-eUBirbeh^ i. e, the Island 
of Temples), an island in the Nile, just below the 
First Cataract, on the S. boundary of the country 
towards Aethiopia. It was inhabited by Egyptians 
ctud Ethiopians jointly, and was covered with 
magnificent temples, whose splendid ruins still 
remain. It was celebrated in Egyptian mythology 
as the burial-place of Osiris and Isis. 

Philaeni {^iXaivoi), 2 brothers, citizens of Car- 
thage, of whom the following story is told. A dis- 
pute having arisen between the Carthaginians and 
Cyrenaeans about their boundaries, it was agreed 
that deputies should start at a fixed time from 
each of the cities, and that the place of their meet- 
ing, wherever it might be, should thenceforth form 
the limit of the 2 territories. The Philaeni were 
appointed for this service on the part of the Car- 
thaginians, and advanced much further than the 
Cyrenaean party. The Cyrenaeans accused them of 
having set forth before the time agreed upon, but 
at length consented to accept the spot which they 
had reached as a boundary-line, if the Philaeni 
would submit to be buried alive there in the sand. 
Should they decline the offer, they were willing, 
they said, on their side, if permitted to advance as 
far as they pleased, to purchase for Cyrene an ex- 



558 



PHILAGRIUS. 



PHILETAERUS. 



tension of territory by a similar death. Tlie Phi- 
laeni accordingly then and there devoted themselves 
for their country, in the way proposed. The Car- 
thaginians paid high honours to their memorj', and 
erected altars to them where they had died ; and 
from these, even long after all traces of them had 
vanished, the place still continued to be called 
" The Altars of the Philaeni." Our main authority 
for this stor}- is Sallust, who probably derived his 
information from African traditions during the 
time that he was proconsul of Numidia, and at 
least 300 years after the event. We cannot, there- 
fore, accept it unreservedly. The Greek name by 
which the heroic brothers have become known to 
us — ^'iXaivoi, or lovers of praise — seems clearly 
to have been framed to suit the tale. 

Philagrius {^iXdypios), a Greek medical wTiter, 
born in Epirus, lived after Galen and before Oriba- 
sius, and therefore probably in the 3rd century 
after Christ. He wrote several works, of which, 
however, only a few fragments remain. 

Philammon (€>iAa^t^wv), a mythical poet and 
musician of the ante-Homeric period, was said to 
have been the son of Apollo and the nymph Chione, 
or Philonis, or Leuconoe. By the nymph Agriope, 
who dwelt on Parnassus, he became the father of 
Thamyris and Eumolpus. He is closely associated 
with the worship of Apollo at Delphi, and with 
the music of the cithara. He is said to have esta- 
blished the choruses of girls, who, in the Delphian 
worship of Apollo, sang hymns in which they 
celebrated the births of Latona, Artemis, and 
Apollo. Pausanias relates that in the most ancient 
musical contests at Delphi, the first who conquered 
was Chrysothemis of Crete, the second was Phi- 
lammon, and the next after him his son Thamyris. 

PMlargyrius Junius, or Philargyrus, or Ju- 
nilius Flatus, an early commentator upon Vir- 
gil, who wrote upon the Bucolics and Georgics. 
His observations are less elaborate than those of 
Servius, and have descended to us in a mutilated 
condition. The period when he flourished is alto- 
gether uncertain. They are printed in the edition 
of Virgil by Burmann. 

Phile or Philes, Manuel (Mapov7j\ 6 ^iXris\ a 
Byzantine poet, and a native of Ephesus, was bom 
about A. n, 1275, and died about 1340. His poem, 
De Ariimalium Proprietate, chiefly extracted from 
Aelian, is edited by De Paw, Traj. Rhen. 1739 ; 
and his other poems on various subjects are edited 
by Wemsdorf, Lip3. 1768. 

PMleas ('i>iAeas), a Greek geographer of Athens, 
whose time cannot be determined with certainty, 
but who probably belonged to the older period of 
Athenian literature. He was the author of a Pe- 
riplus, which was di\-ided into 2 parts, one on Asia, 
and the other on Europe. 

Philemon {^L\r,i.i.uiv). 1. An aged Phrygian 
and husband of Baucis. Once upon a time, Zeus 
and Hermes, assuming the appearance of ordinary 
mortals, visited Phrygia ; but no one was willing 
to receive the strangers, until the hospitable hut of 
Philemon and Baucis was opened to them, where 
the two gods were kindly treated. Zeus rev/arded 
the good old couple by taking them to an eminence, 
while all the neighbouring district was \'isited with 
a sudden inundation. On that eminence Zeus ap- 
pointed them the gxiardians of his temple, and 
allowed them both to die at the same moment, and 
then metamorphosed them into trees. — 2. An 
Athenian poet of the New Comedy, was the son 



of Damon, and a native of Soli in Cilicia, but at 
an early age went to Athens, and there received 
the citizenship. He flourished in the reign of 
Alexander, a little earlier than Men^der, whom, 
however, he long survived. He began to exhibit 
about B. c. 330. He was the first poet of the 
New Comedy in order of time, and the second 
in celebrity; and he shares with Menander 
the honour of its invention, or rather of reducing 
it to a regular form. Philemon lived nearly 
100 years. The manner of his death is dif- 
ferently related ; some ascribing it to excessive 
laughter at a ludicrous incident ; others to joy at 
obtaining a victory in a dramatic contest ; while 
another story represents him as quietly called 
away by the goddesses whom he served, in the 
midst of the composition or representation of his 
last and best work. Although there can be no 
doubt that Philemon was infeiior to Menander as 
a poet, yet he was a greater favourite with the 
Athenians, and often conquered his rival in the 
dramatic contests. [Menander.] The extant 
fragments of Philemon display much liveliness, 
wit, elegance, and practical knowledge of life. 
His favourite subjects seem to have been love in- 
trigues, and his characters were the standing ones 
of the New Comedy, with which Plautus and 
Terence have made us familiar. The number of 
his plays was 97 ; the number of extant titles, 
after the doubtful and spurious ones are rejected, 
amounts to about 53 ; but it is very probable that 
some of these should be assigned to the younger 
Philemon. The fragments of Philemon are printed 
with those of Menander by Meineke, in his Frag- 
menta Comicorum Graecorum^ Berol. 1841. — 
3. The yoimger Philemon, also a poet of the New 
Comedy, was a son of the former, in whose fame 
nearly all that belongs to him has been absorbed j 
so that, although he was the author of 54 dramas, 
there are only 2 short fragments, and not one title, 
quoted expressly under his name.— 4. The author 
of a Ae|i/cbj/ rexvoKoyLKou, the extant portion of 
which was first edited by Bumey, Lond. 1812, 
and afterwards by Osann, Berlin, 1821. The au- 
thor informs us that his work was intended to take 
the place of a similar Lexicon by the Grammarian 
Hyperechius. The work of Hyperechius was ar- 
ranged in 8 books, according to the 8 difiierent 
parts of speech. Philemon's lexicon was a meagre 
epitome of this work ; and the part of it which is 
extant consists of the 1st book and the beginning 
of the 2nd. Hyperechius lived about the middle 
of the 5th century of our era, and Philemon may 
probably be placed in the 7th. 

Philitaerus (^fAeVotpos). 1. Founder of the 
kingdom of Pergamus, was a native of Tieium in 
Paphlagonia, and an eunuch. He is first men- 
tioned in the service of Docimus, the general 
of Antigonus, from which he passed into that 
of Lysimachus, who entrusted him vs'ith the charge 
of the treasures which he had deposited in the 
strong fortress of Pergamus. Towards the end of 
the reign of Lysimachus he declared in favour of 
Seleucus; and, after the death of the latter (b. c. 
280), he took advantage of the disorders in Asia 
to establish himself in virtual independence. At 
his death he transmitted the government of Perga- 
mus, as an independent state, to his nephew £u- 
menes. He lived to the age of 80, and died appa- 
rently in 263.-2. An Athenian poet of the 
Middle Comedy. Some said he was the third son 



PHILETAS. 



PHILIPPUS. 



55a 



of Aristophanes, but others maintained that it was 
Nicostratus. lie wrote 21 plays. 

Phlletas (^lATiray), of Cos, the son of Tele- 
phus, a distinguished Alexandrian poet and gram- 
marian, flourished during the reign of the first 
Ptolemy, who appointed him tutor of his son, 
Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. His death may be 
placed about B. c. 280. Philetas seems to have 
been naturally of a A'ery weak constitution, which 
at last broke down under excessive study. He 
was so remarkably thin as to become an object for 
the ridicule of the comic poets, who represented 
him as wearing leaden soles to his shoes, to prevent 
his being blown away by a strong wind. His 
poetry was chiefly elegiac. Of all the writers in 
that department he was esteemed the best after 
Callimachus ; to whom a taste less pedantic than 
that of the Alexandrian critics would probably 
have preferred him ; for, to judge by his fragments, 
he escaped the snare of cumbrous learned affecta- 
tion. These 2 poets formed the chief models for 
the Roman elegy : nay, Propertius expressly states, 
in one passage, that he imitated Philetas in prefer- 
ence to Callimachus. The elegies of Philetas were 
chiefly amatory, and a large portion of them was 
devoted to the praises of his mistress Bittis, or, as 
the Latin poets give the name, Battis. Besides 
his poems, Philetas wrote in prose on grammar 
and criticism. His most important grammatical 
work was entitled "AraKTa. The fragments of 
Philetas have been collected by Bach, with those 
of Hermesianax and Phanocles, Halis Sax. 1829. 

Phileus, an eminent Ionian architect, built the 
Mausoleum, in conjunction with Satyr us, and 
the temple of Athena Polias, at Priene. The date 
of the erection of the Mausoleum was soon after 
B. c. 353, the year in which Mausolus died ; that 
of the temple at Priene must have been about 20 
years later. 

PMlinus (4»i\iVos). 1. A Greek of Agrigen- 
tixm, accompanied Hannibal in his campaigns 
against Rome, and wrote a history of the Punic 
wars, in which he exhibited much partiality 
towards Carthage. — 2. An Attic orator, a con- 
temporary of Demosthenes and Lycurgus. He is 
mentioned by Demosthenes in his oration against 
Midias, who calls him the son of Nicostratus, and 
says that he was trierarch with him. Three ora- 
tions of Philinus are mentioned by the gram- 
marians. — 3. A Greek physician, born in the 
island of Cos, and the reputed founder of the sect of 
the Empirici, probably lived in the 3rd century B. c. 
He wrote a work on part of the Hippocratic col- 
lection, and also one on botany. 

Philippi {^l\nnroi : ^iMinrevs, ^t\nnTT](ri05, 
^iXtinnjvSs : Filibah or Felihejik), a celebrated city 
in Macedonia adjecta [see p. 404, a], was situated 
on a steep height of Mt. Pangaeus, and on the 
river Gangas or Gangites, between the rivers 
Nestus and Strj'mon. It was founded by Philip 
on the site of an ancient town Crenides (K/:>7}Vi'5es), 
a colony of the Thasians, who settled here on 
account of the valuable gold mines in the neigh- 
bourhood. Philippi is celebrated in history in 
consequence of the victory gained here by Octa- 
vianus and Antony over Brutus and Cassius, B. c. 
42, and as the place where the Apostle Paul first 
preached the gospel in Europe, a.d. 53. The church 
at Philippi soon became one of the most important 
of the early Christian churches : one of St. Paul's 
Epistles is addressed to it. It was made a Roman 



colony by Octavianus after the victory over Brutus 
and Cassius, under the name of Col. Augusta Julia 
Philippensis ; and it continued to be under the 
empire a flourishing and important city. Its sea- 
port was Datum or Datus on the Strymonic gulf. 

Philippides (^iXiirmS-ns). 1. See Phidippi- 
DES. —2. Of Athens, the son of Philocles, is men- 
tioned as one of the 6 principal comic poets of the 
New Comedy by the grammarians. He flourished 
about B. c. 323. Philippides seems to have de- 
served the rank assigned to him, as one of the best 
poets of the New Comedy. He attacked the 
luxury and corruptions of his age, defended the 
privileges of his art, and made use of personal 
satire with a spirit approaching to that of the Old 
Comedy. His death is said to have been caused 
by excessive joy at an unexpected victory : similar 
tales are told of the deaths of other poets, as for 
example, Sophocles, Alexis, and Philemon. The 
number of his dramas is stated at 45. There are 
15 titles extant. 

Philippbpolis (^iMTnTSnoMs : Fkilippopoli), an 
important town in Thrace founded by Philip of 
Macedon on the site of a place previously called 
Eumolpias or Poneropolis. It was situated in a 
large plain S.E. of the Hebrus on a hill with 3 
summits, whence it was sometimes called Trimon- 
tium. Under the Roman empire it was the capital 
of the province of Thracia in its narrower sense, and 
one of the most important towns in the country. 

Phllippus (^lAtTTTTOs). I. Minor Msiorical 
persons. 1. Son of Alexander I. of Macedonia, 
and brother of Perdiccas II., against whom he re- 
belled in conjunction with Derdas. The rebels 
were aided by the Athenians, B. c. 432. — 2. Son 
of Herod the Great, king of Judea, by his wife 
Cleopatra, was appointed by his father's will te- 
trarch of Ituraea and Trachonitis, the sovereignty 
of which was confirmed to him by the decision of 
Augustus. He continued to reign over the domi- 
nions thus entrusted to his charge for 37 years 
(b. c. 4 — A. D. 34). He founded the city of Cae- 
sarea, sumamed Paneas, but more commonly known 
as Caesarea Philippi, near the sources of the Jor- 
dan, which he named in honour of Augustus. 
[Caesarea, No. 2.] — 3. Son of Herod the Great, 
by Mariamne, whose proper name was Herodes 
Philippus. He must not be confounded with the 
preceding Philip. He was the first husband of 
Herodias, who afterwards divorced him, contrary 
to the Jewish law, and married his half-brother, 
Herod Antipas. It is Herod Philip, and not the 
preceding, who is meant by the Evangelists (Matt, 
xiv. 3; Mark, vi. 17 ; Luke, iii. 19), when they 
speak of Philip, the brother of Herod. 

II. Kings of Macedonia. 

I. Son of Argaeus, was the 3rd king, according 
to Herodotus and Thucydides, who, not reckoning 
Caranus and his two immediate successors (Coe- 
nus and Thurimas or Turimmas), look upon Per- 
diccas I. as the founder of the monarchy. Philip 
left a son, named Aeropus, who succeeded him.— 
II. Youngest son of Amyntas II. and Eurydice, 
reigned b. c. 359 — 336. He was born in 382, and 
was brought up at Thebes, whither he had been 
carried as a hostage by Pelopidas, and where he 
received a most careful education. Upon the death 
of his brother Perdiccas III., who was slain in 
battle against the lUyrians, Philip obtained the 
government of Macedonia, at first merely as regent 



560 PHILIPPUS. 
and guardian to his infant nephew Amyntas ; but j 
at the end of a few months he was enabled to set j 
aside the claims of the young prince, and to assume j 
for himself the title of king. Macedonia was beset | 
by dangers on every side. Its territory was ra- 
vaged by the lUyrians on the W., and the Paeo- 
nians on the N., while Pausanias and Argaeus 
took advantage of the crisis to put forward their 
pretensions to the throne. Philip weis fully equal 
to the emergency. By his tact and eloquence he 
sustained the failing spirits of the Macedonians, 
while at the same time he introduced among them 
a stricter military discipline, and organised their 
army on the plan of the phalanx. He first turned 
his arms against Argaeus, the most formidable of 
the pretenders, since he was supported by the 
Athenians. He defeated Argaeus in battle, and 
then concluded a peace with the Athenians. He 
next attacked the Paeon ians, whom he reduced to 
subjection, and immediately afterwards defeated 
the Illyrians in a decisive battle, and compelled 
them to accept a peace, by which they lost a portion 
of their territory. Thus in the short period of one 
year, and at the age of 24, had Philip delivered 
himself from his dangerous position, and provided ! 
for the security of his kingdom. But energy and j 
talents such as his were not satisfied with mere i 
security, and henceforth his views were directed, '. 
not to defence, but to aggrandisement. His first , 
efforts were directed to obtain possession of the { 
various Greek cities upon the Macedonian coast. ; 
Soon after his accession he had withdrawn his \ 
garrison from Amphipolis, and had declared it a 
free city, because the Athenians had supported ; 
Argaeus with the hope of recovering Amphipolis, i 
and his continuing to hold the place would have . 
interposed difficulties in the way of a peace with | 
Athens, which was at that time an object of great ; 
importance to him. But he had never meant se- 
riously to abandon this important tovra ; and ac- j 
cordingly having obtained pretexts for war with | 
the Amphipolitans, he laid siege to the town and j 
gained possession of it in 3-58. The Athenians ! 
had sent no assistance to Amphipolis. because I 
Philip in a secret negotiation with the Athenians, j 
led them to believe that he was willing to restore { 
the city to them when he had taken it, and would [ 
do so on condition of their making him master of 
Pydna. After the captm-e of Amphipolis, he 
proceeded at once to Pydna, which seems to have 
j-ielded to him without a struggle, and the acqui- 
sition of which, by his own arms, and not through 
the Athenians, gave him a pretext for declining to 
stand by his secret engagement with them. The 
hostile feeling which such conduct necessarily 
excited against him at Athens, made it most im- 
portant for him to secure the good will of the 
powerful tov.Ti of Olynthus, and to detach the 
Olynthians from the Athenians. Accordingly he 
gave to the Olynthians the town of Potidaea, 
which he took from the Athenians in 356. Soon 
after this, he attacked and took a settlement of 
the Thasians, called Crenides, and, having intro- 
duced into the place a number of new colonists, he 
named it Philippi after himself. One great ad- 
vantage of this acquisition was, that it put him in 
possession of the gold mines of the district. From 
this point there is for some time a pause in the 
active operations of Philip. In 352 he took Me- 
thone after a lengthened siege, in the course of 
which he himself lost an eye. The capture of this 



PHILIPPUS. 
place was a necessary preliminary in any movenient 
towards the S., lying as it did between him and 
the Thessalian border. He now marched into 
Thessaly to aid the Aleuadae against Lycophron, 
the tyrant of Pherae. The Phocians sent a force 
to support Lycophron, but they were defeated by 
Philip, and their general Onomarchus slain. This 
victory gave Philip the ascendancy in Thessaly. 
He established at Pherae what he wished the 
Greeks to consider a free government, and then 
advanced S.-ward to Thermopylae. The pass, 
however, he found guarded by a strong Athenian 
force, and he was compelled, or at least thought it 
expedient to retire. He now turned his arms 
against Thrace, and succeeded in establishing his 
ascendancy in that country also. Meanwhile Philip's 
movements in Thessaly had opened the eyes of 
Demosthenes to the real danger of Athens and 
Greece, and his first Philippic (delivered m 352) 
was his earliest attempt to rouse his cotmtrymen 
to energetic efforts against their enemy; but he did 
not produce much effect upon the Athenians. In 
349 Philip commenced his attacks on the Chalcidian 
cities. Olynthus, in alarm, applied to Athens for 
aid, and Demosthenes, in his 3 Olynthiac orations, 
roused the people to efforts against the common 
enemy, not very vigorous at first and fruitless in 
the end. In the course of 3 years Philip gained 
possession of all the Chalcidian cities, and the war 
was brought to a conclusion by the capture of 
Olynthus itself in 347. In the following year 
(346) he concluded peace with the Athenians, and 
straightway marched into Phocis, and brought the 
Phocian war to an end. The Phocian cities were 
destroyed, and their place in the Amphictyonic 
cotmcil was made over to the king of Macedonia, 
who was appointed also, jointly with the Thebans 
and Thessalians, to the presidency of the Pythian 
games. Ruling as he did over a barbaric nation, 
such a recognition of his Hellenic character was of 
the greatest value to him, especially as he looked 
forward to an invasion of the Persian empire in 
the name of Greece, united under him in a great 
national confederacy. During the next few years 
Philip steadily pursued his ambitious projects. 
From 342 to 340 he was engaged in an expedition 
in Thrace, and attempted to bring under his power 
all the Greek cities in that coimtrj'. In the last 
of these years he laid siege to Perinthus and By- 
zantium; but the Athenians, who had long viewed 
Philip's aggrandisement with fear and alarm, now 
resolved to send assistance to these cities. Phocion 
was appointed to the command of the armament 
destined for this service, and succeeded in com- 
pelling Philip to raise the siege of both the cities 
(339). Philip now proceeded to carry on war 
against his northern neighbours, and seemed to give 
himself no further concern about the affairs of 
Greece. But meanwhile his hirelings were treache- 
rously promoting his designs against the liberties 
of Greece. In 339 the Amphictyons declared war 
asrainst the Locrians of Amphissa for having taken 
possession of a district of the sacred land ; but as 
the general they had appointed to the command 
of the Amphictyonic army was unable to effect 
any thing against the enemy, the Amphictyons at 
their next meeting in 338 conferred upon Philip 
the command of their army. Philip straight- 
v/ay marched through Thermopylae and seized 
Ela'tea. The Athenians heard of his approach with 
alarm; they succeeded, mainly through the influence 



PHILIPPUS. 



PHILIPPUS. 



.561 



of Demosthenes in forming an alliance with the 
Thebans ; but their united army was defeated by 
Philip in the month of August, 338, in the decisive 
battle of Chaeronea, which put an end to the in- 
dependence of Greece, Thebes paid dear for her 
resistance, but Athens was treated with more 
favour than she could have expected. Philip now 
seemed to have within his reach the accomplish- 
ment of the great object of his ambition, the in- 
vasion and conquest of the Persian empire. In a 
congress held at Corinth, which was attended by 
deputies from every Grecian state with the excep- 
tion of Sparta, war with Persia was determined 
on, and the king of Macedonia was appointed to 
command the forces of the national confederacy. 
In 337 Philip's marriage with Cleopatra, the 
daughter of Attains, one of his generals, led to the 
most serious disturbances in his family. Olympias 
and Alexander withdrew in great indignation 
from Macedonia ; and though they returned home 
soon afterwards, they continued to be on hostile 
terms with Philip. Meanwhile, his preparations 
for his Asiatic expedition were not neglected, and 
early in 336 he sent forces into Asia, under Par- 
menion, to draw over the Greek cities to his cause. 
But in the summer of this year he was murdered 
at a grand festival which he held at Aegae, to 
solemnise the nuptials of his daughter with Alex- 
ander of Epirus. His murderer was a youth of 
noble blood, named Pausanias, who stabbed him 
as he was walking in the procession. The assassin 
was immediately pursued and slain by some of the 
royal guards. His motive for the deed is stated 
by Aristotle to have been private resentment 
against Philip, to whom he had complained in 
vain of a gross outrage offered to him by Attalus. 
Olympias and Alexander, however, were suspected 
of being implicated in the plot. [Olympias.] 
Philip died in the 47th year of his age and the 
24th of his reign, and was succeeded by Alexander 
the Great. Philip had a great number of wives 
and concubines. Besides Olympias and Cleopatra, 
we may mention, 1. his first wife Audata, an Illy- 
rian princess, and the mother of Cynane; 2. Phila, 
sister of Derdas and Machatas, a princess of Ely- 
miotis ; 3. Nicesipolis of Pherae, the mother of 
Thessalonica ; 4. Philinna of Larissa, the mother 
of Arrhidaeus ; 5. Meda, daughter of Cithelas, king 
of Thrace ; 6. Arsinoe, the mother of Ptolemy I., 
king of Egypt, with whom she was pregnant when 
she married Lagus. To these numerous connections 
temperament as well as policy seems to have in- 
clined him. He was strongly addicted, indeed, to 
sensual enjoyment of everj' kind; but his passions, 
however strong, were always kept in subjection to 
his interests and ambitious views. He was fond 
of science and literature, in the patronage of which 
he appears to have been liberal ; and his apprecia- 
tion of great minds is shown by his connection with 
Aristotle. In the pursuit of his political objects he 
was, as we have seen, unscrupulous, and ever ready 
to resort to duplicity and corruption; but when we 
consider his humanity and generous clemency, we 
may admit that he does not appear to disadvantage, 
even morally speaking, by the side of his fellow- 
conquerors of mankind. — III. The name of Philip 
was bestowed by the Macedonian army upon Arr- 
hidaeus, the bastard son of Philip II., when he 
waa raised to the throne after the death of Alex- 
ander the Great. He accordingly appears in the 
list d Macedonian kings as Philip III. For his 



life and reign see Arrhidaeus. — IV. Eldest son 
of Cassander, whom he succeeded on the throne, 
B. c. 296. He reigned only a few months, and 
was carried off by a consumptive disorder. — V. 
Son of Demetrius II., reigned b. c. 220 — 178. He 
was only 8 years old at the death of his father 
Demetrius (229) ; and the sovereign power was con- 
sequently assumed by his uncle Antigonus Doson, 
who, though he certainly ruled as king rather than 
merely as guardian of his nephew, was faithful to 
the interests of Philip, to whom he transferred the 
sovereignty at his death in 220, to the exclusion 
of his own children. Philip was only 17 years old 
at the time of his accession, but he soon showed 
that he possessed ability and wisdom superior to 
his years. In consequence of the defeat of the 
Achaeans and Aratus by the Aetolians, the former 
applied for aid to Philip. This was granted; and 
for the next 3 years Philip conducted with distin- 
guished success the war against the Aetolians. 
This war, usually called the Social war, was 
brought to a conclusion in 217, and at once gained 
for Philip a distinguished reputation throughout 
Greece, while his clemency and moderation secured 
him an equal measure of popularity. But a change 
came over his character soon after the close of the 
Social war. He became suspicious and cruel; and 
having become jealous of his former friend and 
counsellor Aratus, he caused him to be removed by 
a slow and secret poison in 213. Meantime he 
had become engaged in war with the Romans. In 
215 he concluded an alliance with Hannibal ; but 
he did not prosecute the war with any activity 
against the Romans, who on their part were too 
much engaged with their formidable adversary in 
Italy to send any powerful armament against the 
Macedonian king. In 211 the war assumed a 
new character in consequence of the alliance entered 
into by the Romans with the Aetolians. It was 
now carried on with greater vigour and alternate 
success; but as Philip gained several advantages over 
the Aetolians, the latter people made peace with 
Philip in 205. In the course of the same year the 
Romans likewise concluded a peace with Philip, 
as they were desirous to give their undivided at- 
tention to the war in Africa. It is probable that 
both parties looked upon this peace as little more 
than a suspension of hostilities. Such was clearly 
the view with which the Romans had accepted it; 
and Philip not only proceeded to carry out his 
views for his own aggrandisement in Greece, with- 
out any regard to the Roman alliances in that 
country, but he even sent a body of auxiliaries to 
the Carthaginians in Africa, who fought at Zama 
under Hannibal. As soon as the Romans had 
brought the 2nd Punic war to an end, they again 
declared war against Philip, 200. This war lasted 
between 3 and 4 years, and was brought to an end 
by the defeat of Philip by the consul Fiamininus 
at the battle of Cynoscephalae in the autumn of 
197. [Flamininus.J By the peace finally granted 
to Philip (196), the king was compelled to abandon 
all his conquests, both in Europe and Asia, sur- 
render his whole fleet to the Romans, and limit 
his standing army to 5000 men, besides paying a 
sum of 1000 talents. Philip was now eli'ectually 
humbled, and endeavoured to cultivate the friend- 
ship of the all-powerful republic. But towards 
the end of his reign he determined to try once 
more the fortune of war, and began to make active 
preparations for this purpose. His declining years 

o 



662 



PHILIPPUS. 



PHILISCUS. 



were embittered br the disputes between his sons 
Perseus and Demetrius ; and the former by forged 
letters at length persuaded the king that Demetrius 
vras plotting against his life, and induced him to 
consent to the execution of the unhappy prince. 
Philip was struck with the deepest grief and re- 
morse, when he afterwards discovered the deceit 
that had been practised upon him. He believed 
himself to be haunted bv the avenging spirit of 
Demetrius, and died shortly after, imprecating 
curses upon Perseus. His death took place in 179, 
in the 59th year of his age, after a reign of nearly 
42 years. 

III. Family of the Marcii PMippu 

1. Q,. Marciu-S PMlippus, praetor 188, with 
Sicily as his pro-vince, and consul 186, when he car- 
ried on war in Liguria with his colleague Sp. Pos- 
tumius Albinus. He was defeated by the enemy 
in the country of the Apuani, and the recollection 
of his defeat was preserved by the name of the 
saltus Marcius, In 169 Philippus was consul a 
'2nd time, and carried on the war in ^Macedonia 
against Perseus, but accomplished nothing of im- 
portance. [Perseus.] In 164, Philippus was 
censor with L. Aemilius Paulus, and in his censor- 
ship he set up in the city a new sun-dial. — 2. L. 
Marcius Philippus, was a tribune of the plebs, 
104, when he brought forward an agrarian law, 
and was consul in 9 1 with Sex. Julius Caesar. In 
this year Philippus, who belonged to the popular 
party, opposed -u-ith the greatest vigour the mea- 
sures of the tribune Drusus, who ai first enjoyed 
the full confidence of the senate. But his oppo- 
sition was all in vain ; the laws of the tribune were 
carried. Soon afterwards Drusus began to be re- 
garded with mistmst and suspicion ; Philippus 
became reconciled to the senate, and on his pro- 
position a senatus consultum was passed, declaring 
all the laws of Drusus to be null and void, as 
ha\-ing been carried against the auspices [Dru- 
sus.] In the civil wars between Marius and 
Sulla, Philippus took no part. He survived the 
death of Sulla ; and he is mentioned afterwards 
as one of those who advocated sending Pompey to 
conduct the war in Spain against Sertorius. Phi- 
lippus was one of the most distinguished orators of 
his time (Hor. Epist. i. 7. 46). As an orator he 
was reckoned only inferior to Crassus and Anto- 
nius. He was a man of luxurious habits, which 
his wealth enabled him to gratify: his fish-ponds 
were particularly celebrated for their magnificence 
and extent, and are mentioned by the ancients 
along with those of LucuUus and Hortensius. 
Besides his son, L. Philippus. who is spoken of 
below, he had a step-son Gellius Publicola [PuB- 
licola]. — 3. L. Marcius PMlippus, son of the 
preceding, was consul in 56. Upon the death of 
C. Octavius, the father of Augustus, Philippus 
married his widow Atia, and thus became the 
step-father of Augustus. Philippus was a timid 
man. Notwithstanding his close connection with 
Caesar's family, he remained neutral in the ci\-il 
wars ; and after the assassination of Caesar, he 
endeavoured to dissuade his step-son, the young 
Octavius, from accepting the inheritance which the 
dictator had left him. " He lived tiU his step-son 
had acquired the supremacy of the Roman world. 
He restored the temple of Hercules and the Muses, 
and surrounded it with a colormade. which is fre- 
quently mentioned under the name of Porticus 



PhUippi. (Clari monimenta Philippic Ov. Fa^t 
vi. 801.) 

IV. Emperors of Roine. 

L M. Julius Philippus I., Roman emperor 
A. D. 244 — 249, was an Arabian by birth, and 
entered the Roman army, in which he rose to high 
rank. He accompanied Gordianus III. in his ex- 
pedition against the Persians ; and upon the death 
of the excellent Misitheus [Misithecs] he was 
promoted to the vacant office of praetorian praefect. 
He availed himself of the influence of his high 
office to excite discontent among the soldiers, who 
at length assassinated Gordian, and proclaimed 
Philippus emperor, 244. PhUippus proclaimed his 
son Caesar, concluded a disgraceful peace with 
Sapor, founded the city of Philippopolis, and then 
returned to Rome. In 245 he was engaged in 
prosecuting a successful war against the Carpi, on 
the Danube. In 248, rebellions, headed by lota- 
pinus and ^Marinus, broke out sunultaneously in 
the East and in Moesia. Both pretenders speedily 
perished, but Decius having been despatched to 
recall the legions on the Danube to their duty, was 
himself forcibly invested with the purple by the 
troops, and compelled by them to march upon Italy. 
Philippus ha%-ing gone forth to encounter his rival, 
was slain near Verona either in battle or by his own 
soldiers. The great domestic event of the reign of 
Philippus was the exhibition of the secular games, 
which were celebrated with even more than the 
ordinary degree of splendour, since Rome had now, 
according to the received tradition, attained the 
thousandth year of her existence (a. D. 248).— 
2. M. Julius PMlippus II., son of the foregoing, 
was a boy of 7 at the accession (244) of his father, 
by whom he was proclaimed Caesar, and 3 years 
afterwards (247) received the title of Augustus. 
In 249 he was slain, according to Zosimus, at the 
battle of Verona, or murdered, according to Victor, 
at Rome by the praetorians, when intelligence 
arrived of the defeat and death of the emperor. 

V. Literary. 

1. Of Medma, in the S. of Italy, a Greek astro- 
nomer, and a disciple of Plato. His observations, 
which were made in the Peloponnesus and in 
Locris, were used bj- the astronomers Hipparchus, 
Geminus the Rhodian, and Ptolemy. — 2. Of Thes- 
salonica, an epigrammatic poet, who, besides com- 
posing a large number of epigrams himself, com- 
piled one of the ancient Greek Anthologies. The 
whole number of epigrams ascribed to him in the 
Greek Anthology is nearly 90 ; but of these, 6 
(Nos. 36 — 41) ought to be ascribed to Lucillius, 
and a few others are manifestly borrowed fi-om 
earlier poets, while others are mere imitations. 
The Anthology {'AvdoXoyia) of Philip, in imitation 
of that of Meleager, and as a sort of supplement 
to it, contains chiefly the epigrams of poets who 
lived in, or shortly before, the time of Philip. The 
earliest of these poets seems to be Philodemus, the 
contemporary of Cicero, and the latest Automedon, 
who probably flourished imder Xerva, Hence it 
is inferred that Philip flourished under Trajan. 

PMliscus (<i>t\tcrKos). L An Athenian poet of 
the Middle Comedy, of whom little is known. He 
must have flourished about B. c. 400, or a little later, 
as his portrait was painted by Parrhasius. — 2. Of 
Miletus, an orator or rhetorician, and the disciple 
of Isocrates, wrote a life of the orator Lycurgus, 



PHILISTINAE. 



PHILO. 



563 



and an epitaph on Lysias.— 3. Of Aeglna, a cynic 
philosopher, was the disciple of Diogenes the Cynic, 
and the teacher of Alexander in grammar.— 4. Of 
Corcyra, a distinguished tragic poet, and one of 
the 7 who formed the Tragic Pleiad at Alexandria, 
was also a priest of Dionysus, and in that character 
he was present at the coronation procession of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus in B. c. 284, He wrote 42 
dramas.— 5. Of Rhodes, a sculptor, several of 
whose works were placed in the temple of Apollo, 
adjoining the portico of Octavia at Rome. One of 
these statues was that of the god himself : the 
others were Latona and Diana, the 9 Muses, and 
another statue of Apollo, without drapery. He 
probably lived about b. c. 146. The group of 
Muses, found in the villa of Cassius at Tivoli, is 
supposed by some to be a copy of that of Philiscus. 
Others take the beautiful statue at Florence, known 
as the Apollino, for the naked Apollo of Philiscus. 

Philistinae Fossae. [Padus.] 

Philistion (^iKkxt'iuv). 1. Of Nicaea or Mag- 
nesia, a mimographer, who flourished in the time 
of Augustus, about a. d. 7. He was an actor, as 
well as a writer of mimes, and is said to have died 
of excessive laughter. — 2. A physician, born either 
at one of the Greek towns in Sicily, or at Locri 
Epizephyrii in Italy, was tutor to the physician 
Chrysippus of Cnidos and the astronomer and phy- 
sician Eudoxus, and therefore must have lived in 
the 4 th century b. c. 

Philistus (^'i\i(TTos), a Syracusan, son of Ar- 
chonides or Archomenides, was born probably 
about b, c. 435. He assisted Dionysius in obtain- 
ing the supreme power, and stood so high in the 
favour of the tyrant, that the latter entrusted him 
with the charge of the citadel of Syracuse. But 
at a later period he excited the jealousy of the 
tyrant by marrying, without his consent, one of 
the daughters of his brother Leptines, and was in 
consequence banished from Sicily. He at first re- 
tired to Thurii, but afterwards established himself 
at Adria, where he composed the historical work 
which has given celebrity to his name. He was 
recalled from exile by the younger Dionysius soon 
after his accession, and quickly succeeded in esta- 
blishing his influence over the mind of the latter. 
He exerted all his efforts to alienate Dionysius 
from his former friends, and not only caused Plato 
to be sent back to Athens, but ultimately suc- 
ceeded in effecting the banishment of Dion also. 
Philistus was unfortunately absent from Sicily, 
when Dion first landed in the island, and made 
himself master of Syracuse, b. c. 356. He after- 
wards raised a powerful fleet, with which he gave 
"battle to the Syracusans, but having been de- 
feated, and finding himself cut off from all hopes 
of escape, he put an end to his own life to avoid 
falling into the hands of his enraged countrymen. 
Philistus wrote a history of Sicily, which was one 
of the most celebrated historical works of antiquity, 
though unfortunately only a few fragments of it 
have come down to us. It consisted of 2 portions, 
which might be regarded either as 2 separate 
works, or as parts of one great whole, a circum- 
stance which explains the discrepancies in the 
statements of the number of books of which it was 
composed. The first 7 books comprised the general 
history of Sicily, commencing from the earliest 
times, and ending with the capture of Agrigentum 
by the Carthaginians, b. c. 406. The 2nd part, 
which formed a sequel to the 1st, contained the 



history of the elder Dionysius in 4 books, and that 
of the younger in 2 : the latter was necessarily im- 
perfect. In point of style Philistus is represented 
by the concurrent testimony of antiquity as imi- 
tating and even closely resembling Thucydides, 
though still falling far short of his great model. 
The fragments of Philistus have been collected by 
Goeller in an appendix to his work, De Situ et 
Origine Syracusarntm, Lips. 1818, and by C. Miil- 
ler, in the Fragmcnia Hisioricorum Graecorurn^ 
Pari8^1841. 

Philo 1. An Academic philosopher, 

was a native of Larissa and a disciple of Clitoma- 
chus. After the conquest of Athens by Mithri- 
dates he removed to Rome, Avhere he settled as a 
teacher of philosoph}' and rhetoric, and had Cicero 
as one of his hearers. — 2. Byblius, also called 
Herennius Byblius, a Roman grammarian, and 
a native of Byblus in Phoenicia, as his patronymic 
indicates, was born about the time of Nero, and 
lived to a good old age, having written of the reign 
of Hadrian. He wrote many works, which are 
cited by Suidas and others ; but his name is chiefly 
memorable by his translation of the writings of 
the Phoenician Sanchuniathon, of which consider- 
able fragments have been preserved by Eusebius. 
[Sanchuniathon.] — 3. Of Byzantium, a cele- 
brated mechanician, and a contemporary of Ctesi- 
bius, flourished about B. c. 146. He wrote a work 
on military engineering, of which the 4th and 5th 
books have come down to us, and are printed in 
the Veterum Mathematicorum Opera, of Thevenot, 
Paris, 1693. There is also attributed to this Philo 
a work On the Seven Wonders of the World ; but 
this work must have been written at a later time. 
The 7 wonders are the Hanging Gardens, the Pyra- 
mids, the statue of Jupiter Olympius, the Walls of 
Babylon, the Colossus of Rhodes, the Temple of 
Artemis at Ephesus, and, we may presume, from 
the prooemium, the Mausoleum ; but the last is 
entirely wanting, and we have only a fragment of 
the Ephesian temple. Edited by Orelli, Lips. 
1816.-4. Judaeus, the Jew, Avas bom at Alex- 
andria, and was descended from a priestly family of 
distinction. He had already reached an advanced 
age, when he Avent to Rome (a. d. 40) on an em- 
bassy to the emperor Caligula, in order to procure 
the revocation of the decree Avhich exacted from 
the Jews divine homage to the statue of the em- 
peror. We have no other particulars of the life of 
PhUo worthy of record. His most important works 
treat of the books of Moses, and are generally 
cited under different titles. His great object was 
to reconcile the Sacred Scriptures Avith the doc- 
trines of the Greek philosophy, and to point out 
the conformity betAveen the two. He maintained 
that the fundamental truths of Greek philosophy 
Avere derived from the Mosaic reA-elation ; and in 
order to make the latter agree more perfectly with 
the former, he had recourse to an allegorical inter- 
pretation of the books of Moses. Philo may there- 
fore be regarded as a precursor of the Neo-Platonic 
philosophy. The best edition of his works is by 
Mangey, Lond. 1742, 2 vols, fo. — 5. A Mega- 
rian philosopher, was a disciple of Diodorus Cro- 
nus, and a friend of Zeno. — 6. Of Tarsus in Cili- 
cia, a celebrated physician, frequently quoted by 
Galen and others. — 7. Artists. (1). Son of Anti- 
pater, a statuary Avho liA-ed in the time of Alex- 
ander the Great, and made the statue of Hephae- 
stion, and also the statue of Zeus Ourios, which 

() (> 2 



564 PHILO. 

stood on the shore of the Black Sea, at the entrance 
of the Bosporus, near Chalcedon, and formed an 
important landmark for sailors. It was still per- 
fect in the time of Cicero (iri Verr. iv. 58), and the 
base has been preserved to modern times, bearing 
an inscription of 8 elegiac verses. — (2.) A very 
eminent architect at Athens in the time of the 
immediate successors of Alexander. He built for 
Demetrius Phalereus, about B.C. 318, the portico 
of 12 Doric columns to the great temple at Eleusis. 
He also constructed for the Athenians, under the 
administration of Lycurgus, a basin {armamenta- 
riuin) in the Piraeus, in which 1000 ships could 
lie. This work, which excited the greatest admi- 
ration, was destroyed in the taking of Athens by 
Sulla.^ 

Philo, Q. Publilius, a distinguished general in 
the Samnite wars, and the auther of one of the 
great reforms in the Roman constitution. He was 
consul B. c. 339, with Ti. Aemilius Mamercinus, 
and defeated the Latins, over whom he triumphed. 
In the same year he was appointed dictator by 
his colleague Aemilius Mamercinus, and, as such, 
proposed the celebrated Puhliliae Leges, which 
abolished the power of the patrician assembly of 
the curiae, and elevated the plebeians to an equality 
with the patricians for all practical purposes. {Diet, 
of Antiq. art. Publiliae Leges.) In 337 Philo was 
the 1st plebeian praetor, and in 332 he was censor 
with Sp. Postumius Albinus. In 327 he was con- 
sul a 2nd time, and carried on war in the S. of 
Italy. He was continued in the command for the 
following year with the title of proconsul, the 1st 
instance in Roman history in which a person was 
invested with proconsular power. He took Palae- 
polis in 326. In 320 he was consul a 3rd time, 
with L. Papirius Cursor, and carried on the war 
with success against the Samnites. 

Philo, L. Veturius. L L., consul b. c. 220, i 
with C. Lutatius Catulus ; dictator 217 for the 
purpose of holding the comitia ; and censor 210 
with P. Licinius Crassus Dives, and died while 
holding this office.— 2. L., praetor 209 with Cisal- 
pine Gaul as his province. In 207 he served 
under Claudius Nero and Livius Salinator in the 
campaign against Hasdrubal. In 206 he was 
consul with Q. Caecilius Metellus, and in con- 
junction with his colleague carried on the war 
against Hannibal in Bruttium. He accompanied 
Scipio to Africa, and after the battle of Zama, 
202, was sent to Rome to annotmce the news of 
Hannibal's defeat. 

Philocliares (*/Aoxap?s)? a distinguished 
painter, mentioned by Pliny, is supposed by the 
modem writers on art to be the same person as 
the brother of Aescbines, of whose artistic per- 
formances Demosthenes speaks contemptuously, 
but whom Ulpian ranks with the most distin- 
guished painters. 

Philochorus {^iXoxopos), a celebrated Athe- 
nian writer, chiefly known by his Atthis, or work 
on the legends, antiquities, and history of Attica. 
He was a person of considerable importance in his 
native city, and was put to death by Antigonus 
Gonatas when the latter obtained possession of 
Athens, about b. c. 260. His Atthis consisted of 
1 7 books, and related the history of Attica, from 
the earliest times to the reign of Antiochus Theos, 
B.C. 261. The Avork is frequently quoted by the 
scholiasts, lexicographers, as well as other 'later 
authors. He also A\Tote many other works, the 



PHILODEMUS. 

titles of which are preserved by Suidas and the 
grammarians. The fragments of Philochonis have 
been published bv Siebelis, Lips. 1811, and by 
MiiUer,^ Paris, 1841. 

Philocles {^i\okXt]s), an Athenian tragic poet, 
the sister's son of Aeschylus ; his father's name 
was Philopithes, He is said to have composed 
100 tragedies. In the general character of his 
plays he was an imitator of Aeschylus ; and that 
he was not unworthy of his great master, may 
be inferred from the fact that he gained a victory 
over Sophocles, when the latter exhibited his 
Oedipus Tyra?mus, B. c. 429. Philocles was fre- 
quently ridiculed by the comic poets. 

Philocrates (^iAoK-paxTjs), an Athenian orator, 
was one of the venal supporters of Philip in oppo- 
sition to Demosthenes. 

Phjloctetes (^jAokttjttjs), a son of Poeas 
(whence he is called Poeantiades^ Ox. Met. xiii. 313) 
and Demonassa, the most celebrated archer in the 
Trojan war. He led the warriors from Methone, 
Thaumacia, Meliboea, and Olizon, against Troy, 
in 7 ships. But on his voyage thither he was left 
behind by his men in the island of Lemnos, be- 
cause he was ill of a wound which he had received 
from the bite of a snake ; and Medon, the son of 
Oi'leus and Rhene, undertook the command of his 
troops. This is all that the Homeric poems relate 
of Philoctetes, with the addition that he returned 
home in safety ; but the cyclic and tragic poets 
have added numerous details to the story. Thus 
they relate that he was the friend and annour- 
bearer of Hercules, who instructed him in the use 
of the bow, and who bequeathed to him his bow, 
with the poisoned arrows. These presents were a 
reward for his having erected and set fire to the 
pile on Mt. Oeta, where Hercules burnt himself. 
Philoctetes was also one of the suitors of Helen, 
and thus took part in the Trojan war. On his 
voyage to Troy, while staying in the island of 
Chryse, he was bitten by a snake. This misfor- 
tune happened to him when he was showing to the 
Greeks the altar of Athena Chryse, or while he 
was looking at the tomb of Troilus in the temple 
of Apollo Thymbraeus, or as he was pointing out 
to his companions the altar of Hercules. According 
to some accounts, the wound in his foot was not 
inflicted by a serpent, but by his own poisoned 
arrows. The wound is said to have become ulcer- 
ated, and to have produced such an intolerable 
stench that the Greeks, on the advice of Ulysses, 
abandoned Philoctetes and left him alone on the 
solitary coast of Lemnos. He remained in this island 
till the 10th year of the Trojan war, when Ulysses 
and Diomedes came to fetch him to Troy, as an 
oracle had declared that the city could not be taken 
without the arrows of Hercules. He accompanied 
these heroes to Troy, and on his arrival Apollo 
sent him into a deep sleep, during which Machaon 
(or Podalirius, or both, or Aesculapius himself) 
cut out the wound, washed it with wine, and ap- 
plied healing herbs to it. Philoctetes was thus 
cured, and soon after slew Paris, whereupon Troy 
fell into the hands of the Greeks. On his return 
from Tro}' he is said to have been cast upon the 
coast of Italy, where he settled, and built Petelia 
and Crimissa. In the latter place he founded a 
sanctuary of Apollo Alaeus, to whom he dedicated 
his bow. 

Philodemus {^l\6Zt]ixos) of Gadara, in Pa- 
lestine, an Epicurean philosopher and epigrammatic 



( 



PHILOLAUS. 



PHILOPOEMEN. 



565 



poet, contemporary with Cicero. The Greek An- 
thology contains 34 of his Epigrams, which are 
chiefly of a light and amatory character, and which 
quite bear out Cicero's statements concerning the 
licentiousness of his matter and the elegance of his 
manner. (Cic. in Pis. 28, 29.) Philodemus is also 
mentioned by Horace {Sat. i. 2. 121.) 

Phllolaus («i>iAd\aos), a distinguished Pytha- 
gorean philosopher, was a native of Croton or Ta- 
rentum. He was a contemporary of Socrates, and 
the instructor of Simraias and Cebes at Thebes, 
where he appears to have lived many years. Py- 
thagoras and his earliest successors did not commit 
any of their doctrines to writing ; and the first 
publication of the Pythagorean doctrines is pretty 
uniformly attributed to Philolaus. He composed 
a work on the Pythagorean philosophy in 3 books, 
which Plato is said to have procured at the cost of 
100 minae through Dion of Syracuse, who pur- 
chased it from Philolaus, who was at the time in 
deep povert}'. Other versions of the story repre- 
sent Plato as purchasing it himself from Philolaus 
or his relatives when in Sicily. Plato is said to 
have derived from this work the greater part of 
his Tiniaeus. 

Philomela (*jXo/ii^\o), daughter of king Pan- 
dion in Attica, who, being dishonoured by her 
brother-in-law Tereus, was metam.orphosed into a 
nightingale. The story is given under Tereus. 

Phiiomelium or Philomelum {^lAo/x-qXiov, or 
in the Pisidian dialect *iAojLi7jSi7 : 4>iAo/x7)Aeus, 
Philomelensis or Philomeliensis : iproh. Ak-Shehr., 
E,u.), a city of Phrygia Parorios, on the borders of 
Lycaonia and Pisidia, said to have been named 
from the numbers of nightingales in its neighbour- 
hood. It is mentioned several times by Cicero, 
According to the division of the provinces under 
Constantine, it belonged to Pisidia. It is still 
found mentioned at the time of the Crusades, by 
the name of Philomene. 

Philomelus (^i\6/xiq\os), a general of the Pho- 
cians in the Phocian or Sacred war, was the person 
who persuaded his countrymen to seize the temple 
of Delphi, and to apply the riches of the temple 
to the purpose of defending themselves against the 
Amphictyonic forces, b. c. 357. He commanded 
the Phocians during the early years of the war, 
but was slain in battle in 353. He was succeeded 
in the command by his brother Onomarchus. 

Phildnides (^iAoWStis), an Athenian poet of 
the Old Comedy, who is, however, better known 
on account of his connection with the literary his- 
tory of Aristophanes. It is generally stated that 
Philonides was an actor of Aristophanes, who is 
said to have committed to him and to Callistratus 
his chief characters ; but the best modern critics 
have shown that this is an erroneous statement, 
and that the true state of the case is, that several 
of the plays of Aristophanes were brought out in 
the names of Callistratus and Philonides. We 
learn from Aristophanes himself, not only the fact 
that he brought out his early plays in the names of 
other poets, but also his reasons for so doing. In 
the Parabasis of the Knights (v. 514), he states 
that he had pursued this course, not from want of 
thought, but from a sense of the difficulty of his 
profession, and from a fear that he might suffer 
from that fickleness of taste which the Athenians 
had shown towards other poets, as Magnes, Crates, 
and Cratinus. It appears that Aristophanes used 
the name of Philonides, probably, for the Clotids, 



and certainly for the Wasps^ the Proagon, the 
Amphiaraus, and the Frogs. The Daetaleis, the 
Babylonians^ the Ackarnians., the Birds, and the 
Li/sisiraia, were brought out in the name of Callis- 
tratus. Of the extant plays of Aristophanes, the 
only ones which he is known to have brought out 
in his own name are the Kriights, the i'eace, and 
the Plutus. 
Philonome. [Tenes.] 

Phllopoemen (^iAottoi/xtji/), of Megalopolis in 
Arcadia, one of the few great men that Greece 
produced in the decline of her political independ- 
ence. The great object of his life was to infuse 
among the Achaeans a military spirit, and thereby 
to establish their independence on a firm and 
lasting basis. He was the son of Craugis, a dis- 
tinguished man at Megalopolis, and was born about 
B. c. 252. He lost his father at an early age, and 
was brought up by Cleander, an illustrious citizen 
of Mantinea, who had been obliged to leave hia. 
native city, and had taken refuge at Megalopolis, 
He received instruction from Ecdemus and Demo- 
phanes, both of whom had studied the Academic 
philosophy under Arcesilaus. At an early age he 
became distinguished by his love of arms and his- 
bravery in war. His name, however, first occurs 
in history in b. c. 222, when Megalopolis was- 
taken by Cleomenes, and in the following yeas 
(221) he fought with conspicuous valour at the 
battle of Sellasia, in which Cleomenes was com- 
pletely defeated. In order to gain additional mi- 
litary experience, he soon afterwards sailed tO' 
Crete, and served for some years in the wars be- 
tween the cities of that island. On his return tO' 
his native country, in 210, he was appointed com-- 
mander of the Achaean cavalry ; and in 208 he 
was elected strategus, or general of the Achaean 
league. In this year he defeated Machanidas,. 
tyrant of Lacedaemon, and slew him in battle with 
his own hand. In 201 he was again elected ge- 
neral of the league, when he defeated Nabis, who' 
had succeeded Machanidas as tyrant of Lacedae- 
mon. Soon afterwards Philopoemen took another 
voyage to Crete, and assumed the command of the 
forces of Gortyna. He did not return to Pelopon- 
nesus till 194. He was made general of the league 
in 192, when he again defeated Nabis, who was 
slain in the course of tlie year by some Aetolian 
mercenaries. Philopoemen Avas reelected general 
of the league several times afterwards; but the 
state of Greece did not afford him much further 
opportunity for the display of his military abilities. 
The Romans were now in fact the masters of 
Greece, and Philopoemen clearly saw that it would 
be an act of madness to offer open resistance to 
their authority. At the same time as the Romans 
still recognised in words the independence of the 
league, Philopoemen offered a resolute resistance to 
all their encroachments upon the liberties of his 
country, whenever he could do so without affording 
them any pretext for war. In 188, when he was 
general of the league, he took Sparta, and treated 
it with the greatest severit}\ He razed the walls 
and fortifications of the city, abolished the insti- 
tutions of Lycurgus, and compelled the citizens to 
adopt the Achaean laws in their stead. In 183 
the Messenians revolted from the Achaean league. 
Philopoemen, who was general of the league for 
the 8th time, hastily collected a body of cavalry, 
and pressed forward to IMessene. He fell in with 
a large body of Messenian troops, by whom he 

o o 3 



566 PHILOSTEPHANUS. 



PHILOXENUS. 



■was taken prisoner, and carried to Messene. Here 
he was thrown into a dungeon, and was compelled 
by Dinocrates to drink poison. The news of his 
death filled the whole of Peloponnesus with grief 
and rage. An assembly was immediately held at 
Megalopolis; L5'cortas was chosen general; and in 
the following j'ear, he invaded Messenia, which 
was laid waste far and wide ; Dinocrates and the 
chiefs of his party were obliged to put an end to 
their lives. The remains of Philopoemen were 
conveyed to Megalopolis in solemn procession; and 
the urn which contained the ashes was carried by 
the historian Polybius. His remains were then 
interred at Megalopolis with heroic honours ; and 
soon afterwards statues of him were erected in 
most of the towns belonging to the Achaean league. 

Philostepliaiius {^iXoar4(pavos), of Cyrene, an 
Alexandrian wvitev of history and geography, the 
friend or disciple of Callimachus, flourished under 
Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, about b. c. 249. 

PhilostorgfiuS {^LAoaTopyios), a native of Bo- 
rissus in Cappadocia, was born about a. d. 358. 
He wrote an ecclesiastical history, from the heresy 
of Arius in 300, down to 425. Philostorgius was 
an Arian, which is probably the reason why his 
work has not come down to us. It was originally 
in 12 books; and we still possess an abstract of it, 
made b}- Photius. 

Philostratus (^lAoVrpaTos), the name of a 
distinguished family of Lemnos, of which there are 
mentioned 3 persons in the history of Greek lite- 
rature. 1. Son of Verus, taught at Athens ; but 
we know nothing about him, with the exception 
of the titles of his works, given by Suidas, He 
could not however have lived in the reign of Nero, 
according to the statement of Suidas, since his son 
was not bom till the latter part of the 2nd century. 
—2. Flavius Pkilostratus, son of the preceding, 
and the most eminent of the 3, was bom about 
A. D. 182. He studied and taught at Athens, and 
is usually called the Athenian to distinguish him 
from the yoxmger Philostratus [No. 3], who more 
usually bears the surname of the Lemnian. Flavius 
afterwards removed to Rome, where we find him a 
member of the circle of literary men, whom the 
philosophic Julia Domna, the wife of Sevems, had 
drawn around her. It was at her desire that he 
wrote the life of Apollonius. He was alive in the 
reign df the emperor Philippus (244 — 249). The 
following works of Philostratus have come down 
to us: — 1, The Life of ApoUonius of Tyana {ra 
is rhu Tvau^a 'AttoWwviov), in 8 books. [See 
Apollonius, No. 7.] — 2. Lives of ihe Sophists 
(Bi'oi :XocpiaTuv), in 2 books, contains the history 
of philosophers who had the character of being 
sophists, and of those who were in reality 
sophists. It begins with the life of Gorgias, 
and comes down to the contemporaries of Philo- 
stratus in the reign of Philippus. 3. Heroica 
or Herdicus {"HpMiKO,, 'EpwiKhs), is in the form 
of a dialogue, and gives an account of the 
heroes engaged in the Trojan war. 4. Imagines 
(Et/foVes), in 2 books, contains an account of various 
paintings. This is the author's most pleasing work, 
exhibiting great richness of fancy, power and 
variety of delineation, and a rich exuberance of 
style. 5. Epistolae {'ETriaroXai), 73 in number, 
chiefly amatory. The best editions of the collected 
works of Philostratus are by Olearius, Lips. 1709, 
and by Kayser, Turic. 1844. -=3. PMlostaratus, 
the younger, usually called the Lemnian, as men- 



tioned above, was a son of Nervianus and of a 
daughter of Flavius Philostratus, but is erroneously 
called by Suidas a son-in-law of the latter. I]*e 
enjoyed the instructions of his grandfather and o; 
the sophist Hippodromus, and had obtained suffi- 
cient distinction at the early age of 24 to receive 
exemption from taxes. He visited Rome, but 
he taught at Athens, and died in Lemnos. He 
wrote several Avorks, and among others one 
entitled Imagines, in imitation of his grandfather's 
work with the same title, of which a portion is still 
extant. 

Phllotas (€>iAft>Tas), son of Parmenion, enjoyed 
a high place in the friendship of Alexander, and 
in the invasion of Asia obtained the chief command 
of the eralpoL, or native Macedonian cavalry. He 
served with distinction in the battles of the Gra- 
nicus and Arbela, and also on other occasions; but 
in B. c. 330, while the army was in Drangiana, he 
was accused of being pri-\y to a plot which had 
been formed by a Macedonian, named Dimnus, 
against the king's life. There was no proof of his 
guilt; but a confession was wrung from him by 
the torture, and he was stoned to death by the troops 
after the Macedonian custom. [Parmenion.] 

Phjlotimns (i'LKoriiJ.os), an eminent Greek 
physician, pupil of Praxagoras, and fellow-pupil oi 
Herophilus, lived in the 4th and 3rd centuries b. c. 

Philoxenus (^iXo^evos). 1. A Macedonian 
officer of AJexander the Great, received the go- 
vernment of Cilicia from Perdiccas in 321.— 2. Of 
Cythera, one of the most distinguished dithyrambic 
poets of Greece, was bora B. c. 435 and died 380, 
at the age of 55. He was reduced to slavery in 
his youth, and was bought by the lyric poet ]\Ie- 
lanippides, by whom he was educated in dith^'- 
rambic poetry. After residing some years at 
Athens, he went to Syracuse, where he speedily 
obtained the favour of Dionysius, and took up his 
abode at his court. But soon afterwards he offended 
Dionysius, and was cast into prison ; an act cf 
oppression which most writers ascribe to the 
woimded vanity of the tyrant, whose poems Phi- 
loxenus not only refused to praise, but, on being 
asked to revise one of them, said that the best 
way of correcting it would be to draw a black line 
through the whole paper. Another account ascribes 
his disgrace to too close an intimacy with the 
tyrant's mistress Galatea; but this looks like a 
fiction, arising out of a misunderstanding of the 
object cf his poem entitled Cyclops or Galatea, 
After some time he was released from prison, and 
restored outwardly to the favour of Dionysius; but 
he finally left his court, and is said to have spent 
the latter part of his life in Ephesus. — Of the 
dithyrambs of Philoxenus by far the most important 
was his Cyclops or Galatea, the loss of which is 
greatly to be lamented. Philoxenus also wrote 
another poem, entitled Deipnon {AelTTuof) or the 
Banquet, which appears to have been the most 
popular of his works, and of which we have more 
fragments than of any other. This poem was a 
most minute and satirical description of a banquet, 
and the subject of it was furnished by the liixuiy 
of the court of Dionysius. Philoxenus was included 
in the attacks which the comic poets made on all 
the musicians of the day, for their corruptions of 
the simplicity of the ancient music ; but we have 
abundant testimony to the high esteem in which 
he was held both during his life and after his 
death. — 3. The Leucadian, lived at Athens about 



PHILUS. 



PHLEGYAS. 



567 



the same time as Philoxenus of Cythera, with 
whom he is frequently confounded by the gram- 
marians. Like his more celebrated namesake, the 
Leucadian was ridiculed by the poets of the Old 
Comedy, and seems to have spent a part of his life 
in Sicily. The Leucadian was a most notorioiis 
parasite, glutton, and effeminate debauchee ; but 
he seems also to have had great wit and good- 
humour, which made him a favourite at the 
tables which he frequented. — 4. A celebrated 
Alexandrian grammarian, who taught at Rome, 
and wrote on Homer, on the Ionic and Laconian 
dialects, and several other grammatical works, 
among which was a Glossary, which was edited by 
H. Stephanus, Paris, 1573. — 5. An Aegyptian 
surgeon, who wrote several valuable volumes on 
surgery. He must have lived in or before the first 
century after Christ.— 6. A painter of Eretria, the 
disciple of Nicomachus, who painted for Cassander 
a battle of Alexander with Darius. 

Philus, Furius. 1. P., was consul b. c. 223 
"with Co Flaminius, and accompanied his colleague 
in his campaign against the Gauls in the N. of 
Italy. He was praetor 216, when he commanded 
the fleet, with which he proceeded to Africa. In 
214 he was censor with M. Atilius Regulus, but 
died at the beginning of the following year. — 2. 
L., consul 136, received Spain as his province, and 
Avas commissioned by the senate to deliver up to 
the Numantines C. Hostilius Mancinus, the consul 
of the preceding year. Philus, like his contempo- 
raries Scipio Africanus the younger and Laelius, 
was fond of Greek literature and refinement. He 
is introduced by Cicero as one of the speakers in 
his dialogue De RepMica. 

PhilyUius (^iKvWios), an Athenian comic poet, 
belongs to the latter part of the Old Comedy, and 
the beginning of the Middle. 

PMlyreis {^lAvp-qis : prob. the little island off 
C. Zefreh, E. of Kerasunt-Ada\ an island off the 
N. coast of Asia Minor (Pontus), E. of the country 
of the Mosynoeci, and near the promontory of 
Zephyrium (Ze/reh), where Chiron was nurtured 
by his mother Philyra. 

Philyres (^iKvpes), a people on the coast of 
Pontus, in the neighbourhood of the island Phily- 

REIS. 

Phineus (^ivevs). 1. Son of Belus and An- 
chinoe, and brother of Cepheus. He was slain by 
Perseus. For details see Andromeda and Per- 
seus. —2. Son of Agenor, and king of Salmy- 
dessus in Thrace. He was first married to Cleo- 
patra, the daughter of Boreas and Orithyia, by 
whom he had 2 children, Oryithus (Oarthus) and 
Crambis ; but their names are different in the 
different legends : Ovid calls them Polydectus and 
Polydorus. Afterwards he was married to Idaea 
(some call her Dia, Eurytia, or Idothea), by whom 
he again had 2 sons, Thynus and Mariandynus. 
• — Phineus was a blind soothsayer, who had re- 
ceived his prophetic powers from Apollo ; but the 
cause of his blindness is not the same in all accounts. 
He is most celebrated on account of his being 
tormented by the Harpies, who were sent by the 
gods to punish him on account of his cruelty 
towards his sons by the first marriage. His second 
wife falsely accused them of having made an at- 
tempt upon her virtue, whereupon Phineus put out 
their eyes, or, according to others, exposed them 
to be devoured by wild beasts, or ordered them to 
be half buried in the earth, and then to be scourged. 



Whenever a meal was placed before Phineus, the 
Harpies darted down from the air and carried it off ; 
later writers add that they either devoured the food 
themselves, or rendered it unfit to be eaten. When 
the Argonauts visited Thrace, Phineus promised to 
instruct them respecting their voyage, if they would 
deliver him from the monsters. This Avas done by 
Zetes and Calais, the sons of Boreas, and brothers 
of Cleopatra. [See p. 76, a.] Phineus now ex- 
plained to the Argonauts the further course they 
had to take, and especially cautioned them against 
the Symplegades. According to another story the 
Argonauts, on their arrival at Thrace, found the 
sons of Phineus half buried, and demanded their 
liberation, Avhich Phineus refused. A battle there- 
upon ensued, in which Phineus was slain by Her- 
cules. The latter also delivered Cleopatra from her 
confinement, and restored the kingdom to the sons 
of Phineus ; and on their advice he also sent the 
second wife of Phineus back to her father, who 
ordered her to be put to death. Some traditions, 
lastly, state that Phineus was killed by Boreas, or 
that he was carried off by the Harpies into the 
country of the Bistones or Milchessians. Those 
accounts in which Phineus is stated to have put out 
the eyes of his sons, add that they had their sight 
restored to them by the sons of Boreas, or by Ae- 
sculapius. 

Phinopolis (^iv6iro\is), a town in Thrace on 
the Pontus Euxinus near the entrance to the Bos- 
porus. 

PMntias (^ivrias). 1. A Pythagorean, the 
friend of Damon, who was condemned to die by 
Dionysius the elder. For details see Damon.— 2. 
Tyrant of Agrigentum, Avho established his power 
over that city during the period of confusion which 
followed the death of Agathocles (b. c. 289.) He 
founded a new city on the S. coast of Sicily, to 
which he gave his own name, and whither he re- 
moved all the inhabitants from Gela, which he 
razed to the ground. 

Phintonis Insiila (Isola di Figo)^ an island 
between Sardinia and Corsica. 

Phlegethon {^X^yidwv), i.e. the flaming, a 
river in the lower world, in whose channel flowed 
flames instead of water. 

Phlegon {^Xkyuv), a native of Tralles in Lydia, 
was a freedman of the emperor Hadrian, whom he 
survived. The only 2 works of Phlegon which 
have come down to us, are a small treatise on 
wonderful events (Ilepl QavfJLaa-'iwv), and another 
short treatise on long-lived persons (Ilepl fxaKpo- 
which gives a list of persons in Italy who 
had attained the age of a hundred years and up- 
wards. Besides these 2 works Phlegon wrote 
many others, of which the most important was an 
account of the Olympiads in 17 books, from 01. 1 
to Oh 229 (a. d. 137). The best edition of Phlegou 
is by Westermann in his FaradoxograpJd, Bruns- 
vig. 1839. 
"Phlegra. [Pallene.] 

Phlegraei Campi (ra ^Aeypala TreSm, or i] 
^Xiypa: Sol/aiara), the name of the volcanic plain 
extending along the coast of Campania from Cumae 
to Capua, so called because it was believed to have 
been once on fire. It was also named Laboriae or 
Laborinus Campus, either on account of its great 
fertility, which occasioned its constant cultivation, 
or on account of the frequent earthquakes and in- 
ternal convulsions to which it was exposed. 

Phlegyas {^Aeyvas)^ son of Ares and Chryse, 
o o 4 



PHLIASIA. 



the daughter of Halmus, succeeded Eteocles in the 
government of Orchomenos in Boeotia, which he 
called after himself Phlegyantis. He was the 
father of Ixion and Coronis, the latter of whom 
became by Apollo the mother of Aesculapius. En- 
raged at this, Phlegyas set fire to the temple of the 
God, who killed him with his arrows, and con- 
demned him to severe punishment in the lower 
world. Phlegyas is represented as the mythical 
ancestor of the race of the Phlegyae, a branch of 
the Minyae, who emigrated from Orchomenos in 
Boeotia and settled in Phocis. 
Phliasia. [Phlius,] 

Phlius (^»Atous, -owTos : ^Xidaios), the chief ] 
town of a small province in the N.E. of Pelopon- I 
nesus, whose territory Phliasia (4>Atafr£a), v.-as 
bounded on the N. by Sicyonia, on the W. by 
Arcadia, on the E. by the territory of Cleonae, and 
on the S. by that of Argos. The greater part of 
this countrj' was occupied by mountains, called | 
Coelossa, Carneates, Arantinus and Tricaranon. j 
According to Strabo the most ancient town in the j 
country was Araethyrea, which the inhabitants ] 
deserted, and afterwards founded Phlius; while 
Pausanias says nothing about a migration, but 
relates that the town was first called Arantia from 
its founder Aras, an autochthon, afterwards Arae- j 
thyrea from the daughter of Aras, and finally' 
Phlius, from Phlius, a grandson of TemenusJ 
Phlius was originally inhabited by Argives. It 
afterwards passed into the hands of the Dorians, 
with whom part of the Argive population inter- 
mingled, while part migrated to Samos and Clazo- 
menae. During the greater part of its history it 
remained faithful to Sparta. 

PMygonium {^\vy6i'iov), a small town in 
Phocis, destroyed in the Phocian war. 

Phocaea (iuKaia : 4>«/faev'y, Phocaeensis : the 
Ru. called Karaja-Fokia^ i. e. Old Fo/cia, S. W. of 
Fouges or New Fokia), the N.-most of the Ionian 
cities on the W. coast of Asia Minor, stood at the 
W. extremity of the tongue of land which divides 
the Sinus Elaiticus (G. of Fouges), on the N. from 
the Sinus Hermaeus (G. of Smyrna), on the S. 
It was said to have been founded by Phocian 
colonists under Philogenes and Damon. It was 
originally within the limits of Aeolis, in the terri- 
tory of C^Tue ; but the Cymaeans voluntarily gave 
up the site for the new city, which was soon ad- 
mitted into the Ionian confederacy on the condition 
of adopting oecists of the race of Codrus. Ad- 
mirably situated, and possessing 2 excellent har- 
bours, Naustathmus and Lampter, Phocaea became 
celebrated as a great maritime state, and especially 
as the founder of the most distant Greek colo- 
nies towards the W., namely Massilia in Gaul, 
and the still more distant, though far less cele- 
brated, city of Maenaca in Hispania Baetica. 
After the Persian conquest of Ionia, Phocaea had 
so declined, that she could only furnish .3 ships to 
support the great Ionian revolt ; but the spirit of 
her people had not been extinguished ; when the 
common cause was hopeless, and their citv was 
be sieged by Harpagus, they embarked, to seek 
new abodes in the distant W., and bent their 
course to their colony of Aleria in Corsica. During 
the voyage, however, a portion of the emigrants 
resolved to return to their native city, which they 
restored, and which recovered much of its pros- 
perity, as is proved by the rich booty gained by 
the Romans, when they plundered it under the 



PHOCION. 

praetor Aemilius, after which it does not appear 
a place of any consequence in history. — Care must 
be taken not to confound Phocaea with Phocis, or 
the ethnic adjectives of the former *a>Ka6us and 
Phocaeensis, with those of the latter, 4>a)K6uj and 
Phocensis : some of the ancient writers themselveg 
have fallen into such mistakes. It should be ob- 
served also that the name of Phocaean is often 
used with reference to Massilia ; and, by an 
amusing affectation, the people of ManeiUe still 
call themselves Phocaeans. 

Phocion (^oiKiov), the Athenian general and 
statesman, son of Phocus, was a man of humble 
origin, and appears to have been bom in b. c 
402. He studied under Plato and Xenocrates. 
He distinguished himself for the first time 
under his friend Chabrias, in 376, at the battle 
of Naxos ; but he was not employed promi- 
nently in any capacity for many years after- 
wards. In 354 (according to others in 350) 
he was sent into Euboea in the command of a 
small force, in consequence of an application from 
Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria ; and he was subse- 
quently employed on several occasions in the w{ 
between the Athenians and Philip of Macedon. 
He frequently opposed the measures of Demo- 
sthenes, and recommended peace with Philip ; but 
he must not be regarded as one of the mercenary 
supporters of the Macedonian monarch. His virtue 
is above suspicion, and his public conduct was 
plways influenced by upright motives. When 
Alexander was marching upon Thebes, in 335, 
Phocion rebuked Demosthenes for his invectives 
against the king ; and after the destruction of 
Thebes he advised the Athenians to comply with 
Alexander's demand for the surrender of Demo- 
sthenes and other chief orators of the anti- Mace- 
donian party. This proposal was indignantly 
rejected by the people, and an embassy was sent 
to Alexander, which succeeded in deprecating 
his resentment. According to Plutarch, there 
were two embassies, the first of which Alex- 
ander refused to receive, but to the second he 
gave a gracious audience, and granted its prayer, 
chiefly from regard to Phocion, who was at the 
head of it. Alexander ever continued to treat Pho- 
cion with the utmost consideration, and to cultivate 
his friendship. He also pressed upon him valuable 
presents ; but Phocion persisted in refusing his 
presents, begging the king to leave him no less 
honest than he found him, and only so far availed 
himself of the royal favour as to request the liberty 
of certain prisoners at Sardis, which was imme- 
diately granted to him. After Alexander's death, 
Phocion opposed vehemently, and with all the 
caustic bitterness which characterised him, the 
proposal for war with Antipater. Thus, to Hype- 
rides, who asked him tauntingly when he would 
advise the Athenians to go to war, he answered, 
** "When I see the young willing to keep their 
ranks, the rich to contribute of their wealth, and 
the orators to abstain from pilfering the public 
money." When the Piraeus was seized by Alex- 
ander, the son of Polysperchon in 318, Phocion 
was suspected of having advised Alexander to 
take this step ; whereupon, being accused of 
treason b}' Agnonides, he fled, with several of 
his friends, to Alexander, who sent them with 
letters of recommendation to his father Poly- 
sperchon. The latter, willing to sacrifice them 
as a peace-offering to the Athenians, sent them 



PHOCIS. 



PHOEBE. 



569 



back to Athens for the people to deal with 
them as they would. Here Phocion was sentenced 
to death. To the last, he maintained his calm, 
and dignified, and somewhat contemptuous bear- 
ing. When some wretched man spat upon him as 
he passed to the prison, " Will no one," said he, 
"check this fellow's indecency?" To one who 
asked him whether he had any message to leave 
for his son Phocus, he answered, " Only that he 
bear no grudge against the Athenians," And when 
the hemlock which had been prepared was found 
insufficient for all the condemned, and the jailer 
would not furnish more until he was paid for it, 
" Give the man his money," said Phocion to one 
of his friends, " since at Athens one cannot even 
die for nothing." He perished in 317, at the age 
of 85. The Athenians are said to have repented 
of their conduct. A brazen statue was raised to 
the memory of Phocion, and Agnonides was con- 
demned to death. Phocion was twice married, 
and his 2nd wife appears to have been as simple 
and frugal in her habits as himself ; but he was 
less fortunate in his son Phocus, who, in spite of 
his father's lessons and example, was a thorough 
profligate. As for Phocion himself, our commend- 
ation of him must be almost wholly confined to his 
private qualities. His fellow-citizens may have 
been degenerate, but he made no effort to elevate 
them. 

Phocis (rj ^aiKis : *a>K^es Horn., ^wfcees Herod., 
^uiKus Attic, Phocenses by the Romans), a country 
in Northern Greece, was bounded on the N. by 
the Locri Epicnemidii and Opuntii, on the E. by 
Boeotia, on the W. by the Locri Ozolae and Doris, 
and on the S. by the Corinthian gulf. At one 
time it possessed a narrow strip of country on the 
Euboean sea with the seaport Daphnus, between 
the territory of the Locri Ozolae and Locri Opuntii. 
It was a mountainous and unproductive country, 
and owes its chief importance in history to the fact 
of its possessing the Delphic oracle. Its chief 
mountain was Parnassus, situated in the interior 
of the country, to which however Cnemis on its 
N. frontier, Cirphis S. of Delphi, and Helicon 
on the S.E. frontier all belonged. The principal 
river in Phocis was the Cephissus, the valley of 
which contained almost the only fertile land in the 
countr\', with the exception of the celebrated Cris- 
saean plain in the S.E. on the borders of the Locri 
Ozolae, — Among the earliest inhabitants of Phocis 
we find mentioned Leleges, Thracians, Abantes 
and Hyantes, Subsequently, but still in the anti- 
historical period, the Phlegyae, an Achaean race, a 
branch of the Minyae at Orchomenos, took pos- 
session of the country ; and from this time the 
main bulk of the population continued to be 
Achaean, although there were Dorian settlements 
at Delphi and Bui is. The Phocians are said to 
have derived their name from an eponymous an- 
cestor Phocus [Phocus], and they are mentioned 
under this name in the Iliad, The Phocians played 
no conspicuous part in Greek history till the time 
of Philip of Macedon ; but at this period they be- 
came involved in a war, called the Phocian or 
Sacred War, in which the principal states of 
Greece took part. The Thebans had long been 
inveterate enemies of the Phocians ; and as the 
latter people had cultivated a portion of the Cris- 
saean plain, which the Amphictyons had declared 
in B. c, 585 should lie waste for ever, the Thebans 
availed themselves of this pretext to persuade the 



Amphictyons to impose a fine upon the Phocians, 
and upon their refusal to pay it, the Thebans fur- 
ther induced the council to declare the Phocian 
land forfeited to the god at Delphi. Thus threat- 
ened by the Amphictyonic council, backed by the 
whole power of Thebes, the Phocians were per- 
suaded by Philomelus, one of their citizens, to 
seize Delphi, and to make use of the treasures of 
the temple for the purpose of carrying on the war. 
They obtained possession of the temple in B.C. 357. 
The war which ensued lasted 10 years, and was 
carried on with various success on each side. The 
Phocians were commanded first by Philomelus, 
B. c. 357 — 353, afterwards by his biother Ono- 
M ARCH us, 353 — 352, then by Phayllus, the 
brother of the 2 preceding, 352 — 351, and finally 
by Phalaecus, the son of Onomarchus, 351 — 
346. The Phocians received some support from 
Athens, but their cliief dependence was upon their 
mercenary troops, which the treasures of the Delphic 
temple enabled them to hire. The Amphictyons 
and the Thebans, finding at length that they were 
unable with their own resources to subdue the 
Phocians, called in the assistance of Philip of 
Macedon, who brought the war to a close in 346. 
The conquerors inflicted the most signal punish- 
ment upon the Phocians, who were regarded as 
guilty of sacrilege. All their towns were razed to 
the ground with the exception of Abae ; and the 
inhabitants distributed in villages, containing not 
more than 50 inhabitants. The 2 votes which thej' 
had in the Amphictyonic council were taken away 
and given to Philip. 

Phocra (^oKpa), a mountain of N, Africa, in 
Mauretania Tingitana, apparently on the W. bank 
of the Mulucha, between the chains of the Great 
and Little Atlas. 

Phocus (*c5kos). 1. Son of Ornytion of Co- 
rinth, or according to others of Poseidon, is said to 
have been the leader of a colony from Corinth into 
the territory of Tithorea and Mt. Parnassus, which 
derived from him the name of Phocis. — 2. Son 
of Aeacus and the Nereid Psamathe, husband of 
Asteria or Asterodia, and father of Panopeus and 
Crissus. He was murdered by his half-brothera 
Telamon and Peleus. [Peleus,] According to 
some accounts the country of Phocis derived its 
name from him.— 3. Son of Phocion. [Phocion.] 

Phocylides (4>a)KuAtS?]s), of Miletus, an Ionian 
poet, contemporary with Theognis, was bom B. c. 
560. His poetry was chiefly gnomic; and the few 
fragments of it which we possess display that con- 
tempt for birth and station, and that love for sub- 
stantial enjoyment, which always marked the 
Ionian character. These fragments, which are 18 
in number, are included in all the chief collections 
of the lyric and gnomic poets. Some of these col- 
lections contain a didactic poem, in 217 hexame- 
ters, entitled ■KoiriiJ.a vovOeriKOV, to which the 
name of Phocylides is attached, but which is un- 
doubtedly a forgery, made since the Christian era. 

Phoebe {^0L§7]j. 1. Daughter of Uranus and 
Ge, became by Coeus the mother of Asteria and 
Leto (Latona).— 2, A surname of Artemis (Diana) 
in her capacity as the goddess of the moon (Luna), 
the moon being regarded as the female Phoebus or 
sun. — 3. Daughter of Tj'ndareos and Leda, and a 
sister of Clytaemnestia.— 4. Daughter of Leucip- 
pus, and sister of Hilaira, a priestess of Athena, 
was carried off with her sister by the Dioscuri, and 
became by Pollux the mother of Mnesileos. 



570 



PHOEBIDAS. 



PHOENICE. 



Phoebidas (^otS'idas), a Lacedaemonian, who, 
in B. c. 382, was appointed to the command of the 
troops destined to reinforce his brother Eudamidas, 
who had been sent against Olynthus. On his way 
Phoebidas halted at Thebes, and treacherously 
made himself master of the Cadraea. The Lace- 
daemonians fined Phoebidas 100,000 drachmas, 
but nevertheless kept possession of the Cadmea. 
In 378 he was left by Agesilaus as harmost at 
Thespiae, and was slain in battle by the Thebans. 

Phoebus (^>or§os), the Bright or Pure, occurs in 
Homer as an epithet of Apollo, and is used to sig- 
nify the brightness and purity of youth. At a 
later time when Apollo became connected with 
the Sim, the epithet Phoebus was also applied to 
him as the Sun-god. 

Phoenice (^olvIkt] : Phoenicia is only found in 
a doubtful passage of Cicero : 4>oiVi^, pi. ^o'iuIkss, 
fern, ^o'lj/iaaa, Phoenix, Phoenices : also, the adj. 
Punicus, though used specifically in connection 
with Carthago, is etymologically equivalent to 
*oiVi|, by the well-known interchange of oi and v ; 
parts of the Pashalicks of Acre and Aleppo), a 
coimtry of Asia, on the coast of Syria, extending 
from the river Eleutherus {Nahr-el-Kebir) on the 
N. to below Mt. Carmel on the S., and bounded 
on the E. by Coelesyria and Palestine. (Some- 
times, though rarely, the name is extended to the 
whole W. coast of Syria and Palestine). It was 
a mountainous strip of coast land, not more than 10 
or 12 miles broad, hemmed in between the Medi- 
terranean and the chain of Lebanon, whose lateral 
branches, running out into the sea in bold promon- 
tories, divided the countrj'- into valleys, which are 
well watered by rivers flowing down from Lebanon, 
and are extremely fertile. Of these rivers, the 
most important are, to one going from N. to S., 
the Eleutherus (Nahr-el-Kebir) ; the Sabbaticus 
(ArJca) ; the river of Tripolis (Kadisha) ; the 
Adonis (Nahr- Ibrahim), S. of Byblus ; the Lycus 
(Nahr-el-Kelb) N. of Berytus ; the Magoras {Nahr- 
Beirut), by Berytus ; the Tamyras {Nahr-el-Da- 
mur), between Berytus and Sidon ; the Leo, or 
Bostrenus {Nahr-el-Auly), N. of Sidon ; the great 
river (Litany and Kasimiyeh) which flows from 
Heliopolis S.S.W. through Coele-Syria, and then, 
turning W.wards, falls into the sea N. of Tyre, 
and which some call, but without sufficient autho- 
rity, the Leontes ; the Belus, or Pagida {Numaji or 
Rahwin) by Ptolemais, and the Kishon (Kishon), 
N. of Mt. Carmel. Of the promontories referred to, 
omitting a number of less important ones, the chief 
were, Theu-prosopon (Rasesh-Shukah), between 
Tripolis and Byblus, Pr. Album {Ras-el-Abiad, 
i. e. White Cape), S. of Tyre, and Mt. Carmel, be- 
sides those occupied by the cities of Tripolis, Byb- 
lus, Berytus, Sidon, Tyrus, and Ptolemais. This 
conformation of the coast and the position of the 
country rendered it admirably suited for the home 
of great maritime states ; and accordingly we find 
the cities of Phoenicia at the head, both in time 
and importance, of all the naval enterprise of the 
ancient world. For the history of those great 
cities, see Sidon, Tyrus, and the other articles 
upon them. As to the country in general, there is 
some difficulty about the origin of the inhabitants 
and of their name. In the 0. T. the name does 
not occur ; the people seem to be included under 
the general designation of Canaanites, and they are 
also named specifically after their several cities, as 
the Sidonians, Giblites (from Gebal, i. e. Bvblus), 



Sinites, Arkites, Arvadites, &c. The name *o£- 
viKT] is first found in Greek Avriters, as early as 
Homer, and is derived by some from the abundance 
of palm trees in the country {(poivi^^ the date-palm), 
and by others from the purple-red [fpoivi^), which 
was obtained from a fish on the coasts, and was a 
celebrated article of Phoenician commerce ; be- 
sides the mythical derivation from Phoenix, the 
brother of Cadmus. The people were of the Semi- 
tic (Syro- Arabian) race, and closely allied to the 
Hebrews ; and they are said to have dwelt origin- 
ally on the shores of the Erythraean sea. Their 
language was a dialect of the Aramaic, closely re- 
lated to the Hebrew and Syriac. Their written 
characters were the same as the Samaritan or Old 
Hebrew ; and from them the Greek alphabet, and 
through it most of the alphabets of Europe, Avere 
undoubtedly derived ; hence they were regarded 
by the Greeks as the inventors of letters. Other 
inventions in the sciences and arts are ascribed to 
them ; such as arithmetic, astronomy, navigation, 
the manufacture of glass, and the coining of money. 
That, at a very early time, they excelled in the 
fine arts, is clear from the aid which Solomon re- 
ceived from Hiram, king of Tyre, in the building 
and the sculptured decorations of the temple at 
Jerusalem, and from the references in Homer to 
Sidonian artists. Respecting Phoenician litera- 
ture, we know of little beyond the celebrated work 
of Sanchuniathon. In the sacred history of the 
Israelitish conquest of Canaan, in that of the He- 
brew monarchy, and in the earliest Greek poetrj'-, 
we find the Phoenicians already a great maritime 
people. Early formed into settled states, supplied 
with abundance of timber from Lebanon, and 
placed where the caravans from Arabia and the E. 
came upon the Mediterranean, they carried over to 
the coasts of this sea the products of those coun- 
tries, as well as of their own, which was rich in 
metals, and on the shores of which furnished the 
materials of glass and the purple-fish already men- 
tioned. Their voyages and their settlements ex- 
tended beyond the Pillars of Hercules, to the W. 
coasts of Africa and Spain, and even as far as our 
own islands. [Britannia, p. 126, a.] Within the 
Mediterranean they planted numerous colonies, on 
its islands, on the coast of Spain, and especially on 
the N. coast of Africa, the chief of which was 
Carthago ; they had also settlements on the 
Euxine and in Asia Minor. In the E. seas, we 
have records of their voyages to Ophir, in connec- 
tion with the navy of Solomon, and to the coasts 
of Africa under the kings of Egypt. [Africa, p. 
22, b.] They were successively subdued by the 
Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Macedonians, 
and Romans ; but neither these conquests, nor the 
rivalry of Carthage, entirely ruined their com- 
merce, which was still considerable at the Chris- 
tian era ; on the contrary, their ships formed the 
fleet of Persia and the Syrian khigs, and partly of 
the Romans. [Sidon, Tyrus, &c.] Under the 
Romans, Phoenice formed a part of the province of 
Syria ; and, under the E. empire, it was erected, 
with the addition of Coele-Syria, into the province 
of Phoenice Libanesia or Libanensis. 

Phoenice {^oiviK-r]). 1. (FiniU), an important 
commercial town on the coast of the Epirus in the 
district Chaonia, 56 miles N.W. of Buthrotum, in 
the midst of a marshy country. It was strongly 
fortified by Justinian.— 2. A small island off Gallia 
Nai-bonensis, belonging to the Stoechades. 



PHOENICIUM. 



PHORMION. 



571 



Phoenicium Mare (rh ^qivIkiov -n-eXayos : 2i- 
Soviri ^d\acr(Ta\ the part of the Mediterranean 
■which washes the coast of Phoenice. 

FhoenlCUS (^^oivikovs: ^oivikovutlos^^oivikoixt- 
ffios). 1. Also Phoenix (*oiVi^), a harbour on 
the S. of Crete, visited by St. Paul during his voy- 
age to Rome. (Acts, xxvii. 12.)— 2. The harbour 
of the city of Colone, in Messenia.— 3. A sea-port 
of the island of Cythera.— 4. {Cliesmeh or Egri 
Liman ?), a harbour of Ionia, in Asia Minor, at the 
foot of Mt. Mimas. — 5. (Deliklash, Ru.), a flou- 
rishing city in the S. of Lycia, on Mt. Olympus, 

I with a harbour below it. It is often called Olym- 
pus. Having become, under the Romans, one of 
the head-quarters of the pirates, who celebrated 

i here the festival and mysteries of Mithras, it was 

: destroyed by Servilius Isauricus. 

Phoenicusa, [Aboliae Insulae.] 
Phoenix (<i»oiVt|). 1. Son of Agenorby Agriope 
or Telephassa, and brother of Europa, but Homer 
makes him the father of Europa. Being sent by 
his father in search of his sister, who was carried 

, off by Zeus, he settled in the country, which was 
called after him Phoenicia.— 2. Son of Amyntor 

' by Cleobule or Hippodamia, and king of the Do- 
lopes, took part in the Calydonian hunt. His 
father Amyntor neglected his legitimate wife, and 
attached himself to a mistress ; whereupon Cleobule 
persuaded her son to seduce her rival. When 
Amyntor discovered the crime, he cursed Phoenix, 
who shortly afterwards fled to Peleus. Peleus re- 
ceived him kindly, made him the ruler of the coun- 
try of the Dolopes, on the frontiers of Phthia, and 
entrusted to him his son Achilles, whom he was to 
educate. He afterwards accompanied Achilles on 
his expedition against Troy. According to another 
tradition. Phoenix did not dishonour his father's 
mistress, but she merely accused him of having 
made improper overtures to her, in consequence of 
which his father put out his eyes. But Peleus 
took him to Chiron, who restored to him his sight. 
Phoenix moreover is said to have called the son of 
Achilles Neoptolemus, after Lycomedes had called 
him Pyrrhus. Neoptolemus was believed to have 
buried Phoenix at Ei'on in Macedonia or at Trachis 
in Thessaly.— 3. A fabulous bird Phoenix, which, 
according to a tale related to Herodotus (ii. 73) at 
Heliopolis in Egypt, visited that place once in 
every 500 years, on his father's death, and buried 
him in the sanctuary of Helios. For this purpose the 
Phoenix was believed to come from Arabia, and to 
make an egg of myrrh as large as possible ; this 
egg he then hollowed'out and put into it his father, 
closing it up carefully, and the egg was believed 
then to be of exactly the same weight as before. 
This bird was represented as resembling an eagle, 
with feathers partly red and partly golden. It is 
further related, that when his life drew to a close, 
he built a nest for himself in Arabia, to which he 
imparted the power of generation, so that after his 
death a new phoenix rose out of it. As soon as 
the latter was grown up, he, like his predecessor, 
proceeded to Heliopolis in Egypt, and burned and 
buried his father in the temple of Helios. — Accord- 
ing to a story which has gained more currency in 
modern times, the Phoenix, when he arrived at a 
very old age (some say 500 and others 1461 years), 
committed himself to the flames. — Others, again, 
state that only one Phoenix lived at a time, and 
that when he died a worm crept forth from his 
body, and was developed into a new Phoenix by 



the heat of the sun. His death, further, took place 
in Egypt after a life of 7006 years. — Another 
modification of the same story relates, that when 
the Phoenix arrived at the age of 500 years, he 
built for himself a funeral pile, consisting of spices, 
settled upon it, and died. Out of the decomposing 
body he then rose again, and having grown up, he 
wrapped the remains of his old body up in myrrh, 
carried them to Heliopolis, and burnt them there. 
Similar stories of marvellous birds occur in many 
parts of the East, as in Persia, the legend of the 
bird Simorg, and in India that of the bird Semendar. 

Phoenix (*oiVi|), a small river in the S.E. of 
Thessaly, flowing into the Asopus near Thermo- 
pylae. 

Phoenix. [Phoenicus, No. 1.] 

Phoetiae or Phytia (^^oireiai, ^oirlat, 4>urio, 
Thuc), a town in Acarnania on a hill, W. of 
Stratus. 

PholegandrOS {^oXeyavdpos : PolyJcandro), an 
island in the Aegaean sea, one of the smaller Cy- 
clades, situated between Melos and Sicinos. 

Pholoe {ftoKori : Olono), a mountain forming 
the boundary between Arcadia and Elis ; being a 
S. continuation of Mt. Erymanthus, in which the 
rivers Selleis and Ladon took their origin. It is 
mentioned as one of the seats of the Centaurs. 
[Pholus.] 

Pholus (*o'Ao5), a Centaur, a son of Lilenus 
and the nymph Melia. He was accidentally slain 
by one of the poisoned arrows of Hercules. The 
mountain, between Arcadia and Elis, where he 
was buried, was called Pholoe after him. The 
details of his story are given on p. 309, a. 

Phorbantia. [A eg axes.] 

Phorbas {'b6p§as). 1. Son of Lapithes and 
Orsinome, and brother of Periphas. The Rhodians, 
in pursuance of an oracle, are said to have invited 
him into their island to deliver it from snakes, and 
afterwards to have honoured him with heroic wor- 
ship. From this circumstance he was called Ophi- 
uchus, and is said by some to have been placed 
among the stars. According to another tradition, 
Phorbas went from Thessaly to Olenos, where 
Alector, king of Elis, made use of his assistance 
against Pelops, and shared his kingdom with him. 
Phorbas then gave his daughter Diogenia in mar- 
riage to Alector, and he himself married Hyrmine, 
a sister of Alector, by whom be became the father 
of Augeas and Actor. He is also described as a bold 
boxer, and is said to have plundered the temple of 
Delphi along with the Phlegyae, but to have been 
defeated by Apollo. 

Phorcides, Phorcydes, or Phorcynides, that 
is, the daughters of Phorcus and Ceto, or the 
Gorgons and Graeae. [Gorgones and Graeak.] 

Phorcus, Phorcys, or Phorcyn ('^SpKos, ^6p- 
Kvs, ^opKvv). 1. A sea-deity, is described by 
Homer as " the old man of the sea," to whom a 
harbour in Ithaca was dedicated, and is called the 
father of the nymph Thoosa. Later -writers call 
him a son of Pontus and Ge, and a brother of 
Thaumas, Nereus, Eurybia, and Ceto. By his 
sister Ceto he became the father of the Graeae and 
Gorgones, the Hesperian dragon, and the Hespe- 
rides ; and by Hecate or Cratais, he was the father 
of Scylla. — 2. Son of Phaenops, commander of 
the Phrygians of Ascania, assisted Priam in the 
Trojan war, but was slain by Ajax. 

Phormion (^op/xiwu). 1. A celebrated Athe- 
nian general, the son of Asopius. He distinguished 



572 PHORMIS. 

himself particularly in the command of an Athe- 
nian fleet in the Corinthian gulf, where with far 
inferior forces he gained some brilliant victories 
over the Peloponnesian fleet in B. c. 429- In the 
ensuing winter he landed on the coast of Acama- 
nia, and advanced into the interior, where he also 
gained some successes. He was a man of remark- 
ably temperate habits, and a strict disciplinarian.— 
2. A peripatetic philosopher of Ephesus, of whom 
is told the story that he discoursed for several 
hours before Hannibal on the military art and the 
duties of a general. "When his admiring auditorj- 
asked Hannibal what he thought of him, the latter 
replied, that of all the old blockheads whom he 
had seen, none could match Phormion, 

Phormis or Phormus (*op^is, *o/)^os), a native 
of Maenalus in Arcadia, removed to Sicily, where 
he became intimate with Gelon, whose children he 
educated. He distinguished himself as a soldier, 
both under Gelon and Hieron his brother. In 
gratitude for his martial successes, he dedicated 
gifts to Zeus at Olympia, and to Apollo at Delphi. 
He is associated by Aristotle with Epicharmus, as 
one of the originators of comedy, or of a particular 
form of it. 

Phoroneus {^opuvevs), son of Inachus and the 
Oceanid Melia or Archia, was a brother of Aegia- 
leus and the ruler of Argos. He was married to 
the nymph Laodice, by whom he became the 
father of Niobe, Apis, and Car. According to other 
writers his sons were Pelasgus, lasus, and Agenor, 
who, after their father's death, divided the king- 
dom of Argos among themselves. Phoroneus is 
said to have been the first who offered sacrifices 
to Hera at Argos, and to have imited the people, 
who until then had lived in scattered habitations, 
into a city w^hich was called after him &aTv ^opx- 
viKov. The patronymic I'horonides is sometimes 
used for Argives in general, and especially to de- 
signate Amphiaraus and Adrastus. 

Phoronis {^opuivis)^ a surname of lo, being 
according to some a descendant, and according to 
others a sister of Phoroneus. 

Photius (*«Tios), patriarch of Constantinople 
in the 9th century, played a distinguished part in 
the political and religious history of his age. After 
holding various high offices in the Byzantine court, 
he was, although previously a layman, elected 
patriarch of Constantinople in a. d. 858, in place 
of Ignatius, who had been deposed by Bardas, 
who was all-powerful at the court of his nephew 
Michael III., then a minor. The patriarchate of 
Photius was a stormy one, and full of vicissitudes. 
The cause of Ignatius was espoused by the Komish 
church ; and Photius thus became one of the great 
promoters of the schism between the Eastern and 
Western Churches. In 867 Photius was himself 
deposed by the emperor Basil I., and Ignatius was 
restored; but on the death of Ignatius in 877, 
Photius, who had meantime gained the fivvour of 
Basil, was again elevated to the patriarchate. On 
the death of Basil in 886, Photius was accused 
of a conspiracy against the life of tlie new emperor 
Leo VI., and was banished to a monastery in 
Armenia, where he seems to have remained till 
his death. Photius was one of the most learned 
men of his time, and in the midst of a busy life 
found time for the composition of numerous works, 
several of which have come down to us. Of these 
the most important is entitled jMyriohillion sen 
Bibliotheca {Mvpi6§i€\ov fi Bi€Xio6rjKr]). It may 



PHRIXUS. 

be described as an extensive review of ancient 
Greek literature by a scholar of immense erudition 
and sound judgment. It is an extraordinary monu- 
ment of literary' energy-, for it was written while 
the author was engaged in an embassy to Assyria, 
at the request of Photius' brother Tarasius, who 
desired an account of the books which Photius had 
read in his absence. It contains the analyses of 
or extracts from 280 volumes ; and many valuable 
works are only knowTi to us from the account which 
Photius has given of them. The best edition of 
this work is by Bekker, Berlin, 1 824—1 825. Pho- 
tius was also the author of a Nomocano7i, and of a 
Lexicon or Glossary, which has reached us in a very 
imperfect state. It was first pubUshed by Her- 
mann, Lips. 1808, and subsequentl}^ at London, 
1 822, from the papers of Porson. Photius like- 
wise wrote many theological works, some of which 
have been published, and others still remain in MS. 

Phraata (ja ^pdaTa, and other forms), a great 
city of Media Atropatene, the winter residence of 
the Parthian kings, especially as a refuge in time 
of war, lay S.E. of Gaza, near the river Amardus. 
The mountain fortress of Vera (Ouepo), which was 
besieged by Antony, was probably the same place. 

Phxaataces, king of Parthia. [Arsaces X VL] 

Phraates, the name of 4 kings of Parthia. 
[Arsaces, V. VII. XIL XV.] 

Phranza or Phxanzes (i^payr^ or ^pavT^rjs)^ 
the last and one of the most important Byzantine 
historians, was frequently employed on important 
public business by Constantine XIII., the last 
emperor of Constantinople. On the capture of 
Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453, Phranza 
was reduced to slavery, but succeeded in making 
his escape. He subsequently retired to a monas- 
tery, where he wrote his Chronicon. This work 
extends from 1259 to 1477, and is the most valu- 
able authority for the historj' of the author's time, 
especially for the capture of Constantinople. It is 
edited by Alter, Vienna, 1796, and bv Bekker, 
Bonn, 18*38. 

Phraortes (^paoprTjs), 2nd king of Media, and 
son of Deioces, whom he succeeded, reigned from 
B.C. 656 to 634. He first conquered the Persians, 
and then subdued the greater part of Asia, but was 
at length defeated and killed while laying siege to 
Ninus (Nineveh), the capital of the Assyrian em- 
pire. He was succeeded by his son Cyaxares. 

Phriciiim {4>pLKLov), a moimtain in the E. of 
Locris near Thermopylae. 

Phriconis. [Cyme: Laris.sa, II. 2.] 

Phrixa ('Ppi^a, ^pl^ai, Qpi^ai : Paleo/lmaro), a 
town of Elis in Triphylia on the borders of Pisatis, 
was situated upon a steep hill on the river Alpheus, 
and was 30 stadia from Olympia. It was founded 
by the Minyae, and is said to have derived its 
name from Phrixus. 

Phrixus (4>pi'|os), son of Athamas and Nephele, 
and brother of Helle. In consequence of the in- 
trigues of his stepmother, Ino, he was to be sacri- 
ficed to Zeus ; but Nephele rescued her 2 children, 
who rode away through the air upon the ram with 
the golden fleece, the gift of Hermes. Between 
Sigeum and the Chersonesus, Helle fell into the 
sea which was called after her the Hellespont ; 
but Phrixus arrived in safety in Colchis, the king- 
dom of Aeetes, who gave him his daughter Chal- 
ciope in marriage. Phrixus sacrificed the ram 
which had carried him, to Zeus Phyxius or La- 
phystius, and gave its fleece to Aeetes, who fast- 



PHRIXUS. 

ened it to an oak tree in the grove of Ares. This 
fleece was afterwards carried away by Jason and 
the Argonauts. [Jason.] By Chalciope Phrixus 
became the father of Argus, Melas, Phrontis, Cy- 
tiscrus, and Presbon. Phrixus either died of old 
age in the kingdom of Aeetes, or was killed by 
Aeetes in consequence of an oracle, or returned to 
Orchomenus, in the country of the Min)'^ns. 

Phrixus (*^j|o?), a river in Argolis, which 
flows into the Argolic gulf between Temenium and 
Lerna. 

Phrygia Mater, a name frequently given to 
Cybele, because she was especially worshipped in 
Phrygia.^ 

Phrygia (^pvyia ; ^pv^, pi. ^pvyes, Phryx, 
Phryges), a countiy of Asia Minor, which was of 
very different extent at different periods. Accord- 
ing to the division of the provinces under the Ro- 
man empire, Phrygia formed the E. part of the 
province of Asia, and was bounded on the W. by 
Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on the S. by Lycia and 
Pisidia, on the E. by Lycaonia (which is often 
reckoned as a part of Phrygia) and Galatia (which 
formerly belonged to Phrygia), and on the N. by 
Bithynia. With reference to its physical geogra- 
phy, it formed the W. part (as Cappadocia did the 
E.) of the great central table-land of Asia Minor, 
supported by the chains of Olympus on the N. 
and Taurus on the S., and breaking on the W. 
into the ridges which separate the great valleys of 
the Hermus, the Maeander, &c., and which form 
the headlands of the W. coast. This table-land 
itself was intersected by mountain-chains, and 
watered by the upper courses and tributaries of the 
rivers just mentioned in its W. part, and in its 
N. part by those of the Rhyndacus and Sanga- 
Rius. These parts of the country were very fer- 
tile, especially in the valley of the Sangarius, but 
in the S. and E. the streams which descend from 
Taurus lose themselves in extensive salt marshes 
and salt lakes, some of which are still famous, as 
in ancient times, for their manufactures of salt. 
The Phrygians were a distinct and remarkable 
people, whose origin is one of the most difficult 
problems of antiquity. They claimed a very high 
antiquity; and according to the amusing account 
given by Herodotus of the absurd experiment of 
Psammetichus, king of Egypt, on the first sponta- 
neous speech of children, they were thought to 
have been proved the most ancient of people. Else- 
where, Herodotus mentions a Macedonian tradi- 
tion, that the Phryges formerly dwelt in Mace- 
donia, under the name of Briges ; and later writers 
add, that they passed over into Asia Minor 100 
years after the Trojan war. Thejr are, however, 
mentioned by Homer as already settled on the 
banks of the Sangarius, where later writers tell 
us of the powerful Phrygian kingdom of Gordius 
and Midas. Although any near approach to cer- 
tainty is hopeless, it would seem that they were a 
branch of the great Thracian family, settled, in 
times of unknown antiquity, in the N.W. of Asia 
Minor, as far as the shores of the Hellespont and 
Propontis, and perhaps of the Euxine, and that the 
successive migrations of other Thracian peoples, as 
the Thyni, Bithyni, Mysians, and Teucrians, drove 
them further inland, till, from this cause, and per- 
haps too by the conquests of the Phrygian kings 
in the opposite direction, they reached the Halys 
on the E. and the Taurus on the S. They were not, 
however, entirely displaced by the Mysians and Teu- 



PHRYNE. r,7'A 
crians from the country between the shores of the 
Hellespont and Propontis and Mts. Ida and Olym- 
pus, where they continued side by side with the 
Greek colonies, and where their name was preserved 
in that of the district under all subsequent changes, 
namely Phrygia Minor or Phrygia Hellespontus. 
The kingdom of Phrygia was conquered by Croe- 
sus, and formed part of the Persian, Macedonian, 
and Syro Grecian empires ; but, under the last, 
the N.E. part, adjacent to Paphlagonia and the 
Halys, was conquered by the Gauls, and formed 
the W. part of Galatia ; and a part W. of this, 
containing the richest portion of the country, about 
the Sangarius, was subjected by the kings of Bithy- 
nia: this last portion was the object of a contest 
between the kings of Bithynia and Pergamus, but 
at last, by the decision of the Romans, it was 
added, under the name of Phrygia Epictetus (4». 
eVt/cTTjTos, i. e. ilie acquired Phrygia), to the king- 
dom of Pergamus, to which the whole of Phrygia 
was assigned by the Romans, after the overthrow 
of Antiochus the Great in B.C. 190. With the 
rest of the kingdom of Pergamus, Phrygia passed 
to the Romans by the testament of Attains III., 
and thus became a part of the province of Asia, 
B. c. 1 30. As to the distinctive names : the in- 
land district usually understood by the name of 
Phrygia, when it occurs alone, was also called 
Great Phrygia or Phrygia Proper, in contradis- 
tinction to the Lesser Phrygia or Phrygia on the 
Hellespont ; and of this Great or Proper Phrygia, 
the N. part was called, as just stated, Phrygia 
Epictetus, and the S. part, adjacent to the Taurus, 
was called, from its position, Phrygia Parorios 
(*. irapdptos). At the division of the provinces in 
the 4th century, the last mentioned part, also 
called Phrygia Pisidicus, was assigned to Pisidia ; 
and the S.W. portion, about the Maeander, to 
Caria : and the remainder was divided into Phrygia 
Salutaris, on the E., with Synnada for its capital, 
and Phrygia Pacatiana on the W., extending N. 
and S. from Bithynia to Pamphylia. — Phrygia 
was rich in products of every kind. Its moun- 
tains furnished gold and marble ; its valleys oil and 
wine ; the less fertile hills in the W. afforded pas- 
ture for sheep, v/hose wool was highly celebrated ; 
and even the marshes of the S.E. furnished abun- 
dance of salt. — In connection with the early in- 
tellectual culture of Greece, Phrygia is highly 
important. The earliest Greek music, especially 
that of the flute, was borrowed in part, through 
the Asiatic colonies, from Phrygia, and one of the 
three musical 7nodes was called the Phrygian. 
With this country also were closely associated the 
orgies of Dionysus, and of Cybele, the Mother of 
the Gods, the Phrygia Mater of the Roman poets. 
After the Persian conquest, however, the Phry- 
gians seem to have lost all intellectual activity, and 
they became proverbial among the Greeks and Ro- 
mans for submissiveness and stupidity. — It should 
be observed that the Roman poets constantly use 
the epithet Phrygian as equivalent to Trojan. 

Phryne {^pvvr}), one of the most celebrated 
Athenian hetairae, was a native of Thespiae in 
Boeotia. Her beauty procured for her so much 
wealth that she is said to have offered to rebuild 
the walls of Thebes, after they had been destroyed 
by Alexander, if she might be allowed to put up 
this inscription on the walls : — " Alexander de- 
stroyed them, but Phryne, the hetaira, rebuilt 
them." She had among her admirers many of the 



574 PHRYNICHUS. 



PHYLAS. 



most celebrated men of the age of Philip and 
Alexander, and the beauty of her form gave rise 
to some of the greatest v/orks of art. The most 
celebrated picture of Apelles, his Venus Ana- 
dyomene " [Apelles], is said to have been a 
representation of Phryne, who, at a public festival 
at Eleusis, entered the sea with dishevelled hair. 
The celebrated Cnidian Venus of Praxiteles, who 
was one of her lovers, was taken from her. 

Plirjniiclius {^pwixos). 1. An Athenian, and 
one of the early tragic poets, is said to have been 
the disciple of Thespis. He gained his first tragic 
victory in B. c. 511, 24 years after Thespis (535), 
12 years after Choerilus (523), and 12 years before 
Aeschylus (499) ; and his last in 476, on which oc- 
casion Themistocles was his choragus, and recorded 
the event by an inscription. Phrynichus probably 
went, like other poets of the age, to the court of 
Hiero, and there died. In all the accounts of the 
rise and development of traged}', the chief place 
after Thespis is assigned to Phrynichus ; and the 
improvements which he introduced in the internal 
poetical character of the drama, entitle him to be 
considered as the real inventor of tragedy. For 
the light, ludicrous, Bacchanalian stories of Thes- 
pis, he substituted regular and serious subjects, 
taken either from the heroic age, or the heroic 
deeds which illustrated the history of his own 
time. In these he aimed, not so much to amuse 
the audience as to move their passions ; and so 
powerful was the effect of his tragedy on the cap- 
ture of Miletus, that the audience burst into tears, 
and fined the poet 1000 drachmae, because he had 
exhibited the sufferings of a kindred people, and 
even passed a law that no one should ever again 
make use of that drama. To the light mimetic 
chorus of Thespis he added the sublime music of 
dithyrambic choruses. Aristophanes more than 
once contrasts these ancient and beautiful melodies 
with the involved refinements of later poets. 
Phrj'nichus was the first poet who introduced 
masks, representing female persons in the drama. 
He also paid particular attention to the dances of 
the chorus. In the drama of Phrynichus, how- 
ever, the chorus still retained the principal place, 
and it was reserved for Aeschylus and Sophocles 
to bring the dialogue and action into their due 
position.-— 2. A distinguished comic poet of the Old 
Comedy, was a contemporary of Eupolis, and flou- 
rished B.C. 429.-3. A Greek sophist and gram- 
marian, described by some as an Arabian, and by 
others as a Bithynian, lived under M. Aurelius 
and Commodus. His great work was entitled 
^ocpicTTtK^ napacrKevT] in 37 books, of which we 
still possess a fragment, published by Bekker, in 
his Anecdota Graeca, Berol. 1814, vol. i. He also 
wrote a Lexicon of Attic words ('E/c\o7^/ priixaTuv 
Ka\ ovoixdruiv ^KrriKwv), which is extant : the best 
edition is by Lobeck, Lips. 1830. 

Phrjomis {^pvvvt,s\ or Plirjnus {^pvvis), a 
celebrated dithyrambic poet, of the time of the 
Peloponnesian war, was a native of Mytilene, but 
flourished at Athens. His innovations, effemi- 
nacies, and frigidness, are repeatedly attacked by 
the comic poets. Among the innovations which 
he is said to have made, was the addition of 2 
strings to the heptachord. He was the first who 
gained the victorA' in the musical contests esta- 
blished by Pericles, in connection with the Pana- 
thenaic festival, probably in B. c. 445. 

Phtliia. [Phthiotis.] 



PhtMotis (*0(WTts : ^fltwTTjs), a district in the 
S.E. of Thessaly, bounded on the S. by the Ma- 
liac gulf, and on the E. by the Pagasaean gulf, and 
inhabited by Achaeans. [Thessalia.] Homer 
calls it Phthia (<i>0trj), and mentions a city of the 
same name, which was celebrated as the residence 
of Achilles. Hence the poets call Achilles PJUhius 
hero, and his father Peleus Phihius rex. 

Phthira (ra ^dlpa, ^Oeipwy opos), a mountain 
of Caria, forming a part or a branch of Latmus, in- 
habited by a people called ^dipes. 

Phthirophagi {^deipocpayoi, i. e. eaters of lice), 
a Sc3-thian people near the Caucasus, or, according 
to some, beyond the river Rha, in Sarmatia Asia- 
tica. 

Phya. [PisisTRATus.] 

Phycus (^»u/coDs : Bas-Sejn or Ras-el-Kazat), a 
promontory on the coast of Cyrenaica, a little W. 
of Apollonia and N.W. of C}Tene. It is the N.- 
raost headland of Libya E. of the Lesser Syrtis, 
and the nearest point of this coast to that of 
Europe, the distance from Phycus to Taenarum, 
the S. promontory of Peloponnesus, being 208 
miles. There was a small town of the same name 
on the headland. 

Phylace (^uAaK??). 1. A small town of Thes- 
saly in Phthiotis, S.E. of Eretria, and E. of Enipeus, 
on the N. slope of Mt. Othrys. It was the birth- 
place of Protesilaus.— 2. A town of Epirus in 
Molossia. —3. A town in Arcadia near the sources 
of the Alpheus, on the frontiers of Tegea and 
Laconia. 

Phylacus (^v\aKos), son of Deion and Dio- 
mede, and husband of Periclymene or Clymene, 
the daughter of Minyas, by whom he became the 
father of Iphiclus and Alcimede. He was believed 
to be the founder of the town of Phylace, in Thes- 
saly. Either from his name or that of the town, 
his descendants, Phylacus, Iphiclus, and Prote- 
silaus, are called Phyladdae. 

Phylarchus {^vKapxos), a Greek historical 
writer, and a contemporary of Aratus, was probably 
a native of Naucratis in Egjrpt, but spent the 
greater part of his life at Athens. His great work 
was a histor}' in 28 books, which embraced a 
period of 52 years, from the expedition of Pyrrhus 
into Peloponnesus, b, c. 272, to the death of Cleo- 
menes, 220. Phylarchus is vehemently attacked 
by Polybius, who charges him with falsifying 
history through his. partiality to Cleomenes, and 
his hatred against Aratus and the Achaeans. The 
accusation is probably not unfounded, but it might 
be retorted with equal justice upon Polybius, who 
has fallen into the opposite error of exaggerating 
the merits of Aratus and his party, and depre- 
ciating Cleomenes. The style of Phylarchus ap- 
pears to have been too oratorical and declamatory; 
but it was at the same time lively and attractive. 
The fragments of Phylarchus have been collected 
by Lucht. Lips. 1836; by BrUckner, Vratisl. 1838; 
and by Miiller, Fragm. Histor. Graec. Paris, 1840. 

Phylas {^(iXas). 1. King of the Dryopes, was 
attacked and slain b}' Hercules, because he had 
violated the sanctuary of Delphi. By his daughter 
Midea, Hercules became the father of Antiochus. 
— 2. Son of Antiochus, and grandson of Hercules 
and Midea, was married to Deiphile, by whom he 
had 2 sons, Hippotas and Thero. — 3. King ot 
Ephj-ra in Thesprotia, and the father of Polymele 
and Astyoche, by the latter of whom Hercules 
was the father of Tlepolemus. 



PHYLE. 



PICTOR. 



575 



Thfle (*uA.T? : 4}v\daios : Fili)^ a demus in 
Attica, and a strongly fortiiied place, belonging to 
the tribe Oeneis, was situated on the confines of 
Boeotia, and on the S. W. slope of Mt. Parnes. It 
is memorable as the place which Thrasybulus and 
the Athenian patriots seized, soon after the end of 
the Peloponnesian war, B. c. 404, and from which 
they directed their operations against the 30 Ty- 
rants at Athens. 

Phyleus (4»uA€i;s), son of Augeas, was expelled 
by his father from Ephyra, because he gave evi- 
dence in favour of Hercules. [See p. 309, a.] 
He then emigrated to Dulichium. By Ctimene or 
Timandra he became the father of Meges, who is 
hence called Phylides. 

Phyllis. [Demophon, No. 2.] 

Phyllis (*uAAjs), a district in Thrace S. of the 
Strymon, near Mt. Pan^aeus. 

Phyllus {^vWos : Fetnno), a town of Thes- 
saly in the district Thessaliotis, N. of Metropolis. 

Physca (*vcr/ca), a town of Macedonia in the 
district Eordaea. 

Physcon. [Ptolemaus.] 

Physcus {<^v(rKQs). 1. A city of the Ozolian 
Locrians in N. Greece. — 2. (FaifcJishin\ a town 
on the S. coast of Caria, in the Rhodian territory, 
with an excellent harbour, which was used as the 
port of Mylasa, and was the landing-place for tra- 
vellers coming from Rhodes. — 3.(Orfor«e7i), an E. 
tributary of the Tigris in Lower Assyria. The 
town of Opis stood at its junction with the Tigris. 

Phytaeum (^vraiov : imaTos), a town in Aeto- 
lia, S.E. of Thermum, on the lake Trichonis. 

Piceni. [Picenum.] 

Picentes. [Picenum.] 

Picentia (Ficentinus : Vicenza), a town in the 
S. of Campania at the head of the Sinus Paesta- 
nus, and between Salemum and the frontiers of 
Lucania, the inhabitants of which were compelled 
by the Romans, in consequence of their revolt to 
Hannibal, to abandon their town and live in the 
neighbouring villages. Between the town and the 
frontiers of Lucania, there was an ancient temple 
of the Argive Juno, said to have been founded by 
Jason, the Argonaut. — The name of Picentini was 
not confined to the inhabitants of Picentia, but was 
given to the inhabitants of the whole coast of the 
Sinus Paestanus, from the promontory of Minerva 
to the river Silarus. They were a portion of the 
Sabine Picentes, who were transplanted by the 
Romans to this part of Campania after the conquest 
of Picenum, b. c. 268, at which time they founded 
the town of Picentia. 

Picentini. [Picentia.] 

Picenum (Picentes sing. Picens, more rarely 
Picentini and Piceni), a country in central Italy, 
was a narrow strip of land along the N. coast of 
the Adriatic, and Avas bounded on the N. by Um- 
bria, from which it was separated by the river 
Aesis, on the W. by Umbria and the territory of 
the Sabines, and on the S. by the territory of the 
Marsi and Vestini, from which it was separated by 
a range of hills and by the river Matrinus. It is 
said to have derived its name from the bird picus, 
which directed the Sabine immigrants into the 
land, or from a mythical leader Picus : some mo- 
dern writers connect the name with the Greek 
-revKT], a pine-tree, on account of the pine-trees 
growing in the country on the slopes of the Apen- 
nines ; but none of these etymologies can be re- 
ceived. Picenum formed the 5th region in the 



division of Italy made by Augustus. The country 
was traversed by a number of hills of moderate 
height, eastern offshoots of the Apennines, and 
was drained by several small rivers flowing into the 
Adriatic through the valleys between these hills. 
The country was upon the whole fertile, and was 
especially celebrated for its apples ; but the chief 
employment of the inhabitants was the feeding of 
cattle and swine. — The Picentes, as already re- 
marked, were Sabine immigrants; but the popu- 
lation of the country appears to have been of a 
mixed nature. The Umbrians were in possession 
of the land, when it was conquered by the Sabine 
Picentes, and some of the Umbrian population be- 
came intermingled with their Sabine conquerors. 
In addition to this the S. part of the country was 
for a time in possession of the Libumians, and 
Ancona was occupied by Greeks from Syracuse. 
In B. c. 299 the Picentes made a treaty with the 
Romans ; but having revolted in 269, they were 
defeated by the consul Sempronius Sophus in the 
following year, and were obliged to submit to the 
Roman supremacy. A portion of the people was 
transplanted to the coast of the Sinus Paestanus, 
where they founded the town Picentia. [Picen- 
tia.] Two or three years afterwards the Romans 
sent colonies to Firmum and Castrum Novum in 
Picenum, in order to secure their newly conquered 
possession. The Picentes fought with the other 
Socii against Rome in the Social or Marsic war 
(90 — 89), and received the Roman franchise at 
the close of it. 

Picti, a people inhabiting the northern part of 
Britain , appear to have been either a tribe of the 
Caledonians, or the same people as the Caledo- 
nians, though under another name. They were 
called Picti by the Romans from their practice of 
painting their bodies. They are first mentioned by 
the rhetorician Eumenius in an oration addressed 
to Constantius Chlorus, a. d. 296 ; and after this 
time their name frequentlj^ occurs in the Roman 
writers, and often in connection with that of the 
Scoti. In the next century we find them divided 
into 2 tribes, the Dicaledonae or Dicaledones, and 
the Vecturiones or Vecturones. At a still later 
period their principal seat was in the N.E. of 
Scotland. 

Pictones, subsequently Pictavl, a powerfiil 
people on the coast of Gallia Aquitanica, whose 
territory extended N. as far as the Liger (Loire), 
and E. probably as far as the river Creuse. Their 
chief town was Limonum, subsequently Pictavi 
{Poi{iers). 

Pictor, Fabius. 1. C, painted the temple of 
Salus, which the dictator C. Junius Brutus Bubul- 
cus contracted for in his censorship, B. c. 307, and 
dedicated in his dictatorship, 302. This painting, 
which must have been on the walls of the temple, 
was probably a representation of the battle v/hich 
Bubulus had gained against the Samnites. This 
is the earliest Roman painting of which we have 
any record. It was preserved till the reign of 
Claudius, when the temple was destroyed by fire. 
In consequence of this painting C. Fabius received 
the surname of Pictor, which was borne by his 
descendants. — 2. C, son of No. I, consul 269.— 
3. N., (i. e. Numerius), also son of No. 1, consul, 
266.-4. Q., son of No, 2, was the most ancient 
writer of Roman history in prose. He served in 
the Gallic war, 225, and also in the 2nd Punic 
war. His history, which was written in Greek, be- 



576 



PICUMNUS. 



PINARIA. 



gan with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy, and came 
down to his own time. Hence, Polybius speaks of 
liim as one of the historians of the 2nd Punic war. 
— 5. Q., praetor 189, and flamen Quirinalis. — 6. 
Ser., is said by Cicero to have been well skilled in 
law, literature, and antiquity. He lived about 
B.C. 150. He appears to be the same as the 
Fabius Pictor who wrote a work De Jure Ponti- 
ficio^ in several books. He probably wrote Annals 
likewise in the Latin language, since Cicero (cZe 
Oral. ii. 12) speaks of a Latin annalist, Pictor, 
whom he places after Cato, but before Piso ; 
which corresponds with the time at which Ser. 
Pictor lived, but could not apply to Q. Pictor, 
who lived in the time of the 2nd Punic war. 

Picumnus and Pilunmus, 2 Roman divinities, 
were regarded as 2 brothers, and as the beneficent 
gods of matrimony in the rustic religion of the an- 
cient Romans. A couch was prepared for them in 
the house in which there was a newly-born child. 
Pilumnus was believed to ward off all sufferings 
from the infant with his pilum^ with Avhich he 
taught to pound the grain ; and Picumnus, who, 
under the name of Sterquilinius, was believed to 
have discovered the use of manure for the fields, 
conferred upon the infant strength and prosperity. 
Hence both were also looked upon as the gods of 
good deeds, and were identified with Castor and 
Pollux. When Danae landed in Italy, Picumnus 
is said to have built with her the town of Ardea, 
and to have become by her the father of Daunus. 

Picus (n?/£os), a Latin prophetic divinity, is 
described as a son of Satu-mus or Sterculus, as the 
husband of Canens, and the father of Faunus. In 
some traditions he was called the first king of 
Itah'. He was a famous soothsayer and augur, and 
as he made use in his prophetic art of a picus (a 
wood-pecker), he himself was also called Picus. He 
was represented in a rude and primitive manner as 
a wooden pillar with a wood-pecker on the top of 
it, but afterwards as a young man with a wood- 
pecker on his head. The whole legend of Picus is 
founded on the notion that the wood-pecker is a 
piophetic bird, sacred to Mars. Pomona, it is said, 
was beloved by him, and when Circe's love for 
him was not requited, she changed him into a wood- 
pecker, who, however, retained the prophetic 
powers which he had formerly possessed as a man. 

Plena (niepm : ITi'epes). L A narrow slip of 
country on the S.E. coast of Macedonia, extending 
from the mouth of the Peneus in Thessaly to the 
Haliacmon, and bounded on the W. by Mt. Olym- 
pus and its offshoots. A portion of these mountains 
was called by the ancient writers Pierus, or the 
Pierian mountain. The inhabitants of this country, 
the Pieres, were a Thracian people, and are cele- 
brated in the early history of Greek poetry and 
music, since their country was one of the earliest 
seats of the worship of the Muses, and Orpheus is 
said to have been buried there. After the esta- 
blishment of the Macedonian kingdom in Emathia 
in the 7th century B. c. Pieria was conquered by 
the INIacedonians, and the inhabitants were driven 
out of the country. — 2. A district in Macedonia 
E. of the Strymon near Mt. Pangaeum, where the 
Pierians settled, who had been driven out of their 
original abodes by the Macedonians, as already 
related. They possessed in this district the forti- 
fied towns of Phagres and Pergamus. — 3. A dis- 
trict on the N. coast of Syria, so called from the 
mountain Pieria, a branch of the Amanus, a name 



given to it by the Macedonians after their con- 
quest of the East. In this district was the city of 
Seleucia, which is distinguished from other cities 
of the same name, as Seleucia in Pieria. 

Pierides (Uiepih^s). 1. A surname of tlie 
Muses, which they derived from Pieria, near Mt. 
OljTnpus, where they were first worshipped among 
the Thracians. Some derived the name from an 
ancient king Pierus, who is said to have emigrated 
from Thrace into Boeotia, and to have established 
their worship at Thespiae. Pieria also occurs in 
the singular. — 2. The nine daughters of Pierus, 
king of Emathia (Macedonia), whom he begot by 
Euippe or Antiope, and to whom he gave the names 
of the 9 Muses. They afterwards entered into a 
contest with the Muses, and, being conquered, they 
were metamorphosed into birds called Colyrabas, 
lyngx, Cenchris, Cissa, Chloris, Acalanthis, Nessa, 
Pipo, and Dracontis. 

Pierus {UUpos). 1. Mythological. [Pierides.] 
— 2. A mountain. [Pieria, No. I.] 

Pietas, a personification of faithful attachment, 
love, and A-eneration among the Romans. At first 
she had only a small sanctuary at Rome, but in 
B.C. 191 a larger one was built. She is repre- 
sented on Roman coins, as a matron throwing in- 
cense upon an altar, and her attributes are a stork 
and children. She is sometimes represented as a 
female figure offering her breast to an aged parent. 

Pietas Julia. [Pola.] 

Pigres (ni7p7js), of Halicamassus, either the 
brother or the son of the celebrated Artemisia, 
queen of Caria. He is said to have been the au- 
thor of the Margites, and the Batrachomyomachia. 

Pilia, the wife of T. Pomponius Atticus, to 
whom she was married on the r2th of February, 
B. c. 56. In the summer of the following year, 
she bore her husband a daughter, who subsequently 
married Vipsanius Agrippa. 

Pilorus (IltAwpoj), a town of Macedonia in 
Chalcidice, at the head of the Singitic gulf. 

Pilunmus. [Picumnus.J 

Pimplea (nt,u7rAeta), a town in the Macedonian 
province of Pieria, sacred to the Muses, who were 
hence called Pimpleides. Horace (Carm. i. 26. 9) 
uses the form Pimplea in the singular, and not 
PimpUis. 

Pinara (to Hivapa ; Tlivapevs : Pinara or Mi~ 
nara^ Ru.), an inland city of Lycia, some distance 
W. of the river Xanthus, at the foot of Mt. Cragus. 
Here Pandarus was worshipped as a hero. 

Pinaria Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
gentes at Rome, traced its origin to a time long 
previous to the foundation of the city. The legend 
related that when Hercules came into Italy he was 
hospitably received on the spot, where Rome was 
afterwards built, by the Potitii and the Pinarii, 
two of the most distinguished families in the coun- 
try. The hero, in return, taught them the way in 
which he was to be worshipped ; but as the Pi- 
narii were not at hand when the sacrificial banquet 
was ready, and did not come till the entrails of the 
victim were eaten, Hercules, in anger, determined 
that the Pinarii should in all future time be ex- 
cluded from partaking of the entrails of the vic- 
tims, and that in all matters relating to his worship 
they should be inferior to the Potitii. These two 
families continued to be the hereditary priests of 
Hercules till the censorship of App. Claudius (b. c. 
.312), who purchased from the Potitii the know- 
ledge of the sacred rites, and entnisted them to 



PINARIUS. 



PINDARUS. 



677 



public slaves ; whereat the god was so angrj-, tliat 
the whole Potitia gens, containing 12 families and 
30 grown up men, perished within a year, or 
according to other accounts within 30 days, and 
Appius himself became blind. The Pinarii did 
not share in the guilt of communicating the sacred 
knowledge, and therefore did not receive the same 
punishment as the Potitii, but continued in exist- 
ence to the latest times. It appears that the wor- 
ship of Hercules by the Potitii and Pinarii was a 
sacrum gentilitium belonging to these gentes, and 
that in the time of App. Claudius these sacra pri- 
vata were made sacra publica. The Pinarii were 
divided into the families of Mamercinus, Natia, 
Posca, Rusca, and Scarpus, but none of them ob- 
tained sufficient importance to require a separate 
notice. 

Pinarius, L., the great -nephew of the dictator 
C. Julius Caesar, being the grandson of Julia, 
X^aesar's eldest sister. In the will of the dictator, 
^marius was named one of his heirs along with 
his two other great-nephews, C. Octavius and L. 
Pinarius, Octavius obtaining three-fourths of the 
property, and the remaining fourth being divided 
between Pinarius and Pedius. 

Pinarus {Uivapos), a river of Cilicia, rising in 
M. Amanus, and falling into the gulf of Issus near 
Issus, between the mouth of the Pyramus and the 
Syrian frontier. 

Pindarus (UivSapos), the greatest lyric poet of 
Greece, was bom either at Thebes or at Cynosce- 
phalae, a village in the territory of Thebes, about 
B. c. 522. His family was one of the noblest in 
Thebes, and seems also to have been celebrated for 
its skill in music. The father or uncle of Pindar 
was a flute-player, and Pindar at an early age re- 
ceived instruction in the art from the flute-player 
Scopelinus. But the youth soon gave indications 
of a genius for poetry, which induced his father to 
send him to Athens to receive more perfect instruc- 
tion in the art. Later writers tell us that his future 
glory as a poet was miraculously foreshadowed by a 
swarra of bees which rested upon his lips while he 
was asleep, and that this miracle first led him to 
compose poetry. At Athens Pindar became the 
pupil of Lasus of Herraione, the founder of the 
Athenian school of dithyrambic poetry. He re- 
turned to Thebes before he completed his 20th 
year, and is said to have received instruction there 
from Myrtis and Corinna of Tanagra, two poet- 
esses, who then enjoyed great celebrity in Boeotia. 
"With both these poetesses Pindar contended for 
the prize in the musical contests at Thebes ; and 
he is said to have been defeated five times by 
Corinna. Pindar commenced his professional ca- 
reer as a poet at an early age, and was soon em- 
ployed by different states and princes in all parts 
of the Hellenic world to compose for them choral 
songs for special occasions. He received money 
and presents for his works ; but he never degene- 
rated into a common mercenary poet, and he con- 
tinued to preserve to his latest days the respect of 
all parts of Greece. He composed poems forHieron, 
tyrant of Syracuse, Alexander, son of Amyntas, 
king of Macedonia, Theron, tyrant of Agrigen- 
tum, Arcesilaus, king of Cyrene, as well as for 
many free states and private persons. He was 
courted especially by Alexander, king of Mace- 
donia, and Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse ; and the 
praises which he bestowed upon the former are 
eaid to have been the chief reason which led his 



descendant, Alexander, the son of Philip, to spare 
the house of the poet, when he destroyed the rest of 
Thebes. Pindar's stated residence was at Thebes, 
though he frequently left home in order to wit- 
ness the great public games, and to visit the states 
and distinguished men who courted his friendship 
and employed his services. Thus about b. c. 47 3 he 
visited the court of Hieron at Syracuse, where he 
remained 4 years. He probably died in his 80th 
year in 442. — The only poems of Pindar which 
have come down to us entire are his Epinicia, or 
triumphal odes. But these were but a small por- 
tion of his works. Besides his triumphal odes he 
wrote hymns to the gods, paeans, dithyrambs, odes 
for processions {irpoaS^La), songs of maidens iirap- 
6ej'eta), mimic dancing songs (yTropxTj^iara), drink- 
ing-songs {(TKoKia), dirges (pprivoi)^ and encomia 
(iyKiSfxia), or panegyrics on princes. Of these we 
have numerous fragments. Most of them are 
mentioned in the well-known lines of Horace 
( Carm. iv. 2) : 

" Sen per audaces nova dithyrarabos 
Verba devolvit, numerisque fertur 

Lege solutis : 
Seu deos {hymns and paeans^ regesve (eTicomia) 

canit, deorum 
Sanguinem : . . . 
Sive quos Elea domum reducit 
Palma caelestes (the Epinicia) : . . . 
Flebili sponsae juvenemve raptum 
Plorat " {the dirges). 

In all of these varieties Pindar equally excelled, as 
we see from the numerous quotations made from 
them by the ancient writers, though they are gene- 
rally of too fragmentary a kind to allow us to form 
a judgment respecting them. Our estimate of 
Pindar as a poet must be formed almost exclusively 
from his Epinicia, which were composed in com- 
memoration of some victory in the public games. 
The Epinicia are divided into 4 books, celebrating 
respectively the victories gained in the Olympian, 
Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games. In order 
to understand them properly we must bear in mind 
the nature of the occasion for which they were com- 
posed, and the object which the poet had in view. 
A victory gained in one of the 4 great national 
festivals conferred honour not only upon the con- 
queror and his family, but also upon the city to 
which he belonged. It was accordingly celebrated 
with great pomp and ceremony. Such a celebra- 
tion began with a procession to a temple, where a 
sacrifice was offered, and it ended with a banquet 
and the joyous revelry, called by the Greeks comus 
{kw/j-os). For this celebration a poem was ex- 
pressly composed, which was sung by a chorus. 
The poems were sung either during the procession 
to the temple or at the comus at the close of the 
banquet. Those of Pindar's Epinician odes which 
consist of strophes without epodes Avere sung during 
the procession, but the majority of them appear to 
have been sung at the comus. In these odes Pin- 
dar rarely describes the victory itself, as the scene 
was familiar to all the spectators, but he dwells 
upon the glory of the victor, and celebrates chiefly 
either his wealth {6X§os) or his skill {ap^Tr}), — 
his wealth, if he had gained the victory in the 
chariot-race, since it v/as only the wealthy that 
could contend for the prize in this contest ; his 
skill, if he had been exposed to peril in the con- 
test. — The metres of Pindar are too extensive and 



578 



PINDASUS. 



PIRUSTAE. 



difficult a subject to admit of explanation in the 
present work. No two odes possess the same 
metrical structure. The Doric rhythm chiefly pre- 
vails, but he also makes frequent use of the Aeolian 
and Lydinn as well. The best editions of Pindar 
are by Bockh, Lips. 1811 — 1821, 2 vols. 4to., and 
by Dissen, of which there is a 2nd edition by 
Schneidewin, Gotha, 1843, seq. 

Pindasus {U'lvBaaos), a S. branch of M. Tem- 
nus in Mysia, extending to the Elaitic Gulf, and 
containing the sources of the river Cetius. 

Pindus (IliVSos). 1. A lofty range of moun- 
tains in northern Greece, a portion of the great 
back bone, which runs through the centre of Greece 
from N. to S. The name of Pindus was confined 
to that part of the chain which separates Thessaly 
and Epirus ; and its most N.-Iy and also highest 
part v/as called Lacmon. — 2. One of the 4 towns 
in Doris, near the sources of a small river of the 
same name which flowed through Locris into the 
Cephissus. 

Pinna (Pinnensis : Civita di Penna)^ the chief 
town of tlie Vestini at the foot of the Apennines, 
surrounded by beautiful meadows. 

Pinnes, Pinneus, or Pineus, was the son of 
Agron, king of lUyria, by his first wife, Triteuta. 
At the death of Agron (b. c. 231), Pinnes, who was 
then a child, was left in the guardianship of his 
step-mother Teuta, whom Agron had married after 
divorcing Triteuta. When Teuta was defeated by 
the Romans, the care of Pinnes devolved upon 
Demetrius of Pharos ; but when Demetrius in his 
turn made war against the Romans and was de- 
feated, Pinnes was placed upon the throne by the 
Romans, but was compelled to pay tribute. 

Pintuaria {YlivTovapia : Teneriffe), one of the 
Insulae Fortunatae {Canary Is.) off the W, 
coast of Africa, also called Convallis, and, from 
the perpetual snow on its peak, Nivaria. 

Piraeeus or Piraeus (Ueipaievs : Porto Leone or 
Porto Dracone), the most important of the harbours 
of Athens, was situated in the peninsula about 5 
miles S.W. of Athens. This peninsula, which is 
sometimes called by the general name of Piraeeus, 
contained 3 harbours, Piraeeus proper on the W. 
side, by far the largest of the 3, Zea on the E. side 
separated from Piraeeus by a narrow isthmus, and 
Munycliia {Pharnari) still further to the E. The 
position of Piraeeus and of the Athenian har- 
bours has been usually misunderstood. In conse- 
quence of a statement in an ancient Scholiast, it 
was generally supposed that the great harbour of 
Piraeeus was divided into 3 smaller harbours, Zea 
for corn-vessels, Aplirodisium for merchant -ships in 
general, and Caniharus for ships of war ; but this 
division of the Piraeeus is now rejected by the 
best topographers. Zea was a harbour totally dis- 
tinct from the Piraeeus, as is stated above ; the N. 
portion of the Piraeeus seems to have been used 
by the merchant vessels, and the Cantharus, where 
the ships of war were stationed, was on the S. side 
of the harbour near the entrance. It was through 
the suggestion of Themistocles that the Athenians 
were induced to make use of the harbour of Pi- 
raeeus. Before the Persian wars their principal 
harbour was Phalerum, which was not situated in 
the Piraean peninsula at all, but lay to the E. of 
Munychia. [Phalerum.] At the entrance of 
the harbour of Piraeeus there were 2 promontories, 
the one on the right-hand called Alcimus {"AKki- 
Aws), on which was the tomb of Themistocles, and 



the other on the left called Ettimea (*HeT«iv€ta), 
on which the Four Hundred erected a fortresa. 
The entrance of the harbour, which was narrow 
by nature, was rendered still narrower by two 
mole-heads, to which a chain was attached to pre- 
vent the ingress of hostile ships. The town oi 
demus of Piraeeus was surrounded with strong 
fortifications by Themistocles, and was connected 
with Athens by means of the celebrated Long 
^Valls under the administration of Pericles. [See 
p. 102, b.] The town possessed a considerable 
population, and many public and private buildings. 
The most important of its public buildings were : 
the Agora Hippodamia, a temple of Zeus Soter, 
a large stoa, a theatre, the Phreattys or tribunal 
for the admirals, the arsenal, the docks, &c. 

Pirene {Tl€ipT]vri\ a celebrated fountain at Co- 
rinth, which, according to tradition, took its origin 
from Pirene, a daughter of Oebalus, who here 
melted away into tears through grief for the loss 
of her son Cenchrias. At this fountain Bellerophon 
is said to have caught the horse Pegasus. It 
gushed forth from the rock in the Acrocorinthus, 
was conveyed down the hill by subterraneous con- 
duits, and fell into a marble basin, from which 
the greater part of the town was supplied with 
water. The fountain was celebrated for the purity 
and salubrity of its water, and was so highly valued 
that the poets frequently employed its name as 
equivalent to that of Corinth itself. 

Piresiae (nei/jetriat), probably the same as the 
Iresiae of Livy, a town of Thessaly in the distnct 
Thessaliotis, on the left bank of the Peneus. 

Pirithous (netpi'0oo$), son of Ixion or Zeus by 
Dia, was king of the Lapithae in Thessalj^, and 
married to Hippodamia, by whom he became the 
father of Polypoetes. When PirithoUs was cele- 
brating his marriage with Hippodamia, the intoxi- 
cated Centaur Eurytion or Eurytus carried her off, 
and this act occasioned the celebrated fight between 
the Centaurs and Lapithae, in which the Centaurs 
were defeated. PirithoUs once invaded Attica, but 
when Theseus came forth to oppose him, he con- 
ceived a warm admiration for the Athenian king ; 
and from this time a most intimate friendship 
sprung up between the 2 heroes. Theseus was 
present at the wedding of Pirithous, and assisted 
him in his battle against the Centaurs. Hippo- 
damia afterwards died, and each of the two friends 
resolved to wed a daughter of Zeus. With the 
assistance of Pirithous, Theseus carried off Helen 
from Sparta, and placed her at Aethra under the care 
of Phaedra. PirithoUs was still more ambitious, 
and resolved to carry off Persephone (Proserpina), 
the wife of the king of the lower world. Theseus 
would not desert his friend in the enterprise, 
though he knew the risk which they ran. The 2 
friends accordingly descended to the lower world, 
but the}"" were seized by Pluto and fastened to a 
rock, where they both remained till Hercules 
visited the lower world. Hercules delivered 
Theseus, who had made the daring attempt only 
to please his friend, but Piritholis remained for ever 
in torment {amatorem trecentae Pirithoum cohibeiit 
catenae., Hor. Carm, iii. 4. 80). Pirithous was 
worshipped at Athens, along with Theseus, as a 
hero. 

Pirus (neTpos), Pierus (nfepos), or Achelous, 
the chief river of Achaia, which falls into the gulf 
of Patrae, near Olenus. 

Pirustae, a people in lUyria, exempted from 



PISA. 



PISIDIA. 



579 



taxes by the Romans, because they deserted Gen- 
tius and passed over to the Romans. 

Pisa (Ultra : Uia-aT-qs), the capital of Pisatis 
(IliaaTjs), the middle portion of the province of 
Elis in Peloponnesus. [Elis.] In the most an- 
cient times Pisatis formed an imion of 8 states, of 
which, in addition to Pisa, we find mention of 
Salmone, Heraclea, Harpinna, Cycesium and Dys- 
pontium. Pisa itself was situated N. of the Alpheus, 
at a very short distance E. of Olympia, and, in 
consequence of its proximity to the latter place, 
was frequently identified by the poets with it. 
The history of the Pisatae consists of their struggle 
with the Eieans, with whom they contended for 
the presidency of the Olympic games. The Pisatae 
obtained this honour in the 8th Olympiad (b. c. 
748) with the assistance of Phidon, tyrant of 
Argos, and also a 2nd time in the 34th Olympiad 
(644) by means of their own king Pantaleon. In 
the 52nd Olympiad (572) the struggle between 
the 2 peoples was brought to a close by the con- 
quest and destruction of Pisa by the Eieans. So 
complete Avas the destruction of the city, that not a 
trace of it was left in later times ; and some per- 
sons, as we learn from Strabo, even questioned 
whether it had ever existed, supposing that by the 
name of Pisa, the kingdom of the Pisatae was 
alone intended. The existence, however, of the 
city does not admit of dispute. Even after the 
destruction of the city, the Pisatae did not relin- 
quish their claims ; and in the 104th Olympiad 
(364), they had the presidency of the Olympic 
games along with the Arcadians, when the latter 
people were making war with the Eieans. 

Pisae, more rarely Pisa (Pisanus: Pesa), one 
of the most ancient and important of the cities 
of Etruria, was situated at the confluence of the 
Arnus and Ausar (Serchio), about G miles from the 
sea ; but the latter river altered its course in the 
12th century, and now flows into the sea hy a sepa- 
rate channel. According to some traditions, Pisae 
was founded by the companions of Nestor, the 
inhabitants of Pisa in Elis, who were driven upon 
the coast of Italy on their return from Troy ; 
whence the Roman poets give the Etruscan town 
the surname of Alphea. This legend, however, 
like many others, probably arose from the acci- 
dental similarity of the names of the 2 cities. It 
would seem that Pisa was originally a Pelasgic 
town, that it afterwards passed into the hands of 
the Ligyae, and from them into those of the Etrus- 
cans. It then became one of the 12 cities of 
Etruria, and was down to the time of Augustus the 
most N.-ly city in the country. Pisa is frequently 
mentioned in the Ligurian wars as the head-quarters 
of the Roman legions. In B. c. 180 it was made a 
Latin colony, and appears to have been colonised 
again in the time of Augustus, since we find it 
called in inscriptions Colonia Julia Pisana. Its 
harbour, called Partus Pisanus, at the mouth of the 
Arnus, was much used by the Romans ; and in the 
time of Strabo the town of Pisa was still a place of 
considerable importance on account of the marble- 
quarries in its neighbourliood, and the quantity of 
timber which it yielded for ship-building. About 
3 miles N. of the tov/n were mineral springs, 
called Aquae Pisanae, which were less celebrated 
in antiquity than they are at the present day. 
There is scarcely a vestige of the ancient city in 
the modem Pisa. 

Pisander (^€^<ra^■5/^os). 1. Son of Polyctor, 



and one of the suitors of Penelope. — 2. An Athe- 
nian, of the demus of Acharnae. lived in the time 
of the Peloponnesian war, and was attacked by 
the comic poets for his rapacity and cowardice. In 
412 he comes before us as the chief ostensible 
agent in effecting the revolution of the Four 
Hundred. In all the measures of the new govern- 
ment, of which he was a member, he took an 
active part ; and when Theramenes and others 
v/ithdrew from it, he sided with the more violent 
aristocrats, and was one of those who, on the 
counter-revolution, took refuge with Agis at De- 
celea. His property was confiscated, and it does 
not appear that he ever returned to Athens. — 

3. A Spartan, brother-in-law of Agesilaus II., who 
made him admiral of the fleet in 395. In the fol- 
lowing year he was defeated and slain in the sea- 
fight off Cnidus, against Conon and Phamabazus.— 

4. A poet of Camirus in Rhodes, flourished about 
B. c. 648 — 645. He was the author of a poem in 
2 books on the exploits of Hercules, called Hera- 
clea ('HpdiiKeia). The Alexandrian grammarians 
thought so highly of the poem that they received 
Pisander, as well as Antimachus and Panyasis, 
into the epic canon together with Homer and He- 
siod. Only a few lines of it have been preserved. 
In the Greek Anthology we find an epigram attri- 
buted to Pisander of Rhodes, perhaps the poet 
of Camirus. — 5. A poet of Laranda, in Lycia or 
Lycaonia, was the son of Nestor, and flourished in 
the reign of Alexander Severus (a.d. 222 — ^235). 
He wrote a poem, called 'UpwiKol ^eoya/j-LaL, which 
probably treated of the marriages of gods and god- 
desses with mortals, and of the heroic progeny 
thus produced. 

Pisatis. [Pisa.] 

Pisaurum. (Pisaurcnsis : Pesaro), an ancient 
town of Umbria, near the mouth of the river Pi- 
saurus (Foc/lia), on the road to Ariminum. It 
was colonised by the Romans in B.C. 186, and 
probably colonised a 2nd time by Augustus, since 
it is called in inscriptions Colonia Julia Felice 

Pisaurus. [Pisaurum.] 

Pisgah. [Nebo.] 

PlSldia (rj Uian^iia) : UicriSris, pi. Tlia-i'SaJ, also 
TleitTi'Sa/, n.<rei5ai and TlicriSifcoi', Pisida pi. Pisi- 
dae, anc. Peisidae), an inland district of Asia 
Minor, bounded by Lycia and Pamphylia on the 

5. ; Cilicia on the S.E. ; Lj'caonia and Isauria 
(the latter often reckoned a part of Pisidia) on the 
E. and N. E. ; Phrygia Parorios on the N., where 
the boundary varied at different times, and was 
never very definite ; and Caria on the W. It was 
a mountainous region, formed by that part of the 
main chain of Mt. Taurus which sweeps round in 
a semicircle parallel to the shore of the Pamphyliau 
gulf ; the strip of shore itself, at the foot of the 
mountains, constituting the district of Pamphylia. 
The inhabitants of the mountains were a warlike 
aboriginal people, related apparently to the Isau- 
rians and Cilicians. They maintained their inde- 
pendence, under petty chieftains, against all the 
successive rulers of Asia Minor. The Romans 
never subdued the Pisidians in their mountain 
fortresses, though they took some of the towns on 
the outskirts of their country ; for example, Anti- 
ochia, which was made a colony wnth the Jus 
Italicum. In fact the N. part, in which Anticchia 
stood, had originally belonged to Phrygia, and was 
more accessible and more civilised than the moun- 
iains which formed the proper country ( f the 

P P 2 



580 PISISTRATIDAE. 

Pisidians. Nominally, the country was considered 
a part of Pamphylia, till the new sub -division of 
the empire under Constantine, when Pisidia was 
made a separate province. The countn,- is still 
inhabited by wild tribes, among whom travelling 
is dangerous ; and it is therefore little known. 
Ancient writers say that it contained, amidst its 
rugged mountains, some fertile valleys, where the 
olive flourished ; and it also produced the gum 
storax, some medicinal plants, and salt. On the 
S. slope of the Taurus, several rivers flowed through 
Pisidia and Pamphylia, into the Pamphylian gulf, 
the chief of which were the Cestrus and the Ca- 
tarrhactes ; and on the N. the mountain streams 
form some large salt lakes, namely, Ascania 
{Hoiran and Ecjerdir) S. of Antiochia, Caralius or 
Pusgusa {Bei Shehr or Kereli) S. E. of the former, 
and Trogitis {SogJila) further to the S. E.,in Isauria. 
Special names were given to certain districts, which 
are sometimes spoken of as parts of Pisidia, some- 
times as distinct countries ; namely, Cibyratis, in 
the S. W. along the N. of Lycia, and Cabalia, the 
S. W. corner of Cibyratis itself ; Milyas, the dis- 
trict E. of Cibyratis, N.E. of Lycia, and N.W. of 
Pamphylia, and Isauria, in the E. of Pisidia, on 
the borders of Lycaonia, 

Plsistratidae (Ilejcrjo-TpaTi'Sai), the legitimate 
sons of Pisistratus. The name is used sometimes 
to indicate only Hippias and Hipparchus, and 
sometimes in a -wider application, embracing the 
grandchildren and near connections of Pisistratus 
(as by Herod, viii. 52. referring to a time when 
both Hippias and Hipparchus were dead). 

Pisistratus (Ileio-tcrTpaTos), the youngest son 
of Nestor and Anaxibia, was a friend of Telema- 
chus, and accompanied him on his journey from 
Pylos to Menelaus at Sparta. 

Pisistratus (neicnVrpaTos), an Athenian, son 
of Hippocrates, was so named after Pisistratus, the 
youngest son of Nestor, since the family of Hippo- 
crates was of Pylian origin, and traced their descent 
to Neleus, the father of Nestor. The mother of 
Pisistratus (whose name we do not know) was 
cousin-german to the mother of Solon. Pisistratus 
grew up equally distinguished for personal beauty 
and for mental endowments. The relationship be- 
tween him and Solon naturally drew them toge- 
ther, and a close friendship sprang up between 
them. He assisted Solon by his eloquence in per- 
suading the Athenians to renew their struggle 
with the Megarians for the possession of Salamis, 
and he afterwards fought with bravery in the ex- 
pedition which Solon led against the island. "When 
Solon, after the establishment of his constitution, 
retired for a time from Athens, the old rivalrv' 
between the parties of the Plain, the Highlands 
and the Coast broke out into open feud. The 
party of the Plain, comprising chiefly the landed 
proprietors, was headed by Lycurgus ; that of the 
Coast, consisting of the Avealthier classes not be- 
longing to the nobles, by Megacles, the son of 
Alcmaeon ; the party of the Highlands, which 
aimed at more of political freedom and equality 
than either of the two others, w^as the one at the 
head of which Pisistratus placed himself, because 
the V seemed the most likelv to be useful in the 
furtherance of his ambitious designs. His libe- 
rality, as well as his military and oratorical abili- 
ties, gained him the support of a large body of 
citizens. Solon, on his return, quickly saw through 
the designs of Pisistratus, who listened with re- 



PISISTRATTJS. 
spect to his advice, though he prosecuted his schemes 
none the less diligently. When Pisistratus found 
his plans sufficiently ripe for execution, he one. 
day made his appearance in the agora with his 
mules and his own person exhibiting recent wounds, 
pretending that he had been nearly assassinated 
by his enemies as he was riding into the countri'. 
An assembly of the people was forthwith called, 
in Avhich one of his partisans proposed that a 
body-guard of 50 citizens, armed with clubs, should 
be granted to him. It was in vain that Solon 
opposed this ; the guard was given him. Through 
the neglect or connivance of the people Pisistratus 
took this opportunity of raising a much larger 
force, with which he seized the citadel, B. c. 560, 
thus becoming, what the Greeks called Tyrant of 
Athens. Having secured to himself the substance 
of power, he made no further change in the con- 
stitution, or in the laws, which he administered 
ably and well. His first usurpation lasted but a 
short time. Before his power was firmly rooted, 
the factions headed by Megacles and Lycurgus 
combined, and Pisistratus was compelled to eva- 
cuate Athens. He remained in banishment 6 years. 
Meantime the factions of Megacles and Lycurgus 
revived their old feuds, and Megacles made over- 
tures to Pisistratus, offering to reinstate him in 
the tyranny if he would connect himself with him 
by receiving his daughter in marriage. The pro- 
posal was accepted by Pisistratus, and the follow- 
ing stratagem was devised for accomplishing his 
restoration, according to the account of Herodotus. 
A damsel named Phya, of remarkable stature and 
beauty, was dressed up as Athena in a full suit of 
annour, and placed in a chariot, with Pisistratus 
by her side. The chariot was then driven towards 
the city, heralds being sent on before to announce 
that Athena in person was bringing back Pisistra- 
tus to her Acropolis. The report spread rapidly, 
and those in the city believing that the woman 
was really their tutelary goddess, worshipped her, 
and admitted Pisistratus. Pisistratus nominally 
performed his part of the contract with Megacles ; 
but in consequence of the insulting manner in 
which he treated his wife, Megacles again made 
common cause with Lycurgus, and Pisistratus was 
a second time compelled to evacuate Athens. He 
retired to Eretria in Euboea, and employed the 
next 1 years in making preparations to regain his 
power. At the end of that time he invaded Attica, 
with the forces he had raised, and also supported 
by Lygdamis of Naxos with a considerable body of 
troops. He defeated his opponents near the temple 
of Athena at Pallene. and then entered Athens 
j Avithout opposition. Lygdamis was rewarded by 
being established as tyrant of Naxos, which islan'd 
j Pisistratus conquered. [Lygdamis.] Having now 
j become tyrant of Athens for the third time, Pisis- 
I tratus adopted measures to secure the undisturbed 
j possession of his supremacy. He took a body of 
foreign mercenaries into his pay, and seized as 
i hostages the children of several of the principal 
citizens, placing them in the custody of Lygdamis, 
i in Naxos. He maintained at the same time the 
; form of Solon's institutions, only taking care, as 
: his sons did after him, that the highest offices 
j should always be held by some member of the 
family. He not only exacted obedience to the laws 
1 from his subjects and friends, but himself set the 
I example of submitting to them. On one occasion 
I he even appeared before the Areopagus to answer 



PISISTRATUS. 



PISO. 



581 



a charge of murder, which however was not prose- 
cuted. Athens was indebted to him for many 
stately and useful buildings. Among these may 
be mentioned a temple to the Pythian Apollo, and 
a magnificent temple to the Olympian Zeus, which 
remained unfinished for several centuries, and was 
at length completed by the emperor Hadrian. Be- 
sides these, the Lyceum, a garden with stately 
buildings a short distance from the city, was the 
work of Pisistratus, as also the fountain of the 
Nine Springs. Pisistratus also encouraged litera- 
ture in various ways. It was apparently under 
his auspices that Thespis introduced at Athens his 
rude form of tragedy (b. c. 535), and that dramatic 
contests were made a regular part of the Attic 
Dionysia. It is to Pisistratus that we owe the 
first written text of the whole of the poems of 
Homer, which, without his care, would most likely 
now exist only in a few disjointed fragments. 
[HoMERUS.] Pisistratus is also said to have been 
the first person in Greece who collected a library, 
to which he generously allowed the public access. 
By his first wife Pisistratus had 2 sons, Hippias 
and Hipparchus. By his 2nd wife, Timonassa, he 
had also 2 sons, lophon and Thessalus, who are 
rarely mentioned. He had also a bastard son, 
Hegesistratus, whom he made tyrant of Sigeura, 
after taking that town from the Mytilenaeans. 
Pisistratus died at an advanced age in 527, and 
was succeeded in the tyranny by his eldest son 
Hippias: but Hippias and his brother Hipparchus 
appear to have administered the affairs of the state 
with so little outward distinction, that they are 
frequently spoken of as though the}"- had been joint 
tyrants. They continued the government on the 
same principles as their father. Thucydides (vi. 
54) speaks in terms of high commendation of the 
virtue and intelligence with which their rule was 
exercised till the death of Hipparchus. Hippar- 
chus inherited his fatlier's literary tastes. Several 
distinguished poets lived at Athens under the 
patronage of Hipparchus, as, for example, Simo- 
nides of Ceos, Anacreon of Teos, Lasus of Her- 
mione, and Onomacritus. After the murder of 
Hipparchus in 514, an account of which is given 
under Harmodius, a great change ensued in the 
character of the government. Under the influence 
of revengeful feelings and fears for his own safety 
Hippias now became a morose and suspicious 
tyrant. He put to death great numbers of the 
citizens, and raised money by extraordinary imposts. 
His old enemies the Alcmaeonidae, to whom Me- 
gacles belonged, availed themselves of the growing 
discontent of the citizens ; and after one or two 
unsuccessful attempts they at length succeeded, 
supported by a large force under Cleomenes, in 
expelling the Pisistratidae from Attica. Hippias 
and his connections retired to Sigeum, 510. The 
family of the tyrants was condemned to perpetual 
banishment, a sentence which was maintained even 
in after-times, when decrees of amnesty Avere 
passed. Hippias afterwards repaired to the court 
of Darius, and looked forward to a restoration to 
his country by the aid of the Persians. He ac- 
companied the expedition sent under Datis and 
Artaphernes, and pointed out to the Persians the 
plain of Marathon, as the most suitable place for their 
landing. He was now (490) of great age. Ac- 
cording to some accounts he fell in the battle of 
Marathon ; according to others he died at Lemnos 
on his return. Hippias was the only one of tlie 



legitimate sons of Pisistratus who had children ; 
but none of them attained distinction. 

Piso, Calpurnius, the name of a distinguished 
plebeian family. The name of Piso, like many 
other Roman cognomens, is connected with agri- 
culture, the noblest and most honourable pursuif 
of the ancient Romans : it comes from the verb 
pisere or pinsere, and refers to the pounding or 
grinding of com. — 1. Was taken prisoner at the 
battle of Cannae, B.C. 216 ; was praetor urbanus 
211, and afterwards commanded as propraetor in 
Etruria, 210. Piso in his praetorship proposed to 
the senate, that the Ludi Apollinares, which had 
been exliibited for the first time in the preceding 
year (212), should be repeated, and should be 
celebrated in future annually. The senate passed 
a decree to this effect. The establishment of these 
games by their ancestor was commemorated on 
coins by the Pisones in later times. — 2. C, son of 
No. ], was praetor 186, and received Further 
Spain as his province. He returned to Rome in 
184, and obtained a triumph for a victory he had 
gained over the Lusitani and Celtiberi. He was. 
consul in 1 80, and died during his consulship. 

Pisones with the agnomen Caesoninus. 

3. L., received the agnomen Caesoninus, because- 
he originallj' belonged to the Caesonia gens. He- 
was praetor in 154, and obtained the province 
of Further Spain, but was defeated by the- 
Lusitani. He was consul in 148, and was sent 
to conduct the war against Carthage ; he was 
succeeded in the command in the following year- 
by Scipio. — 4. L., son of No. 3, consul 112 with 
M. Livius Drusus. In 107 he served as legatus- 
to the consul, L. Cassius Longinus, who was sent 
into Gaul to oppose the Cimbri and their allies,, 
and he fell together with the consul in the battle, 
in which the Roman army was utterly defeated by 
the Tigurini in the territory of the Allobroges^ 
This Piso was the grandfather of Caesar's father- 
in-law, a circumstance to which Caesar himself 
alludes in recording his own victory over the Tigu- 
rini at a later time. (Caes. B. G. i. 7, 12.)— 6. L., 
son of No. 4, never rose to any of the offices of 
state, and is only known from the account given of 
him by Cicero in his violent invective against his 
son. He married the daughter of Calventius, 
a native of Cisalpine Gaul, who came from 
Placentia and settled at Rome ; and hence Cicero 
calls his son in contempt a semi-Placentian. — 
6. L., son of No. 5, was an unprincipled de- 
bauchee and a cruel and cprrupt magistrate. 
He is first mentioned in 59, when he was brought 
to trial by P. Clodius for plundering a province, 
of which he had the administration after his 
praetorship, and he was only acquitted by throw- 
ing himself at the feet of the judges. In the 
same year Caesar married his daughter Cal- 
purnia ; and through his influence Piso obtained 
the consulship for 58, having for his colleague A. 
Gabinius, who was indebted for the honour to 
Pompey. Both consuls supported Clodius in his 
measures against Cicero, which resulted in the 
banishment of the orator. The conduct of Piso in 
support of Clodius produced that extreme resent- 
ment in the mind of Cicero, which he displayed 
against Piso on many subsequent occasions. At 
the expiration of his consulship Piso went to his 
province of Macedonia, where he remained during 
I 2 years (57 and 56), plundering the province in the 

p p 3 



582 



PISO. 



PISO. 



most slianieless manner. In the latter of these 
years the senate resolved that a successor should be 
appointed ; and in the debate in the senate which 
led to his recall, Cicero attacked him in the most 
immeasured terms in an oration which has come 
down to us {De Provinciis Consularibus). Piso 
on his return (55) complained in the senate of the 
attack of Cicero, and justified the administration 
of his province, whereupon Cicero reiterated his 
charges in a speech which is likewise extant {In 
Pisonem). Cicero, however, did not venture to 
bring to trial the father-in-law of Caesar. In 
50 Piso was censor with Ap. Claudius Pulcher. 
On the breaking out of the civil war (49) Piso 
accompanied Pompey in his flight from the city ; 
and although he did not go with him across the 
sea, he still kept aloof from Caesar. He subse- 
quently returned to Rome, and remained neutral 
during the remainder of the civil war. After 
Caesar's death (44) Piso at first opposed Antony, 
but is afterwards mentioned as one of his partisans. 
"-7. L., son of No. 6, was consul 15, and afterwards 
obtained the province of Pamphylia ; from thence 
he was recalled by Augustus in 1 1, in order to make 
v/ar upon the Thracians, who had attacked the 
province of Macedonia. He was appointed by 
Tiberius praefectus urbi. While retaining the 
favour of the emperor, without condescending to 
servility, he at the same time earned the good-will 
of his fellow-citizens by the integrity and justice 
with which he governed the city. He died in 
A. D. 32, at the age of 80, and was honoured by a 
decree of the senate, with a public funeral. It 
was to this Piso and his 2 sons that Horace ad- 
dressed his epistle on the Art of Poetry. 

Pisones with the agnomen Frugi. 

8. L., received from his integrity and conscien- 
tiousness the surname of Frugi, which is perhaps 
nearly equivalent to our " man of honour.'" He was 
tribune of the plebs, 149, in which year he proposed 
the first law for the punishment of extortion in the 
provinces. He was consul in 133, and carried on 
war against the slaves in Sicily. He was a staunch 
supporter of the aristocratical party, and offered a 
strong opposition to the measures of C. Gracchus. 
Piso was censor, but it is uncertain in what year. 
He wrote Annals, which contained the history of 
Rome from the earliest period to the age in which 
Piso himself lived. — 9. L., son of No. 8, served 
with distinction under his father in Sicily in 133, 
and died in Spain about 111, whither he had gone 
as propraetor. — 10. L., son of No. 9, was a col- 
league of Verres in the praetorship, 74, when he 
thwarted many of the unrighteous schemes of the 
latter. — 11. C, son of No. 10, married Tullia, 
the daughter of Cicero, in 63, but was betrothed to 
her as early as 67. He was quaestor in 58, when 
ha used every exertion to obtain the recall of his 
father-in-law from banishment ; but he died in 57 
before Cicero's return to Rome. He is frequently 
mentioned by Cicero in terms of gratitude on ac- 
count of the zeal which he had manifested in his 
behalf during his banishment. 

Pisones without an agnomen. 
12. C, consul 67, belonged to the high aristo- 
cratical party ; and in his consulship opposed with 
the utmost vehemence the law of the tribune Ga- 
binius, for giving Pompey the command of the 
war against the pirates. In 66 and 65, Piso ad- 



ministered the province of Narbonese Gaul as pro- 
consul, and while there suppressed an insurrection 
of the Allobroges. In 63 he was accused of plun- 
dering the province, and was defended by Cicero. 
The latter charge was brought against Piso at the 
instigation of Caesar ; and Piso, in revenge, im- 
plored Cicero, but without success, to accuse Caesar 
as one of the conspirators of Catiline. — 13. M,, 
usually called M. Pupius Piso, because he was 
adopted by M. Pupius, when the latter was an old 
man. He retained, however, his family-name Piso, 
just as Scipio, after his adoption by Metellus, was 
called Metellus Scipio. [Metellus, No. 15.] On 
the death of L. Cinna, in 84, Piso married his wife 
Annia. In 83 he was appointed quaestor to the con- 
sul L. Scipio; but he quickly deserted this party, and 
went over to Sulla, who compelled him to divorce 
his wife on account of her previous connection with 
Cinna. After his praetorship, the year of which 
is uncertain, he received the province of Spain 
with the title of proconsul, and on his return to 
Pi,ome in 69, enjoyed the honour of a triumph. He 
served in the Mithridatic war as a legatus of Pom- 
pey. He was elected consul for 61 through the 
influence of Pompey, In his consulship Piso gave 
great offence to Cicero, by not asking the orator 
first in the senate for his opmion, and by taking P. 
Clodius under his protection after his violation of 
the mysteries of the Bona Dea. Cicero revenged 
himself on Piso, by preventing him from obtaining 
the province of Syria, which had been promised 
him. Piso, in his younger days, had so high a 
reputation as an orator, that Cicero was taken to 
him by his father, in order to receive instruction 
from him. He belonged to the Peripatetic school 
in philosophy, in which he received instructions 
from Staseas. — 14. Cn., a young noble who had 
dissipated his fortune by his extravagance and 
profligacy, and therefore joined Catiline in what is 
usually called his first conspiracy (66). [For de- 
tails see p. 155, b.] The senate anxious to get 
rid of Piso sent him into Nearer Spain as quaestor, 
but with the rank and title of propraetor. His 
exactions in the province soon made him so hateful 
to the inhabitants, that he was murdered by them. 
It was, however, supposed by some that he was 
murdered at the instigation of Pompey or of Cras- 
sus. — 15. Cn., fought against Caesar in Africa 
(46), and after the death of the dictator, joined 
Brutus and Cassius. He was subsequently par- 
doned, and retured to Rome ; but he disdained to 
ask Augustus for any of the honours of the state, 
and was, without solicitation, raised to the consul- 
ship in 23. —"16. Cn., son of No. 15, inherited all 
the pride and haughtiness of his father. He Avas 
consul B. c. 7, and w^as sent by Augustus as legate 
into Spain, where he made himself hated by his 
cruelty and avarice. Tiberius after his accession 
was chiefly jealous of Germanicus, his brother's 
son ; and accordingly, when the eastern provinces 
were assigned to Germanicus in A. D. 18, Tiberius 
conferred upon Piso the command of Syria, in order 
that the latter might do every thing in his power 
to thwart and oppose Germanicus. Plancina, the 
wife of Piso, was also urged on by Livia, the mo- 
ther of the emperor, to vie with and annoy Agrip- 
pina. Germanicus and Agrippina were thus ex- 
posed to every species of insult and opposition from 
Piso and Plancina ; and when Germanicus fell ill 
in the autumn of 19, he believed that he had been 
poisoned by them. Piso on his return to Rome 



PISTOR. 



PITTHEUS. 



583 



(20) was accused of murdering Germanicus ; the 
matter was investigated by the senate ; but before 
the investigation came to an end, Piso was found 
one morning in his room with his throat cut, and 
his sword lying by his side. It was generally sup- 
posed that, despairing of the emperor's protection, 
he had put an end to his own life ; but others be- 
lieved that Tiberius dreaded his revealing his 
secrets, and accordingly caused him to be put to 
death. The powerful influence of Livia secured 
the acquittal of Plancina. ■>— 17. C, the leader of 
the well-known conspiracy against Nero in A. D. 
65. Piso himself did not form the plot ; but as 
soon as he had joined it, his great popularity 
gained him many partizans. He possessed most 
of the qualities which the Romans prized, high 
birth, an eloquent address, liberality and aflfa- 
bility ; and he also displayed a sufficient love of 
magnificence and luxury to suit the taste of the 
day, which woiild not have tolerated austerity of 
manner or character. The conspiracy was disco- 
vered by Milichus, a freedman of Flavins Scevinus, 
one of the conspirators. Piso thereupon opened 
his veins, and thus died. There is extant a poem 
in 261 lines, containing a panegyric on a certain 
Calpurnius Piso, who is probably the same person 
as the leader of the conspiracy against Nero. — 
18. L., surnamed Licinianus, was the son of 
M. Licinius Crassus Frugi, and was adopted by 
one of the Pisones. On the accession of Galba to 
the throne, he adopted as his son and successor 
Piso Licinianus ; but the latter only enjoyed the 
distinction 4 days, for Otho, who had hoped to 
receive this honour, induced the praetorians to rise 
against the emperor. Piso fled for refuge into the 
temple of Vesta, but was dragged out by the sol- 
diers, and despatched at the threshold of the 
temple, a. d. 69. 

Pistor, that is, the baker, a surname of Jupiter 
at Rome, which is said to have arisen in the fol- 
lowing manner. When the Gauls were besieging 
Rome, the god suggested to the besieged the idea 
of throwing loaves of bread among the enemies, to 
make them believe that the Romans had plenty of 
provisions, and thus caused them to give up the 
siege. 

Pistoria or Pistorium (Pistoriensis : Pisioia), 
a small place in Etruria, on the road from Luca to 
Florentia, rendered memorable by the defeat of 
Catiline in its neighbourhood. 

Pitana. [Sparta.] 

Pitane {TliTdvr] : Sanderli), a seaport town of 
Mysia, on the coast of the Elaitic gulf, at the 
mouth of the Evenus or, according to some, of the 
Caicus ; almost destroyed by an earthquake under 
Titus. It was the birthplace of the Academic 
philosopher Arcesilaus. 

Pithecusa. [Aenaria.] 

Pitho (ne(0«'), called Suada or Suadela by 
the Romans, the personification of Persuasion. She 
was worshipped as a divinity at Sicyon, where she 
was honoured with a temple in the agora. Pitho 
also occurs as a surname of Aphrodite, whose wor- 
ship was said to have been introduced at Athens 
by Theseus, when he united the country commu- 
nities into towns. At Athens the statues of Pitho 
and Aphrodite Pandemos stood close together ; 
and at Megara the statue of Pitho stood in the 
temple of Aphrodite ; so that the 2 divinities must 
be conceived as closely connected, or the one, per- 
haps, merely as an attribute of the other. 



Pithon (Uldwv also UeWoou and Uvdwv). 1. Son 
of Agenor, a Macedonian ofiicer of Alexander the 
Great. He received from Alexander the govern- 
ment of part of the Indian provinces, in which he 
was confirmed after the king's death. In B.C. 316, 
he received from Antigonus the satrapy of Babylon. 
He afterwards fought with Demetrius against Pto- 
lemy, and was slain at the battle of Gaza, 312. 
2. Son of Crateuas or Crateas, a Macedonian officer 
of Alexander, who is frequently confounded with 
the preceding. After Alexander's death he received 
fromPerdiccas the satrapy of Media. He accompanied 
Perdiccas on his expedition to Egypt, (321), but 
he took part in the mutiny against Perdiccas, which 
terminated in the death of the latter. Pithon ren- 
dered important service to Antigonus in his war 
against Eumenes; but after the death of Eumenes, 
he began to form schemes for his own aggrandise- 
ment, and was accordingly put to death by Anti- 
gonus, 316. 

Pitinum (Pitinas, -atis). 1. (Pitino), a munici- 
pium in the interior of Umbria on the river Pisau- 
rus, whence its inhabitants are called in inscriptions 
Pitinates Pisaurenses. The town also bore the 
surname Mergens. — 2. A town in Picenum, on 
the road from Castrum Novum to Prifernum. 

Pittacus (UiTTaKos), one of those early culti- 
vators of letters, who were designated as " the 
Seven Wise Men of Greece," was a native of 
Mytilene in Lesbos, and was born about B. c. 
652. He was highly celebrated as a warrior, 
a statesman, a philosopher, and a poet. He is 
first mentioned, in public life, as an opponent of 
the tyrants of Mytilene. In conjunction with 
the brothers of Alcaeus, he overthrew and killed 
the tyrant Melanchrus, B. c. 612. In 606, he 
commanded the Mytilenaeans, in their war with 
the Athenians for the possession of Sigeum, on the 
coast of the Troad, and signalized himself by killing 
in single combat Phrynon, the commander of the 
Athenians. This feat Pittacus performed by en- 
tangling his adversary in a net, and then despatch- 
ing him with a trident and a dagger, exactly after 
the fashion in which the gladiators called retiarii 
long afterwards fought at Rome. This war was 
terminated by the mediation of Periander, who 
assigned the disputed territory to the Athenians ; 
but the internal troubles of Mytilene still continued. 
The supreme power was fiercely disputed between 
a succession of tyrants, and the aristocratic party, 
headed by Alcaeus and his brother Antimenidas; 
and the latter were driven into exile. As the 
exiles tried to effect their return by force of arms, 
tlie popular party chose Pittacus as their ruler, 
with absolute power, under the title of Aesymnetes 
{alavixvr\rT\s). He held this office for 10 years 
(589 — 579) and then voluntarily resigned it, having 
by his administration restored order to the state, 
and prepared it for the safe enjoyment of a repub- 
lican form of government. He lived in great 
honour at Mytilene for 10 years after, the re- 
signation of his government ; and died in 569, at 
an advanced age. Of the proverbial maxims of 
practical wisdom, which were current under the 
names of the seven wise men of Greece, two were 
ascribed to Pittacus, namely, 'KaK^-nhv iaQXhv efjL- 
jiieuai^ and Kaiphu yvuiOi. 

Pittheus {ULTOevs), king of Troezene, was son 
of Pelops and Dia, father of Aethra, and grand- 
father and instructor of Theseus. When Theseus 
married Phaedra, Pittheus took Hippolytus into 

p p 4 



PITYIA. 



PLA.NCUS. 



his house. His tomb and the chair on which he 
had sat in judgment were shown at Troezene down 
to a late time. He is said to have taught the art 
of speaking, and even to have written a book upon 
it Aethra as his daughter is called Pitthtis. 

Pityia (IliTueta : prob. Shamelik\ a town men- 
tioned by Homer, in the N. of Mysia, between 
Parium and Priapus, evidently named from the 
pine forests in its neighbourhood. 

Pityonesus [TiiTvSvricros : AngMstii), an island 
off the coast of Argolis. 

Pityus {lliTvovs : prob. Pitzunda), a Greek 
city, in Sarmatia Asiatica, on the N. E. coast of 
the Euxine, 360 stadia N. W. of Dioscurias. In 
the time of Strabo, it was a considerable city and 
port. It was afterwards destroyed by the neigh- 
bouring tribe of the Heniochi, but it was restored, 
and long served as an important frontier fortress of 
the Roman Empire. 

Pityusa, Pityussa {Ylirvovaa, Unvovaaa, con- 
tracted from TriTvoeacra fem. of Trirvdeis), i. e. 
abounding in pine-trees. 1. The ancient name of 
Lampsacus, Salamis, and Chios. — 2. A small 
island in the Argolic gulf. — 3. The name of 2 
islands off the S. coast of Spain, W. of the Ba- 
leares. The larger of them was called Ebusus 
(Iviza), the smaller Ophiussa {Formentera) : the 
latter was uninhabited. 

Pixodams {Tli^wZapos), prince or king of Caria, 
was the youngest of the 3 sons of Hecatoranus, all 
of whom successively held the sovereignty of Caria. 
Pixodarus obtained possession of the throne by 
the expulsion of his sister Ada, the widow and 
successor of her brother Idrieus, and held it with- 
out opposition for 5 years, b. c. 340 — 335. He 
was succeeded by his son-in-law Orontobates. 

Placentia (Placentinus : Piacenza\ a Roman 
colony in Cisalpine Gaul, founded at the same time 
as Cremona, B.C. 219. It was situated in the 
territory of the Anamares, on the right bank of 
the Po, not far from the mouth of the Trebia, and 
on the road from Mediolanum to Parma. It was 
taken and destroyed by the Gauls in 200, but was 
soon rebuilt by the Romans, and became an im- 
portant place. It continued to be a flourishing 
town down to the time of the Goths. 

Placia {YlKaicif], Ion. : YlKaKi-qvos)^ an ancient 
Pelasgian settlement, in Mysia, E. of Cyzicus, at 
the foot of Mt. Olympus, seems to have been early 
destroyed. 

Pla'cidia, Galla. [Gal la.] 

Placitus, Sex., the author of a short Latin 
work, entitled De Medicina (or Medicamentis) ex 
Animalibus, consisting of 34 chapters, each of 
which treats of some animal whose body was sup- 
posed to possess certain medical properties. As 
might be expected, it contains numerous absurdities, 
and is of little or no value or interest. The date of 
the author is uncertain, but he is supposed to have 
lived in the 4th century after Christ. The work 
is printed by Stephanus in the Medicae Artis Prin- 
cipes, Paris, fol. 1567, and elsewhere. 

Placus (JlKaKos), a mountain of Mj'sia, above 
the city of Thebe : not in the neighbourhood of 
Placi.a, as the resemblance of the names had led 
some to suppose. 

Planaria (prob. Canaria, Canar?/), one of the 
islands in the Atlantic, called Fortunatae. 

Planasia. 1. {Planosa), an island between 
Corsica and the coast of Etruria, to which Augus- 
tiLS banished his grandson Agrippa Postumus. — 



2. An island off the S. coast of Gaul, E. of the 
Stoechades. 

Planciades, Fulgentius. [Fulgentius.] 

Plancina, Munatia, the wife of Cn. Piso, who 
was appointed governor of Syria in a. d. 18. While 
her husband used every effort to thwart Ger- 
manicus, she exerted herself equally to annoy and 
insult Agrippina. She was encouraged in this 
conduct by Livia, the mother of the emperor, who 
saved her from condemnation by the senate when 
she was accused along with her husband in 20. 
[Piso, No. 16.] She was brought to trial again 
in 33, a few years after the death of Livia; and 
liaving no longer any hope of escape, she put an 
end to her own life. 

Plancius, Cn., first served in Africa under the 
propraetor A. Torquatus, subsequently in B. c. 68 
under the proconsul Q. Metellus in Crete, and next 
in 62 as military tribune in the army of C. Anto- 
nius in Macedonia. In 58 he was quaestor in 
Macedonia under the propraetor L. Appuleius, and 
here he showed great kindness to Cicero, when the 
latter came to this province during his banishment. 
He was tribune of the plebs in 56 ; and was 
elected curule aedile with A. Plotius in 54. But 
before Plancius and Plotius entered upon their 
office they were accused by Juventius Laterensis, 
and L. Cassius Longinus, of the crime of sodalitium, 
or the bribery of the tribes by means of illegal 
associations, in accordance with the Lex Licinia, 
which had been proposed by the consul Licinius 
Crassus in the preceding year. Cicero defended 
Plancius in an oration still extant, and obtained 
his acquittal. Plancius espoused the Pompeian 
party in the civil wars, and after Caesar had gained 
the supremacy lived in exile in Corcyra. 

Plancus, Munatius, the name of a distinguished 
plebeian family. The surname Plancus signified a 
person having flat splay feet without any bend ia 
them. 1. L., was a friend of Julius Caesar, and 
served under him both in the Gallic and the civil 
wars. Caesar shortly before his death nominated 
him to the government of Transalpine Gaul for 
B. c. 44, with the exception of the Narbonese and 
Belgic portions of the province, and also to the 
consulship for 42, with I). Brutus as his colleague. 
After Caesar's death Plancus hastened into Gaul, 
and took possession of his province. Here he pre- 
pared at first to support the senate against Antony; 
but when Lepidus joined Antony, and their united 
forces threatened to overwhelm Plancus, the latter 
was persuaded by Asinius PoUio to follow his ex- 
ample, and to unite with Antony and Lepidus. 
Plancus during his government of Gaul founded 
the colonies of Lugdunum and Raurica. He was 
consul in 42 according to the arrangement made by 
Caesar, and he subsequently followed Antony to 
Asia, where he remained for some years, and go- 
verned in succession the provinces of Asia and 
Syria. He deserted Antony in 32 shortly before 
the breaking out of the civil war between the latter 
and Octavian. He was favourably received by 
Octavian, and continued to reside at Rome during 
the remainder of his life. It was on his proposal 
that Octavian received the title of Augustus in 27; 
and the emperor conferred upon him the censorship 
in 22 with Paulus Aemilius Lepidus. Both the 
public and private life of Plancus was stained by 
numerous vices. One of Horace's odes {Carm. i. 7) 
is addressed to him. — 2. T., surnamed B?irsa, 
brother of the former, was tribune of the plebs 



PLANUDES. 



PLANUDES. 



.535 



B. c. 52, when he supported the views of Pompey, 
who was anxious to obtain the dictatorship. With 
this object he did every thing in his power to in- 
crease the confusion which followed upon the death 
of Clodius. At the close of the year, as soon as 
his tribunate had expired, Planciis was accused by 
Cicero cf Vis and was condemned. After his con- 
demnation Plancus went to Ravenna in Cisalpine 
Gaul, where he was kindly received by Caesar. 
Soon after the beginning of the civil war he was 
restored to his civic rights by Caesar ; but he ap- 
pears to have taken no part in the civil war. After 
Caesar's death Plancus fought on Antony's side in 
the campaign of Mutina. He was driven out of 
Pollentia by Pontius Aquila, the legate of D. Brutus, 
and in his flight broke his leg. — 3. Cn., brother 
of the two preceding, praetor elect 44, was charged 
by Caesar in that year with the assignment to his 
soldiers of lands at Buthrotum in Epirus. As 
Atticus possessed property in the neighbourhood, 
Cicero commended to Plancus with much earnest- 
ness the interests of his friend. He was praetor in 
43 and was allowed by the senate to join his 
brother Lucius [No. 1] in Transalpine Gaul. — 4. 
L. Plautius Plancus, brother of the 3 preceding, 
was adopted by a L. Plautius, and therefore took 
his praenomen as well as nomen, but retained his 
original cognomen, as was the case with Metellus 
Scipio [Metellus, No. 15], and Pupius Piso. 
[Piso, No. 13.] Before his adoption his praeno- 
men was Caius. He was included in the proscription 
of the triumvirs, 43, with the consent of his brother 
Lucius, and was put to death. 

Flanudes Maxamus, was one of the most 
learned of the Constantinopolitan monks of the last 
age of the Greek empire, and was greatly distin- 
guished as a theologian, grammarian, and rheto- 
rician; but his name is now chiefly interesting as 
that of the compiler of the latest of those collections 
of minor Greek poems, which were known by the 
names of Garlands or Afithologies {l,T€(pauoi, 'Av- 
QoXoyiai). Planudes flourished at Constantinople 
in the first half of the 14th centurv, under the 
emperors Androniciis II. and III. Palaeologi. In 
A. D. 1327 he was sent by Andronicus II. as am- 
bassador to Venice. As the A nthology of Planudes 
was not only the latest compiled, but was also that 
which was recognised as The Greek Anthology, until 
the discovery of the Anthology of Constaniinus 
Cephalas, this is chosen as the fittest place for an 
account of the Literary History of the Greek An- 
thology. 1. Materials. The various collections, to 
which their compilers gave the name of Garlands 
and Anthologies^ were made up of short poems, 
chiefly of an epigrammatic character, and in the 
elegiac metre. The earliest examples of such poetry 
were furnished by the inscriptions on monuments, 
such as those erected to commemorate heroic 
deeds, the statues of distinguished men, especially 
victors in the public games, sepulchral monuments, 
and dedicatory offerings in temples (avadvi-taTa); 
to which may be added oracles and proverbial say- 
ings. At an earl}' period in the history of Greek 
literature, poets of the highest fame cultivated this 
.<!pecies of composition, which received its most 
perfect development from the hand of Simonides. 
Thenceforth, as a set form of poetry, it became a 
flt vehicle for the brief expression of thoughts and 
sentiments on any subject ; until at last the form 
came to be cultivated for its own sake, and the 
Uteraii of Alexandria and Byzantium deemed the 



ability to make epigrams an essential part of the 
character of a scholar. Hence the mere trifling, 
the stupid jokes, and the Avretched personalities, 
which form so large a part of tlie epigrammatic 
poetry contained in the Greek Anthologj'. — 2. The 
Garland of Meleager. At a comparatively early 
period in the history of Greek literature, various 
persons collected epigrams of particular classes, 
and with reference to their use as historical au- 
thorities; but the first person who made such a 
collection solely for its own sake, and to preserve 
epigrams of all kinds, was Meleager, a cynic 
philosopher of Gadara, in Palestine, about B. c. 60. 
His collection contained epigrams by 46 poets, of 
all ages of Greek poetry, up to the most ancient 
lyric period. He entitled it The Garland (Sre- 
^avos), with reference to the common comparison 
of small beautiful poems to flowers. The same idea 
is kept up in the word Anthology {avdoXoyia), 
which was adopted by the next compiler as the 
title of his work. The Garland of Meleager was 
arranged in alphabetical order, according to the 
initial letters of the first line of each epigram. — 3. 
TJie Anthology of Philip of Thessalo7iiea, was com- 
piled in the time of Trajan, avowedly in imitation 
of the Garland of Meleager, and chiefly with the 
view of adding to that collection the epigrams of 
more recent writers. — 4. Diogenianus, Slraton, and 
Diogenes La'trtius. Shortly after Philip, in the 
reign of Hadrian, tlie learned grammarian, Dioge- 
nianus of Heraclea, compiled an Anthology, which 
is entirely lost. It might have been well if the 
same fate had befallen the very polluted collection 
of his contemporary, Straton of Sardis. About the 
same time Diogenes Laertius collected the epigrams 
which are interspersed in his lives of the philoso- 
phers, into a separate book. — B.Agathias Scholastt- 
cus, who lived in the time of Justinian, made a 
collection entitled KvkKos iTnypcLnixaruiv. It was 
divided into 7 books, according to subjects. The 
poems included in it were those of recent writers, 
and chiefly those of Agathias himself and of his 
contemporaries, such as Paulus Silentiarius and 
Macedonius. — 6. The Anthology of Constantinus 
Cephalas, or the Palatine Anthology. Constantinus 
Cephalas appears to have lived about 4 centuries 
after Agathias, and to have flourished in the 10th 
century, under tlie emperor Constantinus Porphjj-ro- 
genitus. The labours of preceding compilers may 
be viewed as merely supplementary to the Garland 
of Meleager; but the Anthology of Constantinus 
Cephalas was an entirely new collection from the 
preceding Anthologies and from original sources. 
Nothing is known of Constantine himself. The 
MS. of the Anthology was discovered by Salmasius 
in 1606, in the library of the Electors Palatine at 
Heidelberg. It was afterwards removed to the 
Vatican, with the rest of the Palatine library 
(1623), and has become celebrated under the 
names of the Palatine Anthology and the Vatican 
Codex of tlie Greek Anthology. This MS. was re- 
stored to its old home at Heidelberg after the peace 
of 1 8 1 5. — 7 . The, A nthology of Planudes is arranged 
in 7 books, each of which, except the 5th and 7th, 
is divided into chapters according to subjects, and 
these chapters are arranged in alphabetical order. 
The contents of the books are as follows : — 1 . 
Chiefly iniB^LKTucd, that is, displays of skill in 
this species of poetr}"-, in 91 chapters. 2. Jocular 
or satiric {aKMirTLKd), chaps. 53. 3. Sepulchral 
(iTTiTUfiSia), chaps. 32. 4, Inscriptions on statues 



o86 PLATAEA. 

of athletes and other works of art, descriptions of 
places, &c. chaps. 33, 5. The Ecphrasis of Christo- 
dorus, and epigrams on statues of charioteers in 
the Hippodrome at Constantinople. 6. Dedicatory 
{avaOrj/JLaTiKa}, chaps. 27. 7. Amatory (epwri/cct), 
Planudes did little more than abridge and re- 
arrange the Anthology of Constantinus Cephalas. 
Only a few epigrams are found in the Planudean 
Anthology, which are not in the Palatine. — The 
best editions of the Greek Anthology are by 
Brunck and Jacobs. Brunck's edition, which ap- 
peared under the title of Analeda Vetencni Poe- 
iarumGraecoru}7i,AjgentOTcit\,l77^ — 1776, 3 vols. 
8vo, contains the whole of the Greek Anthology, 
besides some poems which are not properly in- 
cluded under that title. Brunck adopted a new 
arrangement : he discarded the books and chapters 
of the early Anthology, placed together all the 
epigrams of each poet, and arranged the poets 
themselves in. chronological order, placing those 
epigrams, the authors of which were unknown, 
under the separate head of aBicnroTa. Jacobs' 
edition is founded upon Brunck's, but is much 
superior, and ranks as the standard edition of the 
Greek Anthology. It is in 18 vols. 8vo, namely, 
4 vols, of the Text, one of Indices, and 3 of Com- 
mentaries, divided into 8 parts, Lips. 1795 — 1814. 
After the restoration of the MS. of the Palatine 
Antholog}^ to the University of Heidelberg, Jacobs 
published a separate edition of the Palatine An- 
thology, Lips. 1813—1817, 3 vols. 

Plataea, more commonly Plataeae (HXaTaia, 
TlXaToiai : UXaTaievs), an ancient city of Boeotia, 
on the N. slope of Mt. Cithaeron, not far from the 
sources of the Asopus, and on the frontiers of 
Attica. It was said to have been founded by 
Thebes ; and its name was commonly derived from 
Plataea, a daughter of Asopus. The town, though 
not large, played an important part in Greek his- 
tory, and experienced many striking vicissitudes 
of fortune. At an early period the Plataeans 
deserted the Boeotian confederacy and placed 
themselves under the protection of Athens ; and 
when the Persians invaded Attica, in b. c. 490, 
they sent 1000 men to the assistance of the Athe- 
nians, and had the honour of fighting on their side 
at the battle of Marathon. Ten years afterwards 
(480) their city was destroyed by the Persian 
anny under Xerxes at the instigation of the The- 
bans; and the place was still in ruins in the fol- 
lowing year (479), when the memorable battle 
was fought in their territory, in which Mardonius 
was defeated, and the independence of Greece 
secured. In consequence of this victory, the terri- 
tory of Plataea was declared inviolable, and Pau- 
sanias and the other Greeks swore to guarantee its 
independence. The sanctity of the city was still 
further secured by its being selected as the place 
in which the great festival of the Eleutheria was 
to be celebrated in honour of those Greeks who had 
fallen in the war. (See Did. of Antiq. art. Eleu- 
theria.) The Plataeans further received from the 
Greeks the large sum of 80 talents. Plataea now 
enjoyed a prosperity of 50 years ; but in the 3rd 
year of the Peloponnesian war (429) the Thebans 
persuaded the Spartans to attack xhe town, and 
after a siege of 2 years at length succeeded in ob- 
taining possession of the place (427). Plataea was 
now razed to the ground, but was again rebuilt 
after the peace of Antalcidas (387). It was de- 
stroyed the 3rd time by its inveterate enemies the 



PLAm 

Thebans in 374. It was once more restored under 
the Macedonian supremacy, and continued in 
existence till a very late period. Its walls were 
rebuilt by Justinian. 

Platamodes (llAara^wSTjs : Aja Kyriaki), a 
promontory in the W. of Messenia, 

Platana, -urn, -us {UKaravr], UXaravov, TlXi- 
rauos), a fortress in Phoenicia, in a narrow pass 
between Lebanon and the sea, near the river Da- 
muras or Tamyras (Damur). 

Platea (n^area, also -eTa, -eiai, -aia), an island 
on the coast of Cyrenaica, in N. Africa, the first 
place taken possession of by the Greek colonists 
under Battus. [Cyrenaica.] 

Plato (UXdrw). 1. The comic poet, was a 
native of Athens, contemporary with Aristophanes, 
Phrynichus, Eupolis, and Pherecrates, and flou- 
rished from B. c. 428 to 389. He ranked among 
the very best poets of the Old Comedy. From the 
expressions of the grammarians, and from the large 
number of fragments which are preserved, it is 
evident that his plays were only second in popu- 
larity to those of Aristophanes. Purity of lan- 
guage, refined sharpness of wit, and a combination 
of the vigour of the Old Comedy with the greater 
elegance of the Middle and the New, were his 
chief characteristics. Suidas gives the titles of 30 
of his dramas.— 2. The philosopher, was the son 
of Ariston and Perictione or Potone, and was bom 
at Athens either in B. c. 429 or 428. According 
to others, he was bom in the neighbouring island 
of Aegina. His paternal family boasted of being 
descended from Codrus ; his maternal ancestors of 
a relationship with Solon. Plato himself mentions 
the relationship of Critias, his maternal uncle, with 
Solon. Originally, we are told, he was named 
after his grandfather Aristocles, but in consequence 
of the fluency of his speech, or, as others have it, 
the breadth of his chest, he acquired that name 
under which alone we know him. One story made 
him the son of Apollo ; another related that bees 
settled upon the lips of the sleeping child. He is 
also said to have contended, when a youth, in the 
Isthmian and other games, as well as to have 
made attempts in epic, lyric, and dithyrambic 
poetry, and not to have devoted himself to philo- 
sophy till a later time, probably after Socrates had 
drawn him within the magic circle of his influence. 
Plato was instmcted in grammar, music, and gym- 
nastics by the most distinguished teachers of that 
time. At an early age he had become acquainted, 
through Cratylus, with the doctrines of Heraclitus, 
and through other instmctors with the philoso- 
phical dogmas of the Eleatics and of Anaxagoras. 
In his 20th year he is said to have betaken him- 
self to Socrates, and became one of his most ardent 
admirers. After the death of Socrates (399) he 
withdrew to Megara, where he probably composed 
several of his dialogues, especially those of a dia- 
lectical character. He next went to Gyrene through 
friendship for the mathematician Theodorus ; and 
is said to have visited afterwards "Egypt, Sicily, 
and the Greek cities in Lower Italy, through his 
eagerness for knowledge. The more distant jour- 
neys of Plato into the interior of Asia, to the 
Hebrews, Babj-lonians, and Assyrians, to the Magi 
and Persians, are mentioned only by writers on 
whom no reliance can be placed. That Plato, 
during his residence in Sicily, became acquainted, 
through Dion, with the elder Dionysius, but very- 
soon feU out with the tyrant, is asserted by credible 



PLATO. 



PLATO. 



587 



witnesses. But more doubt attaches to the story, 
which relates that he was given up by the tyrant 
to the Spartan ambassador Pollis, by him sold into 
Aegina, and set at liberty by the Cyrenian Anni- 
ceris. Plato is said to have visited Sicily when 
40 years old, consequently in 389. After his 
return he began to teach, partly in the gymnasium 
of the Academy and its shady avenues, near the 
city, between the exterior Ceramicus and the hill 
Colonus Hippius, and partly in his garden, which 
was situated at Colonus. He taught gratuitously, 
and without doubt mainly in the form of lively 
dialogue ; yet on the more difficult parts of his 
doctrinal system he probably delivered also con- 
nected lectures. The more narrow circle of his 
disciples assembled themselves in his garden at 
common simple meals, and it was probably to them 
alone that the inscription said to have been set up 
over the vestibule of the house, " let no one enter 
who is unacquainted with geometry," had refer- 
ence. From this house came forth his nephew 
Speusippus, Xenocrates of Chalcedon, Aristotle, 
Heraclides Ponticus, Hestiaeus of Perinthus, Phi- 
lippus the Opuntian, and others, men from the most 
different parts of Greece. To the wider circle of 
those who, without attaching themselves to the 
more narrow community of the school, sought in- 
struction and incitement from him, such distin- 
guished men as Chabrias, Iphicrates, Timotheus, 
Phocion, Hyperides, Lycurgus, and Isocrates, are 
said to have belonged. Whether Demosthenes 
was of the number is doubtful. Even women are 
said to have attached themselves to him as his 
disciples. Plato's occupation as an instructor was 
twice interrupted by his voyages to Sicily; first 
when Dion, probably soon after the death of the 
elder Dionysius, persuaded him to make the at- 
tempt to win the younger Dionysius to philosophy ; 
the 2nd time, a few years later (about 360), when 
the wish of his Pythagorean friends, and the invi- 
tation of Dionysius to reconcile the disputes which 
had broken out between him and his step-uncle 
Dion, brought him back to Syracuse. His efforts 
were both times unsuccessful, and he owed his own 
safety to nothing but the earnest intercession of 
Archytas. That Plato cherished the hope of re- 
alising through the conversion of Dionysius his 
idea of a state in the rising city of Syracuse, was 
a belief pretty generally spread in antiquity, and 
which finds some confirmation in the expressions 
of the philosopher himself, and of the 7th Platonic 
letter, which, though spurious, is written with the 
most evident acquaintance with the matters treated 
of. With the exception of these 2 visits to Sicily, 
Plato was occupied from the time when he opened 
the school in the Academy in giving instruction 
and in the composition of his works. He died in 
the 82nd year of his age, B.C. 347. According to 
some he died while writing, according to others at 
a marriage feast. According to his last will his 
garden remained the property of the school, and 
passed, considerably increased by subsequent ad- 
ditions, into the hands of the Neo-Platonists, who 
kept as a festival his birth-day as well as that of 
Socrates. Athenians and strangers honoured his 
memory by monuments. Still he had no lack of 
enemies and enviers. He Avas attacked by con- 
temporary comic poets, as Theopompus, Alexis, 
Cralinus the younger, and others, by one-sided 
Socratics, as Antisthenes, Diogenes, and the later 
Megarics, and also by the Epicureans, Stoics, cer- 



tain Peripatetics, and later writers eager for de- 
traction. Thus even Antisthenes and Aristoxenus 
charged him with sensuality, avarice, and syco- 
phancy; and others with vanity, ambition, and 
envy towards other Socratics, Protagoras, Epichar- 
mus, and Philolaus. — The Writings of Plato. 
These writings have come down to us complete, 
and have always been admired as a model of the 
union of artistic perfection with philosophical acute- 
ness and depth. They are in the form of dialogue ; 
but Plato was not the first writer who employed 
this style of composition for philosophical instruc- 
tion. Zeno the Eleatic had already written in 
the form of question and answer. Alexamenus 
the Teian and Sophron in the mimes had treated 
ethical subjects in the form of dialogue. Xeno- 
phon, Aeschines, Antisthenes, Euclides, and other 
Socratics also had made use of the dialogical 
form ; but Plato has handled this form not only 
with greater mastery than any one who preceded 
him, but, in all probability, with the distinct 
intention of keeping by this very means true to 
the admonition of Socrates, not to communicate 
instruction, but to lead to the spontaneous dis- 
covery of it. The dialogues of Plato are closely 
connected with one another, and various arrange- 
ments of them have been proposed. Schleierma- 
cher divides them into 3 series or classes. In the 
1 st he considers that the germs of dialectic and of 
the doctrine of ideas begin to unfold themselves in 
all the freshness of youthful inspiration; in the 
2nd those germs develop themselves further by 
means of dialectic investigations respecting the 
difference between common and philosophical 
acquaintance with things, respecting notion and 
knowledge {dd^a and iirLa-T-fifxri) ; in the 3rd they 
receive their completion by means of an objectively 
scientific working out, with the separation of ethics 
and physics. The 1st series embraces, according 
to Schleiermacher, the Phaedrus^ Lysis^ Protagoras^ 
Laches, Charmides,Euth7/phron, and Parmenides ; to 
which may be added as an appendix the Apologia, 
Criio, Ion, Hippias Minor, Hipparchus, Minos and 
Aldbiades II. The 2nd series contains the Gorgias, 
Theaetetus, Meno, Euthydemus, Cratylus, Sophistes, 
Politicus, Symposium, Pliaedo, and Philehus ; to 
which may be added as an appendix the Theages, 
Erastae, Alcibiades L, Menexenus, Hippias Major, 
and Clitophon. The 3rd series comprises the Re- 
public, Timaeus, Criiias, and the Laws. This 
arrangement is perhaps the best that has hitherto 
been made of the dialogues, though open to ex- 
ception in several particulars. The genuineness of 
several of the dialogues has been questioned, but 
for the most part on insufficient grounds. The 
Epinomis, however, is probably to be assigned to a 
disciple of Plato, the Minos and Hipparchus to a 
Socratic. The 2nd Alcibiades was attributed by 
ancient critics to Xenophon. The Anterastae and 
Clitophon are probably of much later origin. The 
Platonic letters were composed at different periods ; 
the oldest of them, the 7th and 8th, probably by 
disciples of Plato. The dialogues Demodocus, 
Sisyphus, Eryocias, Axiochus, and those on justice 
and virtue, were with good reason regarded by 
ancient critics as spurious, and with them may be 
associated the Hipparchus, Theages, and the Defi- 
nitions. The genuineness of the \st Alcibiades seems 
doubtful. The smaller Hippias, the Ion, and the 
Meneocenus, on the other hand, which are assailed 
by many modern cities, may very well maintain 



PLATO. 



PLAUTUS. 



their ground as occasional compositions of PJato.— 
The PMlosophy of Plato. The nature of this 
work will allow only a few brief remarks upon this 
subject. The attempt to combine poetry and phi- 
losophy (the two fundamental tendencies of the 
Greek mind), gives to the Platonic dialogues a 
charm, which irresistibly attracts us, though we 
may have but a deficient comprehension of their 
subject-matter. Plato, like Socrates, was pene- 
trated with the idea that wisdom is the attribute 
of the Godhead ; that philosophy, springing from 
the impulse to know, is the necessity of the intel- 
lectual man, and the greatest of the blessings in 
which he participates. When once we strive after 
Wisdom with the intensity of a lover, she becomes 
the true consecration and purification of the soul, 
adapted to lead us from the night-like to the true 
day. An approach to wisdom, however, presup- 
poses an original communion with Being, truly so 
called ; and this communion again presupposes the 
divine nature or immortality of the soul, and the 
impulse to become like the Eternal. This impulse 
is the love which generates in Truth, and the de- 
velopment of it is termed Dialectics. Out of the 
philosophical impulse which is developed by Dia- 
lectics not only correct knowledge, but also correct 
action springs forth. Socrates' doctrine respecting 
the unity of virtue, and that it consists in true, 
vigorous, and practical knowledge, is intended to 
be set forth in a preliminary manner in the Prota- 
goras and the smaller dialogues attached to it. 
They are designed, therefore, to introduce a foun- 
dation for ethics, by the refutation of the common 
views that were entertained of morals and of vir- 
tue. For although not even the words ethics and 
physics occur in Plato, and even dialectics are not 
treated of as a distinct and separate province, yet 
he must rightly be regarded as the originator of 
the threefold division of philosophy, inasmuch as 
he had before him the decided object to develop 
the Socratic method into a scientific system of dia- 
lectics, that should supply the grounds of our 
knowledge as well as of our moral action (physics 
and ethics), and therefore he separates the general 
investigations on knowledge and understanding, at 
least relatively, from those which refer to physics 
and ethics. Accordingly, the Theaetetus, Sophistes, 
Parmenides, and Cratylus, are principally dialecti- 
cal ; the Protagoras, Gorgias, Politicus, Philebus, 
and the Politics, principally ethical ; while the 
Timaeus is exclusively physical. Plato's dialectics 
and ethics, however, have been more successful 
than his physics. — Plato's doctrine of ideas was 
one of the most prominent parts of his system. 
He maintained that the existence of things, cogni- 
sable only by means of conception, is their true 
essence, their idea. Hence he asserts that to 
deny the reality of ideas is to destroy all scien- 
tific research. He departed from the original 
meaning of the word idea (namely, that of form 
or figure), inasmuch as he understood by it the 
unities (ei'dSes, ij.ov<i5es) which lie at the basis 
of the visible, the changeable, and which can 
only be reached by pure thinking. He included 
under the expression idea every thing stable amidst 
the changes of mere phenomena, all really existing 
and unchangeable definitudes, by which the changes 
of things and our knowledge of them are condi- 
tioned, such as the ideas of genus and species, the 
laws and ends of nature, as also the principles 
of cognition, and of moral action, and the essences 



of individual, concrete, thinking souls. His system 
of ethics was founded upon his dialectics, as is 
remarked above. Hence he assert(!d that not being 
in a condition "to grasp the idea of the good with 
full distinctness, we are able to approximate to it 
only so far as we elevate the power of thinking to 
its original purity. — The best editions of the col- 
lected works of Plato are by Bekker, Berol. 1816 
—1818, by Stallbaum, Gotha, 1827, seq., and by 
Orelli and others, Turic. 1839. 

Plautia Gens, a plebeian gens at Rome. The 
name is also written Plotius, just as we have both 
Clodius and Claudius. The gens was divided into 
the families of Hypsaeus., Proculus, Silvanus, Veino, 
Venox; and although several members of these 
families obtained the consulship, none of them are 
of sufficient importance to require a separate notice. 

Plautianus, Fulvius, an African by birth, the 
fellow-townsman of Septimius Severus. He served 
as praefect of the praetorium under this emperor, 
who loaded him with honours and wealth, and 
virtually made over much of the imperial autho- 
rity into his hands. Intoxicated by these dis- 
tinctions, Plautianus indulged in the most despotic 
tyranny, and perpetrated acts of cruelty almost 
beyond belief. In a. d. 202 his daughter Plautilla 
was married to Caracalla ; but having discovered 
the dislike cherished by Caracalla towards both 
his daughter and himself, and looking forward 
with apprehension to the downfall which awaited 
him upon the death of the sovereign, he formed a 
plot against the life both of Septimius and Cara- 
calla. His treachery was discovered, and he was 
immediately put to death, 203. His daughter 
Plautilla was banished first to Sicily, and subse- 
quently to Lipara, where she was treated with the 
greatest harshness. After the murder of Geta, in 
212, Plautilla was put to death by order of her 
husband, 

Plautilla. [Plautianus.] 

Plautius. 1. A,, a man of consular rank, who 
was sent by the emperor Claudius in ^.D. 43 to 
subdue Britain. He remained in Britain 4 years, 
and subdued the S. part of the island. He ob- 
tained an ovation on his return to Rome in 47. — 
2. A Roman jurist, who lived about the time of 
Vespasian, and is cited by subsequent jurists. 

Plautus, the most celebrated comic poet of 
Rome, was a native of Sarsina, a small village in 
Umbria. He is usually called M. Accius Plautus, 
but his real name, as an eminent modern scholar 
has shown, was T. Maccius Plautus. The date of 
his birth is uncertain, but it may be placed about 
B. c. 254. He probably came to Rome at an early 
age, since he displays such a perfect mastery of 
the Latin language, and an acquaintance with 
Greek literature, which he could hardly have ac- 
quired in a provincial town. Whether he ever 
obtained the Roman franchise is doubtful. When 
he arrived at Rome he was in needy circumstances, 
and was first employed in the service of the actors. 
With the money he had saved in this inferior 
station he left Rome and set up in business : but 
his speculations failed ; he returned to Rome, and 
his necessities obliged him to enter the service of 
a baker, who employed him in turning a hand- 
mill. While in this degrading occupation he wrote 
3 plays, the sale of which to the managers of the 
public games enabled him to quit his drudgery, 
and begin his literary career. He was then pro- 
bably about 30 years of age (224), and accordingly 



PLAUTUS. 
commenced writing comedies a few years before 
the breaking out of the 2nd Punic war. He con- 
tinued his literary occupation for about 40 years, 
and died in 184, when he was 70 years of age. 
His contemporaries at first were Livius Andronicus 
and Naevius, afterwards Ennius and Caecilius : 
Terence did not rise into notice till almost 20 years 
after his death. During the long time that he 
held possession of the stage, he was always a great 
favourite of the people; and he expressed a bold" 
consciousness of his own powers in the epitaph 
which he wrote for his tomb, and which has come 
down to us : — 

"Postquara est mortem aptus Plautus, comoedia 
luget 

Scena deserta, dein risus, ludus jocusque 

Et numeri innumeri simul omnes collacrumarunt." 

Plautus wrote a great number of comedies, and in 
the last century of the republic there were 1 30 plays, 
which bore his name. Most of these however were 
not considered genuine by the best Roman critics. 
There were several works written upon the sub- 
ject; and of these the most celebrated was the 
treatise of Varro, entitled Quaestiones Plautinae. 
Varro limited the undoubted comedies of the poet 
to 21, which were hence called the Fabulae Varro- 
nianae. These Varronian comedies are the same 
as those which ha^e come down to our own time, 
with the loss of one. At present we possess 
only 20 comedies of Plautus ; but there were ori- 
ginally 21 in the manuscripts, and the Vidularia, 
which was the 21st, and which came last in the 
collection, was torn off from the manuscript in the 
middle ages. The titles of the 21 Varronian plays 
are: \. Amphitruo. 2. Asinaria. 3. Aulularia. 
4. Captivi. 5. Curculio. 6. Casina. 7. Cisiellaria. 
8. Epidicus. 9. Bacchides. 10. Mostellaria. 11. 
Menaeclmi. 12. Miles. 13. Mercator. 14. Pseu- 
dolus. 15. Pomulus. 16. Persa. 17. Rudens. 
18. Slichus. 19. Trinummus. 20. Truculentus. 
21. Vidularia. This is the order in which they 
occur in the manuscripts, though probably not the 
one in which they were originally arranged by 
Varro. The present order is evidently alphabeti- 
cal ; the initial letter of the title of each play is 
alone regarded, and no attention is paid to those 
which follow: hence we find Captivi, Curculio, 
Casina, Cisiellaria : Mostellaria, Menaeclmi, Miles, 
Mercator : Pseudolus, Poenulus, Persa. The play 
of the Bacchides forms the only exception to the 
alphabetical order. It was probably placed after the 
Epidicus by some copyist, because he had observed 
that Plautus, in the Bacchides (ii. 2. 36), referred 
to the Epidicus as an earlier work. The names of 
the comedies are either taken from some leading 
character in the play, or from some circumstance 
which occurs in it : those titles ending in aria are 
adjectives, giving a general description of the play: 
thus Asinaria is the " Ass-Comedy." The come- 
dies of Plautus enjoyed imrivalled popularity among 
the Romans, and continued to be represented down 
to the time of Diocletian. The continued popu- 
larity of Plautus through so many centuries was 
owing, in a great measure, to his being a national 
poet. Though he founds his plays upon Greek 
models, the characters in them act, speak, and 
joke like genuine Romans, and he thereby secured 
the sympathy of his audience more completely than 
Terence could ever have done. Whether Plautus 
borrowed the plan of all his plays from Greek mo- 



PLEIADES. 



589 



dels, it is impossible to say. The Cisiellaria, Bac- 
chides, Poenulus, and Stichus, were taken from 
Menander, the Casina and Rudens from Diphilus, 
and the Mercator and the Tiinurrinius from Phile- 
mon, and many others were undoubtedly founded 
upon Greek originals. But in all cases Plautua 
allowed himself much greater liberty than Terence; 
and in some instances he appears to have simply 
taken the leading idea of the play from the Greek, 
and to have filled it up in his own fashion. It has 
been inferred from a well-known line of Horace 
(Epist. ii. 1. 58), " Plautus ad exemplar Siculi 
properare Epicharmi," that Plautus took great 
pains to imitate Epicharmus. But there is no 
correspondence between any of the existing plays 
of Plautus and the known titles of the comedies 
of Epicharmus ; and the verb properare probably 
has reference only to the liveliness and energy ot 
Plautus's style, in which he bore a resemblance to 
the Sicilian poet. It was, however, not only with 
the common people that Plautus was a favourite ; 
educated Romans read and admired his works 
down to the latest times. Cicero {de Off. i. 29) 
places his wit on a par with that of the old Attic 
comedy, and St. Jerome used to console himself 
with the perusal of the poet after spending many 
nights in tears, on account of his past sins. The 
favourable opinion which the ancients entertained 
of the merits of Plautus has been confirmed by 
the judgment of the best modern critics, and by 
the fact that several of his plays have been imi- 
tated by many of the best modern poets. Thus 
the Amphitruo has been imitated by Moliere and 
Dryden, the Aulularia by Moliere in his Avare, 
the Mostellaria by Regnard, Addison, and others, 
the Menaechmi by Shakspere in his Comedy of 
Errors, the Trinummus by Lessing in his Schatz, 
and so with others. Horace {De Arte Poet. 270), 
indeed, expresses a less favourable opinion of 
Plautus ; but it must be recollected that the taste 
of Horace had been formed by a different school of 
literature, and that he disliked the ancient poets 
of his country. Moreover, it is probable that the 
censure of Horace does not refer to the general 
character of Plautus's poetry, but merely to his 
inharmonious verses and to some of his jests. The 
text of Plautus has come down to us in a very 
corrupt state. It contains many lacunae and inter- 
polations. Thus the Aulularia has lost its con- 
clusion, the Bacchides its commencement, &c. Of 
the present complete editions the best are by Bothe, 
Lips. 1834, 2 vols. 8vo,, and by Weise, Quedlinb. 
1837—1838, 2 vols. 8vo. ; but Ritschl's edition, 
of which the 1st volume has only yet appeared 
(Bonn, 1849), will far surpass all others. 

Plavis {Piave), a river in Venetia in the N. of 
Italy, which fell into the Sinus Tergestinus. 

Pleiades (nAetdSes or UeXeidSes), the Pleiads, 
are usually called the daughters of Altas and 
Pleione, whence they bear the name of the Atlan- 
tides. They were called Vergiliae by the Romans. 
They were the sisters of the Hya'des, and 7 in 
number, 6 of whom are described as visible, and 
the 7th as invisible. Some call the 7 th Sterope, 
and relate that she became invisible from shame, 
because she alone among her sisters had had inter- 
course with a mortal man ; others call her Electra, 
and make her disappear from the choir of her 
sisters on account of her grief at the destruction of 
the house of Dardanus. The Pleiades are said to 
have made away with themselves from grief at the 



PLEMMYRIUM. 



PLINIUS. 



death of their sisters, the Hyades, or at the fate of 
their father Atlas, and were afterwards placed as 
stars at the back of Taurus, wliere they formed a 
cluster resembling a bunch of grapes, whence they 
were sometimes called Corpus. According to an- 
other story, the Pleiades were virgin companions 
of Artemis, and, together with their mother Pleione, 
were pursued hy the hunter Orion in Boeotia ; 
their prayer to be rescued from him was heard by 
the gods, and they v/ere metamorphosed into doves 
(fl-eAejaSes). and placed among the stars. The 
rising of the Pleiades in Italy was about the be- 
ginning of May, and their setting about the begin- 
ning of November. Their names are Electra, Maia, 
Taygete, Alcyone, Celaeno, Sterope, and Merope. 

Plemmyrium {U\^fx/j.vpiou : Punta di Gigante)^ 
a promontory on the S. coast of Sicily, immedi- 
ately S. of Syracuse. 

Pleione (IIATjioVrj), a daughter of Oceanus, and 
mother of the Pleiades by Atlas. [Atlas ; Plei- 
ades ] 

Pletunoxii, a small tribe in Gallia Belgica, sub- 
ject to the Nervii. 

Pleuratus {UX^vparos), king of Illyria, was 
the son of Scerdilaidas. His name occurs as an 
ally of the Romans in the '2nd Punic war, and in 
their subsequent wars in Greece. 

Pleuron {TlKivpdv. UXevpwuios), an ancient 
city in Aetolia, and along with Calydon the most 
important in the country, was situated at a little 
distance from the coast, N.W. of the mouth of the 
Evenus, and on the S. slope of Mt. Aracynthus or 
Curius. It was originally inhabited by the Cu- 
retes. This ancient city was abandoned by its 
inhabitants, when Demetrius 11. King of Ma- 
cedon, laid waste the surrounding country, and a 
new city was built under the same name to the 
W. of the ancient one. The 2 cities are dis- 
tinguished by geographers under the names of Old 
Pleuron and New Pleuron respectively. 

Plinius. 1. C. Plinius Secundi:^, the cele- 
brated author of the Historia Naturalis^ and fre- 
quently called Pliny the Elder, was born a. d, 23, 
either at Verona or Novum Comum (Cojno) in the 
N. of Italy. But whichever was the place of his 
birth, it is certain that his family belonged to 
Novum Comum, since the estates of the elder Pliny 
were situated there, the younger Pliny was born 
there, and several inscriptions found in the neigh- 
bourhood relate to various members of the family. 
He came to Rome while still young, and being 
descended from a family of wealth and distinction, 
he had the means at his disposal for availing him- 
self of the instruction of the best teachers to be 
found in the imperial city. At the age of about 
23 he went to Germany, where he served under 
L. Pomponius Secundus, of whom he afterwards 
wrote a memoir, and was appointed to the com- 
mand of a troop of cavalry (prae/ecius aloe). It 
appears from notices of his own that he travelled 
over most of the frontier of Germany, having visited 
the Cauci, the sources of the Danube, &c. It was 
in the intervals snatched from his military duties 
that he composed his treatise de Jaculatione eques- 
tri. At the same time he commenced a history of 
the Germanic wars, which he afterwards completed 
in 20 books. He returned to Rome with Pompo- 
nius (52), and applied himself to the study of 
jurisprudence. He practised for some time as a 
pleader, but does not seem to have distinguished 
himself very greatly in that capacity, TheVeater 



part of the reign of Nero he spent in retirement, 
chiefly, no doubt, at his native place. It may have 
been with a view to the education of his nephew 
that he composed the work entitled Studiosus, an 
extensive treatise in 3 books, occupying 6 volumes, 
in which he marked out the course that should 
be pursued in the training of a young orator, 
from the cradle to the completion of his education 
and his entrance into public life. During the 
•reign of Nero he wrote a grammatical work in 8 
books, entitled Duhius Sermo ; and towards the 
close of the reign of this emperor he was appointed 
procurator in Spain. He was here in 71, when his 
brother-in-law died, leaving his son, the yoimger 
Pliny, to the guardianship of his uncle, Avho, on 
account of his absence, was obliged to entrust the 
care of him to Virginius Rufus. Pliny returned to 
Rome in the reign of Vespasian, shortly before 73, 
when he adopted his nephew. He had known 
Vespasian in the Germanic wars, and the emperor 
received him into the number of his most intimate 
friends. It was at this period of his life that he 
wrote a continuation of the history of Aufidius 
Bassus, in 31 books, carrying the narrative down 
to his own times. Of his manner of life at this 
period an interesting account has been preserved 
by his nephew (Epist. iii. 5). It was his practice 
to begin to spend a portion of the night in study- 
ing by candle-light, at the festival of the Vulcanalia 
(towards the end of August), at first at a late hour 
of the night, in winter at I or 2 o'clock in the 
morning. Before it was light he betook himself 
to the emperor Vespasian, and after executing such 
commissions as he might be charged with, returned 
home and devoted the time which he still had 
remaining to study. After a slender meal he 
would, in the summer-time, lie in the sunshine 
while some one read to him, he himself making 
notes and extracts. He never read anything with- 
out making extracts in this way, for he used to say 
that there was no book so bad but that some good 
might be got out of it. He would then take a cold 
bath, and after a slight repast sleep a very little, and 
then pursue his studies till the time of the coena. 
During this meal some book was read to, and com- 
mented on by him. At table, as might be sup- 
posed, he spent but a short time. Such was his 
mode of life when in the midst of the bustle and 
confusion of the city. When in retirement in the 
countrj', the time spent in the bath was nearly the 
only interval not allotted to study, and that he 
reduced to the narrowest limits ; for during all the 
process of scraping and rubbing he had some book 
read to him, or himself dictated. When on a jour- 
ney he had a secretary by his side with a book 
and tablets. By this incessant application, per- 
severed in throughout life, he amassed an enor- 
mous amount of materials, and at his death left 
to his nephew 160 vokunina of notes {elecLorum 
co7)imentarii), TSTitten extremely small on both 
sides. With some reason might his nephew say 
that, when compared with Pliny, those who had 
spent their whole lives in literary pursuits seemed 
as if they had spent them in nothing else than sleep 
and idleness. From the materials which he had in 
this way collected he compiled his celebrated His- 
toria Naturalis, which he published about 77. The 
details of Pliny's death are given in a letter of the 
younger Pliny to Tacitus (jE^.vi. 16). He perished 
in the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius, which 
overwhelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii, in 79 



PLINIUS. 



PLINIUS. 



591 



being 56 years of age. He was at the time sta- 
tioned at Misenum in the command of the Roman 
fleet ; and it was his anxiety to examine more 
closely the extraordinary phaenomenon, which led 
him to sail to Stabiae, where he landed and pe- 
rished. The only work of Pliny which has come 
down to us is his Historia Naturalis. By Natural 
History the ancients understood more than modern 
writers would usually include in the subject. It 
embraced astronomy, meteorology, geography, 
mineralogy, zoology, botany, — in short, every 
thing that does not relate to the results of human 
skill or the products of human faculties. Pliny, 
however, has not kept within even these extensive 
limits. He has broken in upon the plan implied 
by the title of the work, by considerable digres- 
sions on human inventions and institutions (book 
vii.), and on the history of the fine arts (xxxv. — 
xxxvii.) Minor digressions on similar topics are 
also interspersed in various parts of the work, the 
arrangement of which in other respects exhibits 
but little scientific discrimination. It comprises, 
as Pliny says in the preface, 20,000 matters of 
importance, drawn from about 2000 volumes. It 
is divided into 37 books, the 1st of which consists 
of a dedicatory epistle to Titus, followed by a 
table of contents of the other books. When it is 
remembered that this work was not the result of 
the undistracted labour of a life, but written in 
the hours of leisure secured from active pursuits, 
and that too by the author of other extensive 
works, it is, to say the least, a wonderful monu- 
ment of human industry'. It may easily be sup- 
posed that Pliny, with his inordinate appetite for 
accumulating knowledge out of books, was not the 
man to produce a scientific work of any value. 
He was not even an original observer. The mate- 
rials Avhich he worked up into his huge encyclo- 
paedic compilation Avere almost all derived at 
second-hand, though doubtless he has incorporated 
the results of his own observation in a larger num- 
ber of instances than those in which he indicates 
such to be the case. Nor did he, as a compiler, 
show either judgment or discrimination in the 
selection of his materials, so that in his accounts 
the true and the false are found intermixed. His 
love of the marvellous, and his contempt for human 
nature, lead him constantly to introduce what is 
strange or wonderful, or adapted to illustrate the 
wickedness of man, and the unsatisfactory arrange- 
ments of Providence. His work is of course valu- 
able to us from the vast number of subjects treated 
of, with regard to many of which we have no other 
sources of information. But what he tells us is 
often unintelligible, from his retailing accounts of 
things with which he was himself personally unac- 
quainted, and of which he in consequence gives no 
satisfactory idea to the reader. Though a writer 
on zoology, botany, and mineralogy, he has no 
pretensions to be called a naturalist. His com- 
pilations exhibit scarcely a trace of scientific ar- 
rangement ; and frequently it can be shown that 
he does not give the true sense of the authors 
whom he quotes and translates, giving not uncom- 
monly wrong Latin names to the objects spoken of 
by his Greek authorities. The best editions of 
Pliny's Natural History, with a commentarj'-, are 
by Hardouin (Paris, 1685, 5 vols. 4to, ; 2nd edit. 
1723, 3 vols, fol.), and by Panckoucke (Paris, 
1829—1833, 20 vols.), with a French translation 
and notes by Cuvier and other eminent scientific 



and literary men of France. The most valuable 
critical edition of the text of Pliny is by Sillig 
(Lips. 1831—1836, 5 vols. r2mo.). — 2. C. Plinius 
Caecilius Secundus, frequently called Pliny the 
younger, was the son of C. Caecilius, and of Plinia, 
the sister of the elder Pliny. He was bom at 
Comum in a. d. 61 ; and having lost his father at 
an early age, he was adopted by his uncle, as has 
been mentioned above. His education was con- 
ducted imder the care of his uncle, his mother, and 
his tutor, Virginius Rufus. From his youth he 
was devoted to letters. In his 14th year he wrote 
a Greek tragedy. He studied eloquence under 
Quintilian. His acquirements finally gained him 
the reputation of being one of the most learned 
men of the age ; and his friend Tacitus, the histo- 
rian, had the same honourable distinction. He 
was also an orator. In his 19th year he began to 
speak in the forum, and he was frequently em- 
ployed as an advocate bofore the court of the Cen- 
tumviri and before the Roman senate. He filled 
numerous oflaces in succession. While a young 
man he served in Syria as tribunus militum, and 
was there a hearer of the stoic Euphrates and of 
Artemidorus. He was subsequently quaestor Cae- 
saris, praetor in or about 93, and consul 100, in 
which year he wrote his Panegyricus, which is 
addressed to Trajan. In 103 he Avas appointed 
propraetor of the province Pontica, where he did 
not stay quite 2 years. Among his other fimctions 
he also discharged that of curator of the channel 
and the banks of the Tiber. He was twice mar- 
ried. His 2nd wife was Calpurnia, the grand- 
daughter of Calpurnius Fabatus, and an accom- 
plished woman : she was considerably younger 
than her husband, who has recorded her kind 
attentions to him. He had no children by either 
wife bom alive. The life of Pliny is chiefly known 
from his letters. So far as this eA'idence shows, he 
was a kind and benevolent man, fond of literary 
pursuits, and of building on and improving his 
estates. He was rich, and he spent liberally. He 
was a kind master to his slaves. His body was 
feeble, and his health not good. Nothing is known 
as to the time of his death. The extant works of 
Pliny are his Panegyricus and the 1 books of his 
Epistolae. The Panegyricus is a fulsome eulogium 
on Trajan ; it is of small value for the information 
which it contains about the author himself and his 
times. Pliny collected his own letters, as appears 
from the 1st letter of the 1st book, which looks 
something like a preface to the whole collection. 
It is not an improbable conjecture that he may 
have written manj' of his letters with a view to 
publication, or that when he was writing some of 
them the idea of future publication was in his 
mind. However, they form a very agreeable col- 
lection, and make us acquainted with many in- 
teresting facts in the life of Pliny and that of his 
contemporaries. The letters from Pliny to Trajan 
and the emperor's replies are the most valuable 
part of the collection : they form the whole of the 
10th book. The letter on the punishment of the 
Christians (x. 97), and the emperor's answer (x. 
98), have furnished matter for much remark. The 
fact of a person admitting himself to be a Christian 
was sufficient for his condemnation; and the 
punishment appears to have been death. The 
Christians, on their examination, admitted nothing 
further than their practice of meeting on a fixed 
day before it was light, and singing a hymn to 



ny2 PLINTHINE. 

Christ, as God (quasi Deo) ; their oath (whatever 
Piinv may mean by sacramentum) was not to 
bind them to any crime, but to avoid theft, rob- 
bery, adultery, breach of faith, and denial of a 
deposit. Two female slaves, who were said to be 
deaconesses {viinistrae) , were put to the torture by 
Pliny, but nothing unfavourable to the Christians 
could be got out of them : the governor could de- 
tect nothing except a perverse and extravagant 
superstition (superstiiionem pravam ei imniodicam) . 
Hereupon he asked the emperor's advice, for the 
contagion of the superstition was spreading ; yet 
he thought that it might be stopped. The em- 
peror in his reply approves of the governor's con- 
duct, as explained in his letter, and observes that 
no general rule can be laid down. Persons sup- 
posed to be Christians are not to be sought for : if 
they are accused and the charge is proved, they 
are to be punished ; but if a man denied the charge, 
and could prove its falsity by offering his prayers 
to the heathen gods {diis nostris), however sus- 
pected he may have been, he shall be excused in. 
respect of his repentance. Charges of accusation 
{(ibelli) without the name of the informant or ac- 
cuser, were not to be received, as they had been : 
it was a thing of the worst example, and unsuited 
to the age. One of the best editions of the Epis- 
tdae and Panecyricus is by Schaefer, Lips. 1 805. 
The best editions of the Epistolae are by Cortius 
and Lonofolius, Amsterdam, 1734, and by Gierig, 
Lips. 1800. 

Plinthine (JiXivQlvT]), a city of Lower Egypt, 
on the bay called from it Sinus Plinthinetes 
{TlXivQivf]TT]s koAttoj), was the "W.-most city of 
Egv-pt (according to its narrower limits) on the 
frontier of Marmarica. It stood a little N. of 
Taposiris (Abousii-). 

Plistarclms (IIAeto-Topxos), king of Sparta, 
was the son and successor of Leonidas, who was 
killed at Thermopylae, B.C. 480. He reigned from 
480 to 458, but being a mere child at the time of 
his father's death, the regency was assumed by his 
cousin Pausanias. It appears that the latter con- 
tinued to administer affairs in the name of the 
young king till his own death, about 467. 

Plisthenes {UXeicrdei/ris), son of Atreus, and 
husband of Aerope or Eriphyle, by whom he be- 
came the father of Agamemnon, Menelaus, and 
Anaxibia ; but Homer makes the latter the children 
of Atreus. See Agamemnon, Atrecs. 

Plistia (Prestia\ a village in Sanmium in the 
valley between M. Tifata and Tabtimus. 

Plistoanax or Plistonax {UXeia-Todva^, ITAei- 
(TTwya^). king of Sparta, was the eldest son of the 
Pausanias who conquered at Plataea, B. c. 479. 
On the death of Plistarchus. in 458, without issue, 
Plistoanax succeeded to the throne, being yet a 
minor. He reigned from 458 to 408. In 445 he 
invaded Attica ; but the premature withdrawal of 
his army from the enemy's territory exposed him 
to the suspicion of having been bribed by Pericles. 
He was punished by a heavv' fine, which he was 
unable to pay, and was therefore obliged to leave 
his country. He remained 19 years in exile, 
taking up his abode near the temple of Zeus on 
Mt. Lycaeus in Arcadia, and having half his house 
within the sacred precincts that he might enjoy the 
benefit of the sanctuary. During this period his 
son Pausanias, a minor, reigned in his stead. The 
Spartans at length recalled him in 426, in obedi- 
ence to the injunctions of the Delphic oracle. But 



PLOTIXUS. 

he was accused of having tampered with the Py- 
thian priestess to induce her to interpose for him, 
and his alleged impiety in this matter was con- 
tinually assigned by his enemies as the cause of 
all Sparta's misfortunes in the war ; and therefore 
it was that he used all his influence to bring about 
peace with Athens in 421. He was succeeded by 
his son Pausanias. 

Plistns {UKeicTTos : Xeropotamo\ a small river 
in Phocis, which rises in Mt. Parnassus, flows 
past Delphi, where it receives the small stream 
Castalia, and falls into the Crissaean gulf near 
Cirrha. 

Plotana, Pompeia, the wife of the emperor 
Trajan, and a woman of extraordinary merit and 
virtue. As she had no children, she persuaded 
her husband to adopt Hadrian. She died in the 
reign of Hadrian, who honoured her memory by 
mourning for her 9 days, by building a temple in 
her honour, and by composing hymns in her praise. 

Plotinopolis {tlKomvoTroKii), a town in Thrace 
on the road from Trajanopolis to Hadrianopolis, 
founded by Trajan, and named in honour of his 
wife Plotina. 

Plotinns (TIXutIvos), the originator of the Neo- 
Platonic system, was bom at Lycopolis in Egj'pt, 
about A. D. 203. The details of his life have been 
preserved by his disciple Porphyry in a biography 
which has come down to us. From him we learn 
that Plotinus began to study philosophy in his 
28th year, and remained 11 years under the in- 
struction of Ammonius Saccas. In his 39th 
year he joined the expedition of the emperor Gor- 
dian (242) against the Persians, in order to become 
acquainted with the philosophy of the Persians 
and Indians. After the death of Gordian he fled 
to Antioch, and from thence to Rome (244). For 
the first 10 years of his residence at Rome he gave 
only oral instructions to a few friends; but he was 
at length induced in 254 to commit his instructions 
to writing. In this manner when, 10 years later 
(264) Porphyry came to Rome and joined himself 
to Plotinns, 21 books of very various contents had 
been already composed by him. During the 6 
years that Porphyr}' lived with Plotinus at Rome, 
the latter, at the instigation of Amelius and Por- 
phyry, wrote 23 books on the subjects which had 
been discussed in their meetings, to which 9 books 
were afterwards added. Of the 54 books of Plo- 
tinus, Porphyry remarks, that the first 21 books 
were of a lighter character, that only the 23 fol- 
lo\s'ing were the production of the matured powers 
of the author, and that the other 9, especially the 
4 last, were evidently written with diminished 
vigour. The correction of these 54 books was 
committed by Plotinus himself to the care of Por- 
phyry. On account of the weakness of his sight, 
Plotinus never read them through a second time, 
to say nothing of making corrections; intent simply 
upon the matter, he was alike careless of ortho- 
graphy, of the division of the syllables, and the 
clearness of his handwriting. The 54 books was 
divided by Porphyry into 6 Enneads, or sets of 9 
books. Plotinus was eloquent in his oral commu- 
nications, and was said to be very clever in finding 
the appropriate word, even if he failed in accuracy 
on the whole. Besides this, the beauty of his 
person was increased when discoursing ; his coun- 
tenance was lighted up with genius, and covered 
with small drops of perspiration. He lived on the 
scantiest fare, and his hours of sleep were restricted 



POLYPHEMUS. POSEIDON. PRIAPUS. PSYCHE. 





COINS OF CITIES AXD COUNTRIES. PKIEXE — SAMOS ATA. 




PLOTIUS. 



PLUTARCHUS. 



593 



to the briefest time possible. He was regarded 
with admiration and respect not only by men of 
science like the philosophers Amelius, Porphyry, 
the physicians Paulinus, Eustochius, and Zethus 
the Arab, but even by senators and other states- 
men. He enjoyed the favour of the emperor Gal- 
lienus, and the empress Salonina, and almost ob- 
tained from them the rebuilding of two destroyed 
towns in Campania, with the view of their being 
governed according to the laws of Plato. He died 
at Puteoli in 262. The philosophical system of 
Plotinus is founded upon Plato's writings, with 
the addition of various tenets drawn from the 
Oriental philosophy and religion. He appears 
however to avoid studiously all reference to the 
Oriental origin of his tenets ; he endeavours to find 
them all under the veil of the Greek mythology, 
and points out here the germ of his own philoso- 
phical and religious convictions. Plotinus is not 
guilty of that commixture and falsification of the 
Oriental mythology and mysticism, which is found 
in lamblichus, Proclus, and others of the Neo- 
Platonic school. The best edition of the Enneads 
of Plotinus is by Kreuzer, Oxonii, 1835, 3 vols. 4to. 

Flotius, whose full name was Marius Plotius 
Sacerdos, a Latin grammarian, the author of De 
Meiris Liber, who probably lived in the 5th or 
6th century of the Christian aera. His work is 
published by Putschius in the Grammaticae Laiinae 
Auctores, Hannov. 1605, and by Gaisford in the 
Scriptores Latini Rei Metricae, Oxon. 1837. 

Plntarchus (IlKovTapxos). 1. Tyrant of Eretria 
in Euboea, whom the Athenians assisted in B. c. 
354 against his rival, Callias of Chalcis. The 
Athenian array was commanded by Phocion, who 
defeated Callias at Tamynae ; but Phocion having 
suspected Plutarchus of treachery, expelled him 
from Eretria. — 2. The biographer and philosopher, 
was born at Chaeronea in Boeotia. The year of 
his birth is not known; but we learn from Plutarch 
himself, that he was studying philosophy under 
Ammonius at the time when Nero was making his 
progress through Greece, in a. d. 66; from which 
we may assume that he was a youth or a young 
man at that time. He spent some time at Rome, 
and in other parts of Italy; but he tells us that he 
did not learn the Latin language in Italy, because 
hft was occupied with public commissions, and in 
giving lectures on philosophy; and it was late in 
life before he busied himself with Roman literature. 
He was lecturing at Rome during the reign of 
Domitian, but the statement of Suidas that Plutarch 
was the preceptor of Trajan, ought to be rejected. 
Plutarch spent the later years of his life at Chae- 
ronea, where he discharged various magisterial 
offices, and held a priesthood. The time of his 
death is unknown. — The work which has immor- 
talised Plutarch's name is his Parallel Lives (Btot 
UapdXX-nXoi) of 46 Greeks and Romans. The 46 
Lives are arranged in pairs; each pair contains the 
life of a Greek and a Roman, and is followed by a 
comparison of the two men : in a few pairs the 
comparison is omitted or lost. He seems to have 
considered each pair of Lives and the Parallel as 
making one book {Bi§\iou). The 46 Lives are the 
following: — 1. Theseus and Romulus; 2. Lycurgus 
and Numa ; 3. Solon and Valerius Publicola ; 4. 
Themistocles and Camillus ; 5. Pericles and Q. 
Fabius Maximus ; 6. Alcibiades and Coriolanus ; 
7. Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus ; 8. Pelopidas 
and Marcellus ; 9. Aristides and Cato the Elder ; 



10. Philopoemen and Flamininus; 11. Pyrrhus and 
Marius; 12. Lysander and Sulla ; 13. Cimon and 
Lucullus ; 14. Nicias and Crassus ; 15. Eumenes 
and Sertorius ; 16. Agesilaus and Pompeius ; 17. 
Alexander and Caesar; 18. Phocion and Cato the 
Younger ; 19. Agis and Cleomenes, and Tiberius 
and Caius Gracchi ; 20. Demosthenes and Cicero ; 
21. Demetrius Polinrcetes and M. Antonius ; 22. 
Dion and M. Junius Brutus. There are also 
the Lives of Artaxerxes Mnemon, Aratus, Galba, 
and Otho, which are placed in the editions after 
the 46 Lives. Perhaps no work of antiquity has 
been so extensively read in modem times as Plu- 
tarch's Lives. The reason of their popularity is 
that Plutarch has rightly conceived the business of 
a biographer: his biography is true portraiture. 
Other biography is often a dull, tedious enumeration 
of facts in the order of time, with perhaps a 
summing up of character at the end. The reflections 
of Plutarch are neither impertinent, nor trifling : 
his sound good sense is always there : his honest 
purpose is transparent : his love of humanity- 
warms the whole. His work is and will remain, 
in spite of all the fault that can be found with it 
by plodding collectors of facts, and small critics, 
the book of those who can nobly think, and darft 
and do. The best edition of the Lives is by Sin- 
tenis, Lips. 1839—1846, 4 vols. 8vo. — Plutarch's 
other writings, above 60 in number, are placed 
under the general title of Moralia or Ethical works, 
though some of them are of an historical and anec- 
dotical character, such as the essay on the malignity 
(Kaico-fjdeia) of Herodotus, Avhich neither requires 
nor merits refutation, and his Apophthegmata, 
many of which are of little value. Eleven of these 
essays are generally classed among Plutarch's his- 
torical works: among them, also, are his Roman 
Questions or Inquiries, his Greek Questions, and 
the Lives of the Ten Orators. But it is likely 
enough that several of the essays which are in- 
cluded in the Moralia of Plutarch, are not by him. 
At any rate, some of them are not worth reading. 
The best of the essays included among the Moralia 
are of a different stamp. There is no philosophical 
system in these essays : pure speculation was not 
Plutarch's province. His best writings are prac- 
tical; and their merits consist in the soundness of 
his views on the ordinary events of human life, 
and in the benevolence of his temper. His " Mar- 
riage Precepts" are a sample of his good sense, 
and of his happiest expression. He rightly appre- 
ciated the importance of a good education, and he 
gives much sound advice on the bringing up of 
children. The best edition of the Moralia is b}' 
Wyttenbach : it consists of 6 volumes of text 
(Oxon. 1795—1800), and 2 volumes of notes 
(Oxon. 1810—1821). The best editions of all the 
works of Plutarch are by Reiske, Lips. 1774 — 
1782, 12 vols. 8vo., and by Hutten, 1791—1805, 
14 vols. 8vo. — 3. The younger, was a son of the 
last, and is supposed by some to have been the 
author of several of the works which pass usually 
for his father's, as e. g. the Apophthegmata. — 4. 
An Athenian, son of Nestorius, presided with dis- 
tinction over the Neo-Platonic school at Athens 
in the early part of the 5th century, and was 
surnamed the Great. He numbered among his 
disciples Syrianus of Alexandria, who succeeded 
him as head of the school, and Proclus of Lycia. 
He wrote commentaries, which are lost, on the 
I " Timaeus " of Plato, and on Aristotle's treatise 



594 PLUTO. 

" On tlie Soul/' He died at an advanced age, 
about A. D. 430. 

Pluto or Pluton (nXovTwv), the giver of wealth, 
at first a surname of Hades, the god of the lower 
world, and afterwards used as the real name of the 
(rod. In the latter sense it first occurs in Euripides. 
An account of the god is given under Hades. 

Pliitus {UXovTos), sometimes called Pluton, the 
personification of wealth, is described as a son of 
lasion and Demeter. [Iasion.] Zeus is said to 
have deprived him of sight, that he might not be- 
stow his favours on righteous men exclusively, but 
that he might distribute his gifts blindl)^ and 
without any regard to merit. At Thebes there 
was a statue of Tyche or Fortune, at Athens one 
of Irene or Peace, and at Thespiae one of Athena 
Ergane ; and in each of these cases Plutus was 
represented as the child of those divinities, sym- 
bolically expressing the sources of wealth. He 
seems to have been commonly represented as a boy 
with a Cornucopia. 

Pluvialia {nXovirdXa, Ptol. : prob. Ferro), 
one of the islands in the Atlantic, called Fortu- 

NATAH. 

Pluvius, i. e. the sender of rain, a surname of 
Jupiter among the Romans, to whom sacrifices 
■were offered during long protracted droughts. 

Pnytagoras {YlwTaySpas). 1. Eldest son of 
Evagoras, king of Salamis in Cyprus, was assassi- 
nated along with his father, B. c. 374. — 2. King 
of Salamis in Cyprus, probably succeeded Nicocles, 
though we have no account of his accession, or his 
relation to the previous monarchs. He submitted 
to Alexander in 332, and served with a fleet under 
that monarch at the siege of Tyre. 

Podalirius (no5a\etptos), son of Aesculapius 
-ind Epione or Arsinoe, and brother of Machaon, 
along with whom he led the Thessalians of Tricca 
against Troy. He was, like his brother, skilled in 
the medical art. On his return from Troy he was 
cast by a stonn on the coast of Syros in Caria, 
Avhere he is said to have settled. He was wor- 
shipped as a hero on Mt. Dria. 

Podarces (rioSap/crjs). 1. The original name of 
Priam. [Priamus.] — 2. Son of Iphiclus and 
grandson of Phylacus, was a younger brother of 
Protesilaus, and led the Thessalians of Phylace 
against Troy. 

Podarge, [Harpyiae.] 

Poeas (Iloi'as), son of Phylacus or Thaumacus, 
husband of Methone,and the father of Philoctetes, 
who is hence called Poeantiades, Poeatitius Jicros^ 
Poeantia proles, and Poeante satus. Poeas is men- 
tioned among the Argonauts, and is said to have 
killed with an arrow, Talaus, in Crete. Poeas set 
fire to the pile on which Hercules burnt himself, 
and was rewarded by the hero with his arrows. 
[Hercules ; Philoctetes.] 

Poemander {U.oiixavhpos)^ son of Chaeresilaus 
and Stratonice, was the husband of Tanagra, a 
daughter of Aeolus or Aesopus, by whom he be- 
came the father of Ephippus and Leucippus, He 
Avas the reputed founder of the town of Tanagra in 
Boeotia which was hence cdWedi Poemandria. "When 
Poemander had inadvertently killed his own son, 
he was purified by Elephenor. 

Poemanenus {JloLi.iavriv6s ; ethnic, the same : 
prob. ^[an^yas)^ a fortified place in Mysia, S. of 
Cyzicus, with a celebrated temple of Aesculapius. 

Poena {YIolvt])^ a personification of retaliation, 
sometimes mentioned as one being, and sometimes 



POLEMON. 

in the plural. The Poenae belonged to the train 

of Dice, and are akin to the Erinnyes. 

Poetovio. [Petovio.] | 
Pogon (Tldywv)^ the harbour of Troezen in 

Argolis. 

Pola {Polo), an ancient town in Istria, situated 
on the W. coast, and near the promontory Polati- 
cum, which was the most S.-ly point in the coun- 
trj'. According to tradition Pola was founded by 
the Colchians, who had been sent in pursuit of 
Medea. It was subsequently a Roman colony, 
with the surname Pietas Julia^ and became an im- 
portant commercial town, being united by good 
roads with Aquileia and the principal towns of 
Illyria. Its importance in antiquity is attested by 
its magnificent ruins, of which the principal are 
those of an amphitheatre, of a triumphal arch 
{Porta aurea), erected to L. Sergius by his wife 
Salvia Posturaa, and of several temples. 

Polemon (noXefxcov). 1. I. King of Pontus and 
the Bosporus, was the son of Zenon, the orator of 
Laodicea. As a reward for the services rendered 
by his father as well as himself he was appointed 
by Antony in B. c. 39 to the government of a part of 
Cilicia ; and he subsequently obtained in exchange 
the kingdom of Pontus. He accompanied Antony 
in his expedition against the Parthians in 36. After 
the battle of Actium he was able to make his peace 
with Octavian, who confirmed him in his kingdom. 
About the year 16 he was intrusted by Agrippa 
with the charge of reducing the kingdom of Bos- 
porus, of which he was made king after conquering 
the country. His reign after this was long and 
prosperous; he extended his dominions as far as 
the river Tanais ; but having engaged in an expe- 
dition against the barbarian tribe of the Aspurgians 
he was not only defeated by them, but taken 
prisoner, and put to death. By his 2nd wife Py- 
thodoris, who succeeded him on the throne, he left 
2 sons, Polemon IL, and Zenon, king of Armenia, 
and 1 daughter who was married to Cotys king of 
Thrace. — 2. II. Son of the preceding and of Py- 
thodoris, Avas raised to the sovereignty of Pontus 
and Bosporus by Caligula in a. d. 39. Bosponis 
was afterwards taken from him by Claudius, who 
assigned it to Mithridates, while he gave Polemon 
a portion of Cilicia in its stead, 41. In 62 Polemon 
was induced by Nero to abdicate the throne, and 
Pontus was reduced to the condition of a Roman 
province. — 3. Of Athens, an eminent Platonic 
philosopher, was the son of Philostratus, a man of 
wealth and political distinction. In his youth, 
Polemon was extremely profligate ; but one daj--, 
when he was about 30, on his bursting into the 
school of Xenocrates, at the head of a band of 
revellers, his attention was so arrested by the dis- 
course which chanced to be upon temperance, that 
he tore off" his garland and remained an attentive 
listener, and from that day he adopted an abste- 
mious course of life, and continued to frequent the 
school, of which, on the death of Xenocrates, he 
became the head, b. c. 315. He died in 273 at a 
great age. He esteemed the object of philosophy 
to be, to exercise men in things and deeds, not in 
dialectic speculation. He placed the summum honum 
in living according to the laws of nature. — 4. Of 
Athens by citizenship, but by birth either of Ilium, 
or Samos, or Sicyon, a Stoic philosopher and an 
eminent geographer, surnamed Periegetes (6 Trepi- 
7}yr]Tr}s), lived in the time of Ptolemy Epiphanes, at 
the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. In philosophy 



POLEMONIUM. 



POLLIO. 



595 



he was a disciple of Panaetius. He made exten- 
sive journeys through Greece, to collect materials 
for his geographical works, in the course of which 
he paid particular attention to the inscriptions on 
votive offerings and on columns. As the collector 
of these inscriptions, he was one of the earlier 
contributors to the Greek Anthology. Athenaeus 
and other writers make very numerous quotations 
from his works. They were chiefly descriptions of 
different parts of Greece ; some were on the paint- 
ings preserved in various places, and several are 
controversial, among which is one against Erato- 
sthenes. — 5. Antonius, a celebrated sophist and 
rhetorician, flourished under Trajan, Hadrian, and 
the first Antoninus, and was in high favour with 
the 2 former emperors. He was born of a consular 
family, at Laodicea, but spent the greater part of 
his life at Smyrna. His most celebrated disciple 
was Aristides. Among his imitators in subsequent 
times was Gregory Nazianzen. His style of ora- 
tory was imposing rather than pleasing ; and his 
character was haughty and reserved. During the 
latter part of his life he was so tortured by the 
gout, that he resolved to put an end to his exist- 
ence ; he had himself shut up in the tomb of his 
ancestors at Laodicea, where he died of hunger, at 
the age of 65. The only extant work of Polemon 
is the funeral orations for Cynaegirus and Callima- 
chus, the generals who fell at Marathon, which are 
supposed to be pronounced by their fathers. These 
orations are edited by Orelli, Lips. 1819.— 6. The 
author of a short Greek work on Physiognomy, 
which is still extant. He must have lived in or 
before the 3rd century after Christ, as he is men- 
tioned by Origen, and from his style he cannot be 
supposed to have lived much earlier than this time. 
His work consists of 2 books: in the 1st, which 
contains 23 chapters, after proving the utility of 
physiognomy, he lays down the general principles 
of the science ; in the 2nd book, which consists of 
27 chapters, he goes on to apply the principles he 
had before laid down, and describes in a few words 
the characters of the courageous man, the timid, 
the impudent, the passionate, the talkative, &c. 
The best edition of it is by Franz in his " Scrip- 
tores Physiognomoniae Veteres," Altenburg. 1780. 

Polemonium. (IloKeixd:viov : Ilo\efj.c*>vios, and 
Uo\€fxwyievs : Polemo/i), a city on the coast of 
Pontus in Asia Minor, built by King Polemon 
(probably the 2nd), on the site of the older city 
of Side, at the mouth of the river Sidenus (Po- 
leman Chai)^ and at the bottom of a deep gulf, 
wita a good harbour. It was the capital of the 
kingdom of Polemon, comprising the central part 
of Pontus, E. of the Iris, which was hence called 
Pontus Polemoniacus. 

Polias (rro\i(£?), i. e. " the goddess protecting 
the city," a surname of Athena at Athens, where 
she was worshipped as the protecting divinity of 
the acropolis. 

Polichna (UoX'ixvv, Dor. lioXixva : UoXixvi- 
T77s),a town: — 1. In the N.W. of Messenia, W. 
of Andania. — 2. In the N.E. of Laconia. — 3. In 
Chios. — 4. In Crete, whose territory bordered on 
that of Cydonia. — 5. In Mysia, in the district 
Troas, on the left bank of the Aesepus near its 
source. 

Polieus (noAtcuj), « the protector of the city," 
a surname of Zeus, under which he had an altar 
on the acropolis at Athens. 

Poliorcetes, Demetrius. [Demetrius.] 



I Polis (nJAis), a village of the Locri Opuiitii, 
1 subject to Hyle. 

Polites (IIoAi'tt;?), son of Priam and Hecuba, 
and father of Priam the younger, v/as a valiant 
warrior, but was slain by Pyrrhus. 

Politorium, a town in the interior of Latium, 
destroyed by Ancus Martius. 

Poliuchus {noAioux"^), i. e. " protecting the 
city," occurs as a surname of several divinities, 
such as Athena Chalcioecus at Sparta, and of 
Athena at Athens. 

PoUa, Arg-entaria, the wife of the poet Lucan. 

PoUentia (Pollentinus), 1. {Polenza), a town 
of the Statielli in Liguria at the confluence of ths 
Sturia and the Tanarus, and subsequently a Roman 
municipium. It was celebrated for its wool. lu 
its neighbourhood Stilicho gained a victory over 
the Goths imder Alaric— 2. A town in Picenuir 
probably identical with Urbs Salvia. — 3. {Pol 
lenza), a Roman colony on the N.E. point of the 
Balearis Major. 

PoUio, Aiimus, was accused of treason {^na- 
jestas) towards the end of the reign of Tiberius, 
but was not brought to trial. He was subsequently 
one of Nero's intimate friends, but was accused of 
taking part in Piso's conspiracy against that em- 
peror in A. D. 63, and was in consequence banished. 

PoUio, C. Asinms, a distinguished orator, poet 
and historian of the Augustan age. He was born 
at Rome in B.C. 76, and became distinguished as 
an orator at an early age. On the breaking out of 
the civil war he joined Caesar, and in 49 he ac- 
companied Curio to Africa. After the defeat and 
death ofiCurio, he crossed over to Greece, and fought 
on Caesar's side at the battle of Pharsalia (48). 
He also accompanied Caesar in his campaigns 
against the Pompeian party in Africa (46) and 
Spain (45). He returned with Caesar to Rome, 
but was shortly afterwards sent back to Spain, 
with the command of the Further Province, in 
order to prosecute the war against Sex. Pompey. 
He was in his province at the time of Caesar's 
death (44). He took no part in the war between 
Antony and the senate ; but when Antony was 
joined by Lepidus and Octavian in 43, Pollio es- 
poused their cause, and persuaded L. Plancus m 
Gaul to follow his example. In the division of 
the provinces among the triumvirs, Antony received 
the Gauls. The administration of the Transpadane 
Gaul was committed to Pollio by Antony, and he 
had accordingly the difficult task of settling the 
veterans in the lands which had been assigned to 
them in this province. It was upon this occasion 
that he saved the property of the poet Virgil at 
Mantua from confiscation, whom he took under his 
protection from his love of literature. In 40 Pollio 
took an active part in effecting the reconciliation 
between Octavian and Antony at Brundusium. In 
the same year he was consul ; and it was during 
his consulship that Virgil addressed to him his 
4th Eclogue. In 39, Antony went to Greece, and 
sent Pollio with a part of his army against the 
Paithini, an Illyrian people. Pollio defeated the 
Parthini and took the Dalmatian town of Salonae j 
and in consequence of his success obtained the 
honour of a triumph on the 25th of October in this 
year. He gave his son Asinius Gallus the agnomen 
of Saloninus after the town which he had taken. 
It was during his Illyrian campaign that Virgil 
addressed to him the 8th Eclogue. From this time 
Pollio withdrew altogether from political life, and 

<JQ 2 



595 



POLLIO. 



POLYAENUS. 



devoted himself to the study of literature. He still 
continued however to exercise his oratorical powers, 
and maintained his reputation for eloquence by his 
speeches both in the senate and the courts of 
iustice. He died at his Tusculan villa, A. d. 4, in 
the 80th year of his ac;e, preserving to the last the 
full enjoyment of his health and of all his faculties. 
— PoUio deserves a distinguished place in the 
history of Roman literature, not so much on account 
of his works, as of the encouragement which he 
gave to literature. He was not only a patron of 
Virgil, Horace (see Carm. ii. I), and other great 
poets and writers, but he has the honour of having 
been the first person to establish a public library 
at Rome, upon which he expended the money he 
had obtained in his lUyrian campaign. None of 
PoUio's own works have come down to us, but 
they possessed sufficient merit to lead his contem- 
poraries and successors to class his name with those 
of Cicero, Virgil and Sallust, as an orator, a poet 
and an historian. It was however as an orator 
that he possessed the greatest reputation. Catullus 
describes him in his youth {Carm. xii. 9) as " le- 
porum disertus puer et facetiarum," and Horace 
speaks of him in the full maturity of his powers 
{Carm. ii. 1. 13) as " Insigne maestis praesidium 
reis et consulenti, PoUio, curiae and we have 
also the more impartial testimony of Quintilian, the 
two Senecas and the author of the Dialogue on 
Orators to the greatness of his oratorical powers. 
— PoUio wrote the history of the civil wars in 17 
books. It commenced with the consulship of Me- 
tellus and Afraiiius, B. c. 60, in which year the 
first triumvirate was formed, and appears to have 
come down to the time when Augustus obtained 
the undisputed supremacy of the Roman world. — 
As a poet Pollio was best known for his tragedies, 
which are spoken of in high terms by Virgil and 
Horace, but which probably did not possess any 
great merit, as they are hardly mentioned by sub- 
sequent writers. The words of Virgil {Eel. iii. 86), 
" Pollio et ipse facit nova carraina," probably refer 
to tragedies of a new kind, namely, such as were not 
borrowed from the Greek, but contained subjects 
entireh^ new, taken from Roman story. — Pollio 
also enjoyed great reputation as a critic, but he is 
chiefly kno\vn in this capacity for the severe judg- 
ment which he passed upon his great contempo- 
raries. Thus he pointed out many mistakes in the 
speeches of Cicero, censured the Commentaries of 
Caesar for their Avant of historical fidelity, and 
found fault with Sallust for affectation in the use 
of antiquated words and expressions. He also 
complained of a certain Patavinity in Livj', re- 
specting which some remarks are made in the life 
of Livy. [p. 387, a.] Pollio had a son, C. Asinius 
Gallus Saloninus. [See p. 276.] Asinius Gallus 
married Vipsania, the former wife of Tiberius, by 
whom he had several children : namely, 1. Asinius 
Saloninus. 2. Asinius Gallus. 3. Asinius Pollio, 
consul A. p. 23. 4. Asinius Agrippa, consul a. d. 
25. 5. Asinius Celer. 

Pollio, Vedius, a Roman eques and a friend of 
Augustus, was by birth a freedman, and has ob- 
tained a place in history on account of his riches 
and his crueltj-. He was accustomed to feed his 
lampreys with human flesh, and Avhenever a slave 
displeased him, the unfortunate wretch was forth- 
with thrown into the pond as food for the fish. On 
one occasion Augustus was supping with him, when 
a slave had the misfortune to break a crystal 



goblet, and his master immediately ordered him to 
be thrown to the fishes. The slave fell at the feet 
of Augustus, praying for mercy ; and when the 
emperor could not prevail upon Pollio to pardon 
him, he dismissed the slave of his own accord, and 
commanded all PoUio's crystal goblets to be broken 
and the fish-pond to be filled up. Pollio died 
B. c. 15, leaving a large part of his property to 
Augustus. It was this Pollio, who built the cele- 
brated villa of Pausil3'pum near Naples. 

Pollux or Polydeuces, [Dioscuri.] 

Pollux, Julius (^lovXios noAu5eu«77s). 1. Of 
Naucratis in Egypt, was a Greek sophist and 
grammarian. He studied rhetoric at Athens under 
the sophist Adrian, and afterwards opened a private 
school in this city, where he gave instruction in 
grammar and rhetoric. At a later time he was 
appointed by the emperor Commodus to the chair 
of rhetoric at Athens. He died during the reign 
of Commodus at the age of 58. We may therefore 
assign a. D. 183 as the year in which he flourished. 
He seems to have been attacked by many of his 
contemporaries on account of the inferior character 
of his oratory, and especially by Lucian in his 
"PriT6pwv SiddaKaXos. Pollux was the author of 
several works, all of which have perished, with 
the exception of the Ommasticon. This work is 
divided into 10 books, each of which contains a 
short dedication to the Caesar Commodus : it was 
therefore published before a. d. 177, since Com- 
modus became Augustus in that year. Each book 
forms a separate treatise by itself, containing the 
most important words relating to certain subjects, 
with short explanations of the meanings of the 
words. The alphabetical arrangement is not adopted, 
but the words are given according to the subjects 
treated of in each book. The best editions are by 
Lederlin and Hemstershuis, Amsterdam, 1706; by 
Dindorf, Lips. 1 824 ; and by Imm. Bekker, Berol. 
1846. — 2. A Byzantine writer, the author of a 
Chronicon, which treats at some length of the 
creation of the world, and is therefore entitled 
'IcTTopia (pvcriKT). Like most other Byzantine his- 
tories, it is an universal history, beginning with 
the creation of the world and coming doAvn to the 
time of the writer. The two manuscripts from 
which this work is published end with the reign 
of Valens, but the Paris manuscript is said to come 
down as low as the death of Romanus, a. d. 963. 
The best edition is by Hardt, Munich, 1 792. 

Polus {TliaKos). 1. A sophist and rhetorician, a 
native of Agrigentum. He was a disciple of Gor- 
gias, and wrote a treatise on rhetoric, as well as 
other works mentioned by Suidas. He is intro- 
duced by Plato as an interlocutor in the Gorgias. 
—2. A celebrated tragic actor, the son of Charicles 
of Sunium, and a disciple of Archias of Thurii. It 
is related of him, that at the age of 70, shortly be- 
fore his death, he acted in 8 tragedies on 4 suc- 
cessive days. 

PolyaegOS {TloXvaiyos '. Polyhos or Antime' 
los), an uninhabited island in the Aegaean sea, 
near Melos. 

Polyaenus {TloKvaivos). 1. Of Lampsacus, a 
mathematician and a friend of Epicurus, adopted 
the philosophical system of his friend, and, although 
he had previously acquired great reputation as a 
mathematician, he now maintained with Epicurus 
the worthlessness of geometry. — 2. Of Sardis, a 
sophist, lived in the time of Julius Caesar. He is 
the author of 4 epigrams in the Greek Anthology 



POLYBIUS. 



POLYBIUS. 



597 



His full name was Julius Polyaenus. — 3, The Ma- 
cedonian, the authoi of the work on Stratagems in 
war (2TpaTi77T7(UaTa), which is still extant, lived 
about the middle of the 2nd century of the Christian 
aera. Suidas calls hirn a rhetorician, and we learn 
from Polyaenus himself that he Avas accustomed to 
plead causes before the emperor. He dedicated his 
work to M. Aurelius and Verus, while they were 
engaged in the Parthian war, about A. D. 163, at 
which time, he says, he was too old to accompany 
them in their campaigns. This work is divided 
into 8 books, of which the first 6 contain an account 
of the stratagems of the most celebrated Greek ge- 
nerals, the 7th of those of barbarous or foreign 
people, and the 8th of the Romans, and illustrious 
women. Parts, however, of the 6th and 7th books 
are lost, so that of the 900 stratagems which Po- 
lyaenus described, only 833 have come down to us. 
The work is written in a clear and pleasing style, 
though somewhat tinged with the artificial rhetoric 
of the age. It contains a vast number of anecdotes 
respecting many of the most celebrated men in an- 
tiquity ; but its value as an historical authority 
is very much diminished by the little judgment 
which the author evidently possessed, and by our 
"gnorance of the sources from which he took his 
statements. The best editions are by Maasvicius, 
Leyden, 1690 ; by Muisinna, Berlin, 1756 ; and 
by Coray, Paris, 1809. 

Polybius {Ui)\vSios). L The historian, the 
son of Lycortas, and a native of Megalopolis, in 
Arcadia, was bom about B. c. 204. His father 
Lycortas was one of the most distinguished men of 
the Achaean league ; and Polybius received the 
advantages of his father's instruction in political 
knowledge and the military art. He must also 
have reaped great benefit from his intercourse with 
Philopoemen, who was a friend of his father's, and 
on whose death, in 182, Polybius carried the urn 
in which his ashes were deposited. In the follow- 
ing year Polybius was appointed one of the ambas- 
sjidors to Egypt, but he did not leave Greece, as the 
intention of sending an embassy was abandoned. 
From this time he probably began to take part in 
public affairs, and he appears to have soon obtained 
great influence among his countrymen. After the 
conquest of Macedonia, in 168, the Roman com- 
missioners, who were sent into the S. of Greece, 
commanded, at the instigation of Callicrates, that 
1000 Achaeans should be carried to Rome, to 
answer the charge of not having assisted the 
Romans against Perseus. This number included 
all the best and noblest part of the nation, and 
among them was Polybius. They arrived in Italy 
in B. c. 167, but, instead of being put upon their 
trial, they were distributed among the Etruscan 
towns. Polybius was more fortunate than the 
rest of his countrymen. He had probably be- 
come acquainted in Greece with Aemilius Paulus, 
or his sons Fabius and Scipio, and the two young 
men now obtained permission from the praetor for 
Polybius to reside at Rome in the house of their 
father Paulus. Scipio was then 18 years of age, 
and soon became warmly attached to Polybius. 
Scipio was accompanied by his friend in all his 
military expeditions, and received much advantage 
from his experience and knowledge. Polybius, 
on the other hand, besides finding a liberal patron 
and protector in Scipio, was able by his means to 
obtain access to public documents, and to accumu- 
late materials for his great historical work. After 



remaining in Italy 17 years, Polybius returned to 
Peloponnesus in 151, with the surviving Achaean 
exiles, who were at length allowed by the senate 
to revisit their native land. He did not, however, 
remain long in Greece. He joined Scipio in his 
campaign against Carthage, and was present at the 
destruction of that city in 146. Immediately after- 
wards he hurried to Greece, where the Achaeans 
were waging a mad and hopeless war against the 
Romans. He appears to have arrived in Greece 
soon after the capture of Corinth ; and he exerted 
all his influence to alleviate the misfortunes of his 
countrymen, and to procure favourable terms for 
them. His grateful fellow-countrymen acknow- 
ledged the great services he had rendered them, 
and statues were erected to his honour at Mega- 
lopolis, Mantinea, Pallantium, Tegea, and other 
places. Polybius seems now to have devoted him- 
self to the composition of the great historical work, 
for which he had long been collecting materials. 
At what period of his life he made the journeys 
into foreign countries for the purpose of visiting the 
places which he had to describe in his history, it is 
impossible to determine. He tells us (iii. 59) 
that he undertook long and dangerous journeys 
into Africa, Spain, Gaul, and even as far as the 
Atlantic, on account of the ignorance which pre- 
vailed respecting those parts. Some of these 
coimtries he visited while serving under Scipio, 
who afforded him every facility for the prosecution 
of his design. At a later period of his life he 
visited Egypt likewise. He probably accompanied 
Scipio to Spain in 134, and was present at the fall 
of Numantia, since Cicero states {ad Fam. v. 12) 
that Polybius wrote a history of the Numantine 
war. He died at the age of 82, in consequence of 
a iall from his horse, about 122. — The history of 
Polybius consisted of 40 books. It began b. c. 
220, where the history of Aratus left off, and 
ended at 146, in which year Corinth was destroyed, 
and the independence of Greece perished. It con- 
sisted of 2 distinct parts, which were probably 
published at different times and afterwards united 
into one work. The first part comprised a period 
of 35 years, beginning with the 2nd Punic war, 
and the Social war in Greece, and ending with 
the conquest of Perseus and the dovsTifal of the 
Macedonian kingdom, in 168. This was in fact 
the main portion of his work, and its great object 
was to show how the Romans had in this brief 
period of 53 years conquered the greater part of 
the world ; but since the Greeks were ignorant for 
the most part of the early history of Rome, he 
gives a survey of Roman history from the taking 
of the city by the Gauls to the commencement of 
the 2nd Panic war, in the first 2 books, which 
thus form an introduction to the body of the work. 
With the fall of the Macedonian kingdom the su- 
premacy of the Roman dominion was decided, and 
nothing more remained for the other nations of the 
world than to yield submission to the Romans. 
The second part of the work, which formed a kind 
of supplement to the former part, comprised the 
period from the conquest of Perseus in 168, to the 
fall of Corinth in 146. The history of the con- 
quest of Greece seems to have been completed in 
the 39th book ; and the 40th book probably con- 
tained a chronological summary of the whole work. 
The history of Polybius is one of the most valuable 
works that has come down to us from antiquity. 
He had a clear apprehension of the knowledge 

Q Q 3 



398 



POLYBIUS. 



POLYCARPUS. 



which an historian must possess ; and his prepara- 
tory studies were carried on with the greatest 
energy and perseverance. Thus he not only col- 
lected with accuracy and care an account of the 
events that he intended to narrate, but he also 
studied the history of the Roman constitution, and 
made distant journeys to become acquainted with 
the geography of the countries that he had to de- 
scribe in his work. In addition to this, he had a 
strong judgment and a striking love of truth, and, 
from having himself taken an active part in poli- 
tical life, he was able to judge of the motives and 
actions of the great actors in histor}- in a way that 
no mere scholar or rhetorician could possibly do. 
But the characteristic feature of his work, and the 
one which distinguishes it from all other histories 
which have come down to us from antiquity, is its 
didactic nature. He did not, like other historians, 
write to afford amusement to his readers ; his ob- 
ject was to teach by the past a knowledge of the 
future, and to deduce from previous events lessons 
of practical wisdom. Hence he calls his work 
a Pragmateia (irpay/^aTeia), and not a Histoi-y 
{laropia). The value of history consisted, in his 
opinion, in the instruction that might be obtained 
from it. Thus the narrative of events became in 
his view of secondary importance ; they formed 
only the text of the political and moral discourses 
which it was the province of the historian to de- 
liver. Excellent, however, as these discourses are, 
they materially detract from the merits of the his- 
tory as a work of art ; their frequent occurrence 
inteiTupts the continuity of the narrative, and de- 
stroys, to a great extent, the interest of the reader 
in the scenes which are described. Moreover he 
frequently inserts long episodes, which have little 
connection with the main subject of his work, be- 
cause they have a didactic tendency. Thus we 
find that one whole book (the 6th) was devoted to 
a history of the Roman constitution ; and the 34th 
book seems to have been exclusively a treatise on 
geography. The style of Polybius bears the im- 
press of his mind ; and, as instruction and not 
amusement was the great object for which he wrote, 
he did not seek to please his readers by the choice 
of his phrases or the composition of his sentences. 
Hence the later Greek critics were severe in their 
condemnation of his style. The greater part of 
the history of Polybius has perished. We possess 
the first 5 books entire, but of the rest v/e have 
only fragments and extracts, some of which, how- 
ever, are of considerable length, such as the ac- 
count of the Roman army, which belonged to the 
6th book. There have been discovered at different 
times 4 distinct collections of extracts from the lost 
books. The first collection, discovered soon after 
the revival of learning in a MS. brought from Corfu, 
contained the greater part of the 6th book, and 
portions of the following 11. In 1582 Ursinus 
published at Antwerp a •2nd collection of Extracts, 
entitled Eoccerpta de Legationibus^ which were made 
in the 10th century of the Christian era. In 1634, 
Valesius published a 3rd collection of extracts from 
Polybius, also taken from the Excerpta of Con- 
stantinus, entitled Eoccerpta de Yirtutihus et Vitiis. 
The 4th collection of extracts was published at 
Rome in 1827 by Angelo Mai, who discovered in the 
Vatican library at Rome the section of the Excerpta 
of Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, entitled Excerpta 
de Sententiis. The best edition of Polybius with a 
commeDtary is by Schv/eighaeuser, Lips. 1789 — 



1795, 8 vols. 8vo. The best edition of the text 
alone is by Bekker (Berol. 1844, 2 vols. 8vo.), 
who has added the Vatican fragments. Livy did 
not use Polybius till he came to the 2nd Punic 
war, but from that time he followed him verj' 
closely. Cicero likewise chiefly followed Polybius 
in the account which he gives of the Roman 
constitution in his De Repuhlica. The historj- 
of Polybius was continued by Posidonius and 
Strabo.' [Posidonius ; Strabo.] Besides the 
great historical work of which we have been speak- 
ing, Polybius wrote, 2. TJie Life of Philopoemeyi 
in 3 books. 3. A treatise on Tactics. 4. A His- 
tory of the Numantine War. — 2. A freedraan of 
the emperor Augustus, read in the senate the will 
of the emperor after his decease. — 3. A favoxirite 
freedman of the emperor Claudius, He was the 
companion of the studies of Claudius ; and on the 
death of his brother, Seneca addressed to him a 
Consolatio, in which he bestows the highest praises 
upon his literary attainments. Polybius was put 
to death through the intrigues of Messalina, al- 
though he had been one of her paramours. 

Polybotes (IloAugc^TTjy), one of the giants who 
fought against the gods, was pursued by Poseidon 
across the sea as far as the island of Cos. There 
Poseidon tore away a part of the island, which 
was afterwards called Nisyrion, and thro^ving it 
upon the giant buried him under it. 

Polybotus {TioXvioTos : Bulawadin, Ru.), a 
city of Great Phr}-gia, E. of Synnada. 

Polybus (no Au'gos) . 1. King of Corinth, by whom 
Oedipus Avas brought up. [Oedipus.] He was the 
husband of Periboea or Merope. Pausanias makes 
him king of Sicyon, and describes him as a son of 
Hermes and Chthonophyle, and as the father of 
Lysianassa, whom he gave in marriage to Talaus, 
king of the Argives. — 2. A Greek physician, was 
one of the pupils of Hippocrates, who was also his 
son-in-law, and lived in the island of Cos, in the 
4th century B. c. With his brothers-in-law, Thes- 
salus and Dracon, Polybus was one of the founders 
of the ancient medical sect of the Dogmatici. He 
was sent abroad by Hippocrates, with his fellow- 
pupils, during the time of the plague, to assist dif- 
ferent cities with his medical skill, and he after- 
wards remained in his native country. He has been 
supposed, both by ancient and modern critics, to 
be the author of several treatises in the Hippocratic 
collection. 

Polycarpus {UoXvKafnros), one of the apos- 
tolical fathers, was a native of Smyrna. The 
date of his birth and of his martyrdom are uncer- 
tain. He is said to have been a disciple of the 
apostle John, and to have been consecrated by this 
apostle bishop of the church at Smyrna. It has 
been conjectured that he was the angel of the 
church of Smyrna to whom Jesus Christ directed 
the letter in the Apocalypse (ii. 8 — 11) ; and it is 
certain that he was bishop of Sm}Tna at the time 
when Ignatius of Antioch passed through that 
city on his way to suffer death at Rome, some time 
between 107 and 116. Ignatius seems to have 
enjoyed much this intercourse with Polycarp, 
whom he had knoAATj in former days, when they 
v/ere both hearers of the apostle John. The mar- 
tyrdom of Polycarp occurred in the persecution 
under the emperors Marcus Aureiius and Lucius 
Verus. As he was led to death the proconsul 
offered him his life, if he would revile Christ. 
" Eighty and six years have I served him," was 



POLYCLES. 



POLYDAMAS. 



599 



the reply, " and he never did me wrong : how then 
can I revile my King and my Saviour?" We 
have remaining only one short 'piece of Polycarp, 
his Letter to the Philippians^ which is published 
along with Ignatius and the other apostolical 
writers. [Ignatius.] 

Polycles (rioAu/cATjs), the name of 2 artists. 
The elder Polycles was probably an Athenian, and 
flourished about B. c. 370. Pie appears to have 
been one of the artists of the later Athenian school, 
who obtained great celebrity by the sensual charms 
exhibited in their works. One of his chief works 
was a celebrated statue of an Hermaphrodite. 
The younger Polycles is placed by Pliny in i 55, 
and is said to have made a statue of Juno, which 
was placed in the portico of Octavia at Rome, 
when that portico was erected by Metellus Mace- 
donicus. But since most of the works of art, with 
which Metellus decorated his portico, were not the 
original productions of living artists, but the works 
of former masters, it has been conjectured that this 
Polycles may be no other than the Athenian artist 
already mentioned. 

PoIycletUS (noAu/fA-etros). 1. The Elder, of 
Argos, probably by citizenship, and of Sicj^on, 
probably by birth, was one of the most celebrated 
statuaries of the ancient world ; he was also a 
sculptor, an architect, and an artist in toreutic. 
He was the pupil of the great Argive statuary 
Ageladas, under whom he had Phidias and My- 
ron for his fellow-disciples. He was somewhat 
younger than Phidias, and about the same age as 
Myron. He flourished about b. c. 452 — 412. 
Of his personal histor}>- we know nothing further. 
As an artist, he stood at the head of the schools 
of Argos and Sicyon, and approached more nearly 
than any other to an equality with Phidias, the 
great head of the Athenian school. The essential 
dilTerence between these artists was that Phidias 
was unsurpassed in making the images of the gods, 
Polycletus in those of men. One of the most 
celebrated works of Polycletus was his DorypJiorus 
or Spear -hearer^ a youthful figure, but with the 
full proportions of a man. This was the statue 
which became known by the name of Canon^ be- 
cause in it the artist had embodied a perfect repre- 
sentation of the ideal of the human figure. Another 
of his great works was his ivory and gold statue 
of Hera in her temple between Argos and Mycenae. 
This work was executed by the artist in his old 
age, and was doubtless intended by him to rival 
Phidias's chryselephantine statues of Athena and 
of Zeus, though it was surpassed by them in costli- 
ness and size. The goddess was seated on a throne, 
her head crowned with a garland, on which were 
worked the Graces and the Hours, the one hand 
holding the symbolical pomegranate, and the other 
a sceptre, surmounted by a cuckoo, a bird sacred 
to Hera, on account of her having been once 
changed into that form by Zeus. This statue re- 
mained always the ideal model of Hera. In the 
department of toreutic, the fame of Polycletus no 
doubt rested chiefly on the golden ornaments of 
his statue of Hera ; but he also made small bronzes 
(sigilla), and drinking-vessels (phialae). As an 
architect Polycletus obtained great celebrity by 
the theatre, and the circular building (iholus), 
which he built in the sacred enclosure of Aescula- 
pius at Epidaurus.™ 2. The Younger, also a sta- 
tuary of Argos, of whom very little is known, be- 
cause his fame was eclipsed by that of his more 



celebrated namesake, and, in part, contemporary. 
The younger Polycletus may be placed about 400, 
— 3. Of Larissa, a Greek historian, and one of the 
numerous writers of the history of Alexander the 
Great.— 4. A favourite freedman of Nero, who 
sent him into Britain to inspect the state of the 
island. 

Polycrates (Uo\vKpdT7]s). 1. Of Samos, one 
of the most fortunate, ambitious, and treacherous 
of the Greek tyrants. With the assistance of his 
brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson, he made himself 
master of the island towards the latter end of the 
reign of Cyrus. At first he shared the supreme 
power with his brothers ; but he shortly afterwards 
put Pantagnotus to death, and banished S^'loson. 
Having thus become sole despot, he raised a pow- 
erful fleet, and extended his sway over several of 
the neighbouring islands, and even conquered some 
towns on the mainland. He had formed an alliance 
with Amasis, king of Egypt, who, however, finally 
renounced it through alarm at the amazing good 
fortune of Polycrates, which never met with 
any check or disaster, and which therefore was 
sure, sooner or later, to incur the envy of the gods. 
Such, at least, is the account of Herodotus, who 
has narrated the story of the rupture between 
Amasis and Polycrates in his most dramatic man- 
ner. In a letter Avhich Amasis wrote to Poly- 
crates, the Egyptian monarch advised him to throw 
away one of his most valuable possessions, in order 
that he might thus inflict some injurj'- upon him- 
self. In accordance with this advice Polycrates 
threw into the sea a seal-ring of extraordinar}-^ 
beauty ; but in a few days it was found in the 
belly of a fish, which had been presented to him 
by a fisherman. In the reign of Cambyses, the 
Spartans and Corinthians sent a powerful force to 
Samos, in order to depose the tyrant ; but their 
expedition failed, and after besieging the city 40 
days, they left the island. The power of Poly- 
crates now became greater than ever. The great 
works which Herodotus saw at San»os were pro- 
bably executed by him. He lived in great pomp 
and luxury, and, like others of the Greek tyrants, 
was a patron of literature and the arts. The most 
eminent artists and poets found a ready welcome 
at his court ; and his friendship for Anacreon is 
particularly celebrated. But in the midst of all 
his prosperity he fell by the most ignominious fate. 
Oroetes, the satrap of Sardis, had formed a deadly 
hatred against Polycrates. By false pretences, the 
satrap contrived to allure him to the mainland, 
where he was arrested soon after his arrival, and 
crucified, 522.-2. An Athenian rhetorician and 
sophist of some repute, a contemporary of Socrates 
and Isocrates, taught first at Athens and afterwards 
at Cyprus, He was the teacher of Zoilus. He 
wrote, 1 . An accusation of Socrates, which was a 
declamation on the subject composed some years 
after the death of the philosopher. 2. A defence 
of Busiris. The oration of Isocrates, entitled Bu- 
siris, is addressed to Polycrates, and points out the 
faults which the latter had committed in his oration 
on this subject. 3. An obscene poem, Avhich he 
published under the name of the poetess Philaenis, 
for the purpose of injuring her reputation. 

Polydaraas (UoAvSd/nas). 1. Son of Panthous 
and Phrontis, was a Trojan hero, a« friend of 
Hector, and brother of Euphorbus. — 2. Of Sco- 
tussa in Thessaly, son of Nicias, conquered in the 
Pancratium at the Olympic games, in 01. 93, B. C. 

Q Q 4 



600 



POLYDECTES. 



408. His size was immense, and the most mar- 
vellous stories are related of his strength, how he 
killed without arms a huge and fierce lion on Mt. 
Olympus, how he stopped a chariot at full gallop, 
&C. His reputation led the Persian king, Darius 
Ochus, to in-v-ite him to his court, where he per- 
formed similar feats. — 3. Of Pharsalus in Thes- 
iisdy, was entrusted by his fellow-citizens about 
ij. c. 375, with the supreme government of their 
native town. He afterwards entered into a treaty 
with Jason of Pherae. On the murder of Jason in 
370, his brother Polyphron put to death Polydamas. 

Polydectes (Uo\v54Krr]s). 1. King of the island 
of Seriphos, was son of Magnes, and brother of 
Dictys. He received kindly Danae and Perseus, 
when the chest, in which they had been exposed 
by Acrisius, floated to the island of Seriphos. His 
story is related under Perseus. — 2. King of 
Sparta, was the eldest son of Eunomus, the brother 
of Lycurgus the lawgiver, and the father of Chari- 
laiis, who succeeded him. Herodotus, contrar}' to 
the other authorities, makes Polydectes the father 
of Eunomus. 

Polydeuces {UoXvSeuKris), one of the Dioscuri, 
and the twin-brother of Castor, called by the Ro- 
mans Pollux. [Dioscuri.] 

Polydorus (UoXvdupos). 1. King of Thebes, 
son of Cadmus and Harmonia, husband of Nycteis, 
and father of Labdacus. — 2. The youngest among 
the sons of Priam and Laotoe, was slain by Achilles. 
This is the Homeric account ; but later traditions 
make him a son of Priam and Hecuba, and give a 
ditFerent account of his death. One tradition re- 
lates, that when Ilium was on the point of falling 
into the hands of the Greeks, Priam entrusted Po- 
lydorus and a large sum of money to Polymestor 
or Polymnestor, king of the Thracian Chersonesus. 
After the destruction of Troy, Polymestor killed 
Polydorus for the purpose of getting possession of 
his treasures, and cast his body into the sea. His 
body was afterwards washed upon the coast, where 
it was found and recognised by his mother Hecuba, 
who, together with other Trojan captives, took 
vengeance upon Polymestor by killing his two 
children, and putting out his eyes. Another tra- 
dition stated that Polydorus was entrusted to his 
sister Iliona, who was married to Polymestor, She 
brought him up as her own son, while she made 
every one else believe that her own son De'iphilus 
or Deipylus was Polydorus. The Greeks, anxious 
to destroy the race of Priam, promised to Polymes- 
tor Electra for his wife, and a large amount of gold, 
if he would kill Polydorus, Polymestor was pre- 
vailed upon, and he accordingly slew his own son. 
Polydorus, thereupon, persuaded his sister Iliona to 
kill Polymestor, —3. King of Sparta, was the son 
of Alcamenes and the father of Eurycrates, who suc- 
ceeded him. He assisted in bringing the 1st Mes- 
senian war to a conclusion, B. c. 724. He was 
murdered by Polemarchus, a Spartan of high fa- 
mily ; but his name was precious among his people 
on account of his justice and kindness. Crotona 
and the Epizephyrian Locri were founded in his 
reign. — 4. Brother of Jason of Pherae, obtained 
the supreme power along with his brother Poly- 
phron, on the death of Jason in B. c. 370, but was 
shortly afterwards assassinated by the latter, — 5. 
A sculptor, of Rhodes, one of the associates of ^ 
Ageeander, in the execution of the celebrated \ 
group of the Laocoon, [Agesaxder.] ! 

PSlyeuctus {Uo\vevKTos\ an Athenian orator j 



POLYPHEMUS. 

of the deraus Sphettus, was a political friend of 
Demosthenes, with whom he worked in resisting 
the Macedonian party, 

Polygnotus (HoAvyuuTos), one of the most ce- 
lebrated Greek painters, was a native of the island 
of Thasos, and was honoured with the citizenship 
of Athens, on which account he is sometimes called 
an Athenian, His father, Aglaophon, was his in- 
structor in his art ; and he had a brother, named 
Aristophon, who was also a painter. Poh'gnotus 
lived on intimate terms with Cimon and his sister 
Elpinice ; and he probably came to Athens in B.C. 
463, after the subjugation of Thasos by Cimon. 
He appears to have been at that time an artist of 
some reputation, and he continued to exercise his 
art almost down to the beginning of the Pelopon- 
nesian war (431). The period of his greatest 
artistic activity at Athens seems to have been that 
which elapsed from his removal to Athens (463) 
to the death of Cimon (449), who employed him 
in the pictorial decoration of the public buildings 
with which he began to adorn the city, such as the 
temple of Theseus, the Anaceum, and the Poecile. 
He afterwards went to Delphi, when he was em- 
ployed with other artists in decorating the build- 
ings connected with the temple. He appears to 
have returned to Athens about 435, where he ex- 
ecuted a series of paintings in the Propylaea of the 
Acropolis. The Propylaea were commenced in 
437, and completed in 432. The subjects of the 
pictures of Polygnotus were almost invariably taken 
from Homer and the other poets of the epic cycle. 
They appear to have been mostly painted on panels, 
which were afterwards let into the walls where 
they were to remain. 

Polyhymnia. [Polymxia,] 

Polyidns {UoXviSos). 1. Son of Coeranus, 
grandson of Abas and great-grandson of Melampus, 
He was, like his ancestor Melampus, a celebrated 
soothsayer at Corinth, and is described as the father 
of Euchenor, Astycratia, and Manto. "When Alca- 
thous had murdered his own son CallipolisatMegara, 
he was purified by Polyidus, who erected atMegara 
a sanctuary to Dionysus, and a statue of the god. — 
2, A dithyrambic poet of the most flourishing 
period of the later Athenian dithyramb, and also 
skilful as a painter, was contemporary with Philo- 
xenus, Timotheus, and Telestes, about b, c. 400. 

Polymestor or Polymnestor. [Polydorus.] 

Polymnestus, or Polymnastus {Uokv/muTja-Tos), 
the son of Meles of Colophon, was an epic, elegiac, 
and lyric poet, and a musician. He flourished B.C. 
675-644, He belongs to the school of Dorian 
music, which flourished at this time at Sparta, 
where he carried on the improvements of Thaletas, 
The Attic comedians attacked his poems for theii 
erotic character. As an elegiac poet, he may be 
regarded as the predecessor of his fellow-country- 
man, Mimnermus, 

Polymnia or Polyhymnia {UoKv/xvia), daugh- 
ter of Zeus, and one of the 9 Muses, She pre- 
sided over lyric poetry, and was believed to have 
invented the lyre. In works of art she was usually 
represented in a pensive attitude. [Musae.] 

Polynices (rioAui'ei'KTjs), son of Oedipus and 
Jocasta, and brother of Eteocles and Antigone. 
His ston,' is given under Eteocles and Abrastus, 

Polyphemus (IIoAv^tj^os). 1. Son of Po- 
seidon, and the nymph Thoosa, was one of the Cy- 
clopes in Sicily. [Cyclopes.] He is represented 
as a gigantic monster, having only one eye in the 



POLYPHRON. 



POMPEII. 



601 



centre of his forehead, caring nought for the gods, 
and devouring human flesh. He dwelt in a cave 
near Mt. Aetna, and fed his flocks upon the moun- 
tain. He fell in love with the nymph Galatea, but 
as she rejected him for Acis, he destroyed the latter 
by crushing him under a huge rock. When 
Ulysses was driven upon Sicily, Polyphemus de- 
voured some of his companions ; and Ulysses 
■would have shared the same fate, had he not put 
out the eye of the monster, while he was asleep. 
[Ulysses.] —2. Son of Elatus or Poseidon and 
Hippea, was one of the Lapithae at Larissa in 
Thessaly. He was married to Laonome, a sister 
of Hercules. He was also one of the Argonauts, 
but being left behind by them in Mysia, he founded 
Cios, and fell against the Chalybes. 

Polyphron (TloKvcppwi/), brother of Jason of 
Pherae, succeeded to the supreme power with his 
brother Polydorus on the death of Jason in B. c. 
370. Shortly afterwards he murdered Polydorus. 
He exercised his power with great cruelty, and was 
murdered in his turn, 369, by his nephew Alex- 
ander, who proved a still greater tyrant. 

Polypoetes (no\i/7rotT7?s), son of Pirithous and 
Hippodamia, was one of the Lapithae, and joined 
the Greeks in the Trojan war. 

Polyrrhenia or -ium {Uo\v^^r}via : TloXv^p-}]- 
vios), a town in Crete, whose territory embraced 
the whole western corner of the island. It pos- 
sessed a sanctuary of Dictynna, and is said to have 
been colonised by Achaeans and Lacedaemonians. 

Polysperchon (UoKvandpxuv)^ a Macedonian, 
and a distinguished officer of Alexander the Great. 
In B.. c. 323 he was appointed by Alexander 2nd 
in command of the army of invalids and veterans, 
which Craterus had to conduct home to Macedonia, 
He afterwards served under Antipater in Europe, 
and so great was the confidence which the latter 
reposed in him, that Antipater on his death-bed 
(319) appointed Polysperchon to succeed him as 
regent and guardian of the king, while he assigned 
to his own son Cassander the subordinate station of 
Chiliarch. Polysperchon soon became involved in 
war with Cassander, who was dissatisfied with this 
arrangement. It was in the course of this war that 
Polysperchon basely surrendered Phocion to the 
Athenians, in the hope of securing the adherence 
of Athens. Although Polysperchon was supported 
by Olympias, and possessed great influence with 
the Macedonian soldiers, he proved no match for 
Cassander, and was obliged to yield to him pos- 
session of Macedonia about 316. For the next 
few years Polysperchon is rarely mentioned, but in 
310, he again assumed an important part by re- 
viving the long-forgotten pretensions of Hercules, 
the son of Alexander and Barsine to the throne of 
Macedonia. Cassander marched against him, but 
distrusting the fidelity of his own troops, he en- 
tered into secret negotiations with Polysperchon, 
and persuaded the latter, bj' promises and flatteries, 
to murder Hercules. From this time he appeal's 
to have served under Cassander ; but the period of 
his death is not mentioned. 

Polytimetus (IIoAuti'^utjtos : Sogd or Kokik in 
BokJiara),a considerable river of Sogdiana, which, 
according to Strabo, vanished underground near 
Maracanda {Samarkand), or, as Arrian says, was 
lost in the sands of the steppes. 

Polyxena (noAuleVrj), daughter of Priam and 
Hecuba, was beloved by Achilles. When the 
Greeks, on their voyage home, were still lingering 



on the coast of Thrace, the shade of Achilles ap- 
peared to them, demanding that Polyxena should 
be sacrificed to him. Neoptolemus accordingly sa- 
crificed her on the tomb of his father. It was re- 
lated that Achilles had promised Priam to bring 
about a peace with the Greeks, if the king would 
give him his dauL,Witer Polyxena in marriage ; and 
that when Achilles had gone to the temple of the 
Thymbraean Apollo, for the purpose of negotiating 
the marriage, he was treacherously killed by Paris. 
Another tradition stated that Achilles and Po- 
lyxena fell in love with each other when Hector's 
body was delivered up to Priam ; and that Po- 
lyxena fled to the Greeks after the death of 
Achilles, and killed herself on the tomb of her 
beloved with a sword. 

Polyxo (HoAv^da). 1. The nurse of queen 
Hypsipyle in Lemnos, was celebrated as a pro- 
phetess. — 2. An Argive woman, married to Tlepo- 
lemus, son of Hercules, followed her husband to 
Rhodes, where, according to some traditions, she 
is said to have put to death the celebrated Helen. 
[Helena.] 

Polyzelus (UoXvCijXos). 1. Brother of Hieron, 
the tyrant of Syracuse, [Hieron.]— 2. Of Rhodes, 
an historian, of uncertain date, wrote a history of 
his native country. — 3. An Athenian comic poet, 
belonging to the last period of the Old Comedy and 
the beginning of the Middle. 

Pomona, the Roman divinity of the fruit of 
trees, hence called Pomorum Patrona. Her name 
is evidently derived from Pomum. She is repre- 
sented by the poets as beloved by several of the 
rustic divinities, such as Silvanus, Picus, Vertum- 
nus, and others. Her worship must originally have 
been of considerable importance, since a special 
priest, under the name of flainen Pomonalis^ was 
appointed to attend to her service. 

Pompeia. 1, Daughter of Q, Pompeius Rufus, 
son of the consul of b. c. 88, and of Cornelia, the 
daughter of the dictator Sulla. She married C. 
Caesar, subsequently the dictator, in 67, but was 
divorced by him in 61, because she was suspected 
of intriguing with Clodius, who stealthily intro- 
duced himself into her husband's house while she 
was celebrating the mysteries of the Bona Dea. — 
2, Sister of Cn, Pompey, the triumvir, married C. 
Memmius, who was killed in the war against Ser- 
torius, in 75, — 3. Daughter of the triumvir by his 
third wife Mucia. She married Faustus Sulla, the 
son of the dictator, who perished in the African 
war, 46. She afterwards married L. Cornelius 
Cinna, and her son by this marriage, Cn. Cinna 
Magnus, entered into a conspiracy against Au- 
gustus, As her brother Sextus survived her, she 
must have died before 35. — 4. Daughter of Sex. 
Pompey, the son of the triumvir and of Scribonia. 
At the peace of Misenum in 39 she was betrothed 
to M. Marcellus, the son of Octavia, the sister of 
Octavian, but was never married to him. She 
accompanied her father in his flight to Asia, 36. — 
5, Paulina. [Paulina.] 

Pompeianus, Tib, Claudius, son of a Roman 
knight originally from Antioch, rose to the highest 
dignities under M. Aurelius. This emperor gave 
him his daughter Lucilla in marriage. He lived to 
the reign of Severus. 

Pompeii (no/x7r7)i"oi, IIo/iTrai'a, UoyLiniia : Pom- 
peianus), a city of Campania, was situated on the 
coast, at the mouth of the river Sarnus, and at the 
foot of Mt. Vesuvius ; but in consequence of the 



60: 



physical changes which 
has undergone, the ruins 



POMPEIOPOLIS. 

the surrounding country 



POMPEIUS. 

Fompeius, married Lucilia, a sister of the poet C, 
Pompeii are found at j Lucilius. — 7. Sex. Pompeius, elder son of No. 6, 
present about 2 miles from the sea, Pompeii was j never obtained any of the higher offices of the state, 
first in the hands of the Oscans, afterwards of the ; but acquired great reputation as a man of learning, 
Tyrrhenians, and finally became a Roman munici- j and is praised by Cicero for his accurate knowledge 
pium. It was partly destroyed by an earthquake I of jurisprudence, geometry, and the Stoic philoso- 
in s. D. 63, but was overwhelmed in 79, along with | phy. — 8. Sex. Pompeius, a descendant of No. 7, 
Herculaneum and Stabiae, by the great eruption of j consul a. d. 14, with Sex. Appuleius, in which year 



Mt. Vesuvius. The lava did not reach Pompeii, 
but the town was covered with successive layers of 
ashes and other volcanic matter, on which a soil ; 
was gradually formed. Thus a great part of the 
city has been preserved with its market-places, j 
theatres, baths, temples, and private houses ; and j 
the excavation of it in modem times has thro-wn 



the emperor Augustus died. He seems to have 
been a patron of literature. Ovid addressed him 
several letters during his exile ; and it was proba- 
bly this same Sex. Pompeius, whom the WTiter 
Valerius Maximus accompanied to Asia, and of 
whom he speaks as his Alexander. —9. Ctt. Pom- 
peius Strabo, younger son of No. 6, and father of 



great light upon many points of antiquity, such as i the triumvir. He was quaestor in Sardinia 103, 



the construction of Roman houses, and in general 
all subjects connected with the private life of the 
ancients. The first traces of the ancient city were 
discovered in 1689, rising above the ground ; but 
it was not till 1721 that the excavations were 
commenced. These have been continued with 
various interruptions down to the present day ; and 
now about half the city is exposed to view. It 
was surrounded by walls, which were about 2 
miles in circumference, surmounted at intervals by 
towers, and containing 6 gates. 

Pompeiopolis (noixirr]XovTro\is), the name of 
several cities founded or enlarged by Pompey. 
1. (Task Kopr'i), an inland city of Cappadocia, 
S.W. of Sinope, on the river Amnias (Gok Trmak), 
a W. tributary of the Halvs. — 2. [Pompelox.] 

— 3. [SOLOE.J 

Pompeius. 1. Q. Pompeius, said to have been 
the son of a flute-player, was the first of the family, 
■who rose to dignity in the state. He was consul 
in 141, w^hen he carried on war against the Nu- 
mantiues in Spain. Having been defeated by the 
enemy in several engagements, he concluded a 
peace with them ; but on the arrival of his succes- 
sor in the command, he disowned the treaty, which 
was declared invalid by the senate. He was censor 
m 131 with Q. Metellus Macedonicus.— =2. Q. Pom- 
peius Rufus, either son or grandson of the preced- 
ing, was a zealous supporter of the aristocratical 
party. He v>'as tribune of the plebs, 100 ; praetor, 
91 ; and consul, 88, Avith L. Sulla. When Sulla 
set out for the East to conduct the war against 
Mithridates, he left Italy in charge of Pompeius 
Rufus, and assigned to him the army of Cn. Pom- 
peius Strabo, who was still engaged in carrying on 
war against the Marsi. Strabo, however, who was 
unwilling to be deprived of the command, caused 
Pompeius Rufus to be murdered by the soldiers. 
Cicero mentions Pompeius Rufus among the ora- 
tors whom he had heard in his youth. 3. Q. 
Pompeius Eufus, son of No. 2, married Sulla's 
daughter, and was murdered by the party of Sul- 
picius and Marius in the forum, during the consul- 
ship of his father, 88. — 4. Q. Pompeius Rufus, 
son of No. 3 and grandson of the dictator Sulla, 
was tribune of the plebs 52, when he distinguished 
himself as the great partizan of the triumvir Pom- 
pey, and assisted the latter in obtaining the sole 



praetor 94, and propraetor in Sicily in the follow- 
ing year. He was consul 89, when he carried on war 
with success against the allies, subduing the greater 
number of the Italian people who were still in 
arms. Towards the end of the year he brought 
forward the law (lejc Pompeia), which gave to all 
the towns of the Transpadani the Jus Latii or 
Latinitas. He continued in the S. of Italy as 
proconsul in the following year (88), and when 
Pompeius Rufus [No. 2.] was appointed to suc- 
ceed him in the command of the army, Strabo 
caused him to be assassinated by the troops. Next 
year (87) the Marian party obtained the upper 
hand. Strabo was summoned by the aristocratical 
party to their assistance ; and though not active 
in theu: cause, he marched to the relief of the city, 
and fought a battle near the CoUine Gate with 
Cinna and Sertorius. Shortly afterwards, he was 
killed by lightning. His avarice and cruelty had 
made him hated by the soldiers to such a degree, 
that they tore his corpse from the bier and dragged 
it through the streets. Cicero describes him 
(Brut. 47) " as worthy of hatred on account of 
his cruelty, avarice, and perfidy.*' He possessed 
some reputation as an orator, and still more as a 
general. He left behind him a considerable pro- 
perty, especially in Picenum. —10. Cn. Pompeius 
Magnus, the Triumvir, son of No. 9, was born 
on the 30th of September, B. c. 106, in the consul- 
ship of Atilius Serranus and Servilius Caepio, and 
was consequently a few months younger than 
Cicero, who was bom on the 3d of January in 
this year, and 6 years older than Caesar. He 
fought under his father in 89 against the Italians, 
when he was only 17 years of age, and continued 
with him till his death two years afterwards. For 
the next few years the Marian party had pos- 
session of Italy ; and accordingly Pompey, who 
adhered to the aristocratical party, was obliged to 
keep in the back ground. But when it became 
known in 84, that Sulla was on the point of re- 
tuming from Greece to Italy. Pompey hastened 
into Picenum. where he raised an army of 3 le- 
gions. Although only 23 years of age, Pompey 
displayed great military abilities in opposing the 
Marian generals by whom he was surrounded ; 
and when he succeeded in joining Sulla in the 
course of the year (83), he was saluted by the 



consulship. Rufus however on the expiration of ; latter with the title of Imperator. During the 
bis office was accused of Vis, was condemned, remainder of the war in Italy Pompey distin- 
and went into exile at Baiili in Campania. — 5. Q. ' guished himself as one of the most successful of 
Pompeius Rufus, praetor 68, was sent to Capua 
to watch over Campania and Apulia during Cati- 
line's conspiracy. In 61 he obtained the province 
of Africa, with the title of proconsul. — 6. Sex. 



Sulla's generals ; and when the war in Italy was 
brought to a close, Sulla sent Pompey against the 
Marian party in Sicily and Africa. Pompey first 
proceeded to Sicily, of which he easily made him- 



POMPEIUS. 



POMPEIUS. 



603 



self master (82) : here he put Carbo to death. In 
81 Pompey crossed over to Africa, where he de- 
feated Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus and the Nurai- 
dian king Hiarbas, after a hard fought battle. On 
his return to Rome, in the same year, he was re- 
ceived with enthusiasm by the people, and was 
greeted by Sulla with the surname of Magnus, a 
name which he bore ever afterwards, and handed 
down to his children. Pompey, however, not sa- 
tisfied with this distinction, sued for a triumph, 
Avhich Sulla at first refused ; but at length over- 
come by Pompey's importunity, he allowed him to 
have his own way. Accordingly Pompey, who 
had not yet held any public office, and was still a 
simple eques, entered Rome in triumph in Sep- 
tember 81, and before he had completed his 23th 
year. Pompey continued faithful to the aristo- 
cracy after Sulla's death (78), and supported the 
consul Catulus in resisting the attempts of his col- 
league Lepidus to repeal the laws of Sulla ; and when 
Lepidus had recourse to arms in the following year 
(77), Pompey took an active part in the war against 
him, and succeeded in driving him out of Italy. — 
The aristocracy, however, now began to fear the 
young and successful general ; but since Sertorius 
in Spain had for the last three years successfully 
opposed Metellus Pius, one of the ablest of Sulla's 
generals, and it had become necessary to send the 
latter some effectual assistance, the senate, with 
considerable reluctance, determined to send Pompey 
to Spain, with the title of proconsul, and with 
equal powers to Metellus. Pompey remained in 
Spain between 5 and 6 years (76 — 71); but 
neither he nor Metellus was able to gain any de- 
cisive advantage over Sertorius. But when Ser- 
torius was treacherously murdered by his own of- 
ficer Perperna, in 82, the war was speedily brought 
to a close. Perperna was easily defeated by 
Pompey in the first battle, and the whole of Spain 
was subdued by the early part of the following 
year (71). Pompey then returned to Italy at the 
head of his army. In his march towards Rome he 
fell in with the remains of the armj'' of Spartacus, 
which M. Crassus had previously defeated. Pom- 
pey cut to pieces these fugitives, and therefore 
claimed for himself, in addition to all his other 
exploits, the glory of finishing the Servile war. 
Pompey was now a candidate for the consulship ; 
and although he was ineligible by law, inasmuch 
as he was absent from Rome, had not yet reached 
the legal age, and had not held any of the lower 
offices of the state, still his election Avas certain. 
His military glory had charmed the people ; and 
as it was known that the aristocracy looked upon 
Pompey with jealousy, they ceased to regard him 
as belonging to this party, and hoped to obtain, 
through him, a restoration of the rights and privi- 
leges of which they had been deprived by Sulla. 
Pompey was accordingly elected consul, along v/ith 
M. Crassus ; and on the 31st of December, 71, he 
entered the city a second time in his triumphal 
car, a simple eques. — In his consulship (70), 
Pompey openly broke with the aristocracy, and 
became the great popular hero. He proposed and 
carried a law, restoring to the tribunes the power 
of which they had been deprived by Sulla. He 
also afforded his all-powerful aid to the Lex 
Aurelia, proposed by the praetor L. Aureiius Cotta, 
by which the judices were to be taken in future 
from the senatus, equites, and tribuni aerarii, in- 
stead of from the senators exclusively, as Sulla 



had ordained. In carrying both these measures 
Pompey was strongly supported by Caesar, with 
whom he was thus brought into close connection. 
— For the next two years (69 and 68) Pompey 
remained in Rome. In 67 the tribune A. Gabinius 
brought forward a bill, proposing to confer upon 
Pompey the command of the war against the 
pirates with extraordinary powers. This bill was 
opposed by the aristocracy Avith the utmost vehe- 
mence, but was notwithstanding carried. The 
pirates were at this time masters of the Mediterra- 
nean, and had not only plundered many cities on 
the coasts of Greece and Asia, but had even made 
descents upon Italy itself. As soon as Pompey 
received the command, he began to make his pre- 
parations for the war, and completed them by the 
end of the winter. His plans were formed with 
great skill and judgment, and were crowned with 
complete success. In 40 day? he cleared the 
western sea of pirates, and restored communication 
between Spain, Africa, and Italy. He then fol- 
lowed the main body of the pirates to their strong- 
holds on the coast of Cilicia ; and after defeating 
their fleet, he induced a great part of them, by 
promises of pardon, to surrender to him. Many of 
these he settled at Soli, which was henceforward 
called Pompeiopolis. The 2nd part of the cam- 
paign occupied only 49 days, and the whole war 
was brought to a conclusion in the course of 3 
months ; so that, to adopt the panegyric of Cicero 
(pro Leg. Man. 12) " Pompey made his prepara- 
tions for the war at the end of the winter, entered 
upon it at the commencement of spring, and finished 
it in the middle of the summer." Pompey was 
employed during the remainder of this year and 
the beginning of the following in visiting the cities 
of Cilicia and Pamphylia, and providing for the 
government of the newly-conquered districts. — 
During his absence from Rome, Pompey was ap- 
pointed to succeed Lucullus in the command of the 
war against Mithridates (66). The bill, conferring 
upon him this command, was proposed by the 
tribime C. Manilius, and was supported by Cicero, 
in an oration which has come down to us {Pro 
Lege Manilia). Like the Gabinian law, it was 
opposed by the whole weight of the aristocracy, 
but was carried triumphantly. The power of 
Mithridates had been broken by the previous vic- 
tories of Lucullus, and it was only left to Pompey 
to bring the war to a conclusion. On the approach 
of Pompey, Mithridates retreated towards Armenia, 
but he was defeated b}"- the Roman general ; and 
as Tigranes now refused to receive him into his 
dominions, Mithridates resolved to plunge into the 
heart of Colchis, and from thence make his way to 
his own dominions in the Cimmerian Bosporus. 
Pompey now turned his arms against Tigranes ; 
but the Armenian king submitted to him without 
a contest, and was allowed to conclude a peace 
with the republic. In 65 Pompey set out in pur- 
suit of Mithridates, but he met with much opposi- 
tion from the Iberians and Albanians ; and after 
advancing as far as the river Phasis {Faz\ he re- 
solved to leave these savage districts. He accord- 
ingly retraced his steps, and spent the winter at 
Pontus, which he reduced to the form of a Ro- 
man province. In 64 he marched into Syria, de- 
posed the king Antiochus Asiaticus, and made 
that country also a Roman province. In 63 he 
advanced further south, in order to establish the 
Roman supremacy in Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, and 



604 



POMPEIUS. 



POMPEIUS. 



Palestine. The Jews refused to submit to him, 
and shut the gates of Jerusalem against him ; and 
it was not till after a siege of 3 months that the 
city was taken. Pompey entered the Holy of 
Holies, the first time that any human being, except 
the high-priest, had dared to penetrate into this 
sacred spot. It was during the war in Palestine 
that Pompey received intelligence of the death 
of Mithridates. [Mithridate8 VI.] Pompey 
spent the next winter in Pontus ; and after settling 
the affairs of Asia, he returned to Italy in 62. He 
disbanded his army almost immediately after land- 
ing at Brundisium, and thus calmed the apprelien- 
sions of many, who feared that, at the head of his 
victorious troops, he would seize upon the supreme 
power. He did not, however, return to Rome till 
the following year (61), and he entered the city in 
triumph on the 30th of September. He had just 
completed his 45th year, and this was the third 
time that he had enjoyed the honour of a triumph. 
With this triumph the first and most glorious part 
of Pompey's life may be said to have ended. 
Hitherto his life had been an almost uninterrupted 
succession of military ghrj. But now he was 
called upon to play a prominent part in the civil 
commotions of the commonwealth, a part for which 
neither his natural talents nor his previous habits 
had in the least fitted him. It would seem, that 
on his return to Rome, Pompey hardly knew what 
part to take in the politics of the city. He had 
been appointed to the command against the pirates 
and Mithridates in opposition to the aristocracy, 
and they still regarded him with jealousy and 
distrust. At the same time he was not disposed 
to unite himself to the popular party, which had 
risen into importance during his absence in the 
East, and over which Caesar possessed unbounded 
influence. The object, however, which engaged 
the immediate attention of Pompey was to obtain 
from the senate a ratification for all his acts in 
Asia, and an assignment of lands which he had 
promised to his veterans. The senate, however, 
glad of an opportunity to put an affront upon a 
man whom they both feared and hated, resolutely 
refused to sanction his measures in Asia. This 
was the un wisest thing the senate could have done. 
If they had known their real interests, they would 
have sought to win Pompey over to their side, as 
a counterpoise to the growing and more dangerous 
influence of Caesar. But their short-sighted policy 
threw Pompey into Caesar's arms, and thus sealed 
the downfal of their party. Caesar promised to 
obtain for Pompey the ratification of his acts ; and 
Pompey, on his part, agreed to support Caesar in 
all his measures. That they might be more sure 
of carr3'ing their plans into execution, Caesar pre- 
vailed upon Pompey to become reconciled to Cras- 
sus, with whom he was at variance, but who, by 
his immense wealth, had great influence at Rome. 
Tlie 3 agreed to assist one another against their 
mutual enemies ; and thus was first formed the first 
triumvirate. — This union of the 3 most powerful 
men at Rome crushed the aristocracy for the time. 
Supported by Pompey and Crassus, Caesar was 
able in his consulship (59) to carry all his mea- 
sures. Pompey's acts in Asia were ratified ; and 
Caesar's agrarian law, which divided the rich 
Campanian land among the poorer citizens, enabled 
Pompey to fulfil the promises he had made to his 
veterans. In order to cement their union more 
closely, Caesar gave to Pompey his daughter Julia 



in marriage. Next year (58) Caesar went to his 
province in Gaul, but Pompey remained in 
Rome. "While Caesar was gaining glory and in- 
fluence in Gaul, Pompey was gradually losing the 
confidence of all parties at Rome. The senate 
hated and feared him ; the people had deserted 
him for their favourite Clodius ; and he had no 
other resource left but to strengthen his connection 
with Caesar. Thus he came to be regarded as the 
second man in the state, and was obliged to aban- 
don the proud position which he had occupied for so 
many years. According to an arrangement made 
with Caesar, Pompey and Crassus were consuls for 
a second time in 55. Pompey received as his pro- 
vinces the two Spains, Crassus obtained Syria, 
while Caesar's government was prolonged for 5 
years more, namely from the 1st of January, 53, 
to the end of the year 49. At the end of his con- 
sulship Pompey did not go in person to his pro- 
vinces, but sent his legates, L. Afranius and M. 
Petreius to govern the Spains, while he himself 
remained in the neighbourhood of the city. His 
object now was to obtain the dictatorship, and to 
make himself the undisputed master of the Roman 
world. Caesar's increasing power and influence 
had at length made it clear to Pompey that a 
struggle must take place between them, sooner or 
later. The death of his wife Julia, in 54, to whom 
he was tenderly attached, broke one link which 
still connected him with Caesar ; and the fall of 
Crassus in the following year (53), in the Par- 
thian expedition, removed the only person who 
had the least chance of contesting the supremacy 
with them. In order to obtain the dictatorship, 
Pompey secretly encouraged the civil discord with 
which the state was torn asunder ; and such 
frightful scenes of anarchy followed the death of 
Clodius at the beginning of 52, that the senate 
had now no alternative but calling in the assistance 
of Pompey, who was accordingly made sole consul 
in 52, and succeeded in restoring order to the state. 
Soon afterwards Pompey became reconciled to the 
aristocracy, and was now regarded as their ac- 
knowledged head. The history of the civil war 
which followed is related in the life of Caesar. 
It is only necessary- to mention here, that after the 
battle of Pharsalia (48) Pompey sailed to Egypt, 
where he hoped to meet with a favourable recep- 
tion, since he had been the means of restoring to 
his kingdom the father of the young Egyptian 
monarch. The ministers of the latter, however, 
dreading Caesar's anger if they received Pompey, 
and likewise Pornpey's resentment if they forbade 
him to land, resolved to release themselves from 
their difiiculties by putting him to death. They 
accordingly sent out a small boat, took Pompey on 
board, and rowed for the shore. His wife and 
friends watched him from the ship, anxious to see 
in what manner he would be received by the king, 
who was standing on the edge of the sea with his 
troops ; but just as the boat reached the shore, and 
Pompey was in the act of rising from his seat, in 
order to step on land, he was stabbed in the back 
by Septimius, who had formerly been one of his 
centurions, and was now in the service of the 
Egyptian monarch. Pompey was killed on the 
29th of September, B. c. 48, and had just completed 
his 58th year. His head was cut off, and his 
body, Avhich was thrown out naked on the shore, 
was buried by his freedman Philippus, who had 
accompanied him from the ship. The head was 



POMPEIUS. 



POMPTINUS. 



605 



brought to Caesar when he arrived in Egypt soon 
afterwards, but lie turned away from the sight, 
shed tear? at the melancholy death of his rival, and 
put his murderers to death. Pompey's untimely 
death excites pity ; but no one. who has well 
studied the state of parties at the close of the 
Roman commonwealth, can regret his fall. There 
is abundant evidence to prove, that had Pompey's 
party gained the mastery, a proscription far more 
terrible than Sulla's would have taken place, 
and Italy and the provinces been divided as booty 
among a few profligate and unprincipled nobles. 
From such horrors the victory of Caesar saved the 
Roman world. Pompey was married 5 times. 
The names of his wives were 1. Antistia. 2. 
Aemilia. 3. Mucia. 4. Julia. 5. Cornelia.— 
11. Cn. Fompeius Magnus, elder son of the 
triumvir by his third wife Mucia. In the civil 
war in 48, he commanded a squadron of the fleet 
in the Adriatic Sea. After his father's death, at 
Pharsalia, he crossed over to Africa, and after re- 
maining there a short time, he sailed to Spain in 
47. In Spain he was joined by his brother Sextus 
and others of his party, who had fled from Africa 
after their defeat at Thapsus. Here the 2 brothers 
collected a powerful army, but were defeated by 
Caesar himself at the battle of Munda, fought on 
the 17th of March, 45. Cneius escaped from the 
field of battle, but was shortly afterwards taken 
prisoner, and put to death. — 12. Sex. Pompeius 
Magnus, yomiger son of the triumvir by his third 
wife Mucia, was bom 75. After the battle of 
Pharsalia he accompanied his father to Egypt, and 
saw him murdered before his eyes. After the 
battle of Munda and the death of his brother, 
Sextus lived for a time in concealment in the 
country of the Lacet«ni, between the Iberus and 
the Pyrenees ; but when Caesar quitted Spain, he 
collected a body of troops, and emerged from his 
lurking-place. In the civil wars, which followed 
Caesar's death, the power of Sextus increased. He 
obtained a large fleet, became master of the sea, 
and eventually took possession of Sicily. His fleet 
enabled him to stop all the supplies of corn which 
were brought to Rome from Egypt and the eastern 
provinces ; and such scarcity began to prevail in 
the city, that the triumvirs were compelled by the 
popular discontent to make peace with Pompey. 
This peace was concluded at Misenum in 39, but 
the war was renewed in the following year. Oc- 
tavian made great efforts to collect a large and 
powerful fleet, which he placed under the command 
of Agrippa. In 36 Pompey's fleet was defeated off 
Naulochus, with great loss. Pompey himself fled 
from Sicily to Lesbos and from Lesbos to Asia. 
Here he was taken prisoner by a body of Antony's 
troopa, and carried to Miletus, where he was put 
to death (35), probably by command of Antony, 
though the latter sought to throw the responsibility 
of the deed upon his oflicers. 

Pompeius Festus. [Festus.] 

Pompeius Trogus. [Justinus.] 

Pompel5n [Pamplona), which name is equiva- 
lent to Pompeiopolis, so called by the sons of Pom- 
pey, Avas the chief town of the Vascones in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, on the road from Asturica to 
Burdigala. 

Pomponia. 1. Sister of T. Pomponius Atticus, 
was married to Q. Cicero, the brother of the orator, 
B.C. 68. The marriage proved an extremely un- 
happy one. Q. Cicero, after leading a miserable 



life with liis wife for almost 24 years, at length 
divorced her at the end of 45, or in the beginning 
of the following year. — 2. Daughter of T. Pom- 
ponius Atticus. She is also called Caecilia, be- 
cause her father was adopted by Q. Caecilins, and 
likewise Attica. She was born in 51, and she 
was still quite young when she was married to 
M, Vipsanius Agrippa. Her daughter Vipsania 
Agrippina married Tiberius, the successor of Au- 
gustus. 

Pomponiana. [Stoechades.] 

Pomponius, Sextus, a distinguished Roman 
jurist, who lived under Antoninius Pius and M. 
Aurelius. Some modern writers think that there 
were 2 jurists of this name. The works of Pom- 
ponius are frequently cited in the Digest. 

Pomponius Atticus. [Atticus. J 

Pomponius Bononiensis, the most celebrated 
writer of Fabulae Atellanae, was a native of Bo- 
nonia {Bologna) in northern Italy, as his surname 
shows, and flourislied B. c. 91. 

Pomponius Mela. [Mela.] 

Pomptinae Paludes {Uovrivai \i{j.vai: Faln- 
de Pontine, in English the Pontine Marshes), the 
name of a low marshy plain on the coast of Latium 
between Circeii and Terracina, said to have been 
so called after an ancient town Pontia, which dis- 
appeared at an early period. The plain is about 
24 miles long, and from 8 to 10 miles in breadth. 
The marshes are formed chiefly by the rivers 
Nymphaeus, Ufens, and Amasenus, and some 
other small streams, which, instead of finding their 
way into the sea, spread over this plain. Hence the 
plain is turned into a vast number of marshes, the 
miasmas arising from which are exceedingly un- 
healthy in the summer. At an early period, how- 
ever, they appear not to have existed at all, or at 
any rate to have been confined to a narrow dis- 
trict. We are told that originally there were 23 
towns situated in this plain ; and in b. c. 432 
the Pomptinus Ager is mentioned as yielding a 
large quantity of corn. Even as late as 312, the 
greater part of the plain must still have been free 
from the marshes, since the censor Appius Clau- 
dius conducted the celebrated Via Appia in that 
year through the plain, which must then have been 
sufficiently strong to bear the weight of this road. 
In the course of a centtiry and a half after this, the 
marshes had spread to a great extent ; and accord- 
ingly attempts were made to drain them by the 
consul Cethegus in 160, by Julius Caesar and by 
Augustus. It is usually said that Augustus caused 
a navigable canal to be dug along side of the Via 
Appia from Forum Appii to the grove of Feronia, 
in order to carry off a portion of the waters of the 
marshes : but this canal must have been dug be- 
fore the time of Augustus, since Horace embarked 
upon it on his celebrated journey from Rome to 
Brundisium in 37, at which time Octavian, as he 
was then called, could not have undertaken any 
of his public works. Subsequently the marshes 
again spread over the whole plain, and the Via 
Appia entirely disappeared ; and it was not until 
the pontificate of Pius VI. that any serious attempt 
was made to drain thera. The works were com- 
menced in 1778, and the greater part of the 
marshes was drained ; but the plain is still un- 
healthy in the great heats of the summer. 

C. Pomptinus, was praetors, c. 63, when he 
was employed by Cicero in apprehending the am- 
bassadors of the Allobroges. He afterwards ob- 



606 



PONS. 



PONTUS. 



tained the province of Gallia Nai-boncnsis, and in 
61 defeated the Allobroges, who had invaded the 
province. He triiunphed in 54, after suing in vain 
for this honour for some years. 

Pons, a common name for stations on the 
Roman roads at the passage of rivers, some of 
which stations on the more important roads grew 
into villages or towns. 1. P. Aeni {Pfiinzen), in 
Vindelicia, at the passage of the Inn, was a for- 
tress with a Roman garrison. — 2. P. Aureoli 
{Pontirolo), in Gallia Transpadana on the road 
from Bergaraum to Mediolanum, derived its name 
from one of the 30 Tyrants, who was defeated and 
slain by Claudius in this place. —3. P. Campa- 
nus, in Campania between Sinuessa and Urbana 
on the Savo.-— Respecting the bridges of Rome, 
see Roma. 

Pontia (Pofiza)^ a rocky island off the coast of 
Latium opposite Formiae, which was taken by the 
Romans from the Volscians, and colonised, B. c. 
313. Under the Romans it was used as a place 
of banishment for state criminals. There is a 
group of smaller islands roimd Pontia, which are 
sometimes called Insulae Pontiae. 

Pontinus (YlovrTyos). a river and mountain in 
Argolis near Lerna, with a sanctuary of Athena 
Saitis, 

C. Pontius, son of Herennius Pontius, the 

general of the Samnites in B. c. 321, defeated the 
Roman army under the two consuls T. Veturius 
Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Albinus in one of the 
mountain passes in the neighbourhood of Caudium. 
The survivors, who were completely at the mercy 
of the Samnites, were dismissed unhurt by Pon- 
tius. They had to surrender their arms, and to 
pass under the yoke ; and as the price of their 
deliverance, the consuls and the other commanders 
swore, in the name of the republic, to a humiliating 
peace. The Roman state however refused to ratify 
the treaty. Nearly 30 years afterwards, Pontius 
was defeated by Q, Fabius Gurges (292), was 
taken prisoner, and was put to death after the 
triumph of the consul. 

Pontius Aquila. [Aquila.] 

Pontius Pilatus, was the sixth procurator of 
Judaea, and the successor of Valerius Gratus. He 
held the office for 10 years in the reign of Tiberius, 
from A. D. 26 to 36, and it was during his govern- 
ment that Christ taught, suffered, and died. By 
his tyrannical conduct he excited an insurrection 
at Jerusalem, and at a later period commotions in 
Samaria also, which were not put down without 
the loss of life. The Samaritans complained of 
his conduct to Vitellius, the governor of Syria, 
who deprived him of his office, and sent him to 
Rome to answer before the emperor the accu- 
sations that were brought against him. Eusebius 
states that Pilatus put an end to his own life at 
the commencement of the reign of Caligula, worn 
out by the many misfortunes he had experienced. 
The early Christian writers refer frequently to an 
official report, made by Pilatus to the emperor 
Tiberius, of the condemnation and death of Christ. 
It is very doubtful whether this document was 
genuine ; and it is certain that the acts of Pilate, 
as they are called, which are extant in Greek, as 
well as his two Latin letters to the emperor, are 
the productions of a later age. 

Pontius Telesinus. 1. A Samnite, and com- 
mander of a Samnite army, with which he fought 
against Sulla. He was defeated by Sulla in a 



hard-fought battle near the Colline gate, b. c. 82. 
He fell in the fight ; his head was cut off, and 
carried under the walls of Praeneste, to Jet the 
younger Marius know that his last hope of succour 
was gone. — 2. Brother of the preceding, was 
shut up in Praeneste with the younger Marius, 
when his brother was defeated by Sulla. After 
the death of the elder Pontius, Marius and Tele- 
sinus, finding it impossible to escape from Pi-ae- 
neste, resolved to die by one another's hands. Te- 
lesinus fell first, and Marius put an end to his own 
life, or was slain by his slave. 

Pontus (o UouTos), the N.E.-most district of 
Asia Minor, along the coast of the Euxine, E. of 
the river Halys, having originally no specific name, 
was spoken of as the country eV U6vtw, on the Pon- 
tus (Euzinus), and hence acquired the name of Pon- 
tus, which is first found in Xenophon's Anabasis. 
The term, however, was used very indefinitely, un- 
til the settlement of the boundaries of the country 
as a Roman province. Originally it was regarded as 
a part of Cappadocia ; but its parts were best 
known by the names of the different tribes who 
dwelt along the coast, and of whom some account 
is given by Xenophon, in the A^iahasis. We 
learn from the legends of the Argonauts, who are 
represented as visiting this coast, and the Amazons, 
whose abodes are placed about the river Ther- 
modon, E. of the Iris, as well as from other poetical 
allusions, that the Greeks had some knowledge of 
these S. E. shores of the Euxine at a very early 
period. A great accession to such knowledge was 
made by the information gained by Xenophon and 
his comrades, when they passed through the coun- 
try in their famous retreat : and long afterwards 
the Romans became well acquainted with it by 
means of the Mithridatic war, and Pompey's sub- 
sequent expedition through Pontus into the coun- 
tries at the foot of the Caucasus. The name first 
acquired a political rather than a territorial im- 
portance, through the foundation of a new kingdom 
in it, about the beginning of the 4th century b. c, 
by Ariobarzanes I. The history of the gradual 
growth of this kingdom until, under Mithridates VI., 
it threatened the Roman empire in Asia, is given 
under the names of its kings, of whom the follow- 
ing is the list: — (1) Ariobarzanes I., exact 
date unknown: (2) Mithridates I., to e. c. 
363 : (3) Ariobarzanes II., 363—337 : (4) 
Mithridates II., 337 — 302 : (5) Mithri- 
dates III., 302—266 : (6) Ariobarzanes III., 
266—240? (7) Mithridates IV., 240—190.? 
(8) Pharnaces I., 190—156 ? (9) Mithri- 
dates V. Euergetes,156 — 120? (IO)Mithri- 
DATES VI. Eupator, 120—63: (11) Phar- 
naces II., 63— i7. After the death of Pharnaces, 
the reduced kingdom retained a nominal existence 
under his son Darius, who was made king by 
Antony in b. c. 39, but was soon deposed ; and 
under Polemon I. and Polemon II., till about 
A. D. 62, when the country was constituted by 
Nero a Roman province. Of this province the 
W. boundary was the river Halys, which divided 
it from Paphlagonia ; the furthest E. limit was the 
Phasis, which separated it from Colchis ; but others 
carry it only as far as Trapezus, and others to an 
intermediate point, at the river Acampsis : on the 
S. it was divided from Galatia, Cappadocia, and 
Armenia Minor by the great chain of the Parya- 
dres and by its branches. It was divided into the 
3 districts of Pontus Galaticus, in the W., bor- 



PONTUS. 



PORCIA. 



6*07 



dering on Galatia, P. Polemoniacus in the centre, 
so called from its capital Polemonium, and P. 
Cappadocius in the E. bordering on Cappadocia 
(Armenia Minor), In the new division of the 
provinces under Constantine, these 3 districts were 
reduced to 2, Helenopontus in the W., so called 
in honour of the emperor's mother, Helena, and 
Pontus Polemoniacus in the E. The country- 
was also divided into smaller districts, named from 
the towns they surrounded and the tribes who 
peopled them. Pontus was a mountainous coun- 
try ; wild and barren in the E., where the great 
chains approach the Euxine ; but in the W. watered 
by the great rivers Halys and Iris and their 
tributaries, the valleys of which, as well as the 
land along the coast, are extremely fertile. Be- 
sides corn and olives, it Avas famous for its fruit 
trees, and some of the best of our common fruits 
are said to have been brought to Europe from this 
quarter; for example, the cherry (see Cerasus). 
The sides of the mountains were covered with fine 
timber, and their lower slopes with box and other 
shrubs. The E. part was rich in minerals, and 
contained the celebrated iron mines of the Cha- 
LYBES. Pontus was peopled b}'- numerous tribes, 
belonging probably to very different races, though 
the Semitic (Syro- Arabian) race appears to have 
been the prevailing one, and hence the inhabitants 
were included under the general name of Leuco- 
SYRi. The chief of these peoples are spoken of in 
separate articles. 

Pontus Euxinus, or simply Pontus (o USutos, 
nSuros Ev^,'ivos: rh UovriKhv ireAayos, Mare 
Euxinum : ihe Black Sea, Turk. Kai-a Deniz, Grk. 
Maurethalassa, Russ. Tcheriago More or Czarne- 
More, all names of the same meaning, and sup- 
posed to have originated from the terror with which 
it was at first regarded by the Turkish mariners, 
as the first wide expanse of sea with which they 
became acquainted), the great inland sea enclosed 
by Asia Minor on the S., Colchis on the E., Sar- 
matia on the N., and Dacia and Thracia on the 
W., and having no other outlet than the narrow 
Bosporus Thracius in its S.W. comer. It lies 
between 28° and 41° 30' E. long., and between 
41° and 46*=* 40' N. lat., its length being about 
700 miles, and its breadth varying from 400 to 
160. Its surface contains more than 180,000 
square miles. It receives the drainage of an im- 
mense extent of country in Europe and in Asia ; 
but much the greater portion of its waters flows 
from the former continent by the following rivers : 
the Ister or Danubius {Danube), whose basin con- 
tains the greater part of central Europe ; the Tyras 
or Damaster {Djiicster), Hypanis or Bogus (Boug), 
Borysthenes (Dnieper), and Tanais {Don), which 
drain the immense plains of S. Russia, and flow 
into the N. side of the Euxine, the last of them 
(i, e. the Tanais) through the Palus Maeotis {Sea 
of Azov). The space thus drained is calculated at 
above 860,000 square miles, or nearly l-5th of 
the whole surface of Europe. In Asia, the basin 
of the Euxine contains, first, the triangular piece 
of Sarmatia Asiatica between the Tanai's on the 
N., the Caucasus on the S., and on the E. the 
Hippici M., which form the watershed dividing 
the tributaries of the Euxine from those of the 
Caspian ; the waters of this space flow into the 
Tanais and the Palus Maeotis, and the largest of 
them is the Hypanis or Vardanes {Kvban), which 
comes down to the Palus Maeotis and the Euxine 



at their junction, and divides its waters between 
them : next we have the narrow strip of land be- 
tween the Caucasus and the N.E, coast of the sea, 
then on the E., Colchis, hemmed in between the 
Caucasus and Moschici M., and watered by the 
Phasis ; and lastly, on the S., the whole of that 
part of Asia Minor which lies between the Parya- 
dres and Antitaurus on the E. and S.E., the Taurus 
on the S., and the highlands of Phrygia on the W,, 
the chief rivers of this portion being the Iris 
{Yeshil Irmak), the Halys (Kizil Irmak), and the 
Sangarius {Sakariyeh). The whole of the Asiatic 
basin of the Euxine is estimated at 100,000 square 
miles. As might be expected from this vast influx 
of fresh water, the water is much less salt than 
that of the Ocean. The waters which the Euxine 
receives from the rivers that flow directly into it, 
and also from the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azov) 
through the Bosporus Cimmerius {Straits of Kaffa 
or Yenikaleh), find their exit at the S.W. corner, 
through the Bosporus Thracius (Channel of Con- 
stantinople), into the Propontis {Sea of Marmara), 
and thence in a constant rapid current through the 
Hellespontus (Straits of Gallipoli or Dardanelles) 
into the Aegeum Mare (Archipelago'). — The Argo- 
nautic and other legends show that the Greeks had 
some acquaintance with this sea at a very early 
period. It is said that they at first called it 
"A^svos (inhospitable), from the savage character of 
the peoples on its coast, and from the supposed 
terrors of its navigation, and that afterwards, on 
their favourite principle of euphevfiism (i. e. abstain- 
ing from words of evil omen) they changed its 
name to Ew|ews, Ion. Eu^e/ros, hospitable. The 
Greeks of Asia Minor, especially the people of 
Miletus, founded many colonies and commercial 
emporiums on its shores, and as early as the Per- 
sian wars we find Athens carrying on a regular 
trade with these settlements in the corn grown in 
the great plains on its N. side (the Ukraine) and 
in the Chersonesus Taurica (Crimea), which have 
ever since supplied W. Europe with large quan- 
tities of grain. The history of the settlements 
themselves will be found under their several names. 
The Romans had a pretty accurate knowledge of 
the sea. An account of its coasts exists in Greek, 
entitled " Periplus Maris Euxini," ascribed to 
Arrian, who lived in the reign of Hadrian. [Arri- 

ANUS.] 

Popillius Laenas. [Laenas.] 

PopliCOla. [PUBLICOLA.] 

Poppaea Sabina. [Sabina.] 

Poppaeus Sabinus. [Sabiniis.] 

Popiilonia, or -mm (Populoniensis: Populo- 
nia), an ancient town of Etruria, situated on a 
lofty hill, sinking abruptly to the sea, and forming 
a peninsula. According to one tradition it was 
founded by the Corsicans ; but according to an- 
other it was a colony from Volaterrae, or was taken 
from the Corsicans by the Volaterrani. It was not 
one of the 12 Etruscan cities, and was never a 
place of political importance ; but it carried on an 
extensive commerce, and was the principal seaport 
of Etruria. It was destroyed by Sulla in the civil 
wars, and was in ruins in the time of Strabo. 
There are still remains of the walls of the ancient 
Populonia, showing that the city was only about 
l-i- mile in circumference. 

Porcia. 1. Sister of Cato Uticensis, married 
L. Doraitius Ahenobarbus, consul b. c. 54, who 
was slain in the battle of Pharsalia. She died in 



608 



PORCIUS. 



PORSENA. 



46. — 2, Daughter of Cato Uticensis by his first 
wife Atilia. She was married first to M. Bibulus, 
consul 59, to whom she bore three children. Bibu- 
lus died in 48 ; and in 45 she married M. Brutus, 
the assassin of Julius Caesar. She inherited all 
her father's republican principles, and likewise 
his courage and firmness of will. She induced her 
husband on the night before the 15th of March to 
disclose to her the conspiracy against Caesar's life, 
and she is reported to have wounded herself in the 
thigh in order to show that she had a courageous 
soul and could be trusted with the secret. She 
put an end to her own life after the death of 
Brutus in 42, The common tale was, that her 
friends, suspecting her design, had taken all wea- 
pons out of her way, and that she therefore de- 
stroyed herself by swallowing live coals. The 
real fact may have been that she suffocated herself 
by the vapour of a charcoal fire, which we know 
was a frequent means of self-destruction among the 
Romans. 

Porcius Cato. [Cato.] 

Porcius Festus. [Festus.] 

Porcius Latro. [Latro.] 

Porcius Licinus. [Licinus.] 

Porphyrio, Pomp5nius, the most valuable 
among the ancient commentators on Horace. He 
lived after Festus and Aero. 

Porphyrion (UopipvpLcov)^ one of the giants who 
fought against the gods. When he attempted to 
offer violence to Hera, or to throw the island of 
Delos against the gods, Zeus hurled a thunder- 
bolt at him, and Hercules completed his destruc- 
tion with his arrows. 

Porphyris (Ilopcpvpis), an earlier name of the 
island of Nisyrus. 

Porphyrius (Uopcpvpios), usually called Por- 
"phyrj, the celebrated antagonist of Christianity, 
■was a Greek philosopher of the Neo-Platonic 
school. He was born a. d. 233 either in Batanea 
in Palestine or at Tyre. His original name was 
Malchus, the Greek form of the Syrophoenician 
MelecJi^ a word which signified king. The name 
Porphyrius (in allusion to the usual colour of 
royal robes) was subsequently devised for him by 
his preceptor Longinus. After studying under 
Origen at Caesarea, and under Apollonius and 
Longinus at Athens, he settled at Rome in his 
30th year, and there became a diligent disciple of 
Plotinus. He soon gained the confidence of Plo- 
tinus, and was entrusted by the latter with the 
difficult and delicate duty of correcting and ar- 
ranging his writings. [Plotinus.] After re- 
maining in Rome 6 years, Porphyry fell into an 
unsettled state of mind, and began to entertain 
the idea of suicide, in order to get free from the 
shackles of the flesh ; but on the advice of Plo- 
tinus he took a voyage to Sicily, where he resided 
for some time. It was during his residence in 
Sicily that he wrote his treatise against the Chris- 
tian religion, in 15 books. Of the remainder of 
his life we know very little. He returned to 
Rome, where he continued to teach until his death, 
v>'hich took place about 305 or 306. Late in life 
he married Marcella, the widow of one of his 
friends, and the mother of 7 children, with the 
view, as he avowed, of superintending their educa- 
tion. As a writer Porphyry deserves consider- 
able praise. His style is tolerably clear, and not 
unfrequently exhibits both imagination and vigour. 
His learning was most extensive, A great degree 



of critical and philosophical acumen was not to be 
expected in one so ardently attached to the en- 
thusiastic and somewhat fanatical system of Plo- 
tinus. His attempt to prove the identity of the 
Platonic and Aristotelic systems would alone be 
sufficient to show this. Nevertheless, his ac- 
quaintance with the authors whom he quotes was 
manifestly far from superficial. His most cele- 
brated work was his treatise against the Christian 
religion ; but of its nature and merits we are not 
able to judge, as it has not come down to us. It 
was publicly destroyed by order of the emperor 
Theodosius. The attack was sufficiently vigorous 
to call forth replies from above 30 different antago- 
nists, the most distinguished of whom were Me- 
thodius, Apollinaris, and Eusebius. A large 
number however of his works has come down to us ; 
of which his Life of Pythagoras and Life of Plo- 
tinus are some of the best known. 

Porphyrius, Publilius Optatianus, a Roman 
poet, who lived in the age of Constantine the 
Great. He wrote a Panegyric upon Constantine ; 
3 Idyllia, namely, 1. Ara Pi/thia, 2. Syrinx, 
3. Organon, with the lines so arranged as to repre- 
sent the form of these objects ; and 5 Epigrams. 

Porsena* or Porsenna, Lars, king of the 
Etruscan town of Clusium, marched against Rome 
at the head of a vast army, in order to restore 
Tarquinius Superbus to the throne. He took pos- 
session of the hill Janiculum, and Avould have 
entered the city by the bridge which connected 
Rome with the Janiculum, had it not been for the 
superhuman prowess of Horatius Codes, who kept 
the whole Etruscan army at bay, while his 
comrades broke down the bridge behind him. 
[CocLES.] The Etniscans proceeded to lay siege 
to the city, which soon began to suffer from famine. 
Thereupon a young Roman, named C. Mucins, re- 
solved to deliver his country by murdering the 
invading king. He accordingly went over to the 
Etruscan camp, but ignorant of the person of Por- 
sena, killed the royal secretary instead. Seized, 
and threatened with torture, he thrust his right 
hand into the fire on the altar, and there let it 
bum, to show how little he heeded pain. Asto- 
nished at his courage, the king bade him depart 
in peace ; and Scaevola, as he was henceforward 
called, told him, out of gratitude, to make peace 
with Rome, since 300 noble youths had sworn to 
take the life of the king, and he was the first upon 
whom the lot had fallen. Porsena thereupon 
made peace with the Romans, and withdrew his 
troops from the Janiculum after receiving 20 hos- 
tages from the Romans. Such was the tale by 
which Roman vanity concealed one of the earliest 
and greatest disasters of the city. The real fact 
is, that Rome was completely conquered by Por- 
sena. This is expressly stated by Tacitus {Hist. 
iii. 72.), and is confirmed by other writers. Pliny 
tells us that so thorough was the subjection of the 
Romans that they were expressly prohibited from 
using iron for any other purpose but agriculture. 
The Romans, however, did not long remain sub- 
ject to the Etruscans. After the conquest of Rome, 
Aruns, the son of Porsena, proceeded to attack 
Aricia, but Avas defeated before the city by the 
united forces of the Latin cities, assisted by the 
Greeks of Cumae. The Etruscans appear, in con- 



* The quantity of the penultimate is doubtful. It l3 
short in Horace and Martial, but long in Virgil. 



PORTHAON. 



POSEIDON. 



609 



sequence, to have been confined to their ovvn 
territory on the right bank of the Tiber, and the 
Romans to have availed themselves of the oppor- 
tunity to recover their independence. 

Porthaon {UopOdoov), son of Agenor and Epi- 
caste, was king of Pleuron and Calydon in Aetolia, 
and married to Euryte, by whom he became the 
father of Oeneus, Agrius, Alcathous, Mela?, Leu- 
copeus, and Sterope. 

Porthmus {Uopdfxos), a harbour in Euboea, be- 
longing to Eretria, opposite the coast of Attica. 

Portunus or Portumnus, the protecting genius 
of harbours among the Romans. He was invoked 
to grant a happy return from a voyage. Hence a 
temple was erected to him at the port of the Tiber, 
from whence the road descended to the port of 
Ostia. At his temple an annual festival, tlie Por- 
tunalia, was celebrated on the 17th of August. 
When the Romans became familiar with Greek 
mythology, Portunus was identified with the Greek 
Paiaemon. [Palaemon.J 

Porus (Ilwpos). 1. King of the Indian pro- 
vinces E. of the river Hydaspes, offered a for- 
midable resistance to Alexander, when the latter 
attempted to cross this river, b. c. 327. The battle 
which he fought with Alexander was one of the 
most severely contested which occurred during the 
whole of Alexander's campaigns. Porus displayed 
great personal courage in the battle ; and when 
brought before the conqueror, he proudly demanded 
to be treated in a manner worthy of a king. This 
magnanimity at once conciliated the favour of 
Alexander, who not only restored to him his do- 
minions, but increased them by large accessions of 
territory. From this time Porus became firmly 
attached to his generous conqueror, whom he ac- 
companied to the Hyphasis. In 321 Porus was 
treacherously put to death by Eudemus, who 
commanded the Macedonian troops in the adjacent 
province. We are told that Porus was a man of 
gigantic stature — not less than five cubits in 
height ; and his personal strength and prowess in 
war were not less conspicuous than his valour. — 
2. Another Indian monarch who, at the time of 
Alexander's expedition, ruled over the district 
termed Gandaris, E. of the river Hydraotes. His 
dominions were subdued by Hephaestion, and an- 
nexed to those of the preceding Porus, who was 
his kinsman. 

Poseidon (Uoaeidcov), called Neptunus by the 
Romans, was the god of the Mediterranean sea. 
His name seems to be connected with ttStos, 
Trdvros and Trora/xos, according to which he is the 
god of the fluid element. He was a son of Cronos 
and Rhea (whence he is called Cronius and by 
Latin poets Saturnius). He was accordingly a 
brother of Zeus, Hades, Hera, Hestia and Demeter, 
and it was determined by lot that he should rule 
over the sea. Like his brothers and sisters, he 
was, after his birth, swallowed by his father Cro- 
nos, but thrown up again. According to others, 
he was concealed by Riiea, after his birth, among 
a flock of lambs, and his mother pretended to have 
given birth to a young horse, which she gave to 
Cronos to devour. In the Homeric poems Po- 
seidon is described as equal to Zeus in dignity, 
but less powerful. He resents the attempts of 
Zeus to intimidate him ; he even threatens his 
mightier brother, and once conspired with Hera 
and Athena to put him into chains ; but on other 
occasions we find him submissive to Zeus. The 



palace of Poseidon was in the depth of the sea 
near Aegae in Euboea, where he kept his horses 
with brazen hoofs and golden manes. With these 
horses he rides in a chariot over the waves of the 
sea, whicli become smooth as he approaches, and 
the monsters of the deep recognise him and play 
around his chariot. Generally he yoked his horses 
to his chariot himself, but sometimes he was as- 
sisted by Amphitrite. Although he generally 
dwelt in the sea, still he also appears in Olympus 
in the assembly of the gods. — Poseidon in con- 
junction with Apollo is said to have built the 
walls of Troy for Laomedon, whence Troy is called 
Neptunia Pergama. Laomedon refused to give 
these gods the reward which had been stipulated, 
and even dismissed them with threats. Poseidon 
in consequence sent a marine monster, which was 
on the point of devouring Laomedon's daughter, 
when it was killed by Hercules ; and he continued 
to bear an implacable hatred against the Trojans. 
He sided with the Greeks in the war against 
Troy, sometimes witnessing the contest as a spec- 
tator from the heights of Thrace, and sometimes 
interfering in person, assuming the appearance of a 
mortal hero and encouraging the Greeks, while 
Zeus favoured the Trojans. In the Odyssey, Po- 
seidon appears hostile to Ulysses, whom he pre- 
vents from returning home in consequence of his 
having blinded Polyphemus, a son of Poseidon by 
the nymph Thoosa. — Being the ruler of the sea 
(the Mediterranean), he is described as gathering 
clouds and calling forth storms, but at the same tima 
he has it in his power to grant a successful voyage 
and save those who are in danger ; and all other 
marine divinities are subject to him. As the sea 
surrounds and holds the earth, he himself is de- 
scribed as the god who holds the earth {yaiiioxos), 
and who has it in his power to shake the earth 
{ivocrix^MV^ Kivt)TT)p yas). — He was further re- 
garded as the creator of the horse. It is said that 
when Poseidon and Athena disputed as to which 
of them should give the name to the capital of 
Attica, the gods decided, that it should receive its 
name from the deity who should bestow upon man 
the most useful gift. Poseidon then created the 
horse, and Athena called forth the olive tree, in 
consequence of which the honour was conferred 
upon the goddess. According to others, however, 
Poseidon did not create the horse in Attica, but 
in Thessaly, where he also gave the famous horses 
to Peleus. Poseidon was accordingly believed to 
have taught men the art of managing horses by 
the bridle, and to have been the originator and 
protector of horse races. Hence he was also repre- 
sented on horseback, or riding in a chariot drawn 
by two or four horses, and is designated by the 
epithets 'Uirios, 'iinreios, or 'Uivios aj/a|. He even 
metamorphosed himself into a horse, for the pur- 
pose of deceiving Demeter. — The symbol of Po- 
seidon's power was the trident, or a spear with 
three points, with Avhich he used to shatter rocks, 
to call forth or subdue storms, to shake the earth, 
and the like. — Herodotus states, that the name and 
worship of Poseidon were brought into Greece from 
Libya; but he was probably a divinity of Pe- 
lasgian origin, and originally a personification o{ 
the fertilising power of water, from which the 
transition to regarding him as the god of the sea 
was not difficult. — The following legends respecting 
Poseidon deserve to be mentioned. In conjunction 
with Zeus he fought against Cronos and the Titans ; 

p. R 



610 POSIDIPPUS. 

and in the contest with the Giants he pursued 
Polybotes across the sea as far as Cos, and there 
killed him by throwing the island upon him. He 
further crushed the Centaurs when they were pur- 
sued by Hercules, under a mountain in Leucosia, 
the island of the Sirens. He sued together with 
Zeus for the hand of Thetis; but he withdrew 
when Themis prophesied that the son of Thetis 
Avould be greater than his father. When Ares 
had been caught in the wonderful net by He- 
phaestus, the latter set him free at the request of 
Poseidon ; but the latter god afterwards brought 
a charge against Ares before the Areopagus, for 
having killed his son Halirrhothius. At the re- 
quest of Minos, king of Crete, Poseidon caused a 
bull to rise from the sea, which the king proniised 
to sacrifice ; but when Minos treacherously con- 
cealed the animal among a herd of oxen, the god 
punished Minos by causing his daughter Pasiphae 
to fall in love with the bull. — Poseidon was married 
to Amphitrite, by whom he had three children, 
Triton, Rhode, and Benthesicyme ; but he had 
also a vast number of children by other divinities 
and mortal women. His worship extended over 
all Greece and southern Italy, but he was more 
especially revered in Peloponnesus and in the 
Ionic towns on the coast. The sacrifices offered 
to him generally consisted of black and white 
bulls ; but wild boars and rams were also sacrificed 
to him. Horse and chariot races were held in his 
honour on the Corinthian isthmus. The Panionia, 
or the festival of all the lonians near Mycale, was 
celebrated in honour of Poseidon. In works of 
art, Poseidon may be easily recognised by his at- 
tributes, the dolphin, the horse, or the trident, and 
he was frequently represented in ^oups along with 
Amphitrite, Tritons, Nereids, dolphins, the Dios- 
curi, Palaemon, Pegasus, Bellerophontes, Thalassa, 
Ino, and Galene. His figure does not present the 
majestic calm which characterises his brother 
Zeus ; but as the state of the sea is varying, so 
also is the god represented sometimes in violent 
agitation, and sometimes in a state of repose. The 
Roman god Neptunus is spoken of in a separate 
article. 

Posidippus {noo-eiBiTnros, ITocn'SiTrTros). 1. An 
Athenian comic poet of the New Corned}-, was a 
native of Cassandrea in Macedonia. He was 
■"eckoned one of the 6 most celebrated poets of the 
Nev/ Comedy. In time, he was the last of all 
the poets of the New Comedy. He began to ex- 
hibit dramas in the third year after the death of 
Menander, that is, in B. c. 289. —2. An epigram- 
matic poet, who was probably a different person 
from the comic poet, though he seems to have lived 
about the same time. His epigrams formed a part 
of the Garland of Meleager, and 22 of them are 
preserved in the Greek Anthology. 

Posidium (llocrddiov), the name of several pro- 
montories sacred to Poseidon. 1. (Pu?ita della 
Licosa), in Lucania, opposite the island Leucosia, 
the S. point of the gulf of Paestum. — 2. In 
Epirus, opposite the N.E. point of Corcyra. — 3. 
(C. Siavros), in Thessaly, forming the W. point of 
the Sinus Pagasaeus, perhaps the same as the pro- 
montory'- which LiYj (xxxi. 46.) calls Zelasium.— 
4. (C. HeUne), the S.W. point of Chios. — 5. On 
the W. coast of Caria, between Miletus and the 
lassius Sinus, with a town of the same name upon 
it. -— 6. On the W. coast of Arabia, with an altar 
dedicated to Poseidon by Ariston, whom Ptolemy 



POSTUMUS. 
had sent to explore the Arabian gulf. — 7. (Pos- 
seda), a seaport town in Syria in the district Cas- 
siotis. 

Posidonia. [Paestum.] 

Posldonium (Uoa-eidwuioi/ : C. Fossidhi or Kas- 
sandhrea), a promontory on the W. coast of the 
peninsula Pallene in Macedonia, not far from 
Mende. 

Posidonius (IToo-eiSwj/ios), a distmguished Stoic 
philosopher, was a native of Apamea in Syria. 
The date of his birth is not known with any ex- 
actness, but it may be placed about b. c, 135. He 
studied at Athens under Panaetius, after whose 
death (112) Posidonius set out on his travels. 
After visiting most of the covmtries on the coast of 
the Mediterranean, he fixed his abode at Rhodes, 
where he became the president of the Stoic school. 
He also took a promment part in the political 
affairs of Rhodes, and was sent as ambassador to 
Rome in 86. Cicero, when he visited Rhodes, 
received instruction from Posidonius. Pompey 
also had a great admiration for Posidonius, and 
visited him twice, in 67 and 62. To the occasion 
of his first visit probably belongs the story that 
Posidonius, to prevent the disappointment of his 
distinguished visitor, though severely afflicted with, 
the gout, had a long discourse on the topic that 
pain is not an evil. In 51 Posidonius removed to 
Rome, and appears to have died soon after at the 
age of 84. Posidonius was a man of extensive 
and varied acquirements in almost all departments 
of human knowledge. Cicero thought so highly 
of his powers, that he requested him to write an 
account of his consulship. As a physical investi- 
gator he was greatly superior to the Stoics gene- 
rally, attaching himself in this respect rather to 
Aristotle. His geographical and historical know- 
ledge was very extensive. He cultivated astro- 
nomy with considerable diligence. He also 
constructed a planetary machine, or revolving 
sphere, to exhibit the daily motions of the sun, 
moon and planets. His calculation of the circum- 
ference of the earth differed widely from that of 
Eratosthenes. He made it only 180,000 stadia, 
and his measurement was pretty generally adopted. 
None ef the writings of Posidonius has come down 
to us entire. His fragments are collected by 
Bake, Lugd. Bat. 1810. 

Postnmia Castra (Salado), a fortress in Hispa- 
nia Baetica, on a hill near the river Salsum 
{Salado). 

Postdmia Gens, patrician, was one of the most 

ancient patrician gentes at Rome. Its members fre- 
quently held the highest offices of the state, from 
the banishment of the kings to the downfall of the 
republic. The most distinguished family in the 
gens was that of Albus or Albinus ; but we 
also find at the commencement of the republic 
families of the names of Megellus and Tuhertus. 

Postumus, whose full name was M. Cassianus 
Laiinius Postumus, stands 2nd in the list of tlie 
so-called 30 Tyrants. Being nominated by Vale- 
rian governor of Gaul, he assumed the title of 
emperor in a. d. 258, while Valerian was prose- 
cuting his campaign against the Persians. Postu- 
mus maintained a strong and just government, and 
preserved Gaul from the devastation of the war- 
like tribes upon the eastern border. After reign- 
ing nearly 10 years, he was slain by his soldiers 
in 267, and Laelianus proclaimed emperor in his 
stead. 



POSTVERTA. 



PRATINAS. 



611 



Postverta or Postvorta, properly a surname of 
Carmenta, describing her as turning backward and 
looking at the past, which she revealed to poets 
and other mortals. In like manner the prophetic 
power, with which she looked into the future, is 
indicated by the surnames Antevorta, Prorsa (i. e. 
Froversa), and Porrima. Poets, however, have 
personified these attributes of Carmenta, and thus 
describe them as the companions of the goddess. 

Potami, or Potamus (nora^ot, noTaii6s: UoToi- 
fxios: Keratia)^ a demus in the S. of Attica, be- 
longing to the tribe Leontis, where the tomb of - 
Ion was shown. 

Potamon {Uoraixuv). 1. A rhetorician of My- 
tilene, lived in the time of Tiberius Caesar, whose 
favour he enjoyed. — 2. A philosopher of Alex- 
ander, who is said to have introduced at Rome an 
eclectic sect of philosophj'. He appears to have 
lived at Rome a little before the time of Plotinus, 
and to have entrusted his children to the guardian- 
ship of the latter. 

Potentia (Potentinus). 1. A town of Picenum 
on the river Flosis, between Ancona and Castellum 
Firmanum, was made a Roman colony in b. c. 186. 
— 2. (Potenza), a town of Lucania on the Via 
Popilia, E. of Forum Popilii. 

Pothinus, an eunuch, the guardian of the young 
king Ptolemy, recommended the assassination of 
Pompey, when the latter fled to Egypt, b. c. 48. 
Pothinus plotted against Caesar when he came to 
Alexandria shortly afterwards, and was put to 
death by Caesar's order. 

Potidaea (norfSata : HoTiSataTTjs : Pinaka), a 
town in Macedonia on the narrow isthmus of the 
peninsula Pallene, was a strongly fortified place 
and one of considerable importance. It was a 
colony of the Corinthians, and must have been 
founded before the Persian wars, though the time 
of its foundation is not recorded. It afterwards 
became tributary t« Athens, and its revolt from the 
latter city in B. c. 432 was one of the immediate 
causes of the Peloponnesian war. It was taken by 
the Athenians in 429 after a siege of more than 
2 years, its inhabitants expelled, and their place 
supplied by Athenian colonists. In 356 it was 
taken by Philip, who destroyed the city and gave 
its territory to the Olynthians. Cassander, how- 
ever, built a new city on the same site, to which 
he gave the name of Cassandrea (KaaadudpeLa : 
Kacra-ai'Spevs), and which he peopled with the re- 
mains of the old population and with the inhabitants 
of Olynthus and the surrounding towns, so that it 
soon became the most flourishing city in all Mace- 
donia. It was taken and plundered by the Huns, 
but was restored by Justinian. 

Potidania, a fortress in the N.E. of Aetolia, 
near the frontiers of Locris. 

Potitii. [PiNARiA Gens.] 

Potitus, the name of an ancient and celebrated 
family of the Valeria Gens. This family disap- 
pears about the time of the Samnite wars ; but the 
name was revived at a later period by the Valeria 
gens, as a praenomen : thus we find mention of a 
Potitus Valerius Messala, who was consul suff'ectus 
in B. c. 29. 

Potniae (UoTviai : Uorvievs), a small town in 
Boeotia on the Asopus, 10 stadia S. of Thebes, on 
the road to Plataea. The adjective Potniades (sing. 
Potnias) is an epithet frequently given to the 
mares which tore to death Glaucus of Potniae. 
[Glaucus, No. 1.] 



Praaspa. [Phraata.] 

Practius (UpaKTios: Borgas or Mushahoi-Su)^ 
a river of the Troad, rising in M. Ida, and flowing 
into the Hellespont, N. of Abydus. 

Praeneste (Praenestinus : Palestrina\ one of 
the most ancient towns of Latium, was situated on 
a steep and lofty hill, about 20 miles S.E. of Rome, 
with Avhich it was connected by a road, called Via 
Praenestina. It was probably a Pelasgic city, but 
it claimed a Greek origin, and was said to have 
been founded by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses. 
It Avas strongly fortified by nature and by art, and 
frequently resisted the attacks of the Romans. 
Together with the other Latin towns, it became 
subject to Rome, and was at a later period made a 
Roman colony. It was here that the younger 
Marius took refuge, and was for a considerable time 
besieged by Sulla's troops. Praeneste possessed a 
very celebrated and ancient temple of Fortuna, 
with an oracle, which is often mentioned under the 
name of Praenestinae sortes. It also had a temple 
of Juno. In consequence of its lofty situation Prae- 
neste Avas a cool and healthy residence in the 
great heats of summer {frigidum Praeneste^ Hor. 
Carm. iii. 4. 22), and was therefore much fre- 
quented at that season by the wealthy Romans. 
The remains of the ancient walls and some other 
antiquities are still to be seen at Palestrina. 

Praesus {Upalaos : Ylpaicrm), an inland town 
in the E. of Crete, belonging to the Eteocretes, 
which was destroyed by the neighbouring town of 
Hierapytna. 

Praetoria Augusta. [Augusta, No. 4.] 

Pras (ITpas, gen. TlpavTos : UpdvTes), a town of 
Thessaly, in the W. of the district Phthiotis, on 
the N.E. slope of Mt. Narthacius. 

Prasiae {Upaa-iai: Upacrievs). 1. Or Prasia 
(Upaaia), a town of the Eleuthero-lacones, on the 
E. coast of Laconia, was taken and destroyed by 
the Athenians in the 2nd year of the Pelopon- 
nesian war. — 2. (Prassa), a demus in Attica, S. 
of Stiria, belonging to the tribe Pandionis, with a 
temple of Apollo. 

Prasias Lacus (Upaaias \'i/j.v7] : TuTcino)^ a 
lake in Thrace between the Strymon and Nestus, 
and near the Strymonic gulf with silver mines in 
the neighbourhood. 

Prasii, Praesii, and Parrhasii {Tlpaaioi : San- 
scrit, Prachinas, i. e. people of the E. country)^ a 
great and powerful people of India on the Ganges, 
governed at the time of Seleucus I. by king 
Sandrocottus. Their capital city was Pali- 
bothra {Patna) ; and the extent of the kingdom 
seems to have embraced the whole valley of the 
upper Ganges, at least as far down as that city. 
At a later time the monarchy declined, so that in 
Ptolemy we only find the name as that of the 
inhabitants of a small district, called Prasiaca 
[UpacnaK-h) about the river Soa. 

Prasodis Mare {Upaaadris ^dXaa-aa or k6\- 
TTos), the S.W. part of the Indian Ocean, about 
the promontory Prasum. 

Prasum (Updaou aKpoorripiov : C. Delgado), a 
promontory on the E. coast of Africa in 10^° S. 
lat., appears to have been the S.-most point to 
which the ancient knowledge of this coast ex- 
tended. 

Pratinas (Uparipas), one of the early tragic 
poets at Athens, whose combined efi'orts brought 
the art to its perfection, was a native of Phlius, 
and was therefore bv birth a Dorian. It is nofc 

RR 2 



612 PRAXAGORAS. 



PRIAM US. 



stated at what time he went to Athens ; but he v>'a3 
older than Choerilus and younger than Aeschylus, 
with both of whom he competed for the prize, 
about B. c. 500. The step in the progress of the 
art, which was ascribed to Pratinas. v.-as the sepa- 
ration of the satyric from the tragic drama. His 
plays were much esteemed. Pratinas also ranked 
high among tlie lyric, as well as the dramatic 
poets of his age. He may perhaps be considered 
to have shared with his contemporary Lasus the 
honour of founding the Athenian school of dithy- 
rambic poetry. 

Praxagoras (Upa^aySpas), a celebrated phy- 
sician, was a native of the island of Cos, and lived 
in the 4th century B. c. He belonged to the medi- 
cal sect of the Dograatici, and was celebrated for 
his knowledge of medical science in general, and 
especially for his attainments in anatomy and phy- 
siology. 

Praxias (Upa^las). an Athenian sculptor of 
the age of Phidias, but of the more archaic school 
of Calamis, commenced the execution of the statues 
in the pediments of the great temple of Apollo at 
Delphi, but died while he was still engaged upon 
the work. His date may be placed about B. c, 
448, and onwards. 

Praxidice (npa|i5tK7]), i, e. the goddess who 
carries out the objects of justice, or watches that 
justice is done to men. "NATien ^lenelaus arrived 
in Laconia, on his return from Troy, ];e set up a 
statue of Praxidice near Gytheum, not far from 
the spot where Paris, in carrying off Helen, had 
founded a sanctuary of Aphrodite Migonitis. Near 
Haliartus. in Boeotia, we meet with the worship 
of Praxidicae, in the plural : they were here called 
daughters of Oxyges, and their names were Alal- 
comenia, Thelxinoea, and Aulis. In the Orphic 
poets Praxidice seems to be a surname of Perse- 
phone. 

Praxilla {Upa^LWa), of Sicyon, a lyric poetess, 
who flourished about B. c. 450, and was one of the 
9 poetesses who were distinguished as the Lyric 
Muses. Her scolia were among the most cele- 
brated compositions of that species. She belonged 
to the Dorian school of lyiic poetry, but there were 
also traces of Aeolic influence in her rhythms, and 
even in her dialect 

Praxiphanes (Upa^i4)duri<;), a Peripatetic philo- 
sopher, a native either of Mytilene or of Rhodes, 
"was a pupil of Theophrastus, and lived about b. c. 
.322. Epicurus is said to have been one of his 
pupils. Praxiphanes paid especial attention to 
grammatical studies, and is hence named along 
with Aristotle as the founder and creator of the 
science of grammar. 

Praxiteles (ITpaltTeATjs), one of the most dis- 
tinguished artists of ancient Greece, was both a 
statuary in bronze and a sculptor in marble. We 
know nothing of his personal history, except that 
he was a citizen, if not a native, of Athens, and 
that his career as an artist was intimately con- 
nected with that city. He probably flourished 
about B. c. 364 and onwards. Praxiteles stands, 
"R-ith Scopas, at the head of the later Attic school, 
so called in contradistinction to the earlier Attic 
school of Phidias. Without attempting those sub- 
lime impersonations of divine majesty, in which 
Phidias had been so inimitably successful, Praxi- 
teles was unsurpassed in the exhibition of the 
softer beauties of the human form, especially in the 
female figure. The most celebrated work of Pra- 



xiteles was his marble statue of Aphrodite (Venus), 
which was distinguished from other statues of the 
goddess by the name of the Cnidians, who pur- 
chased it. It was always esteemed the most per- 
fectly beautiful of the statues of the goddess. 
Many made the voyage to Cnidus expressly to be- 
hold it. So highly did the Cnidians themselves 
esteem their treasure, that when King Nicomedes 
oiTered them, as the price of it, to payoff the whole 
of their heavy public debt, they preferred to en- 
dure any sufiFermg rather than part with the work 
which gave their city its chief renoi^Ti. It was 
afterwards carried to Constantinople, where it 
perished by fire in the reign of Justinian. Praxi- 
teles modelled it from a favourite courtezan named 
Phryne, of whom also he made more than one por- 
trait statue. Another of the celebrated works of 
Praxiteles was his statue of Eros. It was pre- 
served at Thespiae, where it was dedicated by 
Phryne ; and an interesting story is told of the 
manner in which she became possessed of it. 
Praxiteles had promised to give Phryne whichever 
of his works she might choose, but he was unwil- 
ling to tell her which of them, in his own opinion, 
was the best. To discover this, she sent a slave 
to tell Praxiteles that a fire had broken out in his 
house, and that most of his works had already 
perished. On hearing this message, the artist 
rushed out, exclaimmg that all his toil was lost, if 
the fire had touched his Satyr or his Eros. Upon 
this Phryne confessed the stratagem, and chose the 
Eros. This statue was removed to Rome by 
Caligula, restored to Thespiae by Claudius, and 
carried back by Nero to Rome, where it stood in 
Pliny's time in the schools of Octavia, and it finally 
perished in the conflajration of that buildmg in 
the reign of Titus. Praxiteles had 2 sons, who 
were also distinguished sculptors, Timarchus and 
Cephisodotus. 

Praxithea (Upa^iOea), daughter of Phrasimus 
and Diogenia, was the wife of Erechtheus, and 
mother of Cecrops, Pandorus. Metion, Omeus, 
Procris, Creusa, Chthonia, and Orith}-ia. 

Preciani, a people in Gallia Aquitanica at the 
foot of the Pyrenees. 

Prelius Lacus (Lago di Castiglio7ie\ a lake in 
Etruria near the coast, near the N. end of which 
was a small island. 

Prepesinttus (Jlp^iritrivdos), one of the smaller 
Cyclades, betv.-een Oliaros and Siphnos. 

Priamides, that is. a son of Priam, by which 
name Hector, Paris, Helenus, Deiphobus, and the 
other sons of Priam, are frequently called. 

Priamus {Up'iafxos), the famous king of Troy, at 
the time of the Trojan war. He was a son of 
Laomedon and Strymo or Placia. His original 
name is said to have been Podarces, L e. the 
swift-footed," which was changed into Priamus, 
'• the ransomed (from irplauai), because he was 
the only sun'ivin^ son of Laoniedon and was ran- 
somed by his sister Hesione, after he had fallen 
into the hands of Hercules. He is said to have 
been first married to Arisbe, the daughter of 
Merops, by whom he became the father of Aesa- 
cus ; but afterwards he gave up Arisbe to Hyrta- 
cus, and married Hecuba, by whom he had the 
following children : Hector, .Alexander or Paris, 
Deiphobus, Helenus, Pammon, Polites, Antiphus, 
Hipponous, Polydorus, Troilus, Creusa, Laodice, 
Pclyxena, and Cassandra. By other women he 
had a great many children besides. According to 



PRIANSUS. 



PRISCIANUS. 



613 



the Homeric tradition, he was the father of 50 
sons, 19 of whom were children of Hecuba, to 
whom others add an equal number of daughters. 
In the earlier part of his reign, Priam is said to 
have supported the Phrygians in their war against 
the Amazons. When the Greeks landed on the 
Trojan coast Priam was already advanced in years, 
and took no active part in the war. Once only 
did he venture upon the field of battle, to conclude 
the agreement respecting the single combat be- 
tween Paris and Menelaus. After the death of 
Hector, Priam, accompanied b}^ Hermes, went to 
the tent of Achilles to ransom his son's body for bu- 
rial and obtained it. His death is not mentioned 
by Homer, but is related by later poets. When 
the Greeks entered Troy, the aged king put on his 
armour, and was on the point of rushing against 
the enemy, but he was prevailed on by Hecuba to 
take refuge wiih herself and her daughters, as a 
suppliant at the altar of Zeus. While he was 
tarrying in the temple, his son Polites, pursued 
by Pyrrhus, rushed into the sacred spot, and ex- 
pired at the feet of his father, whereupon Priam, 
overcome with indignation, hurled his spear Avith 
feeble hand against Pyrrhus, but was forthwith 
killed by the latter. — Virgil mentions (Aen. v. 
564) another Priam, a son of Polites, and a 
grandson of king Priam. 

Priansus {Upiauaos : Upidvaios, Upiavaievs), 
a town in Crete on the S. coast, S. of Lyctus, 
confounded by Strabo with Praesus. 

Priapus (nptaTTos), son of Dionysus and Aphro- 
dite. It is said that Aphrodite, who was in love 
Avith Dionysus, went to meet the god on his return 
from India, but soon abandoned him, and proceeded 
to Lampsacus on the Hellespont, to give birth to the 
child of the god. Hera, Avho was dissatisfied with 
her conduct, caused her to give birth to a child of 
extreme ugliness, who Avas named Priapus. The 
earliest Greek poets, such as Homer and Hesiod, do 
not mention this divinity ; and it was only in later 
times that he was honoured with divine worship. 
He was worshipped more especially at Lampsacus 
on the Hellespont, whence he is sometimes called 
Hellespontiacus. He was regarded as the pro- 
moter of fertility both in vegetation and in all ani- 
mals connected with an agricultural life ; and in 
this capacity he was worshipped as the protector of 
flocks of sheep and goats, of bees, of the vine, of 
all garden produce, and even of fishing. Like 
other divinities presiding over agricultural pursuits, 
he was believed to be possessed of prophetic 
powers, and is sometimes mentioned in the plural. 
As Priapus had many attributes in common with 
other gods of fertility, the Orphics identified him 
with their mystic Dionysus, Hermes, Helios, &c. 
The Attic legends connect Priapus with such sen- 
sual and licentious beings as Conisalus, Orthanes, 
and Tychon. In like manner he was confounded 
by the Italians with Mutunus or Muttunus, the 
personification of the fructifying power in nature. 
The sacrifices ofifered to him consisted of the first- 
fruits of gardens, vineyards, and fields, of milk, 
honey, cakes, rams, asses, and fishes. He was re- 
presented in carved images, mostly in the form of 
hermae, carrying fruit in his garment, and either 
a sickle or cornucopia in his hand. The hermae 
of Priapus in Italy, like those of other rustic divi- 
nities, were usually painted red, whence the god 
is called ruber or ruhiciindus. 

Priapus (HpiaTroy, Ion. np'TjTTos : n/JiaTTTjros : 



Kavuhnu, Ru.), a city of Mysia, on the Propontis, 
E. of Parium, with a small but excellent harbour. 
It was a colony of the Milesians, and a chief seat 
of the worship of Phiapus. The surrounding dis- 
trict was called Priapis {Upia-wis) and Priapene 
{TlpLaiT'rjvi]). 

Priene {Upt-nvri : Upirivevs, npiijvios : Prieneus, 
pi. F rienenses : Sajusun, Ru.), one of the 12 Ionian 
cities on the coast of Asia Minor, stood in the 
N. W. comer of Caria, at the S. foot of M. Mycale, 
and on the N. side of the Sinus Latinicus. Its 
foundation was ascribed mythically to the Neleid 
Aepytus, in conjunction with Cadmeans, from 
whom it was also called KuS/jlt]. It stood originally 
on the seashore, and had 2 harbours and a small 
fleet, but tlie change in the coast by the alluvial 
deposits of the Maeander left it some distance in- 
land. It was of much religious importance in con- 
nection with the Panionian festival on M. Mycale, 
at which the people of Priene took precedence in 
virtue of their being the supposed descendants of 
those of Helice in Greece Proper. The city was 
also celebrated as the birthplace of Bias. 

Prifernum, a town of the Vestini on the E. 
coast of central Italy. 

Primus, M. Antonius, a native of Tolosa in 
Gaul, was condemned of forgery {falsmn) in the-: 
reign of Nero, was expelled the senate of which he^ 
was a member, and was banished from the city.^ 
After the death of Nero (68), he Avas restored to ■ 
his former rank hj Galba, and appointed to the ■ 
command of the 7tli legion, Avhich Avas stationed 
in Pannonia. He Avas one of the first gene-- 
rals in Europe who declared in favour of Ves- 
pasian ; and he rendered him the most important . 
services. In conjunction Avith the governors ofe- 
Moesia and Pannonia, he invaded Italy, gained a-,. 
decisiA'e victory over the Vitellian army at Bedri- 
acum, and took Cremona, Avhich he alloAved his 
soldiers to pillage and destroy. He afterwards 
forced his Avay into Rome, notwithstanding the ob- 
stinate resistance of the Vitellian troops, and had 
the government of the city till the arrival of Mu- 
cianus from Syria. [MuciANUs, No. 2.] We 
learn from Martial, Avho was a friend of Antonius 
Primus, that he Avas alive at the accession of ' 
Trajan. 

Priscianus, a Roman grammarian, surnamed 
CaesarzeHszs, either because hcAvas born at Caesarea^ . 
or educated there. He flourished about A. d. 450, • 
and taught grammar at Constantinople. He Avas cele^ 
brated for the extent and depth of his grammatical^ 
knowledge, of which he has left the evidence in hi»- 
Avork on the subject, entitled Commentariorum gram- 
maticorum Libri XVIII. ^ addressed to his friend 
and patron, the consul Julianus. Other titles are 
however, frequently given to it. The first 16 books 
treat upon the eight parts of speech recognised by 
the ancient grammarians, letters, syllables, &c. 
The last 2 books are on syntax. This treatise 
soon became the standard Avork on Latin grammar, 
and in the epitome of Rabanus Maurus obtained 
an extensive circulation. The other Avorks of 
Priscianus still extant are: — 1. A grammatical 
catechism on 12 lines of the Aeneid, manifestly 
intended as a school book. 2. A treatise on 
accents. 3. A treatise on the symbols used to de- 
note numbers and Aveights, and on coins and num- 
bers. 4. On the metres of Terence. 5. A trans- 
lation of the Upoyv/xudo-inaTa (Praeeaercitamenta) 
of Hermogenes. 6. On the declensions of nouns. 

R K 3 



614 



PRISCIANUS. 



PROCLUS. 



7. A poem on the emperor Anastasius in 312 
hexameters, with a preface in 22 iambic lines. 

8. A piece De Ponderibus et Mensuris, in verse, 

9. An Epitome jJiaenomenon, or De Siderilus, in 
verse. 1 0. A free translation of the Periegesis of 
Dionysius in 1427 lines, manifestly made for the 
instruction of youth. 11. A couple of epigrams. 
The best edition of Priscianus is by KrehL Lips. 
1819—20, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Priscianus, Theodorus, a physician, and a 
papil of Vindicianus, lived in the 4th century after 
Christ. He is supposed to have lived at the court 
of Constantinople, and to have attained the dignity 
of Archiater. He is the author of a Latin work, 
entitled, Rerum Medicarum Lihri Quaiuor^ pub- 
lished in 1532, both at Strasburg and at Basel. 

Priscus iJlpiaKQs)^ a Byzantine historian, was 
a native of Panium in Thrace, and was one of the 
ambassadors sent by Theodosius the Younger to 
Attila, A. D. 445. He died about 471. Priscus 
vaoie an account of his embassy to Attila, 
enriched by digressions on the life and reign of 
that king. The work was in 8 books, but only 
fragments of it have coma down to us. Priscus 
was an excellent and trustworthy historian, and his 
style was remarkably elegant and pure. The frag- 
ments are published with those of Dexippus and 
others, by Bekker and Niebuhr, in the Bonn Col- 
lection of the Byzantines, 1829, 8vo. 

Priscus, Helvidius, son-in-law of Thrasea Pae- 
tus, and, like him, distinguished by his love of 
virtue, philosophy, and liberty. He was quaestor 
in Achaia during the reign of Nero, and tribune of 
the plebs a, d. 56. When Thrasea was put to 
death by Nero (66), Priscus was banished from 
Italy. He was recalled to Rome by Galba (68) ; 
but in consequence of his freedom of speech and 
love of independence, he was again banished by 
Vespasian, and Avas shortly afterwards put to 
death by order of this emperor. His life was 
written by Herennius Senecio at the request of his 
widow Fannia ; and the tyrant Domitian, in con- 
sequence of this work, subsequently put Senecio to 
death, and sent Fannia into exile. Priscus left a 
son, Helvidius, who was put to death by Domitian. 

Priscus, Servilius. The Prisci were an an- 
cient family of the Servilia gens, and filled the 
highest offices of the state during the early years 
of the republic. They also bore the agnomen of 
Structus, which is always appended to their name 
in the Fasti, till it was supplanted bj^ that of Fide- 
nas, which was first obtained by Q. Servilius Pris- 
cus Structus, who took Fidenae in his dictatorship, 
B. c. 435, and which was also borne by his de- 
scendants. 

Priscus, Tarquinius. [Tarquinius.] 

Privernum (Privernas,-atis : Pipemo), an an- 
cient town of Latiuni on the river Amasenus, be- 
longed to the Volscians. It was conquered by the 
Romans at an early period, and was subsequently 
made a colony. 

Proaeresms {Tlpoaipicnos)^ a teacher of rhe- 
toric, Avas a native of Armenia, and was born about 
A. D. 276. He first studied at Antioch under 
Ulpian, and afterwards at Athens under Julianus. 
He became at a later time the chief teacher of 
rhetoric at Athens, and enjoyed a very high repu- 
tation. He died 368, in his 92nd year. 

PrQbalinthus '\Tlpo§6.\iveos : Upo€a\i(rios), a 
demus in Attica, S. of Marathon, belonging to the 
tribe Pandionis. 



Probatia (ITpogaTm), a river of Boeotia, which, 
after passing through the territory of Trachin, and 
receiving its tributary the HercjTia, flowed into 
the lake Copais. 

Probus, Aemilius. [Nepos, Cornelius.] 

Probus, M. Aurelius, Roman emperor a. d. 
276 — 282, was a native of Sirmium in Pannonia, 
and rose to distinction hy his military abilities. 
He was appointed hj the emperor Tacitus governor 
of the whole East, and, upon the death of that sove- 
reign, the purple was forced upon his acceptance 
by the armies of Sj^ria. The downfall of Florianus 
speedily removed his only rival [Florianus], and 
he was enthusiastically hailed by the united voice 
of the senate, the people, and the legions. The 
reign of Probus presents a series of the most bril- 
liant achievements. He defeated the barbarians 
on the frontiers of Gaul and Illyricum, and in 
other parts of the Roman empire, and put down 
the rebellions of Satuminus at Alexandria, and of 
Proculus and Bonosus in Gaul. But, after crush- 
ing all external and internal foes, he was killed at 
Sirmium by his own soldiers, who had risen in 
mutiny against him, because he had employed 
them in laborious public works. Probus was as 
just and virtuous as he was warlike, and is de- 
servedly regarded as one of the greatest and best 
of the Roman emperors. 

Probus, Valerius. 1. Of Berytus, a Roman 
grammarian, who lived in the time of Nero. To 
this Probus we may assign those annotations 
on Terence, fi:om which fragments are quoted in 
the Scholia on the dramatist.— 2. A Roman gram- 
marian, flourished some years before A. Gellius, and 
therefore about the beginning of the 2nd century. 
He was the author of commentaries on Virgil, and 
possessed a copy of a portion at least of the 
Georgics, which had been corrected by the hand of 
the poet himself. These are the commentaries so 
frequently cited by Servius ; but the Scholia in 
Bucolica et Geor.gica^ now extant, under the name 
of Probus, belong to a much later period. This 
Probus was probably the author of the life of Per- 
sius, commonly ascribed to Suetonius. — There is 
extant a work upon grammar, in 2 books, entitled 
M. Valerii Prohi Grammaticae Institutiones ; but 
this work was probably not written by either of 
the preceding grammarians. It is published in the 
collections of Putschius, Hannov. 1605, and of 
Lindemann, Lips. 1831. 

Procas, one of the fabulous kings of Alba Longa, 
succeeded Aventinus, and reigned 23 years : he was 
the father of Numitor and Amulius. 

Prochyta (Prodda), an island oif the coast of 
Campania near the promontory Misenum, is said 
to have been torn away by an earthquake either 
from this promontory or from the neighbouring 
island of Pithecusa or Aenaria. 

Procles (UpoK\T]s), one of the twin sons of 
Aristodemus. For details see Eurysthenes. 

Proclus (UpoKXos), sumamed Diadochus (Atd- 
Zoxos), the successor, from his being regarded as the 
genuine successor of Plato in doctrine, was one of the 
most celebrated teachers of the Neoplatonic school. 
He Avas born at Byzantium A. D. 412, but was 
brought up at Xanthus in Lycia, to which city his 
parents belonged, and which Proclus himself re- 
garded as his native place. He studied at Alexan- 
dria under Olympiodorus, and afterwards at Athens 
under Plutarchus and Syrianus. At an early age 
his philosophical attainments attracted the atten- 



PROCLUS. 



PROCOPIUS. 



615 



tlon and admiration of his contemporaries. He had 
written his commentary on the Timaeus of Plato, 
as well as many other treatises by his 28th year. 
On the death of Syrianus Proclus succeeded him 
in his school, and inherited from him the house in 
which he resided and taught. Marinus in his 
life of Proclus records, with intense admiration, the 
perfection to which his master attained in all vir- 
tues. The highest of these virtues were, in the 
estimation of Marinus, those of a purifying and 
ascetic kind. From animal food he almost totally 
abstained ; fasts and vigils he observed with scra- 
pulous exactitude. The reverence with which he 
honoured the sun and moon would seem to have 
been unbounded. He celebrated all the impor- 
tant religious festivals of every nation, himself 
composing hymns in honour not only of Grecian 
deities, but of those of other nations also. Nor 
were departed heroes and philosophers excepted 
from this religious veneration ; and he even per- 
formed sacred rites in honour of the departed 
spirits of the entire human race. It was of course 
not surprising that such a man should be favom-ed 
with various apparitions and miraculous interposi- 
tions of the gods. He used to tell how a god had 
once appeared and proclaimed to him the glory of 
the city. But the still higher grade of what, in 
the language of the school, was termed the theurgic 
virtue, he attained by his profound meditations on 
the oracles, and the Orphic and Chaldaic mysteries, 
into the profound secrets of which he was initiated 
by Asclepigenia, the daughter of Plutarchus, who 
alone was in complete possession of the theurgic 
knowledge and discipline, which had descended to 
her from the great Nestorius. He profited so much 
by her instructions, as to be able, according to 
Marinus, to call down rain in a time of drought, to 
stop an earthquake, and to procure the immediate 
intervention of Aesculapius to cure the daughter of 
his friend Archiadas. Proclus died a. d. 485. 
During the last 5 years of his life he had become 
superannuated, his strength having been exhausted 
by his fastings and other ascetic practices. As a 
philosopher Proclus enjoyed the highest celebrity 
among his contemporaries and successors ; but his 
philosophical system is characterised by vagueness, 
mysticism, and want of good sense. He professed 
that his design was not to bring forward views of 
his own, but simply to expound Plato, in doing 
which he proceeded on the idea that everything 
in Plato must be brought into accordance with the 
mystical theology of Orpheus. He wrote a sepa- 
rate work on the coincidence of the doctrines of 
Orpheus, Pythagoras, and Plato. It was in much 
the same spirit that he attempted to blend together 
the logical method of Aristotle and the fanciful 
speculations of Neoplatonic mysticism. Several of 
the works of Proclus are still extant. The most 
important of them consist of Commentaries on 
Plato, a treatise on various theological and philo- 
sophical subjects. There is no complete edition of 
Proclus. The edition of Cousin (Paris, 6 vols. 
8vo. 1820 — 1827) contains the following treatises 
of Proclus : — On Providence and Fate ; On Ten 
Doubts about Providence ; On the Nature of 
Evil; a Commentary on the Alcibiades, and a 
Commentary on the Parmenides. The other prin- 
cipal works of Proclus are : — On the Theology of 
Plato, in 6 books ; Theological Elements ; a Com- 
mentary on the Timaeus of Plato ; five Hymns of 
an Orphic character. Several of these have been 



translated into English by Thomas Taylor. Pro- 
clus was also a distinguished mathematician and 
grammarian. His Commentaries on the first book 
of Euclid, and on the Works and Days of Hesiod 
are still extant. 

Procne (UpSicvri), daughter of king Pandion of 
Athens, and wife of Tereus. Her story is given 
under Tereus. 

Proconnesus {UpoKSuvrja-os, or npoiKSfyriffos 

1. e. Faw?i-{sla?id, Marmara), an island of the Pro- 
pontis which takes from it its modem name (Sea oj 
Marmara) off the N. coast of Mysia, N.W. of the 
peninsula of Cyzicus or Dolionis. The latter was 
also called Proconnesus from irpS^ {fawn) because 
it was a favourite resort of deer in the fawning 
season, whence it was also called Elaphonnesus 
(^E\a(p6uvr)aos, i. e. deer-island) ; and the two were 
distinguished by the names of Old and New Pro- 
connesus. The island was celebrated for its marble; 
and hence its modern name. It was the native 
place of the poet Aristeas. 

Procopius (UpoKOTTios), 1, A native of Cilicia, 
and a relative of the emperor Julian, served with 
distinction under Constantius II. and Julian. 
Having incurred the suspicions of Jovian and of 
his successor Valens, Procopius remained in con- 
cealment for about 2 years ; but in A. D. 365 he 
was proclaimed emperor at Constantinople, while 
Valens was staying at Caesarea in Cappadocia. 
Both parties prepared for war. In the following 
year (366) the forces of Procopius were defeated 
in 2 great battles. Procopius himself was taken 
prisoner, and put to death by order of Valens. — 

2. An eminent Byzantine historian, was bom at 
Caesarea in Palestine about a. d. 500. He went 
to Constantinople when still a young man, and 
there obtained so much distinction as an advocate 
and a professor of eloquence, that he attracted the 
attention of Belisarius, who appointed him his 
secretary in 527. In this capacity Procopius ac- 
companied the great hero on his different wars in 
Asia, Africa, and Italy, behig frequently em- 
ployed in state business of importance, or in con- 
ducting military expeditions. Procopius returned 
with Belisarius to Constantinople a little before 
542. His eminent talents were appreciated by 
the emperor Justinian, who conferred upon him the 
title of illustris, made him a senator, and in 562 
created him prefect of Constantinople. Procopius 
died about the same time as Justinian, 565. 
As an historian Procopius deserves great praise. 
His style is good, formed upon classic models, 
often elegant, and generally full of vigour. His 
works are: — 1. Histories {'laropiai), in 8 books ; 
viz. 2 On the Persian War, containing the period 
from 408 — 553, and treating more fully of the au- 
thor's own times ; 2 On the War with tJie Vandals, 
395 — 545 ; 4 On the Gothic War, or properly 
speaking, only 3 books, the 4th (8th) being a sort 
of supplement containing various matters, and going 
down to the beginning of 553. It was continued 
by Agathias till 559. The work is extremely in- 
teresting ; the descriptions of the habits, &c. of 
the barbarians are faithful and done in a masterly 
style. — 2. On the Public Buildings erected hy 
Justinian (KriV/iara), in 6 books. A work equally 
interesting and valuable in its kind, though appa- 
rently too much seasoned with flattery of the em- 
peror. — 3. Anecdota {^AyeKdora), a collection of 
anecdotes, some of them witty and pleasant, but 
others most indecent, reflecting upon Justinian, the 

R R 4 



PROCRIS. 



PROETUS. 



empress Theodora, Belisariiis, and other eminent 
persons. It is a complete Ckronique Scumlak'use of 
the court of Constantinople, from 549 till 562. — 
4. Oraiiones, probably extracts from the " History," 
which is rather overstocked, with harangues and 
spep:^hes. Tlie best edition of the collected works 
of Procopius is bv Dindorf, Bonn, 3 vols. 8vo. 
1833—1838. 

Procris (npo'/cpjs), daughter of Erechtheus and 
wife of Cephalus. For details see Cephalus. 

Procrustes (ripo/cpouo-TTjs), that is, "the 
Stretcher," a surname of the famous robber Po- 
lypemon or Damastes. He used to tie all travel- 
lers who fell into his hands upon a bed : if they 
were shorter than the bed, he stretched their limbs 
till they were of the same length ; if they were 
longer than the bed, he made them of the same 
size by cutting ofi some of their limbs. He was 
slain by Theseus, on the Cephissus in Attica. The 
bed of Procrustes is used proverbiallj- even at the 
present day. 

C. Prcculeias, a Roman eques, one of the 
friends of Augustus, was sent by the latter, after 
the victory at Actiura, to Antony and Cleopatra. 
It is of this Proculeius that Horace speaks ( Carm. 
ii. 2). He is said to have divided his property 
ft'ith his brothers (perhaps cousins) Caepio and 
Murena, who had lost their property in the civil 
wars. Proculeius put an end to his life by taking 
gypsum, when suffering from a disease in the 
stomach. 

Proculus, the jurist, was the contemporary of 
the jurist Xerva the younger, who was probably 
the father of the emperor Nerva. The fact that 
Proculus gave his name to the school or sect [Pro- 
culiani or FrocuIeia72i, as the name is also written), 
which was opposed to that of tlie Sabiniani, shows 
that he was a jurist of note. Proculus is often 
cited, and there are 37 extracts from him in the 
Digest from his 8 books of Epistolae. He appears 
to have written notes on Labeo. Some writers 
suppose that Proculus is the Licinius Proculus, 
who was Praefectus Praetorio under Otho. 

Proculus, Julius, a Roman senator, is said in 
the legend of Romulus to have informed the sorrow- 
ing Roman people, after the strange departure of 
their king from the world, that Romulus had de- 
scended from heaven and appeared to him, bidding 
him tell the people to ]:onour him in future as a 
god under the name of Quirinus. 

Prodicus (UpoSiKos), the celebrated sophist, 
was a native of lulis in the island of Ceos. He 
lived in the time of the Peloponnesian war and 
subsequently ; but the date cannot be determined 
either of his birth or of his death. Prodicus came 
frequently to Athens on the public business of his 
native cit}'. He was brought forward in the 
Clouds and the Birds of Aristophanes, which be- 
long respectively to B. c. 423 ;ind 414. Prodicus 
is mentioned as one of the teachers of Isocrates, 
and he was alive at the time of the death of So- 
crates (399). Suidas relates that Prodicus was I 
put to death by the Athenians as a corrupter of 
the youth, but this statement sounds very sus- 
picious. He is mentioned both by Plato and 
Xenophon with more respect than the other so- 
phists. Like Protagoras and others he travelled 
through Greece, delivering lectures for money, 
and in this way he amassed a large fortune. 
He paid especial attention to the correct use of 
words. We have the substance of one of his lec- 



tures preserved by Xenophon in the well-known 
fable, called " The Choice of Hercules." AVhen 
Hercules, as he entered upon manhood, was upon 
the point of choosing between virtue and vice, 
there appeared to him two women, the one of 
dignified beauty, adorned with purit}', modesty, 
and discretion, the other of a voluptuous form, and 
meretricious look and dress. The latter promised 
to lead him by the shortest road, without any toil, 
to the enjoyment of everj' pleasure. The other, 
while she reminded him of his ancestors and his 
noble nature, did not conceal from him that the 
gods have granted nothing really beautiful and 
good without toil and labour. The former sought 
to deter him from the path of virtue by ursring its 
difficulties ; the latter impressed upon him the 
emptiness of pleasure, and the honour and happi- 
ness flowing from a life of virtue. Thereupon 
Hercules decided in favour of virtue. 

Proema (Upoepva), a town of Thessaly in the 
W. part of the district Phthiotis, on the W. slope 
of Narthacius, and near the sources of the 
Apidanus. 

Proetides. [Proetus.] 

Proetus (UpoTTos), son of Abas and Ocalea, 
and twin-brother of Acrisius. In the dispute be- 
tween the 2 brothers for the kingdom of Argos, 
Proetus was expelled, whereupon he fled to lobates 
in Lycia, and married Antea or Stheneboea, the 
daughter of the latter. With the assistance of 
lobates, Proetus was restored to his kingdom, and 
took Tiryns, which was now fortified by the Cy- 
clopes. Acrisius then shared his kingdom with 
his brother, surrendering to him Tirvns, Midea 
and the coast of Argolis. By his wife, Proetus 
became the father of 3 daughters, Lysippe, Iphi- 
noe, and Iphianassa, who are often mentioned 
under the general name of Pro6tides. hen 
these daughters arrived at the age of maturity, 
they were stricken with madness, the cause of 
which is differently related. Some say that it 
was a punishment inflicted upon them by Dio- 
nysus, because they had despised his Avorship ; 
others relate that they were driven mad by Hera, 
because they presumed to consider themselves more 
handsome than the goddess, or because they had 
stolen some of the gold of her statue. The frenzy 
spread to the other women of Argos ; till at length 
Proetus agreed to divide his kingdom between 
Melampus and his brother Bias, upon the former 
promising that he would ciu:e the women of their 
madness. Melampus then chose the most robust 
among the young men, gave chase to the mad 
women, amid shouting and dancing, and drove 
them as far as Sicyon. During this pursuit, Iphi- 
noc died, but the 2 other daughters were cured 
by Melampus by means of purifications, and were 
then married to Melampus and Bias. The place 
where the cure was effected upon his daughters is 
not the same in all traditions, some mentioning 
the well Anigros, others the fountain Clitor in 
Arcadia, or Lusi in Arcadia. Besides these daugh- 
ters, Proetus had a son, Megapenthes. When 
Bellerophon came to Proetus to be purified of a 
murder which he had committed, the wife of Proe- 
tus fell in love with him ; but, as Bellerophou 
declined her advances, she charged him before 
Proetus with having made improper proposals to 
her. Proetus then sent Bellerophon to lobates in 
Lycia, with a letter desiring the latter to murder 
Bellerophon. [Bellerophon.] — According to 



PROMETHEUS. 



PROPERTIUS. 617 



Ovid (Met. V. 238) Acrisius was expelled from his 
kingdom by Proetns ; and Perseus, the grandson of 
Acrisius, avenged his grandfather by turning Proe- 
tus into stone by means of the head of Medusa. 

Prometheus (npo.uTj^eus), son of the Titan 
lapetus and Clymene. and brother of Atlas, Me- 
noetius, and Epimetheus. His name signifies 
*' forethought," as that of his brother Epimetheus 
denotes "afterthought." Once in the reign of 
Zeus, when gods and men were disputing with 
one another at Mecone (afterwards Sicyon), Pro- 
metheus, with a view of deceiving Zeus, cut up a 
bull and divided it into two parts: he wrapped up 
the best parts and the intestines in the skin, and 
at the top he placed the stomach, which is one of 
the worst parts, while the second heap consisted 
of the bones covered with fat. When Zeus pointed 
out to him how badly he had made the division, 
Prometheus desired him to choose, but Zeus, in his 
anger, and seeing through the stratagem of Pro- 
metheus, chose the heap of bones covered with the 
fat. The father of tlie gods avenged himself by 
withholding fire from mortals, but Prometheus 
stole it in a hollow tube (fdpdri^, ferula). Zeus 
thereupon chained Prometheus to a pillar, where 
an eagle consumed in the daytime his liver, which 
was restored in each succeeding night. Prome- 
theus was thus exposed to perpetual torture ; but 
Hercules killed the eagle and delivered the suf- 
ferer, with the consent of Zeus, who in this way had 
an opportunity of allowing his son to gain immortal 
fame. Further in order to punish men Zeus gave 
Pandora as a present to Epimetheus, in conse- 
quence of which diseases and sufferings of every 
kind befell mortals. [For details, see Pandora.] 
This is an outline of the legend about Prometheus, 
as contained in the poems of Hesiod. — Aeschylus, 
in his trilogy Prometheus, added various new fea- 
tures to this legend. Although Prometheus be- 
longed to the Titans, he is nevertheless represented 
by Aeschylus as having assisted Zeus against the 
Titans. iBut when Zeus wanted to extirpate the 
whole race of man, whose place he proposed to 
fill by an entirely new race of beings, Prometheus 
prevented the execution of the scheme, and saved 
mankind from destruction. Prometheus further 
deprived them of their knowledge of the future, 
and gave them hope instead. He taught them 
the use of fire, made them acquainted with ar- 
chitecture, astronomy, mathematics, Avriting, the 
treatment of domestic animals, navigation, medi- 
cine, the art of prophecy, working in metal, and 
all the other arts. But, as he had acted in all 
these things contrary to the will of Zeus, the latter 
ordered Hephaestus to chain him to a rock in 
Scythia, which was done in the presence of 
Cratos and Bia, two ministers of Zeus. Prome- 
theus, however, still continued to defy Zeus, and 
declared that it was the decree of fate, by Avhich 
Zeus was destined to be dethroned by his own son. 
As Prometheus steadfastly refused to give any 
explanation of this decree, Zeus hurled him into 
Tartarus, together with the rock to which he was 
chained. After the lapse of a long time, Prome- 
theus returned to the upper world, to endure a fresh 
course of suffering, for he was now fastened to Mt. 
Caucasus, and his liver devoured by an eagle, as re- 
lated in the Hesiodic legend. This state of suffering 
was to last until some other god, of his own accord, 
should take his place, and descend into Tartarus 
for hira. This came to pass when Chiron, Avho 



I had been incurably wounded by an arrow of Her- 
cules, desired to go into Hades ; and Zeus allowed 
) hira to supply the place of Prometheus. Accord- 
ing to others, however, Zeus himself delivered 
Prometheus, when the Titan was at length pre- 
vailed upon to reveal to Zeus the decree of fate, 
which was that, if he should become by Thetis 
the father of a son, that son should deprive him of 
the sovereignty. There was also a legend, which 
related that Prometheus had created man out of 
earth and water, either at the very beginning of 
the human race, or after the flood of Deucalion, 
when Zeus is said to have ordered him and Athena 
to make men out of the mud, and the winds to 
breathe life into them. Prometheus is said to 
have given to men a portion of all the qualities 
possessed bv the other animals (Hor. Carm. i. 
16. 13). The kind of earth out of which Pro- 
metheus formed men was shown in later times 
near Panopeus in Phocis. — In the legend of 
Prometheus, he often appears in connection with 
Athena, Thus he is said to have been punished 
on Mt, Caucasus for the criminal love he enter- 
tained for her : and he is further said, with her 
assistance, to have ascended into heaven, and there 
secretly to have lighted his torch at the chariot of 
Helios, in order to bring down the fire to man. 
At Athens Prometheus had a sanctuary in th& 
Academy, from whence a torch-race took place in 
honour of him. 

Promona (Upw/jLova: Petrovacz on Mt. Pro- 
mina), a moimtain fortress in the interior of Dal- 
matia. 

Pronapides (ripomTriSTjs), an Athenian, is said 
to have been the teacher of Homer. He is enume- 
rated among those who used the Pelasgic letters, 
before the introduction of the Phoenician, and is 
characterised as a graceful composer of song. 

Pronax {Upwva^), son of Talaus and Lysi- 
mache, brother of Adrastus and Eriphyle, and 
father of Lycurgus and Amphithea. According- 
to some traditions the Nemean games were insti- 
tuted in honour of Pronax. 

Pronni {Tlp6vvoi : Tlpowalos), a town on th& 
E, coast of Cephallenia, and one of tlie 4 towns of 
the island. 

Pronomus {Up6voiJLOs\ of Thebes, son of Oeni- 
adas, was one of the most distinguished auletic 
musicians of Greece at the time of the Pelopon- 
nesian war. He was the instructor of Alcibiades 
in flute-playing. He invented a new sort of flute, 
the compass of which was such, that melodies- 
could be played upon it in all the 3 modes of 
music, the Dorian, the Phrygian, and the Lydian, 
for each of which, before this invention, a separate 
flute had been necessary. 

Pronbus (npJi'oo?), son of Phegeus, and brother 
of Agenor, in conjunction with whom he slew 
Alcmaeon. [For details, see Agenor and Alc- 

MAEON.] 

Pronuba, a surname of Juno among the Ro- 
mans, describing her as the deity presiding over 
marriage. 

Prbpertius, Sex, Aurelius, the Roman poet^ 
was probably born about B, c. 51. He tells us 
that he was a native of Umbria, where it borders 
on Etruria, but nowhere mentions the exact spot. 
He Avas not descended from a family of any dis- 
tinction (ii. 24. 37), and he was deprived of his 
paternal estate by an agrarian division, probably 
1 that in 36, after the Sicilian war. At the time 



618 



PROPHTHASIA. 



of this misfortune be had not yet assumed the 
toga virilis, and was therefore imder 16 years 
of age. He had already lost his father, who, it 
has been conjectured, was one of the victims sacri- 
ficed after the taking of Perusia ; but this notion 
does not rest on any satisfactory grounds. We 
have no account of Propertius's education ; but 
from one of his elegies (iv. 1) it would seem that 
he was destined to be an advocate, but abandoned 
the profession for that of poetry. The history of 
his life, so far as it is knoAvn to us, is the history 
of his amours, nor can it be said how much of this 
is fiction. He began to write poetry at a very 
early age, and the merit of his productions soon 
attracted the attention and patronage of Maecenas. 
This was most probably shortly after the death of 
Antony in 30, when Propertius was about 2]. 
It was probably in 32 or 31, that Propertius first 
became acquainted with his Cynthia. She was a 
native of Tibur, and her real name was Hostia. 
As Propertius (iii, 20. 8) alludes to her dodus 
avus, it is probable that she was a grand-daughter 
of Hostius, who wrote a poem on the Histric war. 
[HosTius.] She seems to have inherited a con- 
siderable portion of the family talent, and was 
herself a poetess, besides being skilled in music, 
dancing, and needlework. It appears that Pro- 
pertius subsequently married, probably after Cyn- 
thia's death, and left legitimate issue, since the 
younger Pliny twice mentions Passienns Paulus 
as descended from him. This must have been 
through the female line. The year of Propertius 's 
death is altogether unknown. — Propertius resided 
on the Esquiline, near the gardens of Maecenas. 
He seems to have cultivated the friendship of his 
brother poets, as Ponticus, Bassus, Ovid, and 
others. He mentions Virgil (ii. 34. 63) in a way 
that shows he had heard parts of the Aeneid pri- 
yately recited. But though he belonged to the 
circle of Maecenas, he never once mentions Horace. 
He is equally silent about TibuEtis. His not men- 
tioning Ovid is best explained by the difference 
in their ages ; for Ovid alludes more than once to 
Propertius, and with evident affection. — As an 
elegiac poet, a high rank must be awarded to 
Propertius, and among the ancients it was a dis- 
puted point whether the preference should be given 
to him or to TibuUus. To the modem reader, how- 
ever, the elegies of Propertius are not nearly so 
attractive as those of Tibullus. This arises partly 
from their obscurity, but in a great measure also 
from a certain want of nature in them. The fault 
of Propertius was too pedantic an imitation of the 
Greeks. His whole ambition was to become the 
Roman Callimachus (iv. 1. 63), whom, as well as 
Philetas and other of the Greek elegiac poets, he 
made his model. He abounds with obscure Greek 
myths, as well as Greek forms of expression, and 
the same pedantry infects even his versification. 
Tibullus generally, and Ovid almost invariably, 
close their pentameter with a word contained in an 
iambic foot ; Propertius, especially in his first book, 
frequently ends -n-ith a word of 3, 4, or even 5 
syllables. The best editions of Propertius are by 
Burmaim, Utrecht, 1780; by Kuinoel, Leipzig, 
1804; by Lachmann, Leipzig, 1816; and by 
Hertzberg, Halle, 1844, 1845. 

Prophthasia (UpocbdaaLa : prob. Peskawarun, 
Ru.), the N.-most city of Drangiana, on the borders 
of Asia, was probably the place where Philotas 
was put to death. 



PROTAGORAS. 

Propontis {v UpoTrovTis : Sea of Marmara), so 
called from its position with reference to the Pontus 
(Euxinus), and thus more fully described as t] irpb 
Tov HouTov Tov Ev^dvov doKacraa, and Vesti- 
bulum Ponti,'' is the small sea which united the 
Euxine and the Aegean [Pontus Euxinus] and 
divides Europe (Thracia) from Asia (Mysia and 
Bithynia). It is of an irregular oval shape, running 
out on the E. into 2 deep gulfs, the Sinus Astace- 
nus {G. of Ismid) and the Sinus Cianus (G. of 
Modonia), and containing several islands. It re- 
ceived the waters of the Rhyndacus and other 
rivers of E. Mysia and "SV. BithjTiia, flowing from 
M. Ida and 01}Tnpus; and several important Greek 
cities stood on its shores, the chief of which were 
Byzantium *and Heraclea Perixthus on the 
X.. and Cyzicus on the S. Its length is calculated 
by Herodotus at 1400 stadia (140 geog. miles) and 
its greatest breadth at 500 stadia (50 g. m.) which 
is very near the truth. 

ProscMum. [Pylene.] 

Proserpina. [Persephone.] 

Prospalta (to. UpoairaXTa : Upo(rird\Tios), a 
demus in the S. of Attica, belonging to the tribe 
Acamantis. 

Prosper, a celebrated ecclesiastical writer, was 
a native of Aquitania, and flourished during the 
first half of the 5th century. He distinguished 
himself by his numerous v/ritings in defence of 
the doctrines of Augustin against the attacks of 
the Semipelagians. Many of his theological works 
are extant ; and there are also 2 Chronicles bear- 
j ing his name : — 1. Chronicon Consulare, extending 
j from A. D. 379, the date at which the chronicle of Je- 
rome ends, down to 455, the events being arranged 
according to the years of the Roman consuls. We 
find short notices with regard to the Roman em- 
perors, the Roman bishops, and political occur- 
rences in general, but the troubles of the Church 
are especially dwelt upon, and above all the Pe- 
lagian heresy. 2. Chrojiicon Imperiale, compre- 
hended within the same limits as the preceding 
(379 — ioo), but the computations proceed accord- 
ing to the years of the Roman emperors, and not 
according to the consuls. While it agrees with 
the Chronicon Consulare in its general plan, it 
differs from it in many particulars, especially in 
the very brief allusions to the Pelagian contro- 
versy, and in the slight, almost disrespectful notices 
of Augustine. The 2nd of these Chronicles was 
probably not -nTitten by Prosper of Aquitania, and 
is assigned by most critics to Prosper Tiro, who, 
it is imagined, flourished in the 6th century. 
There are like'wdse several poems, which have 
come down to us under the name of Prosper. The 
best edition of Prosper's works is the Benedictine, 
Paris,^1711. 

Prosynma {Upoavjxva: Upo(Tufj.va7os), an an- 
cient tovm of Argolis, with a temple of Hera, N, 
of Argos. 

Prota (Upara : Prate), an island in the Pro- 
pontis near Chalcedon. 

Protagoras (UpaTayopas), a celebrated sophist, 
was bom at Abdera, m Thrace, probably about 
B. c. 480, and died about 411, at the age of nearly 
70 yearSc It is said that Protagoras was once a 
poor porter, and that the skill with which he had 
fastened together, and poised upon his shoulders, 
a large bundle of wood, attracted the attention of 
Democritus, who conceived a liking for him, took 
him under his care, and instracted him in phi- 



PROTESILAUS. 



PROTOGENIA. 



619 



losophy. This well-known story, however, appears 
to have arisen out of the statement of Aristotle, 
that Protagoras invented a sort of porter's knot 
for the more convenient carrying of burdens. In 
addition to Avhich, Protagoras was about 20 years 
older than Democritus. Protagoras Avas the first 
who called himself a sophist, and taught for pay ; 
and he practised his profession for the space of 
40 years. He must have come to Athens before 
B. c. 445, since he drew up a code of laws for the 
Tliurians, Avho left Athens for the first time in 
that year. Whether he accompanied the colonists 
to Thurii, we are not informed ; but at the time 
of the plague (430) we find him again in Athens. 
Between his first and second visit to Athens, he 
had spent some time in Sicily, where he had ac- 
quired great fame ; and he brought with him to 
Athens many admirers out of other Greek cities 
through which he had passed. His instructions 
were so highly valued that he sometimes received 
100 minae from a pupil ; and Plato says that Pro- 
tagoras made more money than Phidias and 10 
other sculptors. In 411 he was accused of im- 
piety by Pythodorus, one of the Four Hundred. 
His impeachment was founded on his book on the 
gods, which began with the statement : " Re- 
specting the gods, I am unable to know whether 
they exist or do not exist." The impeachment 
was followed by his banishment, or, as others 
affirm, only by the burning of his book. Pro- 
tagoras wrote a large number of works, of which 
the most important were entitled Truth {'AK-fiQeia), 
and On tJie Gods (Uepl Qewu). The first con- 
tained the theory refuted by Plato in the Theae- 
tetus. Plato gives a vivid picture of the teaching 
of Protagoras in the dialogue that bears his name. 
Protagoras was especially celebrated for his skill 
in the rhetorical art. By way of practice in the 
art he was accustomed to make his pupils discuss 
Theses {communes loci) ; an exercise which is also 
recommended by Cicero. He also directed his 
attention to language, and endeavoured to explain 
difficult passages in the poets. 

Prbtesilaus (XlpwrecnAaos), son of Iphiclus and 
Astyoche, belonged to Phylace in Thessaly. He 
is called Phylacius and Fhi/lacides, either from his 
native place, or from his being a grandson of Phy- 
lacus. He led the warriors of several Thessalian 
places against Troy, and was the first of all the 
Greeks who was killed by the Trojans, being the 
first who leaped from the ships upon the Trojan 
coast. According to the common tradition he was 
slain by Hector. Protesilaus is most celebrated 
in ancient story for the strong affection existing 
between him and his wife Laodamia, the daughter 
of Acastus. [For details see Laodamia.] His 
tomb was shown near Eleus, in the Thracian 
Chersonesus, where a magnificent temple was 
erected to him. There was a belief that nymphs 
had planted elra-trees around his grave, which died 
away when they had grown sufficiently higb to see 
Troy, and that fresh shoots then sprang from the 
roots. There was also a sanctuarj'- of Protesilaus 
at Phylace, at Avhich funeral games Avere celebrated. 

Proteus {UpwTcvs), the prophetic old man of 
the sea, is described in the earliest legends as a 
subject of Poseidon, Avhose flocks (the seals) he 
tended. According to Homer he resided in the 
island of Pharos, at the distance of one day's 
journey from the river Aegyptus (Nile) ; whereas 
Virgil places his residence in tbe island of Car- 



pathos, between Crete and Rhodes. At midday 
Proteus rose from the sea, and slept in the shadow 
of the rocks of the coast, with the monsters of the 
deep lying around him. Any one Avishing to learn 
from him the future, Avas obliged to catch hold of 
him at that time : as soon as he Avas seized, he 
assumed every possible shape, in order to escape 
the necessity of prophesying, but Avhenever he saAv 
that his endeavours Avere of no avail, he resumed 
his usual form, and told the truth. After finishing 
his prophecy he returned into the sea. Homer 
ascribes to him a daughter Idothea, — Another set 
of traditions describes Proteus as a son of Poseidon, 
and as a king of Egypt, Avho had two sons, Tele- 
gonus and Polygonus or Tmolus. His Egyptian 
name is said to haA-e been Cetes, for Avhich the 
Greeks substituted that of Proteus. His wife is 
called Psamathe or Torone, and, besides the above 
mentioned sons, Theoclymenus and Theonoe are 
likeAvise called his children. He is said to have 
hospitably received Dionysus during his Avanderings. 
Hermes brought to him Helena after her abduction, 
or, according to others, Proteus himself took her 
from Paris, gaA-e to the lover a phantom, and re- 
stored the true Helen to Menelaus after his return 
from Troy. 

Protogenes (IlpwToyeVTjs), a celebrated Greek 
painter. He Avas a native of Caunus, in Caria, a city 
subject to the Rhodians, and flourished b. c. 332 
— 300. He resided at Rhodes almost entirely; 
the only other city of Greece which he is said to 
have visited is Athens, Avhere he executed one of 
his great works in the Propylaea. Up to his .50th 
year he is said to have lived in poverty and in 
comparative obscurity, supporting himself by paint- 
ing ships, Avhich. at that period used to be deco- 
rated Avith elaborate pictorial devices. His fame 
had, however, reached the ears of Apelles, who, 
upon visiting Rhodes, made it his first business to 
seek out Protogenes. As the surest way of making 
the merits of Protogenes known to his fellow- 
citizens, Apelles offered him, for his finished works 
the enormous sum of 50 talents apiece, and thus 
led the Rhodians to understand what an artist they 
had among them. Protogenes was distinguished "by 
the care Avith Avhich. he wrought up his pictures. 
His masterpiece Avas the picture of lalysus, the 
tutelary hero of Rhodes, on which he is said to 
have spent 7 years, or even, according to another 
statement, 1 1 ; and to have painted it 4 times over. 
This picture Avas so highly prized even in the 
artist's lifetime that Avhen Demetrius Poliorcetes 
was using every effort to subdue Rhodes, he re- 
frained from attacking the city at its most vul- 
nerable point, lest he should injure this picture, 
which had been placed in that quarter. There is 
a celebrated story about this picture, relating to the 
accidental production of one of the most effective 
parts of it, the foam at the mouth of a tired hound. 
The artist, it is said, dissatisfied with his repeated 
attempts to produce the desired effect, at last, in 
his vexation, dashed the sponge, Avith which he 
had repeatedly effaced his Avork, against the faulty 
place ; and the sponge charged as it was by re- 
peated use with the necessary colours, left a mark 
in Avhich the painter recognised the very foam 
which his art had failed to produce. 

Protogenia (UpuToyeveia), daughter of Deu- 
calion and Pyrrha, and wife of Looms ; but Zeus 
carried her off, and became by her the father of 
Opus. 



6-20 



PROXENU: 



Proxenus (npd|e* os), a Boeotian, was a disciple 
of Gorffias, and a friend of Xenophon. Being con- 
nected bv the ties of hospitality with the younger 
Crrus. the latter engaged him in his service. He 
was seized by Tissaphemes and put to death, with 
the other Greek generals. It was at the invitation 
of Proxenns that Xenophon was induced to enter 
the ser\-ice of Cyrus. 

Prudentius, Aurelins Clemens, the earliest of 
the Christian poets of any celebrity, was a native 
of Spain, and was bom a. d. 348. After practising 
as an advocate, and discharging the duties of a 
civil and criminal judge in 2 important cities, he 
received from the emperor Theodosius, or Honorius, 
a high military appointment at court ; but as he 
advanced in years, he became sensible of the 
emptiness of worldly honour, and earnest in the 
exercises of religion. His poems are composed in 
a great variety of metres, but possess litde merit 
either in expression or in substance. The Latinity 
is impure, abotmding both in words altogether 
barbarous, and in classical words employed in a 
barbarous sense ; and the author is totally ignorant 
or regardless of the common laws of prosody. The 
best editions of Prudentius are by Arevalus, Rom. 
1788 and 1789, 2 vols. 4to. and by Obbarius, Tu- 
bing. 1845, 8vo. 

Prusa or Prasias (Upovaa : noovcnevs). L P. 
ad Olympum (IL t] 4iri r<f 'OAt/iTn^j : Brusa), a 
great city of Bithynia, on the X. side of M. Olym- 
pus. 1 o Roman miles from Cius and 25 from Xicaea, 
was built by Prusias king of Bithynia, or, according 
to some, by Hannibal. — 2. Some -nTiters distin- 
guish from this a smaller city, called P. ad Hypinm 
or Hyppitun {yrpbs rep "Tmricf ttotou^, PtoL; sub 
Hypio monte, Plin.). which stood X.W. of the 
former, and was originally called Ciertis (Kiepos) 
and belonged to the territory of Heraclea, but was 
conquered by Prusias, who named it after himself. 
It stood X.W. of the former. Perhaps it is only 
another name for Cius. 

Prusias (Upova-'ias). 1. I.King of Bithynia from 
about B. c. 228 to 180, though the date neither of 
his accession nor of his death is exactly known. 
He was the son of Zielas, whom he succeeded. 
He appears to have been a monarch of vigour and 
ability, and raised his kingdom of Bithynia to a 
much higher pitch of power and prosperity than it 
had previously attained. It was at his court that 
Hannibal took refuge ; and when the Romans de- 
manded the surrender of the Carthaginian general, 
the king basely gave his consent, and Hannibal 
only escaped falling into the hands of his enemies 
by a voluntary death. — 2. II. King of Bithynia, 
son and successor of the preceding, reigned from 
about 180 to 149. He courted assiduously the 
alliance of the Romans. He carried on war with 
Attains, king of Pergamus, with whom, however, 
he was compelled by the Romans to conclude peace 
in 154. He was slain in 149 by order of his 
son X'"icomedes, as is related in the life of the 
latter. [Xicomedes IL] Prusias is described to 
us as a man in whom personal deformity was com- 
bined with a character the most vicious and de- 
graded. His passion for the chase is attested by 
the epithet of the Huntsman" (Kvyrnos). 

Prymnesla or Prymnesus (n.pv/Mi'TjG-ia. Upv- 
HVTjaos, IlpvuyT](T(T6s: Seid-el-Ghazi, Ru.), a city in 
the X. of Phrygia, which appears, from its coins, 
to have been a chief seat of the worship of Midas 
as a hero. 



P5ELLUS. 

i Prytanis (npuVeu'is), king of Sparta, of the 
! Proclid line, was the son of Eurypon, and 4th king 
of that race. 

I Psamathus {^a^aQoZs, -ovvros : ^aii}ia6ovv- 
' Tios, '^auuadova-ios), a seaport town in Laconia 
near the promontory Taenarum. 

Psammeiiitus (^Yo/i/xTj^iTos), king of Egypt, 
! succeeded his father Amasis in B. c. 520', and 
I reigned only 6 months. He was conquered by 
Cambyses in 525, and his country made a province 
I of the Persian empire. His life was spared by 
Cambyses, but as he was detected shortly after- 
wards in endeavouring to excite a revolt among the 
Egyptians, he was compelled to put an end to his 
life by drinking bull's blood. 

Psammis (^au/iis), king of Egypt, succeeded 
his father Xecho. and reigned from b. c. 601 to 
595. He carried on war against Ethiopia, and 
died immediately after his return from the latter 
country. He was succeeded by his son Apries. 

Psammitichus or Psammetichus {"ifauu'iTixos 
or "VaufjL-nrixos), the Greek form of the Egj-ptian 
PsAMETiK, a king of Egypt, and founder of the 
Saitic dynasty, reigned from B. c. 671 to 617. 
He was originally one of the 12 kings, who ob- 
tained an independent sovereignty in the confusion 
which followed the death of Setho. Having been 
driven into banishment by the other kings, he 
took refuge in the marshes : but shortly afterwards 
with the aid of some Ionian and Carian pirates, he 
conquered the other kings, and became sole ruler 
of Egypt. He provided a settlement for his Greek 
mercenaries on the Pelusiac or eastern branch of 
the Xile, a little below Bubastis, and he appears 
to have mainly relied upon them for the mainte- 
nance of his power. In order to facilitate inter- 
course between the Greeks and his other subjects, 
he ordered a number of Egyptian children to live 
with them, that they might learn the Greek lan- 
guage ; and from them sprung the class of inter- 
preters. The employment of foreign mercenaries 
by Psammitichus gave great offence to the military 
caste in Egypt ; and being indignant at other 
treatment which they received from him, they 
emigrated in a body of 240,000 men, into Ethiopia, 
where settlements were assigned to them by the 
Ethiopian king. It must, therefore, have been 
chiefly with his Ionian and Carian troops that 
Psammitichus carried on his wars against Syria 
and Phoenicia. He laid siege to the city of 
Azotus (the .Ishod of Scripture) for 29 years, till 
he took it. As Psammitichus had displeased a 
large portion of his subjects by the introduction of 
foreigners, he seems to have paid especial court to 
the priesthood. He built the southern propylaea 
of the temple of Hephaestus at Memphis, and a 
splendid aula, vnih a portico round it, for the habi- 
tation of Apis, in front of the temple. 

Pselcis : DaMx, or Dekkeh, Ru.% the 

chief city in the Dodecaschoenus, that is, the X. 
part of Aethiopia, which was adjacent to Eg}-pt, to 
which it was regarded by the Romans as belonging. 
The city stood on the W. bank of the Xile, be- 
tween Syene and Tachompso, the latter of which 
was so far eclipsed by Pselcis as to acquire the 
name of Contrapselcis. Under the later empire, 
Pselcis was garrisoned by a body of German 
horsemen. 

Psellns (ViWos). 1. Michael Psellns, the 

elder, of Andros, flourished in the 9th century 
after Christ. He was a learned man, and an eager 



PSOPHIS. 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



6'Jl 



student of the Alexandrian philosophy. He was 
probably the author of some of the works which 
are ascribed to the younger Psellus. — 2. Michael 
Constantius Psellus, the younger, a far more 
celebrated person, flourished in the 1 1th century of 
our era. He was born at Constantinople 1020, 
and lived at least till 11 05. He taught philosophy, 
rhetoric, and dialectics, at Constantinople, where 
be stood forth as almost the last upholder of the 
falling cause of learning. The emperors honoured 
him with the title of Prince of the Philosophers. 
His works are both in prose and poetry, on a vast 
variety of subjects, and distinguished by an elo- 
quence and taste which are worthy of a better 
period. They are too numerous to be mentioned 
in this place. 

Psophis {H^uxp'is : 'Vaxpidios : Khan of Tripo- 
tajno), a town in the N. W. of Arcadia, on the 
river Erymanthus, is said to have been originall}' 
called Phegia. It sided with the Aetolians 
against tlie Achaeans, but was taken B.C. 219 by 
Philip, king of Macedonia, who was then in al- 
liance with the Achaeans. 

Psyche Q¥vx-r]), " the soul," occurs in the later 
times of antiquity, as a personification of the human 
soul. Psyche was the youngest of the 3 daughters 
of a king, and excited by her beauty the jealousy 
and envy of Venus. In order to avenge herself, 
the goddess ordered Cupid or Amor to inspire 
Psyche with a love for the most contemptible of all 
men : but Cupid Avas so stricken with her beauty 
that he himself fell in love with her. He accord- 
ingly conveyed her to a charming spot, where un- 
seen and unknown he visited her every night, and 
left her as soon as the day began to dawn. Psyche 
might have continued to enjoy this state of happi- 
ness, if she had attended to the advice of her lover, 
who told her never to give way to her curiosity, or 
to inquire who he was. But her jealous sisters 
made her believe that in the darkness of night she 
was embracing some hideous monster, and accord- 
ingly once, while Cupid was asleep, she drew near 
to him with a lamp, and, to her amazement, beheld 
the most handsome and lovely of the gods. In her 
excitement of joy and fear, a drop of hot oil fell 
from her lamp upon his shoulder. This awoke 
Cupid, who censured her for her mistrust, and es- 
caped. Psyche's happiness was now gone, and 
after attempting in vain to throw herself into a 
river, she wandered about from temple to temple, 
inquiring after her lover, and at length came to the 
palace of Venus. There her real suiferings began, 
for Venus retained her, treated her as a slave, and 
imposed upon her the hardest and most humiliating 
labours. Psyche would have perished under the 
weight of her sufferings, had not Cupid, who still 
loved her in secret, invisibly comforted and assisted 
her in her toils. With his aid she at last suc- 
ceeded in overcoming the jealousy and hatred of 
Venus : she became immortal, and was united to 
him for ever. It is not difficult to recognise in this 
lovely story the idea of which it is merely the 
mythical embodiment ; for Psyche is evidently the 
human soul, which is purified by passions and mis- 
fortunes, and is thus prepared for the enjoyment of 
true and pure happiness. In works of art Psyche 
is represented as a maiden with the wings of a 
butterfly, along with Cupid in the different situa- 
tions described in the allegory. 

PsycMum {"¥1x^01'), a town on the S. coast of 
Crete. 



Psylli ("VvWoi), a Libyan people, the earliest 
known inhabitants of the district of N. Africa 
called Cyrenaica. 

Psyra (xa ^vpd : ^vpios: Ipsara), a small island 
of the Aegean Sea, 40 stadia (4 geog. miles) in 
circuit, lying 50 stadia (5 geog. miles) "W. off the 
N.W. point of Chios. It had a city of the same 
name. 

Psyttalea. [Salamis.] 

Pteleds (IlreAecos), a small lake in Mysia, near 
Ophrynium on the coast of the Hellespont. 

Pteleum (nreAecJi/ : IlTeAeaTTjy, nreXeovaios). 
1. (Fielia), an ancient seaport town of Thessaly in 
the district Phthiotis, at the S. W. extremity of 
the Sinus Pagasaeus, was destroyed by the Ro- 
mans. — 2. A town in Elis Triphylia, said to have 
been a colony from the preceding. —3. A fortress 
of Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor, belonging to 
Erythrae. 

Ptolemaeus (nToAe^alos) usually called Pto- 
lemy. I. Mi?ior historical persons. 1. Nephew of 
Antigonus, king of Asia. He carried on war in 
Greece on behalf of Antigonus, but in 310 he 
abandoned the cause of his uncle and concluded a 
treaty with Cassander and Ptolemy the son of 
Lagus. He soon gave offence to the Egyptian king, 
and was in consequence compelled to put an end 
to his life by poison, B. c. 309. —2. Son of Lysi- 
machus, king of Thrace. He was the eldest of the 
3 sons of that monarch by his last wife Arsinoe, 
and the only one who escaped falling into the 
hands of Ptolemy Ceraunus, —3. Son of Pyrrhus, 
king of Epirus. by his wife Antigone, the step- 
daughter of Ptolemy Lagi. When only 15 years 
of age he was left by his father in charge of his 
hereditary dominions, when Pyrrhus himself set 
out on his expedition to Italy, 280. At a later 
time he fought under his father in Greece, and was 
slain in the course of Pyrrhus's campaign in the 
Peloponnesus, 272.-4. SurnamedPHiLADELPHUs, 
son of M. Antony, the Triumvir, by Cleopatra. 
After the death of Antony, 30, his life was spared 
by Augustus, at the intercession of Juba and 
Cleopatra, and he was brought up by Octavia with 
her own children. 

II. Kings of Egypt. 

I. Surnamed Soter, the Preserver, but more com- 
monly known as the son of Lagus, reigned u. c. 
323 — 285. His father Lagus was a Macedonian 
of ignoble birth, but his mother Arsinoe had been 
a concubine of Philip of Macedon, on which ac- 
count it seems to have been generally believed that 
Ptolemy was in reality the offspring of that mo- 
narch. Ptolemy is mentioned among the friends 
of the young Alexander before the death of Philip. 
He accompanied Alexander throughout his cam- 
paigns in Asia, and was always treated by the 
king with the greatest favour. On the division of 
the empire which followed Alexander's death 
(323), Ptolemy obtained the government of Egypt. 
In 321 his dominions were invaded by Perdiccas, 
the regent; but the assassination of Perdiccas by Lis 
mutinous soldiers soon delivered Ptolemy from this 
danger. In the following year Ptolemy enlarged 
his dominions by seizing upon the important 
satrapy of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria. It was pro- 
bably during this expedition that he made himself 
master of Jerusalem, by attacking the city on the 
Sabbath day. A few years afterwards (316.) 
Ptolemy entered into an alliance with Cassander. 



622 PTOLEMAEUS. 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



and Lysiraaclius against Antigonus, whose growing 
power had excited their common apprehensions. 
In the war which followed, Antigonus conquered 
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia (315, 314); but Pto- 
lemy recovered these provinces by the defeat of 
Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, in 312. In 311 
hostilities were suspended by a general peace. 
This peace, however, was of short duration, and 
Ptolemy appears to have been the first to recom- 
mence the war. He crossed over to Greece, where 
he announced himself as the liberator of the Greeks, 
but he effected little. In 306 Ptolemy was de- 
feated by Demetrius in a great sea-fight off Sala- 
mis in Cyprus. In consequence of this defeat, 
Ptolemy lost the important island of Cyprus, which 
had previously been subject to him. Antigonus 
was so much elated by this victory as to assume 
the title of king, an example which Ptolemy, not- 
withstanding his defeat, immediately followed. 
Antigonus and Demetrius followed up their success 
by the invasion of Egypt, but were compelled to 
return to Syria without effecting any thing. Next 
year (305) Ptolemy rendered the most important 
assistance to the Rhodians, who were besieged by 
Demetrius ; and when Demetrius was at length 
compelled to raise the siege (304), the Rhodians 
paid divine honours to the Egyptian monarch as 
their saviour and preserver (Swttjp), a title which 
appears to have been now bestowed upon Ptolemy 
for the first time. Ptolemy took comparatively 
little part in the contest, which led to the decisive 
battle of Ipsus, in which Antigonus was defeated 
and slain (301). The latter years of Ptolemy's 
reign appear to have been devoted almost entirely 
to the arts of peace, and to promoting the internal 
prosperity of his dominions. In 285 Ptolemy ab- 
dicated in favour of his youngest son Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, the child of his latest and most be- 
loved wife, Berenice, excluding from the throne" 
his two eldest sons Ptolemy Ceraunus and Melea- 
ger, the oifspring of Eurydice. The elder Ptolemy 
survived this event 2 years, and died in 283. His 
reign is variously estimated at 38 or 40 years, 
according as we include or not these 2 years which 
followed his abdication. — The character of Pto- 
lemy has been generally represented in a very 
favourable light by historians, and there is no 
doubt that if we compare him with his contem- 
porary and rival potentates he appears to deserve 
the praises bestowed upon his mildness and mode- 
ration. But it is only with this important qualifi- 
cation that they can be admitted: for there are 
many evidences, that he did not shrink from any 
measure that he deemed requisite in order to carry 
out the objects of his ambition. But as a ruler 
Ptolemy certainly deserves the highest praise. By 
his able and vigorous administration he laid the 
foundations of the wealth and prosperity which 
Egypt enjoyed for a long period. Under his fos- 
tering care Alexandria quickly rose to the place 
designed for it by its founder, that of the greatest 
commercial city of the world. Not less eminent 
were the services rendered by Ptolemy to the ad- 
vancement of literature and science. In this de- 
partment indeed it is not always easy to distinguish 
the portion of credit due to the father from that of 
his son: but it seems certain that to the elder 
monarch belongs the merit of having originated 
those literary institutions which assumed a more 
definite and regular form, as well as a more pro- 
aiinent place, under his successor. Such appears 



to have been the case with the two most celebrated 
of all, the Library and the Museum of Alexandria. 
The first suggestion of these important foundations 
is ascribed by some writers to Demetrius of Pha- 
lerus, who spent all the latter years of his life at 
the court of Ptolemy. But many other men of 
literary eminence were also gathered around the 
Egyptian king: among whom may be especially 
noticed the great geometer Euclid, the philosophers 
Stilpo of Megara, Theodoras of Cyrene, and Dio- 
dorus surnamed Cronus; as well as the elegiac 
poet Philetas of Cos, and the grammarian Zenodo- 
tus. To the two last we are told Ptolemy confided 
the literary education of his son Philadelphus. 
Many anecdotes sufficiently attest the free inter- 
course which subsisted between the king and the 
men of letters by whom he was surrounded, and 
prove that the easy familiarity of his manners cor- 
responded with his simple and unostentatious 
habits of life. We also find him maintaining a 
correspondence with Menander, whom he in vain 
endeavoured to attract to his court, and sending 
overtures probabl}"" of a similar nature to Theo- 
phrastus. Nor were the fine arts neglected : the 
rival painters Antiphilus and Apelles both exer- 
cised their talents at Alexandria, where some of 
their most celebrated pictures were produced. — 
Ptolemy was himself an author : he composed a 
history of the wars of Alexander, which is fi-e- 
quently cited by later writers, and is one of the 
chief authorities which Arrian made the ground- 
work of his own history. —11. Fhiladelphus 
(b. c. 285—247), the son of Ptolemy I. by 
his wife Berenice, was born in the island of 
Cos, 309. His long reign was marked by few 
events of a striking character. He was engaged in 
war with his half-brother Magas, who had go- 
verned Cyrene as viceroy under Ptolemy Soter, 
but on the death of that monarch not only asserted 
his independence, but even attempted to invade 
Egypt. Magas was supported by Antiochus II., 
king of Syria ; and the war was at length terminated 
by a treaty, which left Magas in undisputed pos- 
session of the Cyrenaica, while his infant daughter 
Berenice was betrothed to Ptolemy, the son of 
Philadelphus. Ptolemy also concluded a treaty 
with the Romans. He was frequently engaged in 
hostilities with Syria, which were terminated to- 
Avards the close of his reign by a treaty of peace, 
by which Ptolemy gave his daughter Berenice in 
marriage to Antiochus II. Ptolemy's chief care, 
however, was directed to the internal administra- 
tion of his kingdom, and to the patronage of lite- 
rature and science. The institutions of which the 
foundations had been laid by his father quickly 
rose under his fostering care to the highest pros- 
perity. The Museum of Alexandria became the 
resort and abode of all the most distinguished men 
of letters of the day, and in the library attached to 
it were accumulated all the treasures of ancient 
learning. Among the other illustrious names 
which adorned the reign of Ptolemy, may be men- 
tioned those of the poets Philetas and Theocritus, 
the philosophers Hegesias and Theodorus, the 
mathematician Euclid, and the astronomers Tirao- 
charis, Aristarchus of Samos, and Aratus. Nor 
was his patronage confined to the ordinary cycle of 
Hellenic literature. By his interest in natural 
history he gave a stimulus to the pursuit of that 
science, which gave birth to many important works, 
while he himself formed collections of rare animals 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



PTOLEMAEUS. 623 



within the precincts of the royal palace. It was 
during his reign also, and perhaps at his desire, 
that Manetho gave to the world in a Greek form 
the historical records of the Egyptians ; and ac- 
cording to a well-known tradition, it was by his 
express command that the Holy Scriptures of the 
Jews were translated into Greek. The new cities 
or colonies founded by Philadelphus in different 
parts of his dominions were extremely numerous. 
On the Red Sea alone we find at least two bearing 
the name of Arsinoe, one called after another of 
his sisters Philotera, and two cities named in 
honour of his mother Berenice. The same names 
occur also in Cilicia and Syria : and in the latter 
country he founded the important fortress of Pto- 
lema'is in Palestine. All authorities concur in 
attesting the great power and wealth, to which 
the Egyptian monarchy was raised under Phila- 
delphus. He possessed, at the close of his reign a 
standing army of 200,000 foot, and 40,000 horse, 
besides war-chariots and elephants ; a fleet of 
1500 ships ; and a simi of 740,000 talents in his 
treasury ; while he derived from Egypt alone an 
annual revenue of 14,800 talents. His dominions 
comprised, besides Egypt itself, and portions of 
Ethiopia, Arabia, and Libya, the important pro- 
vinces of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, together with 
Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, and the Cyclades : and 
during a great part at least of his reign, Cilicia 
and Pamphylia also. Before his death Cyrene 
was reunited to the monarchy by the marriage of 
his son Ptolemy with Berenice, the daughter of 
Magas. The private life and relations of Phila- 
delphus do not exhibit his character in as favour- 
able a light as we might have inferred from the 
splendour of his administration. He put to death 
2 of his brothers ; and he banished his first wife 
Arsinoe, the daughter of Lysiraachus, to Coptos in 
Upper Egypt on a charge of conspiracy. After 
her removal Ptolemy married his own sister Ar- 
sinoe, the widow of Lysimachus ; a flagrant vio- 
lation of the religious notions of the Greeks, but 
which was frequently imitated by his successors. 
He evinced his affection for Arsinoe, not only by 
bestowing her name upon many of his newly- 
founded colonies, but by assuming himself the sur- 
name of Philadelphus, a title which some writers 
referred in derision to his unnatural treatment of 
his 2 brothers. By this 2nd marriage Ptolemy 
had no issue : but his first wife had borne him 
2 sons — Ptolemy, who succeeded him on the 
throne, and Lysimachus ; and a daughter, Berenice, 
whose marriage to Antiochus IL, king of Syria, 
has been already mentioned. — III. Euergetes 
(b. c. 247 — 222), eldest son and successor of 
' Philadelphus. Shortly after his accession he in- 
vaded Syria, in order to avenge the death of his 
sister Berenice. [Berenice, No. 2.] He met 
i with the most striking success. He advanced as 
j far as Babylon and Susa, and after reducing all 
I Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Susiana, received 
the submission of all the upper provinces of Asia 
as far as the confines of Bactria and India. From 
this career of conquest he was recalled by the news 
of seditions in Egypt, and returned to that country, 
carrying with him an immense booty, comprising, 
among other objects, all the statues of the Egyptian 
deities which had been carried off by Cambyses to 
Babylon or Persia. These he restored to their 
respective temples, an act by which he earned the 
greatest popularity with his native Egyptian sub- 



jects, who bestowed on him in consequence the 
title of Euergetes (the Benefactor), by which he is 
generally known. While the arms of the king 
himself were thus successful in the East, his fleets 
reduced the maritime provinces of Asia, including 
Cilicia, Pamphylia, and Ionia, as far as the Hel- 
lespont, together with Lysimachia and other im- 
portant places on the coast of Thrace which con- 
tinued for a long period subject to the Egyptian 
rule. Concerning the events which followed the 
return of Euergetes to his own dominions (pro- 
bably in 243) we are almost wholly in the dark ; 
but it appears that the greater part of the eastern 
provinces speedily fell again into the hands of 
Seleucus, while Ptolemy retained possession of the 
maritime regions and a great part of Syria itself. 
He soon obtained a valuable ally in the person of 
Antiochus Hierax, the younger brother of Seleucus, 
whom he supported in his wars against his elder 
brother. We find Euergetes maintaining the same 
friendly relations as his father with Rome. During 
the latter years of his reign he subdued the Ethi- 
opian tribes on his southern frontier, and advanced 
as far as Adule, a port on the Red Sea, where he 
established an emporium, and set up an inscription 
commemorating the exploits of his reign. To a 
copy of this, accidentally preserved to us by an 
Egyptian monk, Cosmas Indicopleustes, we are 
indebted for much of the scanty information we 
possess concerning his reign. Ptolemy Euergetes 
is scarcely less celebrated than his father for his 
patronage of literature and science : he added so 
largely to the library at Alexandria that he has 
been sometimes erroneously deemed its founder. 
Eratosthenes, ApoUonius Rhodius, and Aristo- 
phanes, the grammarian, flourished at Alexandria 
during his reign, — sufficient to prove that the 
literature and learning of the Alexandrian school 
still retained their former eminence. By his wife 
Berenice, who survived him, Euergetes left three 
children: 1. Ptolemy, his successor; 2. Magas ; 
and 3. Arsinoe, afterwards married to her brother 
Ptolemy Phiiopator. — IV. Philopator (b. c. 222— 
205), eldest son and successor of Euergetes. He 
was very far from inheriting the virtues or abilities 
of his father : and his reign was the commence- 
ment of the decline of the Egyptian kingdom, 
which had been raised to such a height of power 
and prosperity by his three predecessors. Its first 
beginning was stained with crimes of the darkest 
kind. He put to death his mother, Berenice, and 
his brother, Magas, and his uncle Lysiraachus, the 
brother of Euergetes. He then gave himself up 
without restraint to a life of indolence and luxury, 
while he abandoned to his minister Sosibius the 
care of all political affairs. The latter seems to 
have been as incapable as his master : and the 
kingdom was allowed to fall into a state of the 
utmost disorder, of which Antiochus the Great, 
king of Syria, was not slow to avail himself. In 
the first 2 campaigns (21.9,218), Antiochus con- 
quered the greater part of Coele-Syria and Pales- 
tine, but in the 3rd year of the war (217), he was 
completely defeated by Ptolemy in person at the 
decisive battle of Raphia, and was glad to conclude 
a peace with the Egyptian monarch. On his retirni 
from his Syrian expedition, Ptolemy gave himself 
up more and more to every species of vice and 
debauchery. His mistress Agathoclea, and her 
brother Agathocles, divided with Sosibius the 
patronage and distribution of all places of honour 



624 PTOLEMAEUS. 
or profit. Towards the close of his reign Ptolemy 
put to death his wife Arsinoe. His debaucheries 
shortened his life. He died in 205, leaving only 
one son, a child of 5 years old. We find Ptolemy 
following up the policy of his predecessors, by cul- 
tivating the friendship of the Romans, to whom 
lie furnished large supplies of corn during their 
struggle with Carthage. Plunged as he Avas in 
vice and debauchery, Philopator appears to have 
still inherited something of the love of letters for 
which his predecessors were so conspicuous. We 
lind him associating on familiar terms Avith phi- 
losophers and men of letters, and especially patron- 
ising the distinguished grammarian Aristarchus. 
— V. Epiphanes (b. c. 205 — 181), son and suc- 
cessor of Ptolemy IV. He was a child of 
o years old at the death of his father, 205. 
Philip king of Macedonia and Antiochus III. 
of Syria, determined to take advantage of the 
minority of Ptolemy, and entered into a league to 
divide his dominions between them. In pursuance 
of this arrangement Antiochus conquered Coele- 
Syria, while Philip reduced the Cyclades and the 
cities in Thrace which had still remained subject 
to Egypt. In this emergency the Egyptian mini- 
sters had recourse to the powerful intervention of 
tlie Romans, who commanded both monarchs to 
refrain from further hostilities, and restore all the 
conquered cities. In order to evade this demand 
without openly opposing the power of Rome, Anti- 
ochus concluded a treaty with Egypt, by which it 
was agreed that the young king should marry 
Cleopatra, the daughter of Antiochus, and receive 
back the Syrian provinces as her dower. This 
treaty took place in 199, but the marriage was not 
actually solemnised until 6 years after. The admi- 
nistration of Egypt was placed in the hands of 
Aristomenes, a man who was every way worthy of 
the charge. As earlj^, however, as 196 the young 
king was declared of full age, and the ceremony of 
his Anacleteria, or coronation, was solemnised with 
great magnificence. It was on this occasion that 
the decree was issued which has been preserved 
to us in the celebrated inscription known as the 
Rosetta stone, a monument of great interest in 
regard to the internal history of Egypt under 
the Ptolemies, independent of its importance as 
having afforded the key to the discovery of hiero- 
glyphics. In 193 the marriage of Ptolemy with 
tlie Syrian princess Cleopatra Avas solemnised at 
Raphia. Ptolemy, however, refused to assist his 
father-in-law in the war against the Romans, Avhich 
was at this time on the eve of breaking out, and he 
continued steadfast in his alliance with Rome. But 
he derived no advantage from the treaty Avhich 
concluded it, and Antiochus still retained posses- 
sion of Coele-SjTia and Phoenicia. As long as 
Ptolemy continued under the guidance and influ- 
ence of Aristomenes, his administration was equi- 
table and popular. Gradually, however, he became 
estranged from his able and virtuous minister, and 
threw himself more and more into the power of 
flatterers and vicious companions, until at length 
he was induced to rid himself of Aristomenes, who 
was compelled to take poison. Towards the close 
of his reign Ptolemy coticeived the project of re- 
covering Coele-Syria from Seleucus, the successor 
of Antiochus, and had assembled a large mercenary 
force for that purpose : but having, by an un- 
guarded expression, excited the apprehensions of 
some of his friends, he was cut off by poison in the 



PTOLEMAEUS. 
24th year of his reign and the 29th of his age, 
181. He left 2 sons, both named Ptolemy, who 
subsequently ascended the throne, under the names 
of Ptolemy Philometor and Euergetes II. and a 
daughter, who bore her mother's name of Cleopatra. 
His reign was marked by the rapid decline of the 
Egyptian monarchy, for the provinces and cities 
wrested from it during his minority by Antiochus 
and Philip were never recovered, and at his death 
Cyprus and the Cyrenaica were almost the only 
foreign possessions still attached to the crown of 
Egypt.— VI. Philometor (b. c. 181—146), eldest 
son and successor of Ptolemy V. He was a child 
at the death of his father in 181, and the regency 
was assumed during his minority by his mother 
Cleopatra, who, by her able administration, main- 
tained the kingdom in a state of tranquillity. But 
after her death, in 173, the chief power fell into the 
hands of Eulaeus and Lenaeus, ministers as cor- 
rupt as they were incapable ; who had the rashness 
to engage in war with Antiochus Epiphanes, king 
of Syria, in the vain hope of recovering the pro- 
vinces of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. But their 
army was totally defeated by Antiochus, near Pe- 
lusium, and Antiochus was able to advance with- 
out opposition as far as Memphis, 170. The 
young king himself fell into his hands, but was 
treated with kindness and distinction, as Antiochus 
hoped by his means to make himself the master of 
Egypt. On learning the captivity of his brother, 
the younger Ptolemy, who was then at Alexandria 
with his sister Cleopatra, assumed the title of king, 
under the name of Euergetes II., and prepared to 
defend the capital to the utmost. Antiochus here- 
upon laid siege to Alexandria ; but he was unable 
to take the city, and withdrew into Syria, after 
establishing Philometor as king at Memphis, but 
retaining in his hands the frontier fortress of Pelu- 
sium. This last circumstance, together with the 
ravages committed by the Syrian troops, awakened 
Philometor, Avho had hitherto been a mere puppet 
in the hands of the Syrian king, to a sense of his 
true position, and he hastened to make overtures 
of peace to his brother and sister at Alexandria. 
It was agreed that the two brothers should reign 
together, and that Philometor should marry his 
sister Cleopatra. But this arrangement did not 
suit the views of Antiochus, Avho immediately re- 
newed hostilities. The two brothers were unable 
to offer any effectual opposition, and he had ad- 
vanced a second time to the walls of Alexandria, 
when he was met by a Roman embassy, headed by 
M. Popillius Laenas, who haughtily commanded 
him instantly to desist from hostilities. Antiochus 
did not venture to disobey, and withdrew to his 
OAvn dominions, 168. Dissensions soon broke out 
between the 2 brothers, and Euergetes expelled 
Philometor from Alexandria. Hereupon Philo- 
metor repaired in person to Rome, 164, where he 
was received by the senate with the utmost honour, 
and deputies were appointed to reinstate him in 
the sovereign power. This they effected with little 
opposition ; but they settled that Euergetes should 
obtain Cyrene as a separate kingdom. Euergetes, 
however, shortly afterwards laid claim to C}T)rus as 
well, in which he was supported by the Romans ; but 
Philometor refused to surrender the island to him, 
and in the war which ensued, Euergetes was taken 
prisoner by his brother, who not only spared his 
life, but sent him back to Cyrene on condition that 
he should thenceforth content himself with that king- 



COINS OF PERSONS. PLOTINA — PTOLEMAEUS. 




Plotina, wife of Trajan. Page 5!)2. 




Polemon IL, King of Pontus ami the Bosporus, a.d, 39—62 
Page 594. 




Cn. Pompeius Magnus, the Triumvir, ob. b. c. 48. This coin 
was struck by his son. Pages 602 — 605. 




Poslumus, one of the Thirty Tyrants, a. r>. 258 — 287. 
Page 610> 




Procopius, Roman Emperor, a. d. 365 — 366. Page 615. 




Prusias II., King of Bitliynia, ob. a, d. 149, Page 620. 




Ptolemaeus I, Soter, King of Egypt, B.C. 323 — 282. 
Page 621. 




Ptolemaeus II. Philaclelpiuis, King of Egypt, B.C. 285 — 217. 
Page 622. 




Ptolemaeus III. Euergetes,King of Egypt, b. c. 247 — 222. 
Page 623. 




Ptolemaeus IV. Pliilopator, King of Egypt, b.c. 222 — 205. 
Page 623. 




Ptolemaeus V. Epiphanea, King of Egypt, b.c. 205 — ISl. 
Page 624. 

[To face 2}- 624. 



COIXS OF PERSONS. PTOLE:\r AEUS — SABIXA 




Ptolemaeus VI. Pliilometor, King of Egypt, B.C. 181 — 146. 
Piige t)24. 




Ptolemaeus YII. Euersetes 11. orPliyscon, King of Egypt, 
B.C. I4t> — 117. PageC2j. 




Ptolemaeus Till. Lathyrus, Kins of Egypt, B.C. 117 — 107, 
and 69 — 81. Page C25." 




Ptolemaeus IX. Alexander T., King of Egypt, B.C. 107—90. 
Page G2J. 




Ptolemaeus XI. Dionysus, or .Auletes, King of Egypt, 
B.C. 80 — 51. Page 626. 




Ptolemaeus XH., King of Egypt, ob. e. c. 47. Page 626. 
To fact p. 625.] 




Ptolemaeus, King of Epirus, about b.c. 239 — 229. 
Page 627, No. 6. 




rtoleraaeus, King of Mauretaiiia,ob. a.d. 40. PageG27,No. 7 




Pulclieiia, Roman Empress, a.d. 453. Page 029. 




Sabiaa, the wife of Hadrian. Page 602. 




Poppaea Sabina, the wife of Nero. Page 662. 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



625 



dom. The attention of Philometor appears to have 
been, from this time, principally directed to the side 
of Syria. Demetrius Soter having sought during 
the dissensions between the two brothers to make 
himself master of Cyprus, Ptolemy now supported 
the usurper Alexander Balas, to whom he gave his 
daughter Cleopatra in marriage, 150. But when 
Ptolemy advanced with an army to the assistance of 
his son-in-law, Ammonius, the favourite and mini- 
ster of Alexander, formed a plot against the life of 
Ptolemy; whereupon the latter took away his 
daughter Cleopatra from her faithless husband, and 
bestowed her hand on Demetrius Nicator, the 
son of Soter, whose cause he now espoused. In 
conjunction with Demetrius, Ptolemy carried on 
war against Alexander, whom he defeated in a 
decisive battle ; but he died a few days afterwards 
in consequence of an injury which he had re- 
ceived from a fall from liis horse in this battle, 146. 
He had reigned 35 years from the period of his first 
accession, and 18 from his restoration by the Ro- 
mans. Philometor is praised for the mildness and 
humanity of his disposition. Polybius even tells us 
that not a single citizen of Alexandria was put to 
death by him for any political or private offence. 
On the whole, if not one of the greatest, he was at 
least one of the best of the race of the Ptolemies. 
He left three children : 1. A son, Ptolemy, who 
was proclaimed king after his father's death, under 
the name Ptolemy Eupator, but was put to death 
almost immediately after by his uncle Euergetes. 

2. A daughter, Cleopatra, married first to Alexander 
Balas, then to Demetrius II. king of Syria; and 

3. Another daughter, also named Cleopatra, who 
was afterwards married to her uncle Ptolemy 
Euergetes. — VII. Euergetes II. or Physcon 
(^ucrKwr), that is Big-Belly, reigned B.C. 146 — 
117. His history down to the death of his bro- 
ther has been already given. In order to secure 
undisputed possession of the throne, he married his 
sister Cleopatra, the widow of his brother Philo- 
metor, and put to death his nephew Ptolemy, who 
had been proclaimed king under the surname of 
Eupator. A reign thus commenced in blood was 
continued in a similar spirit. Many of the leading 
citizens of Alexandria, who had taken part against 
him on the death of his brother, were put to death, 
while the populace were given up to the cruellies of 
his mercenary troops, and the streets of the city were 
repeatedly deluged with blood. Thousands of the 
inhabitants fled from the scene of such horrors, and 
the population of Alexandria was so greatly thinned 
that the king found himself compelled to invite 
foreign settlers from all quarters to re-people his 
deserted capital. At the same time that he thus 
incurred the hatred of his subjects by his cruelties, 
he rendered himself an object of their aversion and 
contempt by abandoning himself to the most de- 
grading vices. In consequence of these, he had be- 
come bloated and deformed in person, and enor- 
mously corpulent, whence the Alexandrians gave him 
the nickname of Physcon. by which appellation he 
is more usually known. His union with Cleopatra 
was not of long duration. He became enamoured 
of his niece Cleopatra (the offspring of his wife by 
her former marriage with Philometor), and he did 
not hesitate to divorce the mother, and receive her 
daughter instead, as his \vife and queen. By this 
proceeding he alienated still more the minds of his 
Greek subjects ; and his vices and cruelties at 
length produced an insurrection at Alexandria. 



Thereupon he fled to Cyprus, and the Alexan- 
drians declared his sister Cleopatra queen (130). 
Enraged at this, Ptolemy put to death Mem- 
phitis, his son by Cleopatra, and sent his head and 
hands to his unhappy mother. But Cleopatra 
having been shortly afterwards expelled from Alex- 
andria in her turn, Ptolemy found himself unex- 
pectedly reinstated on the throne (127). His 
sister Cleopatra fled to the court of her elder sister 
Cleopatra, the Avife of Demetrius II., king of 
Syria, who espoused the cause of the fugitive. 
Ptolemy, in revenge, set up against him a pre- 
tender named Zabinas or Zebina, who assumed the 
title of Alexander II. But the usurper behaved 
with such haughtiness to Ptolemy, that the latter 
suddenly changed his policy, became reconciled to 
his sister Cleopatra, whom he permitted to return 
to Egypt, and gave his daughter Tryphaena in 
marriage to Antiochus Grypus, the son of Deme- 
trius. Ptolemy died after reigning 29 years from 
the death of his brother Philometor ; but he him- 
self reckoned the 3^ears of his reign from the date 
of his first assumption of the regal title in 170. 
Although the character of Ptolemy Physcon was 
stained by the most infamous vices, and by the 
most sanguinary cruelty, he still retained that love 
of letters which appears to have been hereditary in 
the whole race of the Ptolemies. He had in his 
youth been a pupil of Aristarchus, and not only 
courted the society of learned men, but was him- 
self the author of a work called 'TTrojUj/Tj/xara, or 
memoirs, which extended to 24 books. He left 
two sons ; Ptolemy, afterwards known as Soter II., 
and Alexander, both of whom subsequently as- 
cended the throne of Egj'pt ; and 3 daughters : 1. 
Cleopatra, married to her brother Ptolemy Soter ; 
2. Tryphaena, the wife of Antiochus Grypus, king 
of Syria ; and 3. Selene, who was unmarried at 
her father's death. To his natural son Ptolemy, 
surnamed Apion, he bequeathed by his will the 
separate kingdom of Cyrene. — VIII., Soter II., 
and also PMlometor, but more commonly called 
Lathjrrus or Lathurus (AdOovpos), reigned b. c. 
117—107, and also 89—81. Although he was of 
full age at the time of his father's death (117), he 
was obliged to reign jointly with his mother, 
Cleopatra, who had been appointed by the will of 
her late husband to succeed him on the throne. 
She was indeed desirous of associating with herself 
her younger son, Ptolemy Alexander; but since 
Lathyrus was popular with the Alexandrians, she 
was obliged to give way, and sent Alexander to 
Cyprus. After declaring Lathyrus king, she com- 
pelled him to repudiate his sister Cleopatra, of 
whose influence she was jealous, and to marry his 
younger sister Selene in her stead. After reigning 
10 years jointly with his mother, he was expelled 
from Alexandria by an insurrection of the people 
which she had excited against him (107). His 
brother Alexander now assumed the sovereignty of 
Egypt, in conjunction with his mother, while 
LathjTUs was able to establish himself in the pos- 
session of Cyprus. Cleopatra indeed attempted to 
dispossess him of that island also, but without suc- 
cess, and Ptolemy held it as an independent king- 
dom for the 1 8 years during Avhich Cleopatra and 
Alexander reigned in Egypt. After the death of 
Cleopatra and the expulsion of Alexander in 89, 
Ptolemy Lathyrus was recalled by the Alexan- 
drians, and established anew on the throne of 
Egypt, which he occupied thenceforth without iu- 

s s 



626 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



terruption till his death in 81. The most impor- 
tant event of this period was the revolt of Thebes, 
in Upper Egypt, Avhich was still powerful enough 
to hold out for nearly 3 years against the arms of 
Ptolemy, but at the end of that time was taken 
and reduced to the state of rain in which it has j 
ever since remained. Lathyrus reigned in all 35^ : 
years; 10 in conjunction with his mother (117 — 
107), 18 in Cyprus (107—89), and 7^ as sole 
ruler of Egj-pt. He left only one daughter Bere- 
nice, called also Cleopatra, who succeeded him on 
the throne: and 2 sons, both named Ptolemy, 
who, though illegitimate, became severally kings of 
Egypt and Cj^rus.— IX. Alexander I., youngest 
son of Ptolemy VII., reigned conjointly with his 
mother Cleopatra from the expulsion of his brother 
Lathyrus, B. c. 107 to 90. In this year he assas- 
sinated his mother ; but he had not reigned alone 
a year, when he Avas compelled by a general sedi- 
tion of the populace and military to quit Alexan- 
dria. He, however, raised fresh troops, but was 
totally defeated in a sea-fight by the rebels; where- 
upon Lathyrus was recalled by the Alexandrians to 
Egypt, as has been already related. Alexander 
now attempted to make himself master of Cyprus, 
and invaded that island, but was defeated and 
slain. He left a son, Alexander, who afterwards 
ascended the throne of Egypt.— X. Alexander II., 
son of the preceding, was at Rome at the death of 
Ptolemy Lathyrus in 81. Sulla, who was then 
dictator, nominated the j'oung Alexander (who 
had obtained a high place in liis favour) king of 
Egypt, and sent him to take possession of the 
-crown. It was, however, agreed, in deference to 
the claims of Cleopatra Berenice, the daughter of 
Lathyrus, whom the Alexandrians had already 
placed on the throne, that Alexander should marry 
her, and admit her to share the sovereign power. 
He complied with the letter of this treaty by mar- 
rying Cleopatra, but only 19 days afterwards 
caused her to be assassinated. The Alexandrians, 
thereupon, rose against their new monarch, and put 
him to death. —XI. Dionysus, but more com- 
monly known by the appellation of Auletes, the 
flute-player, was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy 
Lath}Tus. When the assassination of Berenice 
and the death of Alexander II. had completed the 
extinction of the legitimate race of the Lagidae, 
Ptolemy was proclaimed king by the Alexan- 
drians, B, c. 80. He was anxious to obtain from 
the Roman senate their ratification of his title to 
the crown, but it was not till the consulship of 
Caesar (59) that he was able to purchase by vast 
bribes the desired privilege. He had expended 
immense sums in the pursuit of this object, which 
he Avas compelled to raise by the imposition of fresh 
taxes, and the discontent thus excited combining 
Avith the contempt entertained for his character, 
led to his expulsion by the Alexandrians, in 58. 
Thereupon he proceeded in person to Rome to pro- 
cure from the senate his restoration. His first re- 
ception was promising ; and he procured a decree 
from the senate, commanding his restoration, and 
entrusting the charge of effecting it to P. Lentulus 
Spinther, then proconsul of Cilicia. Meanwhile, 
the Alexandrians sent an embassy of 100 of their 
leading citizens to plead their cause with the 
Roman senate ; but Ptolemy had the audacity to 
cause the deputies, on their arrival in Italy, to be 
Avaylaid, and the greater part of them murdered. 
The indignation excited at Rome by this proceed- 



ing produced a reaction : the tribunes took up 
the matter against the nobility ; and an oracle 
was produced from the Sibylline books, forbid- 
ding the restoration of the king by an armed 
force. The intrigues and disputes thus raised were 
protracted throughout the year 56, and at length 
Ptolemy, despairing of a favourable result, quitted 
Rome in disgust, and AvithdreAv to Ephesus. But 
in 55, A. Gabinius, Avho was proconsul in Syria, 
Avas induced, by the influence of Pompey, aided by 
the enormous bribe of 10,000 talents from Ptolemy 
himself, to undertake his restoration. The Alex- 
andrians had in the meantime placed on the throne 
of Egypt, Berenice, the eldest daughter of Ptolemy, 
Avho had married Archelaus, the son of the general 
of Mithridates, and they opposed Gabinius Avith an 
army on the confines of the kingdom. They were, 
howeA-er, defeated in 3 successiA-e battles, Archelaus 
was slain, and Ptolemy once more established on the 
throne, 55. One of his first acts was to put to death 
his daughter Berenice, and many of the leading citi- 
zens of Alexandria. He surviA-ed his restoration only 
3^ years, during which time he was supported by a 
large body of Roman soldiers who had been left be- 
hind by Gabinius for his protection. He died in 51, 
after a reign of 29 years from the date of his first 
accession. He left 2 sons, both named Ptolemy, and 
2 daughters, Cleopatra and Arsinoe.— XII. Eldest 
son of the preceding. By his father's will the 
sovereign poAver was left to himself and his sister 
Cleopatra jointly, and this arrangement was carried 
into effect without opposition, 51. Auletes had 
also referred the execution of his will to the Roman 
senate, and the latter accepted the office, confirmed 
its proA-isions and bestowed on Pompey the title of 
guardian of the young king. But the approach of 
the civil war preA'ented them from taking any ac- 
tive part in the administration of affairs, Avhich fell 
into the hands of an eunuch named Pothinus. It 
was not long before dissensions broke out between 
the latter and Cleopatra, which ended in the ex- 
pulsion of the princess, after she had reigned in 
conjunction Avith her brother about 3 years, 48. 
Hereupon she took refuge in Syria, and assembled 
an army, with which she invaded Egypt. The 
young king, accompanied by his guardians, met 
her at Pelusium, and it Avas while the two armies 
AA'ere here encamped opposite to one another, that 
Pompey landed in Egj^pt, to throw himself as a 
suppliant on the protection of Ptolemy; but he 
was assassinated by the orders of Pothinus, 
before he could obtain an interview with the king 
himself. Shortly after, Caesar arrived in Egypt, 
and took upon himself to settle the dispute be- 
tAveen Ptolemy and his sister. But as Cleopatra's 
charms gained for her the support of Caesar, Pothi- 
nus determined to excite an insurrection against 
Caesar. Hence arose what is usually called the 
Alexandrian Avar. Ptolemy, who was at first in 
Caesar's hands, managed to escape, and put him- 
self at the head of the insurgents, but he was de- 
feated by Caesar, and was droAvned in an attempt 
to escape by the riA'er (47). — XIII. Youngest 
son of Ptolemy Auletes, was declared king by 
Caesar in conjunction AA-ith Cleopatra, after the 
death of his elder brother Ptolemy XIL, 47 : and 
although he was a mere boy, it was decreed that 
he should marry his sister, Avith Avhom he was thus 
to share the power. Both his marriage and regal 
title were, of course, purely nominal ; and ia 43 
Cleopatra put him to death. 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



627 



in. Kings of other Countries. 

L Surnamed Alorites, that is, of Alorus, regent, 
or, according to some authors, king of Macedonia. 
He obtained the supreme power by the assassina- 
tion of Alexander II., the eldest son of Amyntas, 
B. c. 367, but Avas, in his turn, assassinated by 
Perdiccas III., 364. — 2. Surnamed Apion, king 
of Cyrene (117 — 96) was an illegitimate son of 
Ptolemy Physcon, king of Egypt, who left him by 
his will the kingdom of the Cyrenaica, At his death 
in 96, Apion bequeathed his kingdom by his will to 
the Roman people. The senate, however, refused to 
accept the legacy, and declared the cities of the 
Cyrenaxca free. They were not reduced to the 
condition of a province till near 30 years after- 
wards. — 3. Surnamed Ceraunus, king of Mace- 
donia, was the son of Ptolemy I. king of Egypt, 
by his 2nd wife Eurydice. When his father in 
285 set aside the claim of Ceraunus to the throne, 
and appointed his younger son, Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, his successor, Ceraunus repaired to the 
court of Lysimachus, After Lysimachus had pe- 
rished in battle against Seleucus (281) Ptolemy 
Ceraunus was received by the latter in the most 
friendly manner; but shortly afterwards (280 j he 
basely assassinated Seleucus, and took possessioii 
of the Macedonian throne. After reigning a few 
months he was defeated in battle by the Gauls, 
taken prisoner and put to death. — 4. Tetrarch of 
Chalcis in Syria, the son of Mennaeus. He appears 
to have held the cities of Heliopolis and Chalcis as 
well as the mountain district of Ituraea, from 
■whence he Avas in the habit of infesting Damascus 
and the more wealthy parts of Coele-Syria Avith 
predatory incursions. He reigned from about 70 
to 40, Avhen he was succeeded by his son Lysanias. 
— 5. King of C3rprus, was the younger brother of 
Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, being like him an 
illegitimate son of Ptolemy Lathyrus. He Avas 
acknowledged as king of Cyprus at the same time 
that his brother Auletes obtained possession of 
the throne of Egypt, 80. He had offended P. 
Clodius, by neglecting to ransom him when he had 
fallen into the hands of the Cilician pirates ; and 
accordingly Clodius, Avhen he became tribune (58), 
brought forward a law to deprive Ptolemy of his 
kingdom, and reduce Cyprus to a Roman province. 
Cato, Avho had to carry into execution this nefarious 
decree, sent to Ptolemy, advising him to submit, and 
offering him his personal safety, with the office of 
high-priest at Paphos, and a liberal maintenance. 
But the unhappy king refused these offers, and put 
an end to his own life, 57. — 6. King of Epirus, 
was the 2nd son of Alexander II., king of Epirus, 
and Olympias, and grandson of the great Pyrrhus. 
He succeeded to the throne on the death of his 
elder brother, Pyrrhus II., but reigned only a very 
short time. The date of his reign cannot be fixed 
with certainty, but as he Avas contemporary with 
Demetrius II. king of Macedonia, it may be placed 
between 239—229.-7. King of Mauretania, 
was the son and successor of Juba II. By his 
mother Cleopatra he Avas descended from the kings 
of Egypt, Avhose name he bore. The period of his 
accession cannot be determined with certainty, but 
we know that he Avas on the throne in a. d. 18. 
He continued to reign Avithout interruption till 
A. D. 40, Avhen he was summoned to Rome by 
Caligula, and shortly after put to death, his great 
riches having excited the cupidity of the emperor. 



IV. Literary. 

1. Claudius Ptolemaeus, a celebrated mathe- 
matician, astronomer, and geographer. Of Ptolemy 
himself Ave knoAv absolutely nothing but his date. 
He certainly observed in A. D. 139, at Alexandria; 
and since he survived Antoninus he was alive 
A. D. 161. His writings are as folloAvs : — 
1. MeyaATj 'S.vvTa^is t^s 'Aarpovoixias, usually 
known by its Arabic name of Almagest Since 
the Tetrabihlus, the Avork on astrology, Avas also 
entitled avvra^is^ the Arabs to distinguish the 
two, probably called the greater work fieydXT], 
and afterwards /xeyiaTT] : the title Almagest is a 
compound of this last adjective and the Arabic 
article. The Almagest is divided into 13 books. 
It treats of the relations ol the earth and heaven ; 
the effect of position upon the earth ; the theory of 
the sun and moon, Avithout which that of the stars 
cannot be undertaken ; the sphere of the fixed 
stars, and those of the five stars called, plant ts. The 
7th and 8th books are the most interesting to the 
modern astronomer as they contain a catalogue of 
the stars. This catalogue gives the longitudes and 
latitudes of 1 022 stars, described by their positions 
in the constellations. It seems that this catalogue 
is in the main really that of Hipparchus, altered to 
Ptolemy's own time by assuming the value of the 
precession of the equinoxes given by Hipparchus 
as the least Avhich could be ; some changes having 
also been made by Ptolemy's own observations. 
Indeed the Avhole work of Ptolemy appears to have 
been based upon the observations of Hipparchus, 
Avhom he constantly cites as his authority. The 
best edition of the Almagest is by Halma, Paris, 
1813, 1816, 2 vols. 4to. There are also 2 other 
volumes by Halma (1819 — 1820), which contain 
some of the other AATitings of Ptolemy. — 2. Terpa- 
€i§\os (TvvTa^is, generally called Tetrabiblon, or 
Quadripartitum de Apotelesmatihus et Judiciis As- 
trorum. With this goes another small work, called 
Kapirhs, or Fructus Librorum Suorum^ often called 
Cenliloquium, from its containing a hundred apho- 
risms. Both of these Avorks are astrological, and 
it has been doubted by some whether they be 
genuine. But the doubt merely arises from the 
feeling that the contents are unworthy of Ptolemy. 
— 3. KaviiDu Baa-iXeay, a catalogue of Assyrian, 
Persian, Greek, and Roman sovereigns, with the 
length of their reigns, several times referred to by 
Syncellus. — 4. <^daeis airXavSiv affripwv KaX avva- 
•ycoy)] iTri(n]iJ.a(r€ia)v, De Apparentiis et Significa- 
tionibus inerrantium^ an ansaual list of sidereal phae- 
nomena. — 5,6. De Analemmate and Planisphae- 
rium. These Avorks are obtained from the Arabic. 
The Analeinma is a collection of graphical processes 
for facilitating the construction of sun-dials. The 
Planispliere is a description of the stereographic 
projection, in which the eye is at the pole of the 
circle on which the sphere is projected. — 7. Tl^pl 
5no6€creci}v rcov irXavajxivoov, De Planetarum Hy- 
pothesibus. This is a brief statement of the prin- 
cipal hypotheses employed in the Almagest for the 
explanation of the heavenly motions. — 8. 'Apfxa- 
vLKwv fiiSKia 7'., a treatise on the theory of the 
musical scale. — 9. Ilepl KpiTt^piov koi iix^fioviKov^ 
De Jiidicandi Facultate et Animi Principatu, a 
metaphysical Avork, attributed to Ptolemy. — 10. 
TeuypaipLKT] "T^vyiqa-is, in 8 books, the great geo- 
graphical AYork of Ptolemy. This work was the 
last attempt made by the ancients to form a com- 

s s 2 



628 



PTOLEMAIS. 



PT'BLICOLA. 



plete geographical system ; it was accepted as the 
text-book of the science ; and it maintained that 
position during the middle ages, and until the 
loth centur}-, when the rapid progress of maritime 
discovery caused it to be superseded. It contains, 
however, ven,' little information respecting the ob- 
jects of interest connected with the different coun- 
tries and places ; for with the exception of the 
introductory matter in the first book, and the latter 
part of the work, it is a mere catalogue of the 
names of places, with their longitudes and latitudes, 
and with a few incidental references to objects of 
interest. The latitudes of Ptolemy are tolerably cor- 
rect ; but his longitudes are very wide of the truth, 
his length of the kno\\Ti world, from east to west, 
being much too great It is well worthy, however, 
of remark in passing, that the modem world owes 
much to this error ; for it tended to encourage that 
belief in the practicability of a western passage to 
the Indies, which occasioned the discovert' of 
America by Columbus. The 1st book is introduc- 
tory. The next 6^ books (ii — vii. 4) are occupied 
with the description of the known world, beginning 
with the West of Europe, the description of which 
is contained in book ii. ; next comes the East of 
Europe, in book iii. ; then Africa, in book iv. ; 
then Western or Lesser Asia, in book v. ; then 
the Greater Asia, in book vi. ; then India, the 
Chersonesus Aurea, Serica, the Sinae, and Tapro- 
bane, in book vii. cc. 1 — 4. The form in which 
the description is given is that of lists of places 
with their longitudes and latitudes, arranged under 
the heads, first, of the three continents, and then 
of the several countries and tribes. Prefixed to 
each section is a brief general description of the 
boundaries and divisions of the part about to be 
described ; and remarks of a miscellaneous charac- 
ter are interspersed among the lists, to which, how-, 
ever, they bear but a small proportion. The re- 
maining part of the 7th, and the whole of the 8th 
book, are occupied with a description of a set of 
maps of the knowai world. These maps are still 
extant. The best edition of the Geographia of 
Ptolemy is by Petrus Bertius, Lugd. Bat. 1619, 
fol. ; reprinted Antwerp, 1624, fol. — 2. Of Mega- 
lopolis, the son of Agesarchus, wrote a history of 
king Ptolemy IV. Philopator. — 3. An Egj-ptian 
priest, of Mendes, who wrote on the ancient his- 
tovy of Egypt. He probably lived under the first 
Roman emperors. — 4. Sumamed Chemnus, a 
grammarian of Alexandria, flourished under Trajan 
and Hadrian. An epitome of one of his works is 
preserved by Photius. 

Ptolemais (UToXefj-ats : UToXeiJ.airr]S and Uto- 
Xeuaeus). 1. Also called Ace ('Aktj, a corruption 
of the native name Acco, 0. T. : Arab. Akka^ Fr. 
St. Jean d''Acre, Eng. Acre), a celebrated city on 
the coast of Phoenicia, S. of Tyre, and N. of M. 
Carmel, lies at the bottom of a bay surrounded by 
mountains, in a position marked out by nature as 
a key of the passage between Coele-Syria and 
Palestine. It is one of the oldest cities of Phoe- 
nicia, being mentioned in the Book of Judges (i. 
31). Under the Persians, it was made the head- 
quarters of the expeditions against Egypt ; but it 
was not till the decline of Tyre that it acquired its 
great importance as a military and commercial city. 
The PtoltMiiy who enlarged and strengthened it, 
and from whom it obtained its Greek name, is 
supposed to have been Ptolemy I. the son of Lagus. 
After the change of its nan:s, its citadel continued 



to be called Ace. Under the Romans, it was a 
colony, and belonged to Galilee. To recosint its 
great celebrity in medieval and modem history 
does not fall within the province of this work. — 2. 
(At or near El-Lakum), a small town of Middle 
Egypt, in the Nomos Arsinoites, between Arsinoe 
and Heracleopolis the Great. — 3. P. Hermii (XL n 
'Epfie'iov, UToXeiJLaiK}} ttoKls : Afenshieh, Ru.), a 
city of Upper Egj-pt, on the W. bank of the Nile, 
below Abydos, was a place of great importance 
under the Ptolemies, who enlarged and adomed it» 
and made it a purely Greek city, exempt from all 
peculiarly Egyptian laws and customs. — 4. P. 
Theron, or Epitheras (IT. Qvpuv, v eVi ^vpas). a 
port on the Red Sea, on the coast of the Troglo- 
dytae, an emporium for the trade with India and 
Arabia; but chiefly remarkable in the history of 
mathematical geography, inasmuch as, the sun 
having been observed to be directly over it 45 
days before and after the summer solstice, the 
place was taken as one of the fixed points for de- 
termining the length of a degree of a great circle 
on the earth's surface.— 5. {Tolme'ita, or Tuhmeta., 
Ru.), on the N.W. coast of Cyrenaica, one of the 
5 great cities of the Libyan Pentapolis, was at first 
only the port of Barca, which lay 100 stadia (10 
geog. miles) inland, but which was so entirelj- 
eclipsed by Ptolema'is that, under the Romans, 
even the name of Barca was transferred to the 
latter city. From which of the Ptolemies it took 
its name, we are not informed. Its magnificence 
is attested by its splendid ruins, which are now 
partly covered by the sea. They are 4 miles in 
circumference, and contain the remains of several 
temples, 3 theatres, and an aqueduct. 

Ptoon {Uruov : Palea and Strutzina), a moun- 
tain in Boeotia, an offshoot of Helicon, which 
extends from the S. E. side of the lake Copais 
S.- wards to the coast, 

Publicola, or Poplicula, or Poplicola, a Ro- 
man cognomen, signified "one who courts the 
people" (from popidus and co/o), and thus '*3 
friend of the people." The form Poplicula or 
Poplicola was the more ancient, but Publicola was 
the one nsually employed by the Romans in later 
times. 

Publicola, Gellius. 1. L.. consul with Cn. 
Lentulus Clodianus, B. c. 72. Both consuls carried 
on war against Spartacus, but were defeated by 
the latter. In 70, Gellius was censor, and in 67 
and 66 he served as one of Pompey's legates in 
the war against the pirates. He belonged to the 
aristocratical party. In 63 he warmly supported 
Cicero in the suppression of the Catilinarian cou«. 
spiracy. In 59 he opposed the agrarian law of 
Caesar, and in 57 he spoke in favour of Cicero's 
recall from exile. He was alive in 55, when 
Cicero delivered his speech against Piso, but he 
probably died soon afterwards. He was married 
t'.vice. He must have reached a great age, since 
he is mentioned as the contubemalis of C. Papirius 
I Carbo, who was consul in 120. — 2. L., son of the 
\ preceding by his first wife. He espoused the re« 
j publican party after Caesar's death (44), and went 
I with M. Brutus to Asia. After plotting against 
the lives of both Brutus and Cassius, he deserted 
to the triumvirs, Octavian and Antony. He was 
rewarded for his treachery by the consulship in 
36. In the war between Octavian and Antony, 
\ he espoused the side of the latter, and commanded 
1 the right wing of Antony's fleet at the battle of 



PUBLICOI.A. 



PTJTEOLI. 



629 



Actium.— -3. Brother probably of No. 1, is called 
step-son of L. Marcius Philippus, consul 91, and 
brother of L. Marcius Philippus, consul 56. Ac- 
cording to Cicero's account he was a profligate and 
a spendthrift, and having dissipated his property, 
united himself to P. Clodius. 

Publicola, P. Valerius, took an active part 
expelling the Tarquins from the city, and was 
thereupon elected consul with Brutus (b. c. 509). 
He secured the liberties of the people by proposing 
several laws, one of the most important of which 
■was that every citizen wlio was condemned by a 
magistrate should have the right of appeal to the 
people. He also ordered the lictors to lower the 
fasces before the people, as an acknowledgment 
that their power was superior to that of the con- 
suls. Hence he became so great a favourite with 
the people, that he received the surname of Puh- 
iicola. He was consul 3 times again, namely in 
508, 507 and 504. He died in 503. He was 
buried at the public expense, and the matrons 
mourned for him 10 months, as they had done 
for Brutus. — The descendants of Publicola bore 
the same name, and several of them held the 
highest offices of state during the early years of 
the republic. 

Publilia, the 2nd wife of M. Tullius Cicero, 
whom he married, b. c. 46. As Cicero was then 
60 years of age, and Publilia quite young, the 
marriage occasioned great scandal. It appears 
that Cicero was at the time in great pecuniary 
embarrassments; and after the divorce of Terentia, 
he was anxious to contract a new marriage for 
the purpose of obtaining money to pay his debts. 
Publilia had a large fortune, which had been left 
to Cicero in trust for her. The marriage proved 
an unhappy one, as might have been expected ; 
and Cicero divorced her in 45. 

Publilius PMlo. [Philo.] 

Publilius, Volero, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 
472, and again 471, effected an important change 
in the Roman constitution. In virtue of the 
laws which he proposed, the tribunes of the plebs 
and the aediles were elected by the comitia 
tributa, instead of by the comitia centuriata, as 
had previously been the case, and the tribes ob- 
tained the power of deliberating and determining 
in all matters affecting the whole nation, and not 
such only as concerned the plebs. Some said that 
the number of the tribunes was now for the first 
time raised to 5, having been only 2 previously. 

Publius Syrus. [Syr us.] 

Pucmum (TlovKivov), a fortress in Istria in the 
N. of Italy, on the road from Aquileia to Pola, 
was situated on a steep rock, which produced wine, 
mentioned by Pliny under the name of Vinum 
Fucinum. 

Pndicitia (AtSws), a personification of modesty, 
was worshipped both in Greece and at Rome. At 
Athens an altar was dedicated to her. At Rome 
two sanctuaries were dedicated to her, one under 
the name of Pudicitia pairicia^ and the other under 
that of Pudicitia plebeia. The former was in the 
forum Boarium near the temple of Hercules. 
When the patrician Virginia was driven from this 
sanctuary by the other patrician women, because 
she had married the plebeian consul L. Volumnius, 
she built a separate sanctuary to Pudicitia pleheia 
in the Vicus Longus. 

Pulcher, Claudius. [Claudius.] 
Pulcheria, eldest daughter of the emperor Ar- 



cadius, was bom A. d. 399. In 414, when she 
was only 15 years of age, she became the guar- 
dian of her brother Theodosius, and was de- 
clared Augusta or empress. She had the virtual 
government in her hands during the whole lifetime 
of her brother, who died in 450. On his death 
she remained at the head of aflfairs, and shortly 
afterwards she married Marcian, with whom she 
continued to reign in common till her death in 
453. Pulcheria was a woman of ability, and was 
celebrated for her piety, and her public and private 
virtues. 

Pulchrum Promontorium {Ka\hv aKpur^piovX 
a promontory on the N. coast of the Carthaginian 
territory in N. Africa, where the elder Scipio 
Africanus landed ; probably identical with the 
Apollinis Promontorium. 

Pullus, L. Junius, consul b. c. 249, in the first 
Punic war. His fleet was destroyed by a storm, 
on account, it was said, of his neglecting the 
auspices. In despair he put an end to his own life. 

Pupienus Maximus, M. Clodius, Avas elected 
emperor with Balbinus, in A. d. 238 when the 
senate received intelligence of the death of the two 
Gordians in Africa ; but the new emperors were 
slain by the soldiers at Rome in the same year. 

Pupius, a Roman dramatist, whose composi- 
tions are characterised by Horace, as the " lacry- 
mosa poeraata Pupi." 

Pura (Uovpa : prob. Bunpur), the capital of 
Gedrosia, in the interior of the country, on the 
borders of Carmania. 

Purpurariae Insulae (prob. the Madeira 
group), a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, 
off the N. W. coast of Africa, which are supposed 
to have derived their name from the purple muscles 
which abound on the opposite coast of Africa 
(Gaetulia). The islands of Hera ("Hpa) and 
Autolala (AvToKdXa), mentioned by Ptolemy, ap- 
pear to belong to the group. 

Purpureo, L. Furius, praetor b.c. 200, obtained 
Cisalpine Gaul as his province, and gained a bril- 
liant victory over the Gauls, who had laid siege to 
Cremona. He was consul 196, when he defeated 
the Boii. 

Puteolanum, a countrj-house of Cicero near 
Puteoli, where he wrote his Qmestiones Aca- 
demicae, and where the emperor Hadrian was 
buried. 

Pufeolanus Sinus {Bay of Naples), a bay of 
the sea on the coast of Campania between the 
promontory Misenum and the promontory of Mi- 
nerva, which was originally called Cumanus, but 
afterwards Puteolanus from the town Puteoli. 
The N. \V. corner of it was separated by a dike 8 
stadia in length from the rest of the bay, thus 
forming the Lucrinus Lacus. 

Puteoli (Puteolanus : FozzuoU), originally 
named Dicaearcbia (ALKaiapxia, AiKaiapx^ta : 
AiKaiapx^vs^ AiKaiapxeirrjs, -X'TTji'), a celebrated 
seaport town of Campania, situated on a promon- 
tory on the E. side of the Puteolanus Sinus, and a 
little to the E. of Cumae, was founded by the 
Greeks of Cumae, b. c. 521, under the name of 
Dicaearchia. In the 2nd Punic war it was fortified 
by the Romans, who changed its name into that 
of Puteoli, either from its numerous wells or from 
the stench arising from the mineral springs in its 
neighbourhood. The town was indebted for its 
importance to its excellent harbour, which was 
protected by an extensive mole formed from the 



630 



PUTPUT. 



PYLOS. 



celebrated reddish earth of the neighbouring hills. 
This earth, called Pozzolana, when mixed with 
chalk, forms an excellent cement, which in course 
of time becomes as hard in water as stone. The 
mole was built on arches like a bridge, and 17 of 
the piers are still visible projecting above the 
water. To this mole Caligula attached a floating 
bridge, which extended as far as Baiae, a distance 
of 2 miles. Puteoli was the chief emporium for 
the commerce with Alexandria and Avith the greater 
part of Spain. The town was colonised by the 
Romans in b. c. 194, and also anew by Augustus. 
Nero, and Vespasian. It was destroyed by Alaric 
in A. D, 410, by Genseric in 455, and also by Totilas 
in 545, but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. 
There are still many ruins of the ancient town at 
the modern Pozzuoli. Of these the most im- 
portant are the remains of the temple of Serapis, 
of the amphitheatre, and of the mole alread}' de- 
scribed. 

Putput (prob. Hamamet)^ a seaport town of 
Africa Propria (Zeugitana) on the gulf of Neapolis 
(G. of Hamamet). Its name is evidently Phoe- 
nician. 

Pydna (TiiZva : TlvZvaios : Kitron)^ a town of 
Macedonia in the district Pieria, was situated at 
a small distance W. of the Thermaic gulf, on which 
it had a harbour. It was originally a Greek 
colony, but it was subdued by the Macedonian 
kings, from whom, however, it frequenth' revolted. 
Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war it was 
taken after a long siege by Archelaus, and its 
inhabitants removed 20 stadia inland ; but at a 
later period we still find the town situated on the 
coast. It again revolted from the Macedonians, 
and was subdued hj Philip, who enlarged and 
fortified the place. It was here that OljTupias 
sustained a long siege against Cassander, b. c. 317 
—316. It is especially memorable on account of 
the victory gained imder its walls by Aemilius 
Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, 
168. Under the Romans it was also called Citrum 
or Citrus. 

Pygela or Phygela {Uvy^Ka, iuyGXa\ a small 
town of Ionia, on the coast of Lydia, with a tem- 
ple of Artemis Munychia. Tradition ascribed its 
foundation to Agamemnon, on his return from Troy. 

Pygmaei {Tl.v'yixa7oi, i. e. men of the height of a 
irvy/xT], i. e. 13| inches), a fabulous people, first 
mentioned by Homer (//. iii. 5), as dwelling on 
the shores of Ocean, and attacked by cranes in 
spring time. The fable is repeated by numerous 
writers, in various forms, especially as to the 
locality. Some placing them in Aethiopia, others 
in India, and others in the extreme N. of the 
earth. The story is referred to by Ovid and 
Juvenal, and forms the subject of several works 
of art. 

Pygmalion {nvyiJ.a\Luv). 1. King of Cyprus 
and father of Metharme. He is said to have fallen 
in love Avith the ivory image of a maiden which he 
himself had made, and therefore to have prayed to 
Aphrodite to breathe life into it. When the re- 
quest was granted, Pygmalion married the maiden, 
and became by her the father of Paplius. — 2. Son 
of Belus and brother of Dido, who murdered Si- 
chaeusj^ Dido's husband. For details see Dido. 

Pylades (UvAdBrjs). 1. Son of Strophius and 
Anaxibia, a sister of Agamemnon. His father 
was king of Phocis ; and after the death of Aga- 
memnon, Orestes was secretly carried to his father's 



court. Here Pylades contracted that friendship 
Avith Orestes, Avhich became proverbial. He as- 
sisted Orestes in murdering his mother Clytaem- 
nestra, and also accompanied him to the Tauric 
Chersonesus ; and he eventually married his sister 
Electra, by whom he became the father of Hel- 
lanicus, Medon, and Strophius. For details see 
Orestes. — 2. A pantomime dancer in the reign 
of Augustus, spoken of under Bathyllus. 

Pylae (IIuAat, Gates). 1. A general name for 
any narroAv pass, such as Thermopylae, Pylae 
Albaniae, Caspiae, &c. (See the several specific 
names).— 2. Two small islands at the entrance 
into the Arabicus Sinus (Red Sea) from the Ery- 
thraean Sea. 

Pylaemenes (IIuAaijueVTjs), appears to have 
been the name of many kings of Paphlagonia, so 
as to have become a kind of hereditary appellation, 
like that of Ptolemy in Egypt, and Arsaces in 
Parthia. We have, hoAvever, very little definite 
information concerning them. 

Pylas (rivAas), son of Cteson, and king of Me- 
gara, Avho, after slaying Bias, his own father's 
brother, founded the town of Pylos in Pelopon- 
nesus, and gave Megara to Pandion Avho had 
married his daughter Pylia, and accordingly AA-as 
his son-in-law. 

Pylene {UvXriurj), an ancient toAATi of Aetolia 
on the S. slope of Mt. Aracynthus, on Avhose site 
Proschium Avas subsequently built. 

Pylos (riuAos), the name of 3 toAvns on the W. 
coast of Peloponnesus. 1. In Elis, at the foot of 
Mt. Scollis, and about 70 or 80 stadia from the 
city of Elis on the road to Olympia, near the con- 
fluence of the Ladon and the Peneus. It is said 
to have been founded by Pylon or Phylas of Me- 
gara, to have been destroyed by Hercules, and to 
have been afterwards rebuilt by the Eleans. — 2. 
In Triphylia, about 30 stadia from the coast, on 
the river Mamaus, W. of the mountain Minthe, 
and N, of Lepreum. — 3. In the S. W. of Mes- 
senia, was situated at the foot of Mt. Aegaleos on 
a promontory at the N. entrance of the basin, now 
called the Bat/ of Navarino^ the largest and safest 
harbour in all Greece. This harbour Avas fronted 
and protected by the small island of Sphacteria 
(SpJiagia), Avhich stretched along the coast about 
1-| mile, leaving only 2 narroAv entrances at each 
end. In the 2nd Messenian war the inhabitants 
of Pylos ofiered a long and brave resistance to the 
Spartans ; but after the capture of Ira, they Avere 
obliged to quit their native country Avith the rest 
of the Messenians. Pylos noAv remained in ruins, 
but again became memorable in the Peloponnesian 
war, Avhen the Athenians under Demosthenes 
built a fort on the promontory Coryphasium a little 
S. of the ancient city, and just AA'ithin the N. en- 
trance to the harbour (b. c. 425). The attempts 
of tlie Spartans to dislodge the Athenians proved 
unavailing ; and the capture by Cleon of the 
Spartans, Avho had landed in the island of Sphac- 
teria, was one of the most important events in the 
whole AA^ar. — There has been much controversy, 
AA-hich of these 3 places Avas the Pylos foimded by 
Neleus, and governed by Nestor and his descend- 
ants. The tOAvn in Elis has little or no claim to 
the honoiu:, and the choice lies betAveen the toAvns 
in Triphylia and jMessenia. The ancients usually 
decided in favour of the Messenian Pylos ; but 
some modern critics, without sufficient grounds, 
support the claims of the Triphylian city. 



PYRAMIA 



PYRRHO. 



6H1 



Pyramia (to. Uvpafna), a town of Argolis, in 
the district Thyreatis, Avhere Danaus is said to 
have landed. 

Pyramon. [Cyclopes.] 

Pyramus. [Thisbe.] 

Pyramus (Uvpaixos : Jilian), one of the largest 
rivers of Asia Minor, rises in the Anti-Taurus 
range, near Arabissus in Cataonia (the S. E. part 
of Cappadocia), and after running S. E., first 
underground, and then as a navigable river, breaks 
through the Taurus chain by a deep and narrow 
ravine, and then flows S. W. through Cilicia, in a 
deep and rapid stream, about I stadium (606 feet) 
in width, and falls into the sea near Mallus. Its 
ancient name is said to have been Leucosyrus, 
from the Leucosvri, who dwelt on its banks. 

Pyrene or P3n:enaei Montes (Uvfrfjvr], to. Uv- 
privaTa opt] : Pyrenees)^ a range of mountains, 
extending from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean, 
and forming the boundary between Gaul and 
Spain. The length of these moimtains is about 
270 miles in a straight line ; their breadth varies 
from about 40 miles to 20 ; their greatest height 
is between 11,000 and 12,000 feet. The Romans 
first became acquainted with these mountains by 
their campaigns against the Carthaginians in Spain 
in the 2nd Punic war. Their name however had 
travelled E.-ward at a much earlier period, since 
Herodotus (ii. 33) speaks of a city Pyrene belong- 
ing to the Celts, near which the Ister rises. The 
ancient writers usually derived the name from Trup, 
" fire," and then, according to a common practice, 
invented a story to explain the false etymology, 
relating that a great fire once raged upon the 
mountains. The name, however, is probably con- 
nected with the Celtic Byri7i or Bryn^ "a mountain." 
The continuation of the mountains along the Mare 
Cantabricum was called Saltus Vasconum, and still 
further W. Mons Vindius or Vinnius. The Ro- 
mans were acquainted with only 3 passes over the 
Pyrenees, the one on the W. near Carasae (Garis) 
not far from the Mare Cantabricum, the one in 
the middle leading from Caesaraugusta to Bene- 
hamum (Bareges), and the one on the E., which 
was most frequently used, near the coast of the 
Mediterranean by Juncaria {Junquera). 

Pyrenes Promontorium, or Prom. Veneris 
(C. Creus), the S.E. extremity of the Pyrenees in 
Spain, on the frontiers of Gaul, derived its 2nd 
name from a temple of Venus on the promontor}'. 

Pyrgi. 1. (Uvpyoi or Uvpyos : UvpyiTr}s), the 
most S.-ly town of Triphylia in Elis, near the 
Messenian frontier, said to have been founded by 
the Minyae.™ 2. (Pyrgensis : Santa Severa), an 
ancient Pelasgic town on the coast of Etruxia, was 
used as the port of Caere or Agylla, and was a 
place of considerable importance as a commercial 
emporium. It was at an early period the head- 
quarters of the Tyrrhenian pirates. It possessed a 
very Avealthy temple of Ilithyia, which Dionysius 
of Syracuse plundered in b, c. 384. Pyrgi is men- 
tioned at a later time as a Roman colony, but lost 
its importance under the Roman dominion. There 
are still remains at Sta Severa of the ancient poly- 
gonal walls of Pyrgi. 

Pyrgoteles {YlvpyoT4\rfs), one of the most 
celebrated gem -engravers of ancient Greece, was a 
contemporary of Alexander the Great, who placed 
him on a level with Apelles and Lysippus, by 
naming him as the only artist who was permitted 
to engrave seal-rings for the king. 



Pyrlcus, a Greek painter, who probably lived 
soon after the time of" Alexander the Great. He 
devoted himself entirely to the production of small 
pictures of low and mean subjects. 

Pyriphlegethon (UvptcpMyddoov), that is, 
flaming with fire, the name of one of the rivers in 
the loAver world. 

Pyromachus, the name of 2 artists. The name 
occurs in 4 difierent forms, namely, Fhyro7nacIuis^ 
FhylomacJius, Philomaclms, and Pyromachus. — 
1. An Athenian sculptor, who executed the bas- 
reliefs on the frieze of the temple of Athena Polias, 
about B. c. 4 1 5. The true form of his name appears 
to have been Phyromachus. — 2. An artist who flou- 
rished B. c. 295 — 240, is mentioned by Pliny 
(xxxiv. 8. s. 19) as one of those statuaries who 
represented the battles of Attains and Eumenes 
against the Gauls. Of these battles the most cele- 
brated was that which obtained for Attains I. the 
title of king, about 241. It is supposed by the 
best writers on ancient art that the celebrated 
statue of a d3'ing combatant, popularly called the 
Dying Gladiator, is a copy from one of the bronze 
statues in the works mentioned by Pliny. It is 
evidently the statue of a Celt. 

Pyrrha {Tlvppa'. Ylvppa7os). 1. A town on the 
W. coast of the island of Lesbos, on the inner part 
of the deep bay named after it, and consequently 
on the narrowest part of the island.— 2. A town 
and promontory of Phthiotis in Thessaly, on the 
Pagasaean gulf and near the frontiers of Magnesia. 
Oif this promontory there were 2 small islands, 
named Pyrrha and Deucalion. — 3. A small Ionic 
toAvn in Caria on the N. side of the Sinus Latmicus 
and 50 stadia from the mouth of the Maeander. 

Pyrrhi Castra (Jivppov xapal), a fortified place 
in the N. of Laconica, where Pyrrhus probably en- 
camped in his invasion of the country in B. c. 272. 

Pyrrhichus {Uvppixos), a town of the Eleuthe- 
ro-lacones in the S.W. of Laconica. 

Pjrrrlio {Yivpboov)., the founder of the Sceptical 
or Pyrrhonian school of philosophy, was a native of 
Elis in Peloponnesus. He is said to have been poor, 
and to have followed, at first, the profession of a 
painter. He is then said to have been attracted 
to philosophy by the books of Democritus, to have 
attended the lectures of Bryson, a disciple of 
Stilpon, to have attached himself closely to Anax- 
archus, and with him to have joined the expedition 
of Alexander the Great. Diu-ing the greater part 
of his life he lived in retirement, and endeavoured 
to render himself independent of all external cir- 
cumstances. His disciple Timon extolled with 
admiration his divine repose of soul, and his indif- 
ference to pleasure or pain. So highly was he 
valued by his felloAV-citizens that they made him 
their high priest, and erected a monument to him 
after his death. The Athenians conferred upon 
him the rights of citizenship. We know little 
respecting the principles of his sceptical philosophy ; 
and the ridiculous tales told about him by Diogenes 
Laertius are probably the invention of his enemies. 
He asserted that certain knowledge on any subject 
was unattainable ; and that the great object of 
man ought to be to lead a virtuous life. Pyrrho 
wrote no works, except a poem addressed to Alex- 
ander, which was rewarded by the latter in a roval 
manner. His philosophical system was first re- 
duced to writing by his disciple Timon. He 
reached the age of 90 years, but we have no mention 
of the year either of his birth or of his death. 

s s 4 



632 



PYRRHUS. 



PYRRHUS. 



Pyrrhus (riup^oy). 1. Mythological. [Xeo- 
PTOLEMUS.]. — 2. I. King of Epirus, son of 
Aeacides and Phthia, was born B. c. 318. His 
ancestors claimed descent from Pyrrhus, the son 
of Achilles, who was said to have settled in Epi- 
rus after the Trojan war, and to have become the 
founder of the race of Molossian kings. On the 
deposition of his father by the Epirots [Aea- 
cides], Pyrrhus, who was then a child of only 
two years old, was saved from destruction by the 
faithful adherents of the king, who carried him to 
Glaucias, the king of the Taulantians, an Illyrian 
people. Glaucias took the child under his care, 
and brought him up with his own children. He 
not only refused to surrender Pyrrhus to Cassander, 
but about 10 years afterwards he marched into 
Epirus at the head of an army, and placed Pyrrhus 
on the throne, leaving him, however, under the 
care of guardians, as he was then only 12 years of 
age. In the course of 4 or 5 years, however, Cas- 
sander, who had regained his supremacy in Greece, 
prevailed upon the Epirots to expel their young 
king. Pyrrhus, who was still only 17 years of 
age, joined Demetrius, who had married his sister 
Deidama, accompanied him to Asia, and was 
present at the battle of Ipsus, 301, in which he 
gained great renown for his valour. Antigonus 
fell in the battle, and Demetrius became a fugitive; 
but Pyrrhus did not desert his brother-in-law in 
his misfortunes, and shortly afterwards went for him 
as a hostage into Egypt. Here he was fortunate 
enough to win the favour of Berenice, the wife of 
Ptolemy, and received in marriage Antigone, her 
daughter by her first husband. Ptolemy now 
supplied him with a fleet and forces, with which 
he returned to Epirus. Neoptolemus, who had 
reigned from the time that Pyrrhus h.id been 
driven from the kingdom, agreed to share the 
sovereignty with Pyrrhus. But such an arrange- 
ment could not last long ; and Pyrrhus anticipated 
his own destruction by putting his rival to death. 
This appears to have happened in 295, in which 
year Pyrrhus is said to have begun to reign. He 
Avas now 23 years old, and he soon became one of 
the most popular princes of his time. His daring 
courage made him a favourite with his troops, and 
his affability and generosity secured the love of his 
people. He seems at an early age to have taken 
Alexander as his model, and to have been fired 
with the ambition of imitating his exploits and 
treading in his footsteps. His eyes were first di- 
rected to the conquest of Macedonia. By assisting 
Alexander, the son of Cassander, against his brother 
Antipater, he obtained possession of the whole of 
the Macedonian dominions on the western side of 
Greece. But the Macedonian throne itself fell 
into the hands of Demetrius, greatly to the disap- 
pointment of Pyrrhus. The two former friends now 
became the most deadly enemies, and open war 
broke out between them in 291. After the war had 
been carried on with great vigour and various vi- 
cissitudes for 4 years, Pyrrhus joined the coalition 
formed in 287 by Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysima- 
chus against Demetrius. Lysimachus and Pyrrhus 
invaded Macedonia ; Demetrius was deserted by his 
troops, and obliged to fly in disguise ; and the king- 
dom was divided between Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. 
But the latter did not long retain his portion ; the 
Macedonians preferred the rule of their old general 
Lysimachus ; and Pyrrhus was accordingly driven 
out of the country after a reign of 7 months (286). 



For the next few years Pyrrhus reigned quietly in 
Epirus without embarking in any new enterprize. 
But a life of inactivity was insupportable to him ; 
and accordingly he readil}- accepted the invitation 
of the Tarentines to assist them in their war 
against the Romans. He crossed over to Italy 
early in 280, in the 38th year of his age. He took 
with him 20,000 foot, 3000 horse, 2000 archers, 
500 slingers, and either 50 or 20 elephants, having 
previously sent Milo, one of his generals, with a 
detachment of 3000 men. As soon as he arrived 
at Tarentum, he began to make vigorous prepa- 
rations for carrying on the war ; and as the giddy 
and licentious inhabitants of Tarentum complained 
of the severity of his discipline, he forthwith treated 
them as their master rather than as their alh', 
shut up the theatre and all other public places, 
and compelled their young men to serve in his 
ranks. In the 1st campaign (280) the Roman consul 
M. Valerius Laevinus was defeated by Pyrrhus 
near Heraclea, on the bank of the river Siris. 
The battle was long and bravely contested, and it 
was not till Pyrrhus brought forward his elephants, 
which bore down every thing before them, that 
the Romans took to flight. The loss of Pyrrhus, 
though inferior to that of the Romans, was still 
very considerable. A large proportion of his 
officers and best troops had fallen ; and he said, as 
he viewed the field of battle, " Another such 
victon,', and I must return to Epirus alone." He 
therefore availed himself of his success to send his 
minister Cineas to Rome with proposals of peace, 
while he himself marched slowly towards the city. 
His proposals, however, were rejected by the 
senate. He accprdingly continued his march, 
ravaging the Roman territory as he went along. 
He advanced within 24 mUes of Rome ; but as he 
found it impossible to compel the Romans to accept 
the peace, he retraced his steps and withdrew 
into winter-quarters to Tarentum. As soon as the 
armies were quartered for the wdnter, the Romans 
sent an embassy to Pyrrhus, to endeavour to obtain 
the ransom of the Roman prisoners. The ambas- 
sadors were received by Pyrrhus in the most dis- 
tinguished manner ; and his interviews with C. Fa- 
bricius, who was at the head of the embassy, form one 
of the most celebrated stories in Roman history. 
[Fabricius.] In the 2nd campaign (279) Pyrrhus 
gained another victory near Asculum over the 
Romans, who were commanded by the consuls 
P. Decius Mus and P. Sulpicius Saverrio. The 
battle, however, was followed by no decisive 
results, and the brunt of it had again fallen, as in 
the previous year, almost exclusively on the Greek 
troops of the king. He was therefore unwilling to 
hazard his surviving Greeks by another campaign 
with the Romans, and accordingly he lent a ready 
ear to the invitations of the Greeks in Sicily, who 
begged him to come to their assistance against the 
Carthaginians. The Romans -were likewise anxious 
to get rid of so formidable an opponent that they 
might complete the subjugation of southern Italy 
without further interruption. When both parties 
had the same wishes, it was not difficult to find a 
fair pretext for bringing the war to a conchision. 
This was afforded at the beginning of the following 
year (278), by one of the servants of Pyrrhus de- 
serting to the Romans and proposing to the consuls 
to poison his master. The consuls Fabricius and 
Aemilius sent back the deserter to the king, stating 
that they abhorred a victory gained by treason. 



PYRRHUS. 



PYTHAGORAS. 



C33 



Thereupon Pyrrhus, to show his gratitude, sent 
Cineas to Rome with all the Roman prisoners 
without ransom and without conditions ; and the 
Romans granted him a truce, though not a 
formal peace, as he had not consented to evacuate 
Italy. Pyrrhus now crossed over into Sicily, 
where he remained upwards of 2 years, from 
the middle of 478 to the latter end of 476. At 
first he met with brilliant success, defeated the 
Carthaginians and took Eryx ; but having failed 
in an attempt upon Lilybaeum, he lost his popu- 
larity with the Greeks, who began to form cabals 
and plots against him. This led to retaliation on 
the part of Pyrrhus, and to acts which were deemed 
both cruel and tyrannical by the Greeks. His 
position in Sicily at length became so uncomfortable 
and dangerous, that he soon became anxious to aban- 
don the island. Accordingly, when his Italian allies 
again begged him to come to their assistance, he 
gladly complied with their request. Pyrrhus re- 
turned to Italy in the autumn of 276. In the fol- 
lowing year (275) the war was brought to a close. 
Pyrrhus was defeated with great loss near Bene- 
ventum by the Roman consul Curius Dentatus, and 
was obliged to leave Italy. He brought back with 
him to Epirus only 8000 foot and 500 horse, and 
had not money to maintain even these without 
undertaking new wars. Accordingly, in 273, he 
invaded Macedonia, of which Antigonus Gonatas, 
the son of Demetrius, was then king. His only 
object at first seems to have been plunder ; but 
his success far exceeded his expectations. Anti- 
gonus was deserted by his own troops, and Pyrrhus 
thus became king of Macedonia a second time. 
But scarcely had he obtained possession of the 
kingdom before his restless spirit drove him into 
new enterprises. On the invitation of Cleonymus 
he turned his arms against Sparta, but was repulsed 
in an attack upon this city. From Sparta he marched 
towards Argos in order to support Aristeas, one of 
the leading citizens at Argos, against his rival 
Aristippus, whose cause was espoused by Antigonus. 
In the night-time Aristeas admitted Pyrrhus into 
the city ; but the alarm having been given, the 
citadel and all the strong places were seized by 
the Argives of the opposite faction. On the dawn 
of day Pyrrhus saw that it would be necessary for 
him to retreat ; and as he was fighting his way out 
of the city, an Argive woman hurled down from the 
house-top, a ponderous tile, which struck Pyrrhus on 
the back of his neck. He fell from his horse stunned 
with the blow, and being recognised by some of 
the soldiers of Antigonus, was quickly despatched. 
His head was cut off and carried to Antigonus, 
who turned away from the sight, and ordered 
the body to be interred with becoming honours. 
Pyrrhus perished in 272, in the 46th year of his 
age, and in the 23rd of his reign. He was the 
greatest Avarrior and one of the best princes of his 
time. With his daring courage, his military skill, 
and his kingly bearing, he might have become the 
most powerful monarch of his day, if he had 
steadily pursued the immediate object before him. 
But he never rested satisfied with any acquisition, 
and was ever grasping at some fresh object : hence 
Antigonus compared him to a gambler, who made 
many good throws with the dice, but was unable 
to make the proper use of the game. Pyrrhus was 
regarded in subsequent times as one of the greatest 
generals that had ever lived. Hannibal said that 
of all generals Pyrrlms was the first, Scipio the 



j second, and himself the third ; or, according to 
another version of the story, Alexander was the 
first, Pyrrhus the second, and himself the third. 
Pyrrhus wrote a work on the art of war. which 
was read in the time of Cicero ; and his com- 
mentaries are quoted both by Dionysius and 
Plutarch. Pyrrhus married 4 wives. 1. Antigone, 
the daughter of Berenice. 2. A daughter of Au- 
doleon, king of the Paeonians. 3. Bircenna, a 
daughter of Bardylis, king of the Illyrians. 4. La- 
nassa, a daughter of Agathocles of Syracuse. His 
children were: — 1. Ptolemy, born 295; killed 
in battle, 272. 2. Alexander, who succeeded his 
father as king of Epirus. 3. Helenus. 4. Ne- 
reis, who married Gelon of Syracuse. 5. Olym- 
pias, who married her own brother Alexander.' 
6. Deidamia or Laodamia. — 3. II. King of Epi- 
rus, son of Alexander II. and Olympias, and 
grandson of Pyrrhus I. was a child at the time of 
his father's death (between 262 and 258). During 
his minority the kingdom was governed by his 
mother Olympias. According to one account 
Olympias survived Pyrrhus, who died soon after 
he had grown up to manhood ; according to another 
account Olympias had poisoned a maiden to whom 
Pyrrhus was attached, and was herself poisoned 
by him in revenge. 

Pythagoras (YlvQaySpas). 1. A celebrated 
Greek philosopher, was a native of Samos, and the 
son of Mnesarchus, who was either a merchant, 
or, according to others, an engraver of signets. 
The date of his birth is uncertain ; but all autho- 
rities agree that he flourished in the times of Poly- 
crates and Tarquinius Superbus (b. o. 540 — 510). 
He studied in his own country under Creophilus, 
Pherecydes of Syros, and others, and is said to 
have visited Egypt and many countries of the East 
for the purpose of acquiring knowledge. We have 
not much trustworthy evidence, either as to the 
kind and amount of knowledge which he acquired, 
or as to his definite philosophical views. It is 
certain however that he believed in the transmi- 
gration of souls ; and he is said to have pre- 
tended that he had been Euphorbus, the son of 
Panthus, in the Trojan war, as well as various other 
characters. He is further said to have discovered 
the propositions that the triangle inscribed in a 
semi-circle is right-angled, that the square on 
the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal 
to the sum of the squares on the sides. There is 
a celebrated story of his having discovered the 
arithmetical relations of the musical scale by ob- 
serving accidentally the various sounds produced 
by hammers of different weights striking upon an 
anvil, and suspending by strings weights equal to 
those of the different hammers. The retailers of 
the story of course never took the trouble 'to verify 
the experiment, or they would have discovered 
that different hammers do not produce different 
sounds from the same anvil, any more than dif- 
ferent clappers do from the same bell. Discoveries 
in astronomy are also attributed to Pythagoras. 
There can be little doubt that he paid great atten- 
tion to arithmetic, and its application to weights, 
measures, and the theory of music. Apart from 
all direct testimony, however, it may safely be 
affirmed, that the very remarkable influence ex- 
erted by Pythagoras, and even the fact that he 
was made the hero of so many marvellous stories, 
prove him to have been a man both of singular 
capabilities and of great acquirements. It may 



534 



PYTHAGORAS. 



PYTHAGORAS. 



also be affirmed with safety that the religious 
element was the predominant one in the character 
of Pythagoras, and that religious ascendancy in 
connection with a certain mj'stic religious system 
was the object which he chiefly laboured to secure. 
It was this religious element which made the pro- 
foundest impression upon his contemporaries. They 
regarded him as standing in a peculiarly close 
connection with the gods. The Crotoniates even 
identified him with the Hyperborean Apollo. And 
without viewing him as an impostor, we may easily 
believe that he himself to some extent shared the 
same views. He pretended to divination and 
prophecy; and he appears as the revealer of a 
mode of life calculated to raise his disciples above 
the level of mankind, and to recommend them to 
the favour of the gods. — No certainty can be 
arrived at as to the length of time spent by Pytha- 
goras in Egypt or the East, or as to his residence 
and efforts in Samos or other Grecian cities, before 
he settled at Crotona in Italy. He probably re- 
moved to Crotona because he found it impossible 
to realise his schemes in his native country, while 
under the tyranny of Polycrates. The reason 
why he selected Crotona as the sphere of his opera- 
tions, it is impossible to ascertain ; but soon after 
his arrival in that city he attained extensive in- 
fluence, and gained over great numbers to enter 
into his views. His adherents were chiefly of the 
noble and wealthy classes. Three hundred of 
these were formed into a select brotherhood or 
club, bound by a sort of vow to Pythagoras and 
each other, for the purpose of cultivating the re- 
ligious and ascetic observances enjoyed by their 
master, and of studying his religious and philoso- 
phical theories. Every thing that was done and 
taught among the members was kept a profound 
secret from all without its pale. It was an old 
Pythagorean maxim, that every thing was not to 
be told to every body. There were also gradations 
among the members themselves. In the admission 
of candidates Pythagoras is said to have placed 
great reliance on his physiognomical discernment. 
If admitted, they had to pass through a period of 
probation, in which their powers of maintaining 
silence were especially tested, as well as their 
general temper, disposition, and mental capacity. 
As regards the nature of the esoteric instruction 
to which only the most approved members of the 
fraternity were admitted, some have supposed 
that it had reference to the political \'iews of Py- 
thagoras. Others have maintained, with greater 
probability, that it related mainly to the orgies, or 
secret religious doctrines and usages, which un- 
doubtedly formed a prominent feature in the Py- 
thagorean system, and were peculiarly connected 
with the worship of Apollo. There were some 
outward peculiarities of an ascetic kind in the 
mode of life to which the members of the brother- 
hood were subjected. Some represent him as for- 
bidding all animal food; but all the members 
cannot have been subjected to this prohibition ; 
since the athletic Milo, for instance, could not 
possibly have dispensed with animal food. Ac- 
cording to some ancient authorities, he allowed 
the use of all kinds of animal food except the flesh 
of oxen used for ploughing, and rams. There is a 
similar discrepancy as to the prohibition of fish and 
beans. But temperance of all kinds seems to have 
been strictly enjoined. It is also stated that they 
had common meals, resembling the Spartan sys- 



sitia, at which they met in companies of ten. Con- 
siderable importance seems to have been attached 
to music and gymnastics in the daily exercises of 
the disciples. Their whole discipline is repre- 
sented as tending to produce a lofty serenity and 
self-possession, regarding the exhibition of which 
various anecdotes were current in antiquitj-. Among 
the best ascertained features of the brotherhood are 
the devoted attachment of the members to each 
other, and their sovereign contempt for those who 
did not belong to their ranks. It appears that 
they had some secret conventional symbols, by 
which members of the fraternity could recognise 
each other, even if they had never met before. 
Clubs similar to that at Crotona were established 
at Sybaris, Metapontum, Tarentum, and other cities 
of Magna Graecia. — The institutions of Pj^thago- 
ras were certainly not intended to withdraw those 
who adopted them from active exertion, that they 
might devote themselves exclusively to religious and 
philosophical contemplations. He rather aimed at 
the production of a calm bearing and elevated tone 
of character, through which those trained in the 
discipline of the Pythagorean life should exhibit 
in their personal and social capacities a reflection 
of the order and harmony of the universe. Whether 
he had any distinct political designs in the foun- 
dation of his brotherhood, is doubtful ; but it was 
perfectly natural, even without any express design 
on his part, that a club such as the Three Hundred 
of Crotona should gradually come to mingle po- 
litical with other objects, and by the facilities 
afforded by their secret and compact organisation 
should speedily gain extensive political influence. 
That this influence should be decisively on the 
side of aristocracy or oligarchy, resulted naturally 
both from the nature of the Pythagorean insti- 
tutions, and from the rank and social position of 
the members of the brotherhood. Through them, 
of course, Pythagoras himself exercised a large 
amount of indirect influence over the affairs both 
of Crotona and of other Italian cities. This Py- 
thagorean brotherhood or order resembled in many 
respects the one founded by Loyola. It is easy 
to understand how this aristocratical and exclusive 
club would excite the jealousy and hostility not 
only of the democratical party in Crotona, but also 
of a considerable number of the opposite faction. 
The hatred which they had excited speedily led 
to their destruction. The populace of Crotona 
rose against them ; and an attack was made upon 
them while assembled either in the house of Milo, 
or in some other place of meeting. The building 
was set on fire, and many of the assembled mem- 
bers perished ; only the younger and more active 
escaped. Similar commotions ensued in the other 
cities of Magna Graecia in which Pythagorean 
clubs had been formed. As an active and organ- 
ised brotherhood the Pythagorean order was every- 
where suppressed ; but the Pythagoreans still 
continued to exist as a sect, the members of which 
kept up among themselves their religious observ- 
ances and scientific pursuits, while individuals, as 
in the case of Archytas, acquired now and then 
great political influence. Respecting the fate of 
Pythagoras himself, the accounts varied. Some 
say that he perished in the temple with his dis- 
ciples, others that he fled first to Tarentum, and 
that, being driven thence, he escaped to Meta- 
pontima^ and there starved himself to death. His 
tomb was shown at Metapontum in the time of 



PYTHAGORAS. 



PYTHIUS. 



635 



Cicero. — According to some accounts Pythagoras 
married Theano, a lady of Crotona, and had a 
daughter Darao, and a son Telauges, or, according 
to others, two daughters, Damo and Myia ; while 
other notices seem to imply that he had a wife 
and a daughter grown up, when he came to Cro- 
tona. — When we come to inquire what were the 
philosophical or religious opinions held by Py- 
thagoras himself, we are met at the outset by the 
difficulty that even the authors from whom we 
have to draw possessed no authentic records bear- 
ing upon the age of Pythagoras himself. If Py- 
thagoras ever wrote any thing, his writings perished 
with him, or not long after. The probability is 
that he wrote nothing. Every thing current imder 
his name in antiquity was spurious. It is all but 
certain that Philolaus was the first who published 
the Pythagorean doctrines, at any rate in a written 
form [Philolaus]. Still there was so marked a 
peculiarity running through the Pythagorean phi- 
losophy, that there can be little question as to the 
germs of the system at any rate having been de- 
rived from Pythagoras himself. Pythagoras re- 
sembled the philosophers of the Ionic school, who 
undertook to solve by means of a single primordial 
principle the vague problem of the origin and con- 
stitution of the universe as a whole. His predi- 
lection for mathematical studies led him to trace 
the origin of all things to number, his theory being 
suggested, or at all events confirmed, by the ob- 
servation of various numerical relations, or analo- 
gies to them, in the phenomena of the universe. 
— Musical principles likewise played almost as 
important a part in the Pythagorean system as 
mathematical or numerical ideas. We find running 
through the entire system the idea that order, or 
harmony of relation, is the regulating principle of 
the whole universe. The intervals between the 
heavenly bodies were supposed to be determined 
according to the laws and relations of musical 
harmony. Hence arose the celebrated doctrine of 
the harmony of the spheres ; for the heavenly 
bodies in their motion could not but occasion a 
certain sound or note, depending on their distances 
and velocities ; and as these were determined by 
the laws of harmonical intervals, the notes alto- 
gether formed a regular musical scale or harmony. 
This harmony, however, we do not hear, either 
because we have been accustomed to it from the 
first, and have never had an opportunity of con- 
trasting it with stillness, or because the sound is 
so powerful as to exceed our capacities for hearing. 
The ethics of the Pythagoreans consisted more in 
ascetic practice, and maxims for the restraint of 
the passions, especially of anger, and the cultiva- 
tion of the power of endurance, than in scientific 
theory. What of the latter they had was, as 
might be expected, intimately connected with their 
number-theory. Happiness consisted in the science 
of the perfection of the virtues of the soul, or in 
the perfect science of numbers. Likeness to the 
Deity was to be the object of all our endeavours, 
man becoming better as he approaches the gods, 
who are the guardians and guides of men. Great 
importance was attached to the influence of music 
in controlling the force of the passions. Self- 
exammation was strongly insisted on. The trans- 
migration of souls was viewed apparently in the 
light of a process of purification. Souls under the 
dominion of sensuality either passed into the bodies 
of animals, or, if incurable, were thrust down 



into Tartarus, to meet with expiation, or condign 
punishment. The pure were exalted to higher 
modes of life, and at last attained to incorporeal 
existence. As regards the fniits of this system 
of training or belief, it is interesting to remark, 
that wherever we have notices of distinguished 
Pythagoreans, we usually hear of them as men 
of great uprightness, conscientiousness, and self- 
restraint, and as capable of devoted and enduring 
friendship. [See Archytas ; Damon and Phin- 
TiAS.] — 2. Of Rhegium, one of the most cele- 
brated statuaries of Greece, probably flourished 
B. c. 480 — 430. His most important works ap- 
pear to have been his statues of athletes. 

Pytheas {UvQias). 1. An Athenian orator, 
distinguished by his unceasing animosity against 
Demosthenes. He had no political principles, 
made no pretensions to honesty, and changed sides 
as often as suited his convenience or his interest. Of 
the part that he took in political affairs only two or 
three facts are recorded. He opposed the honours 
which the Athenians proposed to confer upon 
Alexander, but he afterwards espoused the inter- 
ests of the Macedonian party. He accused Demo- 
sthenes of having received bribes from Harpalus. 
In the Lamian war, b. c. 322, he joined Antipater, 
and had thus the satisfaction of surviving his great 
enemy Demosthenes. He is said to have been 
the author of the well-known saying, that the ora- 
tions of Demosthenes smelt of the lamp. — 2. Of 
Massilia, in Gaul, a celebrated Greek navigator, 
who sailed to the western and northern parts of 
Europe, and wrote a work containing the results of 
his discoveries. He probably lived in the time of 
Alexander the Great, or shortly afterwards. He 
appears to have undertaken voyages, one in which 
he visited Britain and Thule, and of which he 
probably gave an account in his work On the Ocean ; 
and a second, undertaken after his return from his 
first voyage, in which he coasted along the whole 
of Europe from Gadira {Cadiz) to the Tanais, and 
the description of which probably formed the sub- 
ject of his Periplus. Pytheas made Thule a 6 
days' sail from Britain ; and said that the day 
and the night were each 6 months long in Thule. 
Hence some modern writers have supposed that 
he must have reached Iceland ; while others have 
maintained that he advanced as far as the Shetland 
Islands. But either supposition is very improbable, 
and neither is necessary ; for reports of the great 
length of the day and night in the northern parts 
of Europe had already reached the Greeks, before 
the time of Pytheas. There has been likewise 
much dispute as to what river we are to understand 
by the Tanais. The most probable conjecture is 
that upon reaching the Elbe, Pytheas concluded 
that he had arrived at the Tanais, separating Eu- 
rope from Asia. — 3. A silver-chaser, who flourished 
at Rome in the age immediately following that of 
Pompey, and whose productions commanded a re- 
markably high price. 

Pythias {UvQias). 1. The sister or adopted 
daughter of Hermias, and the wife of Aristotle. 
— 2. Daughter of Aristotle and Pythias. 

Pythium (JivQiov). 1. A place in Attica, not 
far from Eleusis. 2. A town of Thessaly in the 
E. part of the district Hestiaeotis, which with 
Azorus and Doliche fon-ned a Tripolis. 

PytMus [UiOios), a Lydian, the son of Atys, 
was a man of enormous wealth, which he derived 
from his gold mines in the neighbourhood of Ce- 



€36 I'YTHOCLIDES. 
laenae in Phrypia. When Xerxes arrived at ] 
Celaenae. Pythius banqueted him and his whole 
army. His five sons accompanied Xerxes. Pythius, 
alarmed by an eclipse of the sun which happened, 
came to Xerxes, and begged that the eldest might 
be left behind. This request so enraged the king 
that he had the young man immediately killed 
and cut in two, and the two portions of his body 
placed on either side of the road, and then ordered 
the army to march between them. 

Pythoclides {UuOoKXei^Tjs)^ a celebrated musi- 
cian of the time of Pericles, was a native of Ceos, 
and nourished at Athens, under the patronage of 
Pericle-, whom lie instructed in his art. 

Pythodoris {Uvdodupis), wife of Polemon I. 
king of Pontus. After the death of her husband 
she retained possession of the government. She 
subsequently married Archelaus, king of Cappa- 
docia, but after his death (a. d. 17) returned to 
her own kingdom, of which she continued to admi- 
nister the atfairs herself until her decease, which 
probably did not take place until a. d. 38. Of 
her two sons, the one, Zenon, became king of 
Armenia, while the other, Polemon, succeeded her 
on the throne of Pontus. 

Python (Uvduv). 1. The celebrated serpent, 
which was produced from the mud left on the earth 
after the delude of Deucalion. He lived in the 
caves of Mr. Parnassus, but was slain by Apollo, 
who founded the Pythian games in commemoration 
of his victory, and received in consequence the sur- 
name Pythius. — 2. Of Catana, a dramatic poet of 
the time of Alexander, whom he accompanied into 
Asia, and whose army he entertained with a 
gatyric drama, when they were celebrating the 
Dionysia on the banks of the Hydaspes. The 
drama was in ridicule of Harpalus and the Athe- 
nians. 

Pyxites {Tlvl'iT-ns Vitzeh), a river of Pontus, 
falling into the Euxiue near Trapezus. 

PyXUS. [BUXENTOI.] 

Q- 

Quadi, a powerful German people of the Suevic 
race, dwelt in the S.E. of Germany, between Mt. 
Gabreta, the Hercyniau forest, the Sarmatian 
mountains, and the Danube. They were bounded 
on the W. by the Marcomanni, with whom they 
were always closely united, on the N. by the 
Gothini and Osi, on the E. by the lazy ges Meta- 
nastae. from whom they were separated by the 
river Granuas (G'rcpi), and on the S. by the Pan- 
nonians, from whom they were divided by the 
Danube. They probably settled in this district at 
the same time as the Marcomanni made them- 
selves masters of Bohemia [Marcomanni] ; but 
ne have no account of the earlier settlements of 
the Quadi. "When Maroboduus, and shortly after- 
v,-ards his successor Catualda, had been expelled 
from their dominions and had taken refuge with 
the Romans in the reign of Tiberius, the Romans 
assigned to the barbarians, who had accompanied 
these monarchs, and who consisted chiefly of Mar- 
comanni and Quadi, the country between the 
Marus {Marchl Morava or MaroscTi ?) and Cu- 
sus ( Waag ?), and gave to them as king Vannius, 
who belonged to the QuadL Yannius was ex- 
pelled by his nephews Vangio and Sido, but this 
new kingdom of the Quadi continued for a long 



QUADRIGARIUS. 

I time afterwards under Roman protection. In the 
reign of M. Aurelius, however, the Quadi joined 
the Marcomanni and other German tribes in the 
long and bloody war against the empire, which 
lasted during the greater part of that emperor'a 
reign. The independence of the Quadi and Mar- 
comanni was secured by the peace which Coramo- 
dus made with them in a. d. 180. Their name is 
especially memorable in the history of this war by 
the victory which M. Aurelius gained over them 
in 17-i, when his army was in great danger of 
being destroyed by the barbarians, and was said to 
have been saved by a sudden storm, which was 
attributed to the prayers of his Christian soldiers. 
[See p. Ill, a.] The Quadi disappear from his- 
tory towards the end of the 4th centur}'. They 
probably migrated with the Suevi further W. 

Quadratus, one of the Apostolic Fathers, and an 
early apologist for the Christian religion. He 
passed the early part of his life in Asia Minor, 
and was afterwards bishop of the Church at Athens. 
He presented his Apology to Hadrian, in the 10th 
year of his reign (a. d. 126). This apology has 
been Ions lost. 

Quadratus, Asinius, lived in the times of 
Philippus 1. and II., emperors of Rome (a. d. 244 
• — 249), and wrote two historical works in the 
Greek language. I. A history of Rome, in 15 
books, in the Ionic dialect, called XiAjeTTjpis, because 
it related the history of the city, from its founda- 
tion to the 1000th year of its nativity (a. d. 248), 
when the Ludi Saeculares were performed with 
extraordinary pomp. 2. A history of Parthia. 

Quadratus, Fannius, a contemporary of Horace, 
was one of those envious Roman poets who tried 
to depreciate Horace, because his writings threw 
their own into the shade. 

Quadratus, L. Niunius, tribune of the plebs 
B. c. 58, distinguished himself by his opposition to 
the measures of his colleague P. Ciodius against 
Cicero. 

Quadratus, Ilnunidius. 1. Governor of Syria 
during the latter end of the reign of Claudius, and 
the commencement of the reign of Nero, from about 
A. D. 51 to 60. — 2. A friend and admirer of the 
younger Pliny, whom he took as his model in 
oratory. 

QuadrifrCES, a surname of Janus. It is said 
that after the conquest of the Faliscans an image 
of Janus was found with 4 foreheads. Hence a 
temple of Janus Quadrifrons was afterwards built 
in the Forum transitorium, which had 4 gates. 
The fact of the god being represented ■n'ith 4 heads 
is considered by the ancients to be an indication of 
his being the divinity presiding over the year with 
its 4 seasons. 

Quadrigarius, Q. Claudius, a Roman historian 
who flourished B. c, 100 — 78. His work, which 
contained at least 23 books, commenced imme- 
diately after the destruction of Rome by the 
Gauls, and must in all probability have come downi 
to the death of SuUa, since the 7th consulship of 
Marius was commemorated in the 19th book. By 
Livy he is uniformly referred to simply as Claudius 
or Ciodius. By other authors he is cited as Quin- 
tius. as Claudius, as Q. Claudius, as Claudius Qua- 
diigarius, or as Quadrigarim. From the caution 
evinced by Livy in making use of him as an 
authority, especially in matters relating to num- 
bers, it would appear that he was disposed to in- 
dulge, although in a less degree, in those exaggera- 



QUARIATES. 

tions which disfigured the productions of his con- 
temporary Valerius Antias. It is somewhat re- 
markable that he is nowhere noticed by Cicero. 
By A. Gellius, on the other hand, he is quoted re- 
peatedly, and praised in the warmest terms. 

Quariates, a people in Gallia Narbonensis 9 Oil 
the W. slope of the Alpes Cottiae, in the valley of 
Queiras. 

Quies, the personification of tranquillity, was 
worshipped as a divinity by the Romans. She 
had one sanctuary on the Via Lavicana, probably a 
pleasant resting-place for the weary traveller ; and 
another outside the Porta Collina. 

Quietus, Q. Lusius, an independent Moorish 
chief, served with distinction under Trajan both in 
the Dacian and Parthian wars. Trajan made him 
governor of Judaea, and raised him to the consul- 
ship in A.D. 116 or 117. After Trajan's death he 
returned to his native country, but he was suspected 
by Hadrian of fomenting the disturbances which 
then prevailed in Maiiretania, and was shortly 
afterwards put to death by order of Hadrian. 

Quintilius Varus. [Varus.] 

Quintia, or Quinctia Gens, an ancient patrician 
gens at Rome, was one of the Alban houses re- 
moved to Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and enrolled 
by him among the patricians. Its members often 
held throughout the whole history of the republic 
the highest offices of the state. Its 3 most dis- 
tinguished families bore the names of Capitolinus, 
Cincinnatus^ and Flammimis. 

Quintilianus, M. Fabius, the most celebrated 
of Roman rhetoricians, was born at Calagurris 
(CalaJiorra), in Spain, a. d. 40. If not reared at 
Rome, he must at least have completed his edu- 
cation there, for he himself informs us that, while 
yet a very j'oung man, he attended the lectures of 
bomitius Afer, who died in 59. Having revisited 
Soain, he returned from thence (68) in the train of 
Galba, and forthwith began to practise at the bar, 
where he acquired considerable reputation. But 
he was chiefly distinguished as a teacher of elo- 
quence, bearing away the palm in this department 
from all his rivals, and associating his name, even 
to a proverb, with pre-eminence in the art. Among 
his pupils were numbered Pliny the younger and 
the two grand-nephews of Domitian. By this 
prince he was invested wi<-h the insignia and title 
of consul (consularia ornamenta)^ and is, moreover, 
celebrated as the first public instructor, who, in 
virtue of the endowment by Vespasian, received a 
regular salary from the imperial exchequer. After 
having devoted 20 years, commencing probably 
with 69, to the duties of his profession, he retired 
into private life, and is supposed to have died about 
118. The great work of Quintilian is a complete 
system of rhetoric in 12 books, entitled De Insti- 
lutione Oi-atoria Lihri XII.^ or sometimes, Institu- 
tiones Oratoriae, dedicated to his friend Marcellus 
Victorius, himself a celebrated orator, and a favour- 
ite at court. It was written during the reign of 
Domitian, while the author was discharging his 
duties as preceptor to the sons of the emperor's 
niece. In a short preface to his bookseller Trj^pho, 
he acquaints U8 that he commenced this under- 
taking after he had retired from his labours as a 
public instructor (probably in 89), and that he 
finished his task in little more than 2 years. The 
1st book contains a dissertation on the preliminary 
training requisite before a youth can enter directly 
upon the studies necessary to mould an accom- 



QUINTIUS 637 

plished orator, and presents us with a carefully 
sketched outline of the method to be pursued in 
educating children, from the time they leave the 
cradle until they pass from the hands of the gram- 
marian. In the 2nd book we find an exposition of 
the first principles of rhetoric, together with an in- 
vestigation into the nature or essence of the art. 
The 5 following are devoted to invention and 
arrangement (invenlio, dispositio) ; the 8th, 9th, 
10th, and 1 1th to composition (including the proper 
use of the figures of speech) and delivery, com- 
prised under the general term elocutio; and the 
last is occupied with what the author considers 
by far the most important portion of his project, 
an inquiry, namely, into various circumstances not 
included in a course of scholastic discipline, 
but essential to the formation of a perfect public 
speaker; such as his manners — his moral cha- 
racter, — the principles by which he must be 
guided in undertaking, in preparing, and in con- 
ducting causes, — the peculiar style of eloquence 
which he may adopt with greatest advantage — ■ 
the collateral studies to be pursued — the age at 
which it is most suitable to commence pleading — 
the necessity of retiring before the powers begin 
to fail — and various other kindred topics. This 
production bears throughout the impress of a clear, 
sound judgment, keen discrimination, and pure 
taste, improved by extensive reading, deep reflec- 
tion, and long practice. The diction is highly 
polished, and very graceful. The sections which 
possess the greatest interest for general readers are 
those chapters in the first book which relate to 
elementary education, and the commencement of 
the 10th book, which furnishes us with a compressed 
but spirited history of Greek and Roman literature. 
There are also extant 164 declamations under the 
name of Quintilian, 19 of considerable length ; the 
remaining 145, which form the concluding portion 
only of a collection Avhich originally extended to 
388 pieces, are mere skeletons or fragments. No 
one believes these to be the genuine productions of 
Quintilian, and few suppose that they proceeded 
from any one individual. They apparently belong 
not only to different persons, but to diflferent 
periods, and neither in style nor in substance do 
they offer any thing which is either attractive or 
useful. Some scholars suppose that the anonymous 
Dialogus de Oratoribus, usually printed among the 
works of Tacitus, ought to be assigjied to Quin- 
tilian. The best editions of Quintilian are, by 
Burmann, 2 vols. 4to., Lug. Bat. 1720 ; by Gesner, 
4to. Gott. 1738; and by Spalding and Zumpt, 6 
vols. 8vo. Lips. 1798—1829. 

Quintilius, M. Aurelius, the brother of the 
emperor M. Aurelius Claudius, Avas elevated to the 
throne by the troops whom he commanded at Aqui- 
leia, in a. d. 270. But as the army at Sirmium, 
where Claudius died, had proclaimed Aurelian em- 
peror, Quintilius put an end to his own life, seeing 
himself deserted by his own soldiers, to whom the 
rigour of his discipline had given offence. 

T. Quintius Capitolinus Barbatus, a celebrated 
general in the early history of the republic, and 
equally distinguished in the internal history of the 
state. He frequently acted as mediator between 
the patricians and plebeians, Avith both of Avhorn he 
Avas held in the highest esteem. He Avas six 
times consul, namely, in b. c. 471, 468, 465, 446, 
443, 439. — Several of his descendants held the 
consulship, but none of these require mention ex- 



638 QUINTUS. 

cept T. Quintius Penims Capitolinus Crispinus, 

who was consul 208, and was defeated by Han- 
nibal. 

Quintus, an eminent physician at Rome, in the 
former half of the 2nd century after Christ. He 
was so much superior to his medical colleagues that 
they grew jealous of his eminence, and formed a sort 
of coalition against him, and forced him to quit the 
city by charging him with killing his patients. He 
died about a. d. 148. 

Quintus Curtius. [Curtius.] 

Quintus Smymaeus (KdlVros S^uupj/atos), com- 
nonly called Quintus Calaber, from the circum- 
stance that the first copy through which his poem 
became known was found in a convent at Otranto 
in Calabria. He was the author of an epic poem 
in 14 books, entitled ra n^ff "O/iTjpou, or irapaKei- 
iroixcpa 'Ofirjpcf. Scarcely any thing is known of his 
personal histor%' ; but it appears most probable that 
he lived towards the end of the 4th century after 
Christ. The matters treated of in his poem are the 
events of the Trojan war from the death of Hector 
to the return of the Greeks. In phraseology, 
similes, and other technicalities, Quintus closely 
copied Homer. The materials for his poem he 
found in the works of the earlier poets of the epic 
cycle. But not a single poetical idea of his own 
seems ever to have inspired him. His gods and 
heroes are alike devoid of all character : every thing 
like pathos or moral interest was quite beyond his 
powers. With respect to chronology his poem is 
as punctual as a diarj'. His style, however, is clear, 
and marked on the whole by purity and good taste, 
without any bombast or exaggeration. There can 
be little doubt that his work is nothing more than 
an amplification or remodelling of the poems of Arc- 
tinus and Lesches. He appears to have also made 
diligent use of ApoUonius. The best edition is by 
Tychsen, Strasburg, 1807. 

Quiiinalis Mons. [Roma.] 

Quirinus, a Sabine word, perhaps derived from 
quiris, a lance or spear. It occurs first of all as 
the name of Romulus, after he had been raised to 
the rank of a divinity ; and the festival celebrated 
in his honour bore the name of Quinnalia. It is 
also used as a surname of Mars, Janus, and even 
of Augustus. 

Quirinus, P. Sulpicius, was a native of Lanu- 
vium, and of obscure origin, but was raised to the 
highest honours by Augustus. He was consul b. c. 
12, and subsequently carried on war against some 
of the robber tribes dwelling in the mountains of 
Cilicia. In b. c. 1, Augustus appointed him to 
direct the counsels of his grandson C. Caesar, then 
in Armenia. Some years afterwards, but not be- 
fore A. D. 5, he was appointed governor of Syria, and 
while in this office he took a census of the Jewish 
people. This is the statement of Josephus, and 
appears to be at variance with that of Luke, who 
speaks as if the census or enrolment of Cyrenius 
(i. e. Quirinus) was made at the time of the birth 
of Christ. Quirinus had been married to AemUia 
Lepida, whom he divorced ; but in A. d. 20, twenty 
years after the divorce, he brought an accusation 
against her. The conduct of Quirinus met with 
general disapprobation as harsh and revengeful. 
He died in a. d. 21, and was honoured with a 
public fimeral. 

Quiza {Kovi^a : Giza near Oran), a munici- 
pium on the coast of Mauretania Caesarensis in 
N. Africa, 40 Roman miles W. of Arsenaria. 



RABIRIUS. 
R. 

Raamses or Rameses (lxx. 'Po^eo-tr^), a city 

of Lower Egypt, built as a treasure city by the 
captive Israelites under the oppression of the Pha- 
raoh " who knew not Joseph " (Exod. i. 11) ; and 
usually identified with Heroopolis. 

Eabathmoba ('Paea0/ia;ga, i. e. Rabbath-Moab, 
0. T., also called Rabbah, Ar, Ar.-Moab and aft. 
Areopolis : Rabbah), the ancient capital of the 
Moabites, lay in a fertile plain, on the E. side of 
the Dead Sea, and S. of the river Amon, in the 
district of Moabitis in Arabia Petraea, or, accord- 
ing to the later division of the provinces, in Pa- 
laestina Tertia. 

Rabbatamana {'FaSajafxava, i. e. Rabbath- 
Ammon, 0. T. : Amnion, Ru.), the ancient capital 
of the Ammonites, lay in Peraea on a S. tributary 
of the Jabbok, N.E. of the Dead Sea. Ptolemy II. 
Philadelphus gave it the name of Philadelpliia ; 
and it long continued a flourishing and splendid 
city. 

Babuius. 1. C, an aged senator, was accused 
in B. c. 63, by T. Labienus, tribune of the plebs, of 
having put to death the tribune L. Appuleius 
Saturninus in 100, nearly 40 years before. [Sa- 
TURNiNus.] The accusation was set on foot at 
the instigation of Caesar, who judged it necessary 
to deter the senate from resorting to arms against 
the popular party. To make the warning still 
more striking, Labienus did not proceed against him 
on the charge of majestas, but revived the old accu- 
sation of perdiiellio, Avhich had been discontinued 
for some centuries, since persons found guilty of 
the latter crime were given over to the public exe- 
cutioner and hanged on the accursed tree. The 
Duumviri Ferduellionis appointed to try Rabirius 
were C. Caesar himself and his relative L. Caesar. 
With such judges the result could not be doubt- 
ful ; Rabirius was forthwith condemned ; and the 
sentence of death would have been carried into 
effect, had he not availed himself of his right of 
appeal to the people in the comitia of the centuries. 
The case excited the greatest interest ; since it was 
not simply the life or death of Rabirius, but the 
power and authority of the senate, which were at 
stake. Rabirius was defended by Cicero ; but the 
eloquence of his advocate was of no avail, and the 
people would have ratified the decision of the 
duumvirs, had not the meeting been broken up by 
the praetor, Q. Metellus Celer, who removed the 
military flag which floated on the Janiculum. 
This was in accordance with an ancient custom, 
which was intended to prevent the Campus Mar- 
tins from being surprised by an enemy, when the 
territory of Rome scarcely extended beyond the 
boundaries of the city. — 2. C. Rabirius Postu- 
mus, was the son of the sister of the preceding. 
He was bom after the death of his father, whence 
his surname Postumus ; and he was adopted by 
his uncle, whence his name C. Rabirius. He had 
lent large sums of money to Ptolemy Auletes ; and 
after the restoration of Ptolemy to his kingdom by 
means of Gabinius, in b. c. 55, Rabirius repaired 
to Alexandria, and was invested by the king with 
the office of Dioecetes, or chief treasurer. In this 
office he had to amass money both for himself and 
for Gabinius ; but his extortions were so terrible 
that Ptolemy had him apprehended, either to secure 
him against the wrath of the people, or to satisfy 



RACILIUS. 



REATE. 



639 



their indignation, lest they should drive him again 
from his kingdom. Rabirius escaped from prison, 
probably through the connivance of the king, and 
returned to Rome. Here a trial awaited him. 
Gabinius had been sentenced to pay a heavy fine 
on account of his extortions in Egypt ; and as he 
was unable to pay this fine, a suit was instituted 
against Rabirius, who was liable to make up the 
deficiency, if it could be proved that he had re- 
ceived any of the money of which Gabinius had 
illegally become possessed. Rabirius was defended 
by Cicero, and was probably condemned. He is 
mentioned at a later time (46) as serving under 
Caesar, who sent him from Africa into Sicily, in 
order to obtain provisions for his army. — 3. A 
Roman poet, who lived in the last years of the 
republic, and wrote a poem on the Civil Wars. A 
portion of this poem was found at Herculaneum, and 
was edited by Kreyssig, under the title " Carminis 
Latini de bello Actiaco s. Alexandrino fragmenta," 
4to. Schneeberg, 1814. 

L. Eacilius, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 56, and a 
warm friend of Cicero and of Lentulus Spinther. 
In the civil war Racilius espoused Caesar's party, 
and was with his army in Spain in 48. There 
he entered into the conspiracy formed against the 
life of Q. Cassius Longinus, the governor of that 
province, and was put to death, with the other 
conspirators, by Longinus. 

Radagaisus, a Scythian, invaded Italy at the 
head of a formidable host of barbarians, in the 
reign of the emperor Honorius. He was defeated 
by Stilicho, near Florence, in A. D. 408, and was 
put to death after the battle, although he had capi- 
tulated on condition that his life should be saved. 

Rama or Arimathaea ('Pa/ua, 'ApifxaOaia : Er- 
Ram), a town of Judaea, N. of Jerusalem, in the 
mountains of Ephraim, frequently mentioned both 
in the 0. and N. T. 

Eambaci^ ('Pa/igoK/a), the chief city of the 
Oritae, on the coast of Gedrosia, colonised by 
Alexander the Great. 

Ramitha. [Laodicea, No. 3.] 

Ramses, the name of many kings of Egypt of 
the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties. It was during 
this era that most of the great monuments of Egypt 
were erected, and the name is consequently of fre- 
quent occurrence on these monuments, where it 
appears under the form of Ramessu. In Julius 
Africanus and Eusebius it is written Ramses, Ra- 
meses, or Ramesses. The most celebrated of the 
kings of this name is, however, usually called Se- 
sostris by the Greek writers. [Sesostris.] 

Raphana or Raphaneae {'Vacpaveai: Rafaniat, 
Ru.), a city of Syria, in the district of Cassiotis, 
at the N. extremity of Lebanon. 

Raphia or Raphea ("Pa<pia, "Pdcpeia : Replia), 
a sea-port town in the extreme S.W. of Palestine, 
beyond Gaza, on the edge of the desert. It was 
restored by Gabinius. 

Rasenae. [Etruria.] 

Ratiaria {Arzer Palanhx), an important town 
in Moesia Superior on the Danube, the head- 
quarters of a Roman legion, and the station of one 
of the Roman fleets on the Danube. 

Ratomagus or Rotomagus (Romn), the chief 
town of the Vellocasses in Gallia Ludgunensis. 

Raudii Campi. [Campi Raudii.] 

Rauraci, a people in Gallia Belgica, bounded 
on the S. by the Helvetii, on the W. by the Se- 
quani, on the N. by the Tribocci, and on the E. 



by the Rhine. They must have been a people of 
considerable importance, as 23,000 of them are 
said to have emigrated with the Helvetii in B. c. 
58, and they possessed several towns, of which the 
most important were Augusta (August) and Basilia 
(Basel or Bale). 

Rauranum (Rom or Raum nr. CJienay), a town 
of the Pictones in Gallia Aquitanica, S. of Li- 
monum. 

Rausium or Rausia (Ragusa), a town on the 
coast of Dalmatia, is not mentioned till a late 
period, and only rose into importance after the 
destruction of Epidaurus. 

Ravenna (Ravennas, -atis : Ravenna), an im- 
portant tovni in Gallia Cisalpina, on the river 
Bedesis and about a mile from the sea, though it is 
now about 5 miles in the interior in consequence of 
the sea having receded all along this coast. Ra- 
venna was situated in the midst of marshes, and 
was only accessible in one direction by land, pro- 
bably by the road leading from Ariminum. The 
town laid claim to a high antiquity. It was said to 
have been founded by Thessalians (Pelasgians), 
and afterwards to have passed into the hands of 
the Umbrians, but it long remained an insignificant 
place, and its greatness does not begin till the time 
of the empire, when Augustus made it one of the 2 
chief stations of the Roman fleet. This emperor not 
only enlarged the town, but caused a large harbour 
to be constructed on the coast, capable of contain- 
ing 240 triremes, and he connected this harbour 
with the Po by means of a canal called Padusa or 
Augusta Fossa. This harbour was called Classes, 
and between it and Ravenna a new town sprung 
up, to which the name of Caesarea was given. All 
three were subsequently formed into one town, and 
were surrounded by strong fortifications. Ravenna 
thus suddenly became one of the most important 
places in the N. of Italy. The town itself how- 
ever was mean in appearance. In consequence of 
the marshy nature of the soil, most of the houses 
were built of wood, and since an arm of the canal 
was carried through some of the principal streets, 
the communication was carried on to a great extent 
by gondolas, as in modern Venice. The town also 
was very deficient in a supply of good drinking- 
water ; but it was not considered imhealthy, since 
the canals drained the marshes to a great extent, 
and the ebb and flow of the tide prevented the 
waters from stagnating. In the neighbourhood 
good wine was grown, notwithstanding the marshy 
nature of the soil. When the Roman empire was 
threatened by the barbarians, the emperors of the 
West took up their residence at Ravenna, which 
on account of its situation and its fortifications was 
regarded as impregnable. After the downfall of 
the Western empire, Theodoric also made it the 
capital of his kingdom ; and after the overthrow of 
the Gothic dominion by Narses, it became the 
residence of the Exarchs or the governors of the 
Byzantine empire in Italy, till the Lombards took 
the town, A. D. 752. The modern Ravenna stands 
on the site of the ancient town ; the village Porto 
di Fuori on the site of Caesarea ; and the ancient 
harbour is called Porto Veccldo del Caudiano. 

Reate (Reatinus : Rieti), an ancient town of 
the Sabines in central Italy, said to have been 
founded by the Aborigines or Pelasgians, was 
situated on the Lacus Velinus and the Via Salaria. 
It was the chief place of assembly for the Sabines, 
and was subsequently a praefectura or a munici- 



640 



REBILUS. 



pium. The vallej', in which Reate was situated, 
was 80 beautiful that it received the name of Tempe; 
and in its neighbourhood is the celebrated water- 
fall, which is now known under the name of the 
fall of Tcrni or the Cascade deUe Marmore. This 
waterfall owed its origin to a canal constructed by 
j\r. Curius Dentatus, in order to carry oif the 
superfluous waters from the lake Velinus into the j 
river Nar. It falls into this river from a height j 
of 140 feet. By this undertaking, the Reatini j 
gained a large quantity of land, -(^hicli was called | 
Rosea Rura. — Reate was celebrated for its mules 
and as-es. i 

Rebilus, C. Caninius one of Caesar's legates in | 
Gaul and in the civil war. On the last day of j 
December in B. c. 45, on the sudden death of the 
consul Q. Fabius Maxiraus, Caesar made Rebilus 
consul for the few remaining hours of the day. ! 

Rediculus, a Roman divinity, who had a temple j 
near the Porta Capena, and who was believed to 
have received his name from having induced Plan- [ 
nibal, when he was near the gates of the city, to ^ 
return (redire) southward. A place on the Appian , 
road, near the 2nd mile-stone from the city, was 
called Campus Rediculi. This divinity was pro- 
bably one of the Lares of the city of Rome. 

Redones, a people in the interior of Gallia 
Lugdunensis, whose chief town was Condate 
[^Rennes). 

Redux, i. e. " the divinity wlio leads the traveller 
back to his home in safety," occurs as a surname of 
Fortuna. 

Regalianus, Regallianus or Regillianus, a 

Dacian, who served with distinction under the 
emperors Claudius and Valerian. The Moesians, 
terrified by the cruelties inflicted by Gallienus on 
those who had taken part in the rebellion of In- 
genuus, suddenly proclaimed Regalianus emperor, 
and quickly, with the consent of the soldiers, in a 
new fit of alarm, put him to death, a. d. 263, 
Hence he is enumerated among the 30 Tyrants. 

Regiana ( Villa de Rayna)^ a town in Hispania 
Baetica on the road from Hispalis to Emerita. 

Regillum, a small place in the Sabine territory, 
from which Appius Claudius migrated to Rome. 
Its site is uncertain, as it disappeared at an early 
period. 

Regillus, Aemilius. 1. M., had been declared 
consul, with T. Otacilius, for B. c. 214, by the cen- 
turia praerogativa, and would have been elected, 
had not Q. Fabius Maximus, who presided at the 
comitia, pointed out that there was need of generals 
of more experience to cope with Hannibal. Re- 
gillus died in 205, at which time he is spoken of 
as Flamen Martialis.— 2. L., son of the preceding, 
was praetor 190, when he received the command 
of the fleet in the war against Antiochus. 

Regillus Lacus, a lake in Latiura, memorable 
for the victory gained on its banks by the Romans 
over the Latins, B. c. 498. It was E, of Rome in 
the territory of Tusculum, and between Lavicum 
and Gabii ; but it cannot be identified with cer- 
tainty with any modern lake. It perhaps occupied 
the site of the valley of Isidoro, which is now dry. 

Reginum or Castra Regina {Regensburg), a 
Roman fortress in Vindelicia on the Danube, and 
on the road leading to Vindobona, was the head- 
quarters of a Roman legion. 

Regium Flumen. [Naarmalcha.] 

Regium Lepidi, Regium Lepidum, or simply 
Regium, also Forum Lepidi (Regienses a Lepido': 



REGULUS. 

Reggio), a town of the Boii in Gallia Cisalpina 
between Mutina and Tarentum, which was pro- 
bably made a colony by the consiU M. Aemilius 
Lepidus, when he constructed the Aemilia Via 
through Cisalpine Gaul, though we have no record 
of the foundation of the colony. 

Regtllus, M. Aquilius, was one of the dela- 
tores or informers in the time of Nero, and thus 
rose from poverty to great wealth. Under Domitiau 
he resumed his old trade, and became one of the 
instruments of that tyrant's cruelty. He survived 
Domitian, and is frequently spoken of by Pliny 
with the greatest detestation and contempt. Mar- 
tial, on the contrary, who flattered all the creatures 
of Domitian, celebrates the virtues, the wisdom, 
and the eloquence of Regulus. 

Regulus, Atilius. L M., consul b. c. 335, 
carried on war against the Sidicini.— 2. M., consul 
294, carried on war against the Samnites.— 3. M., 
consul 267, conquered the Sallentini, took the town 
of Brundusium, and obtained in consequence the 
honour of a triumph. In 256, he was consul a 
2nd time with L, Manlius Vulso Longus. The 2 
consuls defeated the Carthaginian fleet, and after- 
wards landed in Africa with a large force. They 
met with great and striking success ; and after 
Manlius returned to Rome Avith half of the arm}-, 
Regulus remained in Africa with the other half 
and prosecuted the war with the utmost vigour. 
The Carthaginian generals Hasdrubal, Bostar, and 
Hamilcar avoided the plains, where their cavalrj- 
and elephants would have given them an advantage 
over the Roman army, and withdrew into the 
mountains. There they were attacked by Regulus, 
and defeated with great loss; 15,000 men are said 
to have been killed in battle, and 5000 men with 
1 8 elephants to have been taken. The Carthaginian 
troops retired within the walls of the city, and 
Regulus now overran the country without oppo- 
sition. Numerous towns fell into the power of the 
Romans, and among others Tunis, at the distance 
of only 20 miles from the capital. The Cartha- 
ginians in despair sent a herald to Regulus to 
solicit peace. But the Roman general would only 
grant it on such intolerable terms that the Cartha- 
ginians resolved to continue the war, and hold out 
to the last. In the midst of their distress and 
alarm, success came to them from an unexpected 
quarter. Among the Greek mercenaries who had 
lately arrived at Carthage, was a Lacedaemonian 
of the name of Xanthippus. He pointed out to the 
Carthaginians that their defeat was owing to the 
incompetency of their generals, and not to the su- 
periority of the Roman arras; and he inspired such 
confidence in the people, that he was forthwith 
placed at the head of their troops. Relying on his 
4000 cavalry and 100 elephants, Xanthippus boldly 
marched into the open country to meet the enemy. 
In the battle which ensued, Regulus was totally 
defeated ; 30,000 of his men were slain ; scarcely 
2000 escaped to Clypea ; and Regulus himself was 
taken prisoner with 500 more (255). Regulus 
remained in captivitj'' for the next 5 years, till 250, 
when the Carthaginians, after their defeat by the 
proconsul Metellus, sent an embassy to Rome to 
solicit peace, or at least an exchange of prisoners. 
They allowed Regulus to accompany the ambas- 
sadors on the promise that he would return to 
Rome if their proposals were declined, thinking 
that he would persuade his countrjTnen to agree to 
an exchange of prisoners in order to obtain his own 



REII. 

liberty. This embassy of Regulus is one o'i tlie 
most celebrated stories in Roman history. The 
orators and poets related how Regulus at first re- 
fused to enter the city as a slave of the Cartha- 
ginians ; how afterwards he would not give his 
opinion in the senate, as he had ceased by his 
captivity to be a member of that illustrious body ; 
how, at length, when he was allowed by the 
Romans to speak, he endeavoured to dissuade the 
senate from assenting to a peace, or even to an 
exchange of prisoners, and when he saw them 
wavering, from their desire of redeeming him from 
captivity, how he told them that the Carthaginians 
had given him a slow poison, which would soon 
terminate his life; and how, finally, when the senate 
through his influence refused the offers of the Car- 
thaginians, he firmly resisted all the persuasions of 
his friends to remain in Rorr.e, and returned to 
Carthage, where a martyr's death awaited him. On 
his arrival at Carthage he is said to have been put 
to death with the most excruciating tortures. It 
was related that he was placed in a chest covered 
over in the inside with iron nails, and thus perished; 
and other writers stated in addition, that after his 
eyelids had been cut off, he was first thrown into 
a dark dungeon, and then suddenly exposed to the 
full rays of a burning sun. When the news of the 
barbarous death of Regulus reached Rome, the 
senate is said to have given Hamilcar and Bostar, 
2 of the noblest Carthaginian prisoners, to the 
family of Regulus, who revenged themselves by 
putting them to death with cruel torments. This 
celebrated tale, however, has not been allowed to 
pass without question in modern times. Many 
writers supposed that it was invented in order to 
excuse the cruelties perpetrated by the family of 
Regulus on the Carthaginian prisoners committed 
to their custody. Regulus was one of the favourite 
characters of early Roman story. Not only was 
he celebrated on account of his heroism in giving 
the senate advice which secured him a martyr's 
death, but also on account of his frugality and 
simplicity of life. Like Fabricius and Curius he 
lived on his hereditary farm which he cultivated 
with his own hands ; and subsequent ages loved to 
tell how he petitioned the senate for his recall from 
Africa when he was in the full career of victory, as 
his farm was going to ruin in his absence, and his 
family was suffering from want. — 4. C. sumamed 
Serranus, consul 257, when he defeated the Car- 
thaginian fleet off the Liparaean islands, and ob- 
tained possession of the islands of Lipara and 
Melite. He was consul a 2nd time in 250, Avith 
L. Manlius Vulso. The 2 consuls undertook the 
siege of Lilybaeum ; but they were foiled in their 
attempts to carry the place by storm, and after 
losing a great number of men, were obliged to turn 
the siege into a blockade. This Regulus is the first 
Atilius who bears the surname Serranus, which 
afterwards became the name of a distinct family in 
the gens. The origin of this name is spoken of 
xmder Serranus. — 5. M., son of No. 3. was 
consul 227, and again 217, in the latter of which 
years he was elected to supply the place ol C. 
Flaminius, who had fallen in the battle of the 
Trasimene lake. He was censor in 214. — 6. C, 
consul 225, conquered the Sardinians, who had 
revolted. On his return to Italy he fought against 
the Gauls, and lell in the battle. 

Reii Apollinares (Riez), a Roman colony in 
Gallia Narbonensis, with the surname Julia Au- 



RHAETIA. 641 

(/usla, E. of the river Druentia, N. of Forum Vo- 
conii and N.W. of Forum Julii. 

Remesiana or Romesiana (Mustapha Palanlca)^ 
a town in Moesia Superior, between Naisiis and 
Serdica. 

Remi or Rhemi, one of the most powerful 
people in Gallia Belgica, inhabited the country 
through which the Axona flowed, and were 
bounded on the S. by the Nervii, on the S. E. by 
the Veromandui, on the E. by the Suessiones and 
Bellovaci, and on the W. by the Nervii. They 
formed an alliance with Caesar, when the rest of 
the Belgae made war against him. b. c. 57. Their 
chief town was Durocortorum, afterwards called 
Remi (Rheims). 

Remmius Palaemon. [Palaemon.] 

Remus. [Romulus.] 

Resaina, Resaena, Resina ('PeVajj/a, 'PeViva: 
7?as-e^-^m),a city of Mesopotamia, near the sources 
of the Chaboras, on the road from Carrae to Nisibis. 
After its restoration and fortification by Theodosius, 
it was called Theodosiopolis {&eodo(novno\is). 
Whether it is the same as the Resen of the 0. T. 
(Gen. x. 12) seems very doubtful. 

Restio, Antius. 1. The author of a sumptuary 
law of uncertain date, but passed after the sumptuary 
law of the consul Aemilius Lepidus, B. c. 78, and 
before the one of Caesar. — 2. Probably a son of 
the preceding, proscribed by the triumvirs in 43, 
but preserved by the fidelity of a slave. 

Reudigni, a people in the N. of Germany on 
the right bank of the Albis, N. of the Lango- 
bardi. 

Rex, Marcius. 1. Q., praetor b. c. 1 44, built 

the aqueduct, called Aqua Marcia, which was one 
of the most important at Rome (Diet. of Antiq. art. 
Aquaeductus). —2. Q., consul 118, founded in this 
year the colony of Narbo Martius in Gaul, and 
carried on war against the Stoeni, a Ligurian people 
at the foot of the Alps. — 3. Q., consul 68, and 
proconsul in Cilicia in the following year. On his 
return to Rome in 66 he sued for a triumph, but 
as obstacles were thrown in the way by certain 
parties, he remained outside the city to prosecute 
his claims, and was still there when the Catilinarian 
conspiracy broke out in 63. The senate sent him 
to Faesulae, to watch the movements of C. Mallius 
or Manlius, Catiline's general. 

Rha ('Pa : Volga), a great river of Asia, first 
mentioned by Ptolemy, who describes it as rising 
in the N. of Sarmatia, in 2 branches, Rha Occi- 
dentalis and Rha Orientalis (the Volga and the 
.fiTama), after the junction of which it flowed S.W., 
forming the boundary between Sarmatia Asiatica 
and Scythia, till near the Tanais (Don), where it 
suddenly turns to the S.E., and falls into the N.W. 
part of the Caspian. 

Rhadamanthus ('PaSdixaveosY, son of Zeus and 
Europa, and brother of king Minos of Crete. From 
fear of his brother he fled to Ocalea in Boeotia, 
and there married Alcmene. In consequence of 
his justice throughout life, he became, after his 
death, one of the judges in the lower world. 

Rhaetia, a Roman province S. of the Danube, 
was originally distinct from Vindelicia, and was 
bounded on the W. by the Helvetii, on the E. by 
Noricum, on the N. by Vindelicia, and on the S. by 
Cisalpine Gaul, thus corresponding to the Grisons 
in Switzerland, and to the greater part of the Tyrol. 
Towards the end of the first century, however, 
Vindelicia was added to the province of Rhaetia. 

T T 



642 RHAGAE. 

■whence Tacitus speaks of Augusta Vindelicorum as 
situated in Rhaetia. At a later time Rhaetia was 
subdivided into 2 provinces Rhaetia Prima and 
Rhaetia Secunda, the former of which answered to 
the old province of Rhaetia, and the latter to that 
of Vindelicia. The boundaries between the 2 
provinces are not accurately defined, but it may be 
stated in general that they were separated from 
each other by the Brigantinus Lacus (Lake of 
Cwidance) and the river Oenus {Inn). Vindelicia 
is spoken of in a separate article. [Vindelicia.] 
Rhaetia was a very mountainous country, since 
the main chain of the Alps ran througb the greater 
part of the province. These mountains Avere called 
Alpes Rhaeticae, and extended from the St. Go- 
thard to the Orteler by the pass by the Stelvio ; 
and in them rose the Oenus (Inn) and most of the 
chief rivers in the N. of Italy, such as the Athesis 
(Adige), and the Addua (Adda). The valleys 
produced corn and excellent wine, the latter of 
which was much esteemed in Italy. Augustus 
drank Rhaetian Avine in preference to all others. 
The original inhabitants of the countiy, the 
Sliaeti, are said by most ancient writers to have 
been Tuscans, who were driven out of the N, of 
Italy by the invasion of the Celts, and who took 
refuge in this mountainous district under a leader 
called Rhaetus. Many modern writers suppose 
the Rhaeti and the Etruscans to have been the 
same people, only they invert the ancient tradition, 
and believe that the Rhaeti descended from their 
original abodes on the Alps, and settled first in 
the N. of Italy and next in the country afterwards 
called Etruria. They support this view by the 
fact that the Etruscans were called in their own 
language Rasena, which seems merely another form 
of Rhaeti, as well as by other arguments, into which 
it is unnecessary to enter in this place. It is im- 
possible to arrive at any certain conclusion respect- 
ing the original population of the country. In the 
time of the Romans the country was inhabited by 
various Celtic tribes. The Rhaeti are first men- 
tioned by Polybius. They were a brave and war- 
like people, and caused the Romans much trouble 
by their marauding incursions into Gaul and the 
N. of Italy. They were not subdued by the 
Romans till the reign of Augustus, and they offered 
a brave and desperate resistance against both 
Drusus and Tiberius, who finally conquered them. 
Rhaetia was then formed into a Roman province, 
to which Vindelicia was afterwards added, as has 
been already stated. The victories of Drusus and 
Tiberius were celebrated by Horace (Carm. iv. 
14.) The Rhaeti were divided into several tribes, 
such as the Lepontii, Vennones, Tridentini, 
&c. The only town in Rhaetia of any importance 
was Tridentinum (Trent). 

Ehagae (''Payai, 'Pdya, 'Pay^id: 'Payr]v65: 
Rai, Ru, S. E. of Tehran), the greatest city of 
Media, lay in the extreme N. of Great Media, at 
the S. foot of the mountains (Caspius M.), which 
border the S. shores of the Caspian Sea, and on 
the "VV. side of the great pass through those moun- 
tains called the Caspiae Pylae. It was therefore 
the key of Media towards Parthia and Hyrcania. 
Having been destroyed by an earthquake, it was 
restored by Seleucus Nicator, and named Europus 
(Evpwiros). In the Parthian wars it was again 
destroyed, but it was rebuilt by Arsaces, and called 
Arsacia ('Apa-aKia). In the middle ages it was 
Ktill a great city under its original name, slightly 



RHEA. 

altered (Rai) ; and it was finalh' destroyed by 
the Tartars in the 12th century. The surrounding 
district, which was a rugged volcanic region, sub- 
ject to frequent earthquakes, was called 'Payiavq. 

Rhamnus ('Pa/jLvovs, — ovvros : 'Parvovaios: 
Ohrio Kastro), a demus in Attica, belonging to 
the tribe Aeantis, which derived its name from 
the rhamnus., a kind of prickly shrub. ('Paixvovs 
is an adjective, a contraction of pafji.v6eis, which 
comes from pd/jLuos.) Rhamnus was situated on a 
small rocky peninsula on the E. coast of Attica, 
60 stadia from Marathon. It possessed a celebrated 
temple of Nemesis, who is hence called by the 
Latin poets Rhamnusia dea or virgo. In this 
temple there was a colossal statue of the goddess 
made by Agoracritus, the disciple of Phidias. 
Another account, but less trustworthy, relates that 
the statue was the work of Phidias, and was made 
out of the block of Parian marble, which the 
Persians brought with them for the purpose of 
setting up a trophj-, when they were defeated at 
Marathon. There are still remains of this temple, 
as well as of a smaller one to the same goddess. 

E.liampsinitus {'PajuxpiuLTos), one of the ancient 
kings of Egypt, succeeded Proteus, and was suc- 
ceeded by Cheops. This king is said to have pos- 
sessed immense wealth ; and in order to keep it safe 
he had a treasury built of stone, respecting the 
robbery of which Herodotus (ii. 121) relates a 
romantic story, which bears a great resemblance 
to the one told about the treasury built by the 2 
brothers Agamedes and Trophonius of Orchomenus. 
[Agamedes.] Rhampsinitus belongs to the 20th, 
dynasty, and is known in inscriptions by the name 
of Ramessu Neter-kek-pen. 

Ehapta (to. 'PaTrra), the S.-most sea-port known 
to the ancients, the capital of the district of Bar- 
baria, or Azania, on the E. coast of Africa. It 
stood on a river called Rhaptus (Doara), and 
near a promontory called Rhaptum (Formosa)^ 
and the people of the district were called 'Poi|/iOi 
At0i'o7rey. 

Ehea ('Pea, Epic and Ion. 'Peto, 'Pei'jj, or 'Pe'?/), 
an ancient Greek goddess, appears to have been a 
goddess of the earth. She is represented as a 
daughter of Uranus and Ge, and the wife of Cronos, 
by whom she became the mother of Hestia, De- 
meter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon and Zeus. Cronos 
devoured all his children by Rhea, but when she 
was on the point of giving birth to Zeus, she went 
to Lyctus in Crete, by the advice of her parents. 
When Zeus was born she gave to Cronos a stone 
wrapped up like an infant, which the god swallowed 
supposing it to be his child. Crete was undoubtedly 
the earliest seat of the worship of Rhea; though 
many other parts of Greece laid claim to the ho- 
nour of being the birth-place of Zeus. Rhea was 
afterwards identified by the Greeks in Asia Minor 
with the Great Asiatic goddess, knoAvn under the 
name of " the Great Mother,"" or the " Mother of 
the Gods," and also bearing other names such as 
Cybele, Agdistis, Dindymene, &c. Hence her 
worship became of a wild and enthusiastic cha- 
racter, and various Eastern rites were added to it, 
which soon spread throughout the whole of Greece. 
From the orgiastic nature of these rites, her worship 
became closely connected with that of Dionysus. 
Under the name of Cybele her worship was uni- 
versal in Phrygia. Under the name of Agdistis, 
she was Avorshipped with great solemnity at Pessi- 
nus in Galatia, which town was regarded as the 



RHEA. 



RIIENUS. 



643 



principal seat of her worship. Under different 
names we might trace the worship of Rhea even 
much further east, as far as the Euphrates and 
even Bactriana, She was, in fact, the great god- 
dess of the Eastern world, and we find her wor- 
shipped there under a variety of forms and 
names. As regards the Romans, they had from 
the earliest times worshipped Jupiter and his 
mother Ops, the wife of Saturn. During the war 
with Hannibal the Romans fetched the image of 
the Mother of the Gods from Pessinus ; but the 
worship then introduced was quite new to them, 
and either maintained itself as distinct from the 
worship of Ops, or became united with it. A 
temple was built to her on the Palatine, and the 
Roman matrons honoured her with the festival of 
the Megalesia. In all European countries Rhea 
was conceived to be accompanied by the Curetes, 
who are inseparably connected with the birth and 
bringing up of Zeus in Crete, and in Phrygia by 
the Corybantes, Atys, and Agdistis. The Cory- 
bantes were her enthusiastic priests, who with 
drums, cymbals, horns, and in full armour, per- 
formed their orgiastic dances in the forests and on 
the mountains of Phrygia. In Rome the Galli 
were her priests. The lion was sacred to her. In 
works of art she is usually represented seated on a 
throne, adorned with the mural crown, from which 
a veil hangs down. Lions appear crouching on the 
right and left of her throne, and sometimes she is 
seen riding in a chariot drawn by lions. 

Ehea Silvia. [Romulus.] 

Rhebas ('PT?j8a5, 'Prjfiaios : Riva\ a river of 
Bithynia, in Asia Minor, falling into the Euxine 
N. E. of Chalcedon ; very small and insignificant 
in itself, but much celebrated in the Argonautic 
legends. 

Rhedones. [Redones.] 

Rhegmm {'Pijyiov : Rheginus : Reggio), a ce- 
lebrated Greek to^vn on the coast of Bruttium in 
the S. of Italy, was situated on the Fretum Si- 
culum, or the Straits which separate Italy and 
Sicily. The ancients derived its name from the 
verb priyvvixi (" break because it was supposed 
that Sicily was at this place torn asunder from 
Italy. Rhegium was founded about the beginning 
of the first Messenian war, b. c. 743, by Aeolian 
Chalcidians from Euboea aud by Doric Messenians, 
who had quitted their native country on the com- 
mencement of hostilities between Sparta and Mes- 
senia. At the end of the 2nd Messenian war, 
668, a large body of Messenians, under the conduct 
of the sons of Aristomenes settled at Rhegium, 
which now became a flourishing and important 
city, and extended its authority over several of 
the neighbouring towns. Even before the Persian 
wars Rhegium was sufficiently powerful to send 
3000 of its citizens to the assistance of the Ta- 
rentines, and in the time of the elder Dionysius it 
possessed a fleet of 80 ships of war. The govern- 
ment was an aristocracy, but in the beginning of 
the 5th century a c, Anaxilaus, who was of a 
Messenian family, made himself tyrant of the 
place. In 494 this Anaxilaus conquered Zancle 
in Sicily, the name of which he changed into 
Messana. He ruled over the 2 cities, and on his 
death in 476 he bequeathed his power to his sons. 
About 10 years afterwards (466) his sons were 
driven out of Rhegium and Messana, and repub- 
lican governments were established in both cities, 
which now became independent of one another. 



At a later period Rhegium incurred the deadly 
enmity of the elder Dionysius in consequence of a 
personal insult which the inhabitants had offered 
him. It is said that when he asked the Rhegians 
to give him one of their maidens for his wife, 
they replied that they could only grant him the 
daughter of their public executioner. Dionysius 
carried on war against the city for a long time, 
and after two or three unsuccessful attempts he at 
length took the place, which he treated with the 
greatest severity. Rhegium never recovered its 
former greatness, though it still continued to be a 
place of considerable importance. The younger 
Dionysius gave it the name of Plioehia, but this 
name never came into general use, and was spee- 
dily forgotten. The Rhegians having applied to 
Rome for assistance when Pyrrhus was in the S. 
of Italy, the Romans placed in the town a gar- 
rison of 4000 soldiers, who had been levied among 
the Latin colonies in Campania. These troops 
seized the town in 279, killed or expelled the 
male inhabitants, and took possession of their 
wives and children. The Romans were too much 
engaged at the time with their war against Pyrrhus 
to take notice of this outrage ; but when Pyrrhus 
was driven out of Italy, they took signal vengeance 
upon these Campanians, and restored the surviving 
Rhegians to their cit}^ Rhegium suffered greatly 
from an earthquake shortly before the breaking 
out of the Social war, 90 ; but its population was 
augmented by Augustus, who settled here a number 
of veterans from his fleet, whence the town bears 
in Ptolemy the surname Julium. Rhegium was 
the place from which persons usually crossed over 
to Sicily, but the spot, at which they embarked, 
was called Columna Rhegina (^P-t\yivwv (tttjXis : 
Torre diCarallo), and was 100 stadia N. of the town. 
The Greek language continued to be spoken at 
Rhegium till a very late time, and the town was 
subject to the Byzantine court long after the do-wn- 
fall of the Western empire. 

Rhenea {'P-fjueia, also 'Ptjj'tj, 'Pr]ua'ia), formerly 
called Ortygia and Celadussa, an island in the 
Aegaean sea and one of the Cyclades, W. of Delos, 
from which it was divided by a narrow strait only 
4 stadia in width. When Polycrates took the 
island, he dedicated it to Apollo, and united it by 
a chain to Delos ; and Nicias connected the 2 
islands by means of a bridge. When the Athe- 
nians purified Delos in B, c. 426, they removed all 
the dead from the latter island to Rhenea. 

Rhenus. 1. {Rhein in German, Rhine in Eng- 
lish), one of the great rivers in Europe, forming 
in ancient times the boundary between Gaul and 
Germany, rises in Mons Adula (St Gothard) not 
far from the sources of the Rhone, and flows first 
in a W.-ly direction, passing through the Lacus 
Brigantinus {Lake of Constance)^ till it reaches 
Basilia (Basle), where it takes a N.-ly direction and 
eventually flows into the Ocean by several mouths. 
The ancients spoke of 2 main arms, into which the 
Rhine was divided in entering the territory of the 
Batavi, of which the one on the E. continued to 
bear the name of Rhenus, while that on the W., 
into which the Mosa (Maas or Meuse) flowed, 
was called Vahalis (Waal). After Drusus in B.C. 
12 had connected the Flevo Lacus (Zuyder-See) 
with the Rhine Ly means of a canal, in making 
which he probably made use of the bed of the 
Yssel, we find mention of 3 mouths of the Rhine. 
Of these the names, as given by Pliny, are on the 

T T 2 



644 



RHEPAIM. 



RHODANUS. 



\V. Helium (the Vahalis of other writers\ in the 
centre Rhenus, and on the E. Flevum ; but at a 
later time we again find mention of only 2 mouths. 
The Rhine is described by the ancients as a broad, 
rapid and deep river. It receives many tribu- 
taries, of which the most important were the Mo- 
sella {Moselle) and Mosa (Maas or Meuse) on the 
left, and the Nicer (Neckar)^ Moenus (Main) and 
Luppia (Lippe) on the right. It passed through 
various tribes, of which the principal on the W. 
were the Nantuates, Helvetii, Sequani, Medioma- 
trici, Tribocci, Treviri, Ubii, Batavi, and Cannine- 
fates, and the principal on the E. were the Rhaeti, 
Vindelici, Mattiaci, Sigambri, Tencteri, Usipetes, 
Bructeri, and Frisii. The length of the Rhine is 
stated differently by the ancient writers. Its 
whole course amounts to about 950 miles. The 
inundations of the Rhine near its mouth are men- 
tioned by the ancients. Caesar was the first Ro- 
man general who crossed the Rhine. He threw a 
bridge of boats across the river, probably in the 
neighbourhood of Cologne. — The etymology of 
the name is doubtful ; some connect it with rinnen 
or rinnan, according to which it would mean the 
"current" or "stream;" others with rlten or 
rein, that is, the " clear " river. — 2. (Reno), a 
tributary of the Padus (Po) in Gallia Cisalpina 
near Bononia, on a small island of which Octavian, 
Antony and Lepidus formed the celebrated trium- 
virate. The small river Lavinius (Lavino) flows 
into the Rhenus ; and Appian places in the La- 
vinius the island on which the triumvirate was 
formed. 

Rhephaim, a valley of Judaea, continuous with 
the valley of Hinnom, S.W. of Jerusalem. Rhe- 
phaim was also the name of a very ancient people 
of Palestine. 

Rhesus ('Ptjo-os). 1. A river-god in Bithynia, 
one of the sons of Oceanus and Tethys. — 2. Son 
of king Eioneus in Thrace, marched to the assist- 
ance of the Trojans in their war with the Greeks. 
An oracle had declared that Troy would never be 
taken, if the snow-white horses of Rhesus should 
once drink the water of the Xanthus, and feed 
upon the grass of the Trojan plain. But as soon 
as Rhesus had reached the Trojan territory and 
had pitched his tents late at night, Ulysses and 
Diomedes penetrated into his camp, slew Rhesus 
himself, and carried off his horses. In later writers 
Rhesus is described as a son of Strymon and 
Euterpe, or Calliope, or Terpsichore. 

Rhianus {'Piauds), of Crete, a distinguished 
Alexandrian poet and grammarian, flourished B. c. 
222. He wrote several epic poems, one of which 
was on the Messenian wars. He also wrote epi- 
grams, 10 of which are preserved in the Palatine 
Anthology, and one by Athenaeus. His fragments 
are printed in Gaisford's Poetae Minores Graeci ; 
and separately edited by Nic. Saal, Bonn, 1831. 

RMdagus, a tributary of the river Zioberis in 
Parthia. 

RMnocolura or Rhinocorura (ra "PLvoK6Xovpa 
or "PivoKSpovpa, and t] 'VivoKoXovpa or 'PivoKopovpa : 
Kulat-el-Arish), the frontier town of Egypt and 
Palestine, lay in the midst of the desert, at the 
mouth of the brook (El-Arish), which was the 
boundary between the countries, and which is 
culled in Scripture the river of Egypt. It was 
sometimes reckoned to Syria, sometimes to Egypt. 
Its name " The-cui-qf-noses,'"' is derived from its 
having been the place of exile of criminals who 



had first been so mutilated, under the Ethiopian 
dynasty of kings of Egypt. 

Bhinthon ('PivOwv), of Syracuse or Tarentum, 
said to have been the son of a potter, was a drama- 
tic poet, of that species of burlesque tragedy, which 
was called (p\vaKoypa(\)la or iXapoTpaycfSla, and 
flourished in the reign of Ptolemy I. king of 
Egypt. When he is placed at the head of the 
composers of this burlesque drama, we are not to 
suppose that he actually invented it, but that he 
was the first to develope in a written form, and to 
introduce into Greek literature, a species of dra- 
matic composition, which had already long existed 
as a popular amusement among the Greeks of 
southern Italy and Sicily, and especially at Taren- 
tum. The species of drama which he cultivated 
may be described as an exhibition of the subjects 
of tragedy, in the spirit and style of comedy. A 
poet of this description was called (p\va^. This 
name, and that of the drama itself, (^'KvaKo'ypa(pia, 
seem to have been the genuine terras used at 
Tarentum. Rhinthon wrote 38 dramas. 

RMpaei Montes (ra 'PiTroTa opr], also 'PtTrat), 
the name of a lofty range of mountains in the 
northern part of the earth, respecting which there 
are diverse statements in the ancient writers. The 
name seems to have been given by the Greek 
poets quite indefinitely to all the mountains in the 
northern parts of Europe and Asia. Thus the 
Rhipaei Montes are sometimes called the Hyper- 
borei Montes. [Hyperborei.] The later geo- 
graphical writers place the Rhipaean mountains 
N. E. of M. Alaunus on the frontiers of Asiatic 
Sarmatia, and state that the Tanais rises in these 
mountains. According to this account the Rhi- 
paean mountains may be regarded as a western 
branch of the Ural Mountains. 

RMum ('Piov : Castello diMorea), a promontory 
in Achaia, opposite the promontory of Antirrhium 
{Castello di Romelia), on the borders of Aetolia 
and Locris, with which it formed the narrow 
entrance to the Corinthian gulf, which Straits are 
now called the Little Dardanelles. It is sometimes 
called ^Axo-'iKhv 'Pfoi/, to distinguish it from the 
opposite promontor}% which was sumamed MoAy- 
KpiKov or A'lTwXiKhv. On the promontory of 
Rhium there was a temple of Poseidon. 

Rhizon or Rhizinium ("Pi^wv : 'Pi^uv'ittjs : 
Risano), an ancient town in Dalmatia, situated at 
the upper end of the gulf, called after it Rhi- 
zonaeus Sinus (G. of Cattaro). 

Rhoda or Rhodus ('PoSt?, '?65os : Rotas'), 
a Greek emporium on the coast of the Indigetae 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, founded by the Rho- 
dians, and subsequently occupied by the inha- 
bitants of Massilia. 

Rhodanus {Rhone), one of the chief rivers of 
Gaul, rises in M. Adula on the Pennine Alps, not 
far from the sources of the Rhine, flows first in a 
westerly direction, and after passing through the 
Lacus Lemanus, turns to the S., passes by the 
towns of Lugdunum, Vienna, Avenio and Arelate, 
receives several tributaries, and finally falls by 
several mouths into the Sinus Gallicus in the Medi- 
terranean. The number of the mouths of the Rhone 
is stated differently by the ancient writers ; which 
is not surprising, as the river has frequently altered 
its course near the sea. Pliny mentions 3 months, 
of which the most important was called Os Mas- 
salioticum, while the 2 others bore the general 
name of Lihyca ora, being distinguished from each 



RHODE. 

other as the Os Hispaniense and the Os Me- 
tapinum. Besides these mouths there was a 
canal to the E, of the Os Massalioticura, called 
Fossae Marianae, which was dug by order of 
Marius during his war with the Cimbri, in order 
to make an easier connection between the Rhone 
and the Mediterranean, as the mouths of the river 
were frequently choked up with sand. The Rhone 
is a very rapid river, and its upward navigation is 
therefore difficult, though it is navigable for large 
vessels as high as Lugdunum, and by means of the 
Arar still further N. 
Khode. [Rhodos.] 

Rhodia and Rhodiopolis ('PoSia, 'Podi6no\os : 
'PoSievs, *Po8i07roA.iT7js : Eski-Hissar, Ru,), a 
mountain city of Lycia, near Corydallus, with a 
temple of Asclepius. 

RhodlUS {'PoSiOs : prob. tJie brook of the Darda- 
nelles)^ a small river of the Troad, mentioned both 
by Homer and Hesiod. It rose on the lower 
slopes of Mt. Ida, and flowed N. W. into the Hel- 
lespont, between Abydus and Dardanus, after re- 
ceiving the Selleis from the W. It is identified 
by some with the river Tlvhios, which Thucydides 
mentions, betwee-n Cynossema and Abydus. Some 
made it erroneously a tributary of the Aesepus. 
It is found mentioned on the coins of Dardanus. 

Rhodope (Poh6Trr\\ one of the highest range of 
mountains in Thrace, extending from Mt. Scomius, 
E. of the river Nestus and the boundaries of 
Macedonia, in a S. E.-ly direction almost do\vn to 
the coast. It is highest in its northern part, and 
is thickly covered with wood. Rhodope, like the 
rest of Thrace, was sacred to Dionysus (Bacchus), 
and is frequently mentioned by the poets in con- 
nection with the worship of this god. 

Bhodopis ('PoScDttis), a celebrated Greek courte- 
zan, of Thracian origin, was a fellow-slave with 
the poet Aesop, both of them belonging to the 
Samian ladmon. She afterwards became the pro- 
perty of Xanthes, another Samian, who carried 
her to Naucratis in Egypt, in the reign of Amasis, 
and at this great sea-port she carried on the trade 
of an hetaera for the benefit of her master. While 
thus employed, Charaxus, the brother of the poetess 
Sappho, who had come to Naucratis as a merchant, 
fell in love with her, and ransomed her from 
slavery for a large sura of money. She was in 
consequence attacked by Sappho in a poem. She 
continued to live at Naucratis, and with the tenth 
part of her gains she dedicated at Delphi 10 iron 
spits, which were seen by Herodotus. She is 
called Rhodopis by Herodotus, but Sappho in her 
poem spoke of her under the name of Doricha. It 
is therefore probable that Doricha was her real 
name, and that she received that of Rhodopis, 
which signifies the " rosy-cheeked," on account of 
her beauty. There was a tale current in Greece 
that Rhodopis built the third pyramid. It has 
been conjectured, with great probability, that in 
consequence of her name Rhodopis, the " rosy- 
cheeked," she was confounded with Nitocris, the 
beautiful Egyptian queen, and the heroine of many 
an Egyptian legend, who is said by the ancient 
chronologers to have built the third pyramid. 

Rhodos ('PdSos), sometimes called Rhode, 
daughter of Poseidon and Halia, or of Helios and 
Amphitrite, or of Poseidon and Aphrodite, or lastly 
of Oceanus. From her the island of Rhodes is 
said to have derived its name ; and in this island 
she bore to Helios 7 sons. 



RHODUS. 



045 



Rhodus {t} 'P(55oj : 'Pt^Sios, Rhodius : Rhodos, 
Rliodes), the E.-most island of the Aegaean, or more 
specifically, of the Carpathian Sea, lies off the S. 
coast of Caria, due S. of the promontory of Cynos- 
sema (C. Aloupo), at the distance of about 12 geog. 
miles. Its length, from N. E. to S. W. is about 
i 45 miles ; its greatest breadth about 20 to 25. In 
' early times it was called Aethraea and Ophiussa, 
and several other names. The earliest Greek re- 
cords make mention of it. Mythological stories 
ascribed its origin to the power of Apollo, who 
raised it from beneath the waves ; and its first 
peopling to the Telchines, children of Thalatta (ilie 
Sea), upon whose destruction by a deluge, the He- 
liadae were planted in the island by Helios, where 
they formed 7 tribes, and founded a kingdom, 
which soon became flourishing by their skill in as- 
tronomy and navigation, and other sciences and 
arts. These traditions appear to signify the early 
peopling of the island by some of the civilised races 
of W. Asia, probably the Phoenicians. After other 
alledged migrations into the island, we come to its 
Hellenic colonisation, which is ascribed to Tlepo- 
lemus, the son of Hercules, before the Trojan war, 
and after that war to Althaemenes. Homer men- 
tions the 3 Dorian settlements in Rhodes, namely, 
Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus ; and these cities, with 
Cos, Cnidus, and Halicarnassus, formed the Dorian 
Hexapolis, which was established, from a period of 
unknown antiquity, in the S. W. corner of Asia 
Minor. Rhodes soon became a great maritime 
state, or rather confederacy, the island being par- 
celled out between the 3 cities above mentioned. 
The Rhodians made distant voyages, and founded 
numerous colonies, of which the chief were, Rhoda 
in Iberia ; Gela, in Sicily ; Parthenope, Salacia, 
Siris, and Sybaris, in Italy ; settlements in the 
Balearic islands ; and, in their own neighbourhood, 
Soli in Cilicia, and Gagae and Corydalla in Lycia. 
During this early period the government of each of 
the 3 cities seems to have been monarchical ; but 
about B. c. 660 the whole island seems to have 
been united in an oligarchical republic, the chief 
magistrates of which, called prytanes, were taken 
from the family of the Eratidae, who had been the 
royal family of lalysus. [Diagoras : DoRiEUS.] 
At the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, Rhodes 
was one of those Dorian maritime states which 
were subject to Athens ; but in the 20th year of 
the war, 412, it joined the Spartan alliance, and the 
oligarchical party, which had been depressed and 
their leaders, the Eratidae, expelled, recovered their 
former power, under Dorieus. In 408, the new 
capital, called Rhodus, was built, and peopled from 
the 3 ancient cities of lalysus, Lindus, and Camirus. 
The history of the island now presents a series of 
conflicts between the democratical and oligarchical 
parties, and of subjection to Athens and Sparta in 
turn, till the end of the Social war, 355, when its 
independence was acknowledged. Then followed 
a conflict with the princes of Caria, during which 
the island was for a time subject to Artemisia, 
and, nominally at least, to Idrieus. During this 
period there were great internal dissensions, which 
were at length composed by a mixed form of go- 
vernment, uniting the elements of aristocracy and 
democracy. At the Macedonian conquest, they 
submitted to Alexander ; but, upon his death, they 
expelled the Macedonian garrison. In the ensuing 
wars they formed an alliance with Ptolemy, the 
I son of Lagus, and their city, Rhodes, successfully 

T T 3 



646 



RHOECUS. 



ROBIGUS. 



endured a most famous siege by the forces of De- 
metrius Poliorcetes, who at length, in admiration 
of the valour of the besieged, presented them with 
the engines he had used against the city, from the 
sale of which they defrayed the cost of the cele- 
brated Colossus, which is described under the 
name of its artist. Chares, The state now for a 
long time flourished, with an extensive commerce, 
and with such a maritime power, that it compelled 
the Byzantines to remit the toll which they levied 
on ships passing the Bosporus. At length they 
came into connection with the Romans, whose 
alliance they joined, with Attalus, king of Perga- 
mus, in the war against Philip III. of Macedon. 
In the ensuing war with Antiochus, the Rhodians 
gave the Romans great aid with their fleet ; and, 
in the subsequent partition of the Sj'rian posses- 
sions of Asia Minor, they were rewarded by the 
supremacy of S. Caria, where they had had settle- 
ments from an early period. [Peraea Rhodio- 
RUM.] A temporary interruption of their alliance 
■with Rome was caused by their espousing the 
cause of Perseus, for which they were severely 
punished, 168 ; but they recovered the favour of 
Rome by the important naval aid thej' rendered in 
the Mithridatic war. In the Civil wars, they 
took part with Caesar, and suffered in consequence 
from Cassius, 42, but were afterwards compensated 
for their losses by the favour of Antonius. They 
were at length deprived of their independence by 
Claudius ; and their prosperity received its final 
blow from an earthquake, which laid the city of 
Rhodes in ruius, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, 

A. D. 155. The celebrated medieval history of the 
island, as the seat of the Knights of St. John, does not 
belong to this work. The island is of great beauty 
and fertility, with a delicious climate. It was 
further celebrated as the home of distinguished 
schools of Greek art and of Greek oratory. The 
city of Rhodes was famous for the beauty and re- 
gularity of its architecture, and the number of statues 
which adorned it ; it was designed b}'' Hippodamus 
of Miletus. [Comp. Ialysus, Lixdus, and Ca- 

MIRUS.] 

Ehoecus ('?o7kos). 1. A Centaur, who, in con- 
junction with Hylaeus, pursued Atalanta in Ar- 
cadia, but was killed by her with an arrow. The 
Roman poets call him Rhoetus, and relate that he 
was wounded at the nuptials of Pirithous. — 2. 
Son of Phileas or Philaeus, of Samos, an architect 
and statuaiy, belonging to the earliest period in 
the history of Greek art, is mentioned as the head 
of a family of Samian artists. He flourished about 

B. c. 640. He was the first architect of the great 
temple of Hera at Samos, which Theodoras com- 
pleted. In conjunction with Smilis and Theodoras, 
he constracted the labyrinth at Lemnos ; and he, 
and the members of his famil}' who succeeded him, 
invented the art of casting statues in bronze and 
iron. 

Rhoeteum (rb 'Po'iTeiov &Kpov, 77 'Poireias 0^x77, 
'PoiTTitai aKTal : Virg. Rhoetea litora : C. Intepeh 
or Barhieri)^ a promontor\', or a strip of rocky 
coast, breaking into several promontories, in Mysia, 
on the Hellespont, near Aeantium, w^ith a town of 
the same name (prob. Paleo Castro). 

Rhoetus. 1, A centaur. [Rhoecus.]— 2. One 
of the giants, who was slain by Dionysus ; he is 
usually called Eurytus. 

Eliozolani or Roxolani, a warlike people in 
European Sarmatia, on the coast of the Palus 



Maeotis, and between the Borj'sthenes and the 
Tana is, usually supposed to be the ancestors of 
the modem Russians. They frequently attacked 
and plundered the Roman provinces S. of the 
Danube ; and Hadrian was even obliged to pay 
them tribute. They are mentioned as late as the 
1 1 th century. They fought with lances and with 
long swords wielded with both hands ; and their 
armies were composed chiefly of cavalry. 

Rhyndacus (VwlaKos : Edrejios). or Lycus, a 
considerable river of Asia Minor. Rising in Mt. 
Dindymene, opposite to the sources of the Hermus, 
it flows N. through Phrygia, then turns N. W. 
then W. and then N. through the lake ApoUo- 
niatis, into the Propontis. From the point where 
it left Phrygia, it formed the boundary of ]\Iysia 
and Bith}-nia. Its chief tributary, which joins it 
from the W. below the lake ApoUoniatis, was 
called Macestl'S. On the banks of the Rhynda- 
cus, LucuUus gained a great victory over Mithri- 
dates, B. c. 73. 

Rhypes ('PuTres and other forms: 'PvTroToj), one 
of the 12 cities of Achaia, situated between Ae- 
gium and Patrae. It was destroyed by Augustus 
and its inhabitants removed to Patrae. 

Rhytium CPvtiou), a to^vn in Crete, mentioned 
by Homer, which is identified by mod.ern writers, 
but without any sufficient reasons, with the later 
Ritymna. 

Ricimer, the Roman " King-Maker," Avas the 
son of a Suevian chief, and was brought up at the 
court of Valentinian III. He served with distinc- 
tion under Aetius, in the reign of Valentinian 
III. In A. D. 456 he commanded the fleet of the 
emperor Avitus, with which he gained a great vic- 
tory over the Vandals, and in the same year he 
deposed Avitus ; but as he was a barbarian by 
birth, he would not assume the title of emperor, 
but gave it to Majorian, intending to keep the real 
power in his own hands. But as Majorian proved 
more able and energetic than Ricimer had ex- 
pected, he was put to death in 461 by order of 
Ricimer, who now raised Libius Severas to the 
throne. On the death of Severus in 465, Ricimer 
kept the government in his own hands for the next 
18 months ; but in 467 Anthemius was appointed 
emperor of the "West by Leo, emperor of the East. 
Ricimer acquiesced in the appointment, and re- 
ceived the daughter of Anthemius in marriage ; 
but in 472 he made war against his father-in-law, 
and took Rome by storm. Anthemius perished in 
the assault, and Olybrius was proclaimed emperor 
by Ricimer, w^ho died however only 40 days after 
the sack of Rome. 

Ricina. 1. (Ricinensis), a town in Picenum, 
colonized by the emperor Severas. Its mines are 
on the river Potenza near Macerata.-— 2. One of 
the Ebudae Insulae, or the Hebrides. 

Rigodulum (Eeol), a touoi of the Treviri in 
Gallia Belgica, distant 3 days" march from Mo- 
gontiacum. 

Robigus, or Robigo, is described by some 
Latin writers as a divinity worshipped for the pur- 
pose of averting blight or too great heat from the 
young cornfields. The festival of the Robigalia 
was celebrated on the 25th of April, and was said 
to have been instituted by Numa. But consider- 
ing the uncertainty of the ancients themselves as 
to whether the divinity was masculine or feminine, 
and that the Romans did not pay divine honours to 
any evil demon, it is probable that the divinity 




Gates in the Walls of Servi 



1 Porta Collina. 


2 P. 


"Viminalis. 


8 P. 


Esquilina. 


4 P. 


Qiierquetulana? 


5 P. 


Caelimontana, 


6 P. 


Capena. 


7 P 


Raudusculana ? 


8 P. 


Naevia. 


9 P. 


Minucia. 


10 P. 


Trigeraina. 


11 P. 


Flumentana. 


12 P. 


Carmentalis. 


13 P. 


Ratumena ? 


U P. 


Fontinalis. 



Gates 171 the Walls of Airelicm. 

15 Porta Flaminia. 

16 P. Pinciana. 

17 P. Salaria. 

18 P. Nomentana. 

19 P. Clausa. 



20 


Porta 


Tiburtina (S. Lorenzo). 


21 


P. 


Praenestina (Maggiore). 


22 


P. 


Asinaria. 


23 


P. 


Metro via ? 


24 


P. 


Latina. 


25 


P. 


Appia (S. Sebastiano). 


26 


P. 


Ardeatina ? 


27 


P. 


Ostieiisis. 


28 


P. 


Portuensis. 


29 


P. 


Aurelia (S. Pancrazio). 


30 


P. 


Septimiana. 


31 


P. 


Aurelia of Procopius. 



Bridges. 

32 Pons Aelius (Ponte S. Angelo). 

33 P. Vaticanus? 

34 P. Janiculensis ? 

35 P. Fabricius. 

36 P. Cestius. 

37 P. Palatinus (Aemilius ?). 

38 P. Supposed remains of the Sublician 

Bridge. 



ROBUS, 



ROMA. 



o47 



Robigus, or Robigo, is only an abstraction of the 
later Romans from the festival of the Robigalia. 

Robus, a fortress in the territory of the Rauraci 
in Gallia Belgica, whicli was built by Valentinian 
near Basilia, a. d. 374. 

Roma (Romanus : Rome), the capital of Italy 
and of the world, was situated on the left bank 
of the river Tiber, on the N.W. confines of 
Latiura, about 16 miles from the sea. — - A. 
History of tlie City. Rome is said to have 
been a colony from Alba Longa, and to have 
been founded by Romulus, about b. c. 753. [Ro- 
mulus.] All traditions agree that the original 
city comprised only the Mons Palatinus or Pa- 
latitim and some portion of the ground immediately 
below it. It was surrounded by walls, which 
followed the line of the Pomoerium (see Did. of 
Antiq. s. v.), and was built in a square form, 
whence it was called Roma Quadrata. This city 
on the Palatine was inhabited only by Latins. 
On the neighbouring hills there also existed from 
the earliest times settlements of Sabines and Etrus- 
cans. The Sabine town, probably called Quirium, 
and inhabited by Quiriles^ was situated on the 
hills to the N. of the Palatine, that is, the Quiri- 
nalis and Capitolinus, or Capitolium, on the latter 
of which hills was the Sabine Arx or citadel. 
These Latin and Sabine towns afterwards became 
united, according to tradition, in the reign of Romu- 
lus, and the 2 peoples formed one collective body, 
known under the name of " Populus Romanus (et) 
Quirites." The Etruscans were settled on Mons 
Cadius, and extended over Mons Cispius and Mons 
Oppius, which are part of the Esquiline. These 
Etruscans were at an early period incorporated in 
the Roman state, but were compelled to abandon 
their seats on the hills, and to take up their abode 
in the plains between the Caelius and the Esqui- 
line, whence the Ficus Tuscus derived its name. 
Under the kings the city rapidly grew in popu- 
lation and in size. Ancus Martins added the 
Mons Aventinus to the city. The same king also 
built a fortress on the Janiculus, a hill on the 
other side of the Tiber, as a protection against the 
Etruscans, and connected it with the city by means 
of the Pons Sublicius. Rome was still further 
improved and enlarged by Tarquinius Prisons and 
Servius Tullius. The former of these kings con- 
structed the vast sewers (cloacae), by which the 
lower part of the city between the Palatine and 
Capitol was drained, and which still remain with - 
out a stone displaced. He also laid out the Circus 
Maximus and the forum, and, according to some 
traditions, commenced the erection of the Capitoline 
temple, which was finished by Tarquinius Superbus. 
The completion of the city however was ascribed 
to Servius Tullius. This king added the Mons Vi- 
minalis and Mons Esquilinus, and surrounded the 
whole city with a line of fortifications, which 
comprised all the seven hills of Rome {Palatmus, 
Capitolinus, Quirinalis, Caelius, Aventinvs, Vimi- 
nalis, EsquiltJius). Hence Rome was called Urhs 
Septicollis. These fortifications were about 7 miles in 
circumference. At the same time Servius extended 
the pomoerium so as to make the sacred enclosure 
of the city identical with its walls. In B. c. 3S0 
Rome was entirely destroyed by the Gauls, with 
the exception of a few houses on the Palatine. 
On the departure of the barbarians it was rebuilt 
in great haste and confusion, without any attention 
to regularity, and with narrow and crooked streets. 



After the conquest of the Carthaginians and of 
the monarchs of Macedonia and Syria, the city 
began to be adorned with many public buildings 
and handsome private houses; and it was still 
further embellished by Augustus, who introduced 
great improvements into all parts of the city, and 
both erected many public buildings himself and 
induced all the leading nobles of his court to follow 
his example. So greatly had the appearance of 
the city improved during his long and prosperous 
reign that he used to boast that he had found the 
city of brick, and had left it of marble. Still the 
main features of the city remained the same ; and 
the narrow streets and mean houses formed a 
striking and disagreeable contrast to the splendid 
public buildings and magnificent palaces which had 
been recently erected. The great fire at Rome in 
the reign of Nero (a. d. 64) destroyed two-thirds 
of the city. Nero availed himself of this oppor- 
tiinity to indulge his passion for building ; and the 
city now assumed a more regular and stately ap- 
pearance. The new streets were made both wide 
and straight ; the height of the houses was re- 
stricted ; and a certain part of each was required 
to be built of Gabian or Alban stone, which was 
proof against fire. Rome had long since extended 
beyond the walls of Servius Tullius ; but down to 
the 3rd century of the Christian aera the walls of 
this monarch continued to mark the limits of the 
city properly so called. These walls however had 
long since been rendered quite useless, and the 
city was therefore left without any fortifications. 
Accordingly the emperor Aurelian determined to 
surround Rome with new walls, which embraced 
the city of Servius Tullius and all the suburbs 
which had subsequently grown up around it, such 
as the M. Janiculus on the right bank of the Tiber, 
and the Collis Hortulorzini or Mons Pincianus on the 
left bank of the river to the N, of the Quirinalis. 
The walls of Aurelian were commenced by this 
emperor before he set out on his expedition against 
Zenobia (a. d. 271), and were terminated by his 
successor Probus. They were about 11 miles in 
circumference. They were restored by Honorius, 
and were also partly rebuilt by Belisarius. — E. 
Bivisions of the City. Rome was divided by 
Servius Tullius into 4 Regiones or districts, corre- 
sponding to the 4 city tribes. Their names were : 
1. Suburana, comprehending the space from the 
Subura to the Caelius, both inclusive. 2. Es- 
quilina, comprehending the Esquiline hill. 3. Col- 
lina, extending over the Quirinal and Viminal. 

4. Palaiina^ comprehending the Palatine hill. The 
Capitoline, as the seat of the gods, and the Aven- 
tine, were not included in these Regiones. These 
Regiones were again subdivided into 27 Sacella 
Argaeorum, which were probably erected where 
two streets (compita) crossed each other. It is 
probable that each of the 4 Regiones contained 6 
of these sacella, and that the remaining 3 belonged 
to the Capitoline. The division of Servius Tullius 
into 4 Regiones remained unchanged till the time of 
Augustus ; but this emperor made a fresh division 
of the citji- into 14 Regiones, which comprised 
both the ancient city of Servius Tullius and all the 
suburbs which had been subsequently added. This 
division was made by Augustus to facilitate the 
internal government of the city. The names of 
the Regiones were : — 1. Porta Capena, at the 

5. E. corner of the city by the Porta Capena. 2. 
Caelimontium, N. E. of the preceding, embracing 

T T 4 



648 



KOMA. 



ROMA. 



M. Caelius. 3. Isis et Serapis, N. W. of No. 2, 
in the valley between the Caelius, the Palatine 
and Esquiline. 4. Fia Sacra, N.W. of No. 3, 
embracing the valley between the Esquiline, Vimi- 
nal and Quirinal towards the Palatine. 5. 
Esquilina cum Colle Viimnali. N.E. of No. 4, com- 
prehending the whole of the Esquiline and Viminal. 
6. Alta Semita, N.W. of No. 5, comprising the 
Quirinal. 7. Via Lata, W. of No. 6, between the 
Quirinal and Campus Martius. 8. Forum Ro- 
manuvi, S. of No. 7, comprehending the Capitoline 
and the valley between it and the Palatine. 9. 
Circus Flamifiius, N.W. of No. 8, extending as 
far as the Tiber, and comprehending the whole of 
the Campus Martius. 10. Palatium, S.E. of No. 8, 
containing the Palatine. 11. Circus Maximus, 
S.W. of No. 10, comprehending the plain between 
the Palatine, Aventine and Tiber. 12. Piscina 
Pvblica, S.E. of No. 11. 13. Aventinus, N.W. of 
No. 12, embracing the Aventine. 14. Trans Ti- 
herim, the only region on the right bank of the 
river, containing the Insula Tiherina, the valley 
between the river and the Janiculus, and a part of 
this mountain. Each of these Regiones was sub- 
divided into a certain number of Vici, analogous to 
the sacella of Servius Tullius. The houses were 
divided into 2 different classes, called respectively 
domus and insular. The former were the dwellings 
of the Roman nobles, corresponding to the modern 
palazzi ; the latter were the habitations of the 
middle and lower classes. Each insula contained 
several apartments or sets of apartments, which 
were let to different families, and it was frequently 
surrounded with shops. The insulae contained 
several stories ; and as the value of ground in- 
creased in Rome, they were frequently built of a 
dangerous height. Hence Augustus restricted the 
height of all new house'- to 70 feet, and Trajan to 
60 feet. No houses of any description were al- 
lowed to be built close together at Rome, and it 
was provided by the 12 Tables that a space of at 
least 5 feet should be left between every house. 
The number of insulae of course greatly exceeded 
that of the domi. It is stated that there were 
46,602 insulae at Rome, but only 1790 domus.— 
C. Size and Population of the City. It has 
been already stated that the circumference of the 
walls of Servius Tullius was about 7 miles ; but a 
great part of the space included within these walls 
was at first not covered with buildings. Subse- 
quently, as we have seen, the city greatly extended 
beyond these limits ; and a measurement has come 
down to us, made in the reign of Vespasian, by 
which it appears to have been about 13 miles in 
circumference. It was probably about this time 
that Rome reached its greatest size. The walls of 
Aurelian were only about 1 1 miles in circuit. It 
is more difficult to determine the population of the 
city at any given period. We learn however 
from the Monumentum Ancyranum, that the plebs 
urbana in the time of Augustus was 320,000. This 
did not include the women nor the senators nor 
knights ; so that the free population could not have 
been less than 630,000. To this number we must 
add the slaves, who must have been at least as 
numerous as the free population. Consequently 
the whole population of Rome in the time of Au- 
gustus must have been at least 1,300,000, and in 
all probability greatly exceeded that number. 
Moreover, as we know that the city continued to 
ir.creafse in size and population down to the time of [ 



Vespasian and Trajan, we shall not be far wrong 
in supposing that the city contained nearly 2 mil- 
lions of inhabitants in the reigns of those emperors. 
— D. "Walls and Gates. I. Wall of Romulus. 
The direction of this wall is described by Tacitus. 
Commencing at the Forum Boarium, the site of 
which is marked by the arch erected there to Sep- 
timius Severus, it ran along the foot of the Pala- 
tine, having the valley afterwards occupied by the 
Circus Maximus on the right, as far as the altar of 
Consus, nearly opposite to the extremity of the 
Circus ; thence it turned round the southern angle 
of the Palatine, followed the foot of the hill nearly 
in a straight line to the Curiae Veteres, which stood 
not far from the site of the Arch of Constantine ; 
thence ascended the steep slope, at the summit of 
which stands the Arch of Titus, and descended 
again on the other side to the angle of the Forum, 
which was then a morass. In this wall there were 
3 gates, the number prescribed by the rules of the 
Etruscan religion. 1. Porta Mugonia or Mugionisy 
also called Porta veins Palatii, at the northern 
slope of the Palatine, at the point where the Via 
Sacra and the Via Nova met. 2. Porta Romanula, 
at the western angle of the hill near the temple of 
Victor)', and between the modern churches of S. 
Teodoro and Santa Anastasia. 3. The name and 
position of the 3rd gate is not mentioned, for the 
Porta Janualis appears to be identical with the 
Janus or archway, commonly known as the temple 
of Janus, which stood on the other side of the 
forum, and could have had no connection with the 
original city of Romulus. — II. Walls of Ser- 
vius Tullius. It is stated that this king sur- 
rounded the whole city with a wall of hewn stone ; 
but there are many reasons for questioning this 
statement. The 7 hills on which Rome was built, 
were most of them of great natural strength, having 
sides actually precipitous, or easily rendered so by 
cutting away the soft tufo rock. Instead, there- 
fore, of building a wall around the whole circuit of 
the city, Servius TuUus appears only to have con- 
nected the several hills by walls or trenches drawn 
across the narrow valleys which separated them. 
The most formidable part of these fortifications was 
the Agger or mound, which extended across the 
broad table-land formed by the junction of the 
Quirinal, Esquiline, and Viminal, since it was on 
this side that the city was most open to the attacks 
of the enemy. The agger was a great ram- 
part or mound of earth, 50 feet wide and above 
60 high, faced with flagstones and flanked with 
towers, and at its foot was a moat 100 feet 
broad and 30 deep. There are still traces of this 
work. Starting from the southern extremity of 
this mound at the Porta Esquilina, the fortifications 
of Servius ran along the outside edge of the Caelian 
and Aventine hills to the river Tiber by the Porta 
Trigemina. From this point to the Porta Flu- 
men tana near the S.W. extremity of the Capitoline 
hill, there appears to have been no wall, the river 
itself being considered a sufficient defence. At the 
Porta Flumentana the fortifications again com- 
menced ; and ran along the outside edge of the 
Capitoline and Quirinal hills, till they reached the 
northern extremity of the agger at the Porta Col- 
lina. The number of the gates in the walls of 
Servius is uncertain, and the position of many of 
them is doubtful. Pliny, indeed, states that their 
number was 37 ; but it is almost certain that this 
[ number includes many mere openings made through 



ROMA. 




Map of Ancient Rome, sho-wiug the Walls of Sen-iu3 and those of Aurelian. 





GHxtes in f?x Wc^ls cfSemus. 


39. Porta 


Cfansa. 






20. P. 


Tiburtina CS. Lorenzo). 


1. Porta Collina. 


21. P. 


Praenestina (Maggiore). 


2. P. 


Timinalis. 


22. P. 


Asiaaria, 


3, P. 


Esqailina, 


23. P. 


MetroTia ? 


4. P. 


Qaerquetulana ? 


24. P. 


Latina. 


5. P. 


Caelimontana, 


25, P. 


Appia (.S. Sebastiano). 


6. P. 


Capena. 


2o. P. 


Ardeatina 2 


7, P. 


Kaudusculana ? 


27. P. 


Ostiensis. 


S. P. 


Naevia. 


28. P. 


Portncnsis. 


P. P. 


Minaicia. 


29. P. 


Aurelia (S. Pancrazio). 


10. p. 


TTigemina, 


§0. P. 


Septiraiana. 


11. p. 


Flumentana. 


31, P. 


Aurelia of Procopius. 


12. P. 


Carmentalis. 




13. P. 


Ratumena ? 






14. P. 


Fontinalis. 










32. Pons Aelius (Ponte S. Angelo). 




Gates a* the Walls oj Aurelian. 


SS, P. 


Taticanus ? 




34. P. 


Janieulensis ? 


13. Porta Flaminia. 


3.5, P. 


Fabricius. 


16. P. 


F^nciana. 


36. P. 


C€stius. 


17. P. 


Salaria. 


37. P. 


Palatinus (Aemilins ? ). 


IS. P. 


Xomentana. 


38. P. 


Sapposed remains of the Sublician 



To face p. 6(9.: 



ROMA. 



ROMA. 



649 



the walls to connect diflferent parts of the city with 
the suburbs, since the walls of Servius had long 
since ceased to be regarded. The following is a 
list of the gates as far as they can be ascertained : 
— 1. Porta Collina, at the N. extremity of the 
agger, and the most N.-ly of all the gates, stood at 
the point of junction of the Via Salaria and Via 
Nomentana, just above the N. angle of the Vigna 
del Certosini. 2. i-*. Viminalis, S. of No. 1, and 
in the centre of the agger. 3. F. Esquilina, S. of 
No. 2, on the site of the arch of Gallienus, which 
probably replaced it ; the Via Praenestina and 
Labicana began here. 4. F. Querquetulana, S. of 
No. 3. 5. P. Caeliomojitana^ S. of No. 4, on the 
heights of M. Caelius, behind the hospital of S. 
Giovanni in Laterano, at the point of junction of 
the 2 modern streets which bear the name of 

5. Stefano Rotondo, and the SS. Quattro Coronati. 

6. F. Capena, one of the most celebrated of all the 
Roman gates, from which issued the Via Appia. It 
stood S. W. of No. 5, and at the S. W. foot of the 
Caelian, on the spot now occupied by the grounds 
of the Villa Mattel. 7, 9, P. Lavernalis, F. 
Ravdusculana^ and P. Naevia^ 3 of the most S.-ly 
gates of Rome, lying between the Caelian and the 
Aventine. The walls of Servius probably here 
took a great bend to the S., inclosing the heights 
of Sta Balbina and Sta Saba. 10. P. Minucia, 
probably W. of the 3 preceding, and on the S. of 
the Aventine. 11. P. Triyemina^ on the N.W. of 
the Aventine, near the Tiber and the great salt- 
inagazines. 12. P. Flumentana^ N. of the pre- 
ceding, near the S.W. slope of the Capitol and 
close to the Tiber. 13. P. Carmentalis^ N. of 
No. 12, and at the foot of the S.W. slope of the 
Capitoline, near the altar of Cariuenta, and lead- 
ing to the Forum Olitorium and the Theatre of 
Marcellus. This gate contained 2 passages, of 
which the right hand one was called Porta Sce- 
lerata from the time that the 300 Fabii passed 
through it, and was always avoided. 14. F. Ratu- 
menalis, N. of No. 13, and at the N.W. slope of 
the Capitoline, leading from the Forum of Trajan 
to the Campus Martius. 15. F. Fontinalis, N, of 
No. 14, on the W. slope of the Quirinal, also lead- 
to the Campus Martius. 16. P. Sanqualis, N. of 
No. 15, also on the W. slope of the same hill. 
17. P. Saluiaris,!^. of No. 16, on the N.W. slope 
of the same hill, near the temple of Salus. 18. P. 
Triumphalis. The position of this gate is quite 
uncertain, except that it led, more or less directly, 
to the Campus Martius. — III. "Walls of Aure- 
lian. These walls are essentially the same as 
those which surround the modem city of Rome, 
with the exception of the part beyond the Tiber. 
The Janiculus and the adjacent suburb was the 
only portion beyond the Tiber Avhich was in- 
cluded within the fortifications of Aurelian ; for 
the Vatican was not surrounded with walls till 
the time of Leo IV. in the 9th century. On 
the left bank of the Tiber the walls of Aurelian 
embraced on the N. the Collis Hortulorum or 
Pincianus, on the W. the Campus Martius, on the 
E. the Campus Esquilinus, and on the S. the Mons 
Testaceus. There were 14 gates in the Aurelian 
walls, most of which derived their names from the 
roads issuing from them. These were, on the N. 
side : \. P. Aurelia, on the Tiber in front of the 
Pons Aelius. 2. P. Pinciana, on the hill of the 
same name. 3. P. Salaria. extant under the same 
r.amp, bv.t restored in mouo'ii t'lnes. 4. P. No- 



mentana, leading to the ancient P. Collina. On 
the E. side: 5. P. Tiburtiria^ leading to the old P. 
Esquilina, now Porta S. Lorenzo. 6. F. Prae- 
nestina, now Porta Maggiore. On the S. side : 7. 
P. Asinaria, on the site of the modern Porta S. 
Giovanni. 8. F. Metronis, or Metronii, or Metro- 
via, which has now disappeared, probably at the 
entrance to the Caelian, between S. Stefano Ro- 
tondo and the Villa Mattel. 9. P. Lalina, now 
walled up. 10. P. Appia, now Porta S. Pan- 
crazio. The roads through this gate and through 
No. 9, both led to the old Porta Capena. 11. P. 
Ostiensis, leading to Ostia, now Porta S. Paolo. 
On the W. side: 12. P. Portuensis, on the other 
side of the Tiber near the river, from which issued 
the road to Portus. 1 3. A second P. A urelia, on 
the W. slope of the Janiculus, now Porta S. Pan- 
crazio. 14. P. Sepiimiana^ near the Tiber, which 
was destroyed by Alexander VI. —E. Bridges. 
There were 8 bridges across the Tiber, which pro- 
bably ran in the following order from N. to S : — 

1. Pons Aelius, which was built by Hadrian, and 
led from the city to the mausoleum of that em- 
peror, now the bridge and castle of St. Angelo. 

2. Fo7is Neronianus, or Vaticanus, which led from 
the Campus Martius to the Vatican and the gar- 
dens of Caligula and Nero. The remains of its 
piers may still be seen, when the waters of the 
Tiber are low, at the back of the Hospital of San 
Spirito. 3. P. Aurelius, sometimes, but errone- 
ously, called Janiculensis, which led to the Jani- 
culus and the Porta Aurelia. It occupied the site 
of the present " Ponte Sisto," which was built by 
Sistus IV. upon the niins of the old bridge. 4, 5. 
P. Fabridus and P. Cestius, the two bridges which 
connected the Insula Tiberina with the opposite 
sides of the river, the former with the city, the 
latter with the Janiculus. Both are still remain- 
ing. The P. Fabricius, which was built by one 
L. Fabricius, curator viarum, a short time before 
the conspiracy of Catiline, now bears the name of 
" Ponte Quattro Capi." The P. Cestius, which 
was built at a much later age, is now called " Ponte 
S. Bartolommeo." 6. P. Senatorius, or Palatinus^ 
below the island of the Tiber, formed the com- 
munication between the Palatine and its neigh- 
bourhood and the Janiculus. 7. P. Sublicius, the 
oldest of the Roman bridges, said to have been 
built by Ancus Martius, when he erected a fort on 
the Janiculus. It was built of wood, whence its 
name, which comes from svhlices, " wooden beams." 
It was carried away several times by the river, 
but from a feeling of religious respect was always 
rebuilt of wood down to the latest times. 8. P. 
Milvius, or Mulvius, now " Ponte Molle," was situ- 
ated outside the city, N. of the P. Aelius, and was 
built by Aerailius Scaurus the censor. — « F. Inte- 
rior of the City. I. Fora and Campi. The 
Fora were open spaces of ground, paved with 
stones, surrounded by buildings, and used as market 
places, or for the transaction of public business. An 
account of the Fora is given elsewhere. [Forum.] 
The Campi were also open spaces of ground, but 
much larger, covered with grass, planted with trees, 
and adorned with works of art. They were used 
by the people as places of exercise and amusement, 
and may be compared with the London parks. 
These Campi were : 1 . Campus Martius, the open 
plain lying between the city walls and the Tiber, of 
which the southern part, in the neighbourhood of 
the Circus Flaminius, was called Campus Flaminius, 



650 



ROMA. 



ROMA. 



or Prata Flaminia. This plain, which was by far 
the most celebrated of all, is spoken of separately. 
[Campus Martius.] 2. Campus Sceleraius^ dose 
to the Porta Collina and within the walls of Ser- 
vius, where the vestals who had broken their vows 
of chastity were entombed alive. 3. Campus 
Agrippae, probably on the S. W. slope of the Pin- 
cian hill, E. of the Campus Martius, on the right 
of the Corso, and N. of the Piazza degli Apostoli. 
4. Campus Esquilinus, outside of the agger of Ser- 
vius and near the Porta Esquilina, where criminals 
were executed, and the lower classes were buried. 
The greater part of this plain Avas afterwards con- 
verted into pleasure grounds belonging to the palace 
of Maecenas. 5. Campus Vimirialis, on the E. 
slope of the Viminal near the Villa Negroni.— II. 
Streets and Districts. There are said to have | 
been in all 215 streets in Rome. The broad streets 
were called Viae and Vici*; the narrow streets 
Angiportus. The chief streets were : 1. Via Sacra, 
the principal street in Rome. It began near 'the 
Sacellum Streniae, in the valley between the Cae- 
lian and the Esquiline, aiid leaving the Flavian 
Amphitheatre (Colosseum) on the left ran along 
the N. slope of the Palatine, passing imder the 
arch of Titus, and past the Forum Romanum, till it 
reached the Capitol. 2. Via Lata, led from the N. 
side of the Capitol and the Porta Ratumena to the 
Porta Flaminia, whence the N. part of it was 
called Via, Flaminia. 3. Via Nova, by the side 
of the W. slope of the Palatine, led from the 
ancient Porta Romanula and the Velabrum to the 
Forum, and was connected by a side street with 
the Via Sacra. 4. Victis Jugarius, led from the 
Porta Carmentalis under the Capitol to the Forum 
Romanum, which it entered near the Basilica Julia 
and the Lacus Servilius. 5. Vicus Tuseus. connected 
the Velabrum with the Forum, running W. of, and 
nearly parallel with, the Via Nova. It contained a 
great number of shops, where articles of luxury were 
sold, and its inhabitants did not possess the best of 
characters {Tusci turba impia vici, Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 
228). 6, Vicus Cyprius^ ran from the Forum to 
the Esquiline. The upper part of it, turning on the 
right to the Urbius Clivus, was called Scehratus 
Vicus, because Tullia here drove her chariot over 
the corpse of her father Servius. 7. Vicus Patricius, 
in the valley between the Esquiline and the Vimi- 
nal in the direction of the modern Via Urbana and 
Via di S. Pudenziana. 8. Vicus J/ricus, in the 
district of Esquiline, but the exact situation of which 
cannot be determined, said to have been so called, 
because African hostages were kept here during 
the first Punic war. 9. Vicus Sayidalarius, also in 
the district of the Esquiline, extending as far as 
the heights of the Carinae. Besides the shops of 
the shoemakers, from whom it derived its name, it 
contained several booksellers' shops. 10. Vicus 
Vitriarius or Vitrarius^ in the S.E. part of the city, 
near the Porta Capena. 11. Vicus Longus^ in the 
Vallis Quirini between the Quirinal and Viminal, 
now S. Vitale. 12. Caput Africae, near the Co- 
losseum, the modem Via de S. Quattro Coronati, 
13. Subura or Suburra, a district, through which a 
street of the same name ran, was the whole valley 
between the Esquiline, Quirinal and Viminal. It 
was one of the most frequented parts of the town 



* Vtcus, properly signified a quarter of the city, but | 
the principal street in a vicus was frequently called bv I 
the name of the Vicus to which it belonged. ' ! 



and contained a great number of shops and brothels. 
14. FeZia, a height near the forum, which extended 
from the Palatine near the Arch of Titus, to the 
Esquiline, and which separated the vallej- of the 
forum from that of the Colosseum. On the Velia 
were situated the Basilica of Constantine and the 
temple of Venus and Rome. 15. Carinae^ a district 
on the S.W. part of the Esquiline, or the modern 
height of S.Pietro in Vincoli, where Pompey, Cicero 
and many other distinguished Romans lived. 16. 
Velabrum, a district on the W. slope of the Palatine 
between the Vicus Tuscus and the Forum Boarium, 
was originally a morass. ] 7. Aequimelium, a place 
at the £. foot of the Capitol and by the side of the 
Vicus Jugarius, where the house of Sp. Maelius 
once stood. [See p. 407. a.] 18. Argiletum, a dis- 
I trict of uncertain site, but probably at the S. ex- 
tremity of the Quirinal between the Subura, the 
Forum of Nerva and the Temple of Peace. The 
etymology of the name is uncertain ; some of the 
ancients derived it from argilla " white clay " ; 
others from a hero Argus, a friend of Evander, who 
is said to have been buried here. 1 9. Lautumiae, 
a district near the Argiletum and the Forum Pis- 
catorium, on which subsequently the Basilica Porcia 
was built. In this district was one of the state 
pnsons, called Lautumiae or Career Lautumiarum. 
—III. Temples. There are said to have been 400 
temples in Rome. Of these the following, enume- 
rated for the most part in chronological order, 
were the principal: — 1. Temphim Jovis Feretrii, 
on the Capitoline, the oldest of all the Roman 
temples, built, according to tradition, by Romulus, 
and restored by Augustus. 2. T. Fidei, likewise on 
the Capitoline, built by Numa, and restored suc- 
cessively by A, Atilius Collatinus and M. Aemiiius 
Scaiirus. 3. T. Jani, also called Janus Bifrons or 
Biformis, Janus Geminus and Janus Quirintis, also 
built hj Numa, was, properly speaking, not a 
temple, but a passage with an entrance at each end, 
the gates of which were opened during war and 
closed in times of peace. It was situated N.E. of 
the forum towards the Quirinal. There were also 
other temples of Janus at Rome, of which one was 
near the Theatre of Marcellus, and the other near 
the forum of Nerva. 4. Aedes Vestae. a round 
temple built by Numa, in the S. part of the forum 
or on the slope of the Palatine, adjoining the Regia 
Numae^ probably near Sta Maria Liberatice. The 
Atrium Vestae, also called Atrium Regium, probably 
formed a part of the Regia Numae, which may be 
regarded as forming a portion of the building sacred 
to Vesta. 5. Z". Z)za?2ae. on the Aventine, which hill is 
hence called by Jklartial Collis Dianae, built bj' Ser- 
vius Tullius, as the place of meeting for the Romans 
and the members of the Latin league, and restored 
by Augustus, probably near the modem church 
S. Prisca. 6. T. Lunae, frequently confounded with 
the preceding, also built by Servius Tullius, and on 
the Aventine. probably on the side adjoining the 
Circus. 7. T. Jovis, usually called the Capitolium, 
situated on the S. summit of the Capitoline hill, 
was vovred by Tarquinius Priscus and built by 
Tarquinius Superbus. It was the most magnificent 
of all the temples in Rom.e, and is described else- 
where. [Capitoliuji.] 8. T. Satwni, which was 
also used as the Aerarium, on the CHatis Capitoli- 
nus and by the Forum, to which it is supposed that 
the 3 pillars in the forum belong. It was built by 
Tarquinius Superbus and restored successively by 
L. 3Iunatius Plancus and Septimius Severus. 9. 



ROMA. 




Temple of Trajan. 




Basilica TJlpia. 




EOMA. 




Pantheon of Agi ippa. Page 651. Temples, No. 41. 




Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Page Go! . Temple of Saturn. Page 650. 

Temples, :^^o. i Temples, No. 8. 




Tabularium and Temples of Vespasian, Satuin, and Concord. 
Page 050, Temples, Nos. S, 17. 



To face p. G51.] 



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651 



Aedes Courts or T. Castoris et Follucis, by the 
Forum, near the fountain of Juturna, in which the 
senate frequently assembled. It was vowed by the 
dictator A. Postumius in the great battle with the 
Latins near the lake Regillus, and was successively 
restored by L. Metellus Dalmaticus, Tiberius, Ca- 
ligula and Claudius. 10. T. Mercurii, between the 
Circus Maximus and the Aventine. 11. T. Cereris, 
on the slope of the Aventine near the Circus. 12. 
T. Apollinis, between the Circus Maximus and the 
Theatre of Marcellus near the Porticus Octaviae, 
where the senate often assembled. 13. T. Junonis 
Reginae, on the Aventine. 14. T. Martis Exira- 
muranei^ before the Porta Capena on the Via Appia. 

15. T. Junonis Monetae.^ on the area of the Capi- 
toline, where the house of M. Manlius had stood. 

16. T. Junonis Lucinae^ on the W. summit of the 
Esquiline. 17. T. Concordiae, on the slope of the 
Capitoline above the forum in which the senate 
frequently assembled. There were probably two 
temples of Concordia, both by the forum, of which the 
more ancient was consecrated by Camillus, and the 
other by L. Opimius after the death of C. Gracchus. 
The remains of the ancient temple of Concordia are 
to be seen behind the arch of Septimius Severus. 

18. r. Salutis, on the slope of the Quirinal near 
the Porta Salutaris, adorned with paintings by 
Fabius Pictor, burnt down in the reign of Claudius. 

19. T. Belhnae., before the Circus Flaminius, and 
near the confines of the Campus Martins, in which 
the senate assembled, in order to give audience to 
foreign ambassadors and to receive applications 
from generals who solicited the honour of a triumph. 

20. T. Jovis Victoris, on the Palatine, between the 
Domus Augusti and the Curia Vetus. 21. T. Vic- 
toriae, on the summit of the Palatine, or theClivus 
Victoriae above the Porta Romanula and the 
circus, in which the statue of the mother of the 
gods was at first preserved. 22. T. Magnae Matris 
Idaeae, near the preceding and the Casa Romuli, in 
which the above named statue of the goddess was 
placed 13 years after its arrival in Rome. 23. T. 
Jovis Statoris, near the arch of Titus on the Via 
Sacra, where the senate frequently assembled. 24. 
T. Qtiirini, on the Quirinal, where also the senate 
frequently assembled, enlarged and adorned by 
Augustus. 25. T. Faiiunae, built by Servius Tul- 
lius in the Forum Boarium. 26. T. Aesculapii in 
the island of the Tiber, which was called after it 
Insula Aesculapii. 27. T. Mentis and Veneris 
Erycinae., both of which were built at the sam.e 
time and close to one another on the Capitoline. 
There was also another teniple of Venus Erycina 
before the Porta CoUina. 28. T. Honoris and Vir- 
tutis, which were built, close to one another, near 
the Porta Capena and Via Appia, by Marcellus, 
and adorned with Greek works of art brought from 
Syracuse. 29. T. Jovis, in the island of the Tiber, 
near the temple of Aesculapius. 30. T. Fauni, in 
the island of the Tiber. 31.7". Spei, in the Forum 
Olitorium. 32. T. Junonis Sospitae or Mafutae, in 
the Forum Olitorium near the Theatre of Marcellus. 
33. T. Pietatis, in the Forum Olitorium, which was 
pulled down in order to make room for the Theatre 
of Marcellus. 34. Aedes Forizmae Eqttestns, in the 
Campus Flaminius near the theatre of Pompey, 
built by Fulvius Flaccus, the roof of which, made 
of marble, was brought from a temple of Juno Lu- 
cina in Bruttium. It was probably burnt do\\'n in 
the reign of Augustus or Tiberius, since in a. T). 
22 we are told there was no temple of Fortuna 



Equestris at Rome. There were other temples of 
Fortuna on the Palatine, Quirinal, &c. 35. Aedes 
Herculis Musarum, close to the Porticus Octaviae, 
and between the Theatre of Marcellus and the 
Circus Flaminius, built by M. Fuhius Nobilior 
and adorned with the statues of the Muses brought 
from Ambracia. 36. T. Honoris et Virttdis, built 
b}'- Marius, but of uncertain site: some modem 
writers suppose it to have been on the Esquiline, 
others on the Capitoline. 37. T. Mariis, in the 
Campus Martius near the Circus Flaminius, built 
by D. Brutus Callaicus, and adorned with a colossal 
statue of the god. 38. T. Veneris Genetricis, in 
the forum of Caesar, before which Caesar's eques- 
trian statue was placed. 39. T. Martis Ultoris, in 
the forum of Augustus, to which belong the 3 
splendid Corinthian pillars near the convent S. 
Annunziata. 40. T. Apollinis, on the Palatine, 
surrounded by a porticus in Avhich was the cele- 
brated Palatine library, il. Panlheon,a celebrated 
temple in the Campus Martius, built by Agrippa : 
it is described in a separate article. [Pantheon.] 
42. T. Augusti, founded by Tiberius and completed 
by Caligula, on the slope of the Palatine towards 
the Via Nova. It stood before the temple of Mi- 
nerva, from which it was probably separated by 
the Via Nova. 43. T. Pads, one of the most 
splendid temples in the city, built by V espasian 
on the Velia. 44. T. Isidis et Serapidis in the 3rd 
Regio, which was named after the temple. 45. T. 
Vespasiani et Titi, in the forum, alongside of the 
temple of Concordia. 46. T. Aniofmu et Faus- 
tinae, at the further end of the N. side of the 
forum under the Velia. The remains of this temple 
are in the modern church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda. 

47. T. Minervae, on the S. side of the forum, be- 
hind the temple of Augustus, built by Domitian. 

48. T. Bonae Deae, a very ancient temple on a 
spot of the Aventine, which was called Saxum 
Sacrum, but removed by Hadrian, undoubtedly on 
the S. E. side of the hill, opposite the heights of 
S. Sabba and S. Balbina. 49. T. Romaeet Veneris, 
subsequently called T. Urhis, a large and splendid 
temple, built by Hadrian, between the Esquiline 
and Palatine, N. E. of the Colosseum. It was 
burnt down in the reign of Maxentius, but was 
subsequently restored. Its remains are between 
the Colosseum and the chtirch of S. Maria Nuova 
or S. Francesca Romana. 50. T. Solis, at the 
upper end of the Circus Maximus. 51.7'. Herculis, 
in the forum Boarium, probably the round temple 
still extant of S. Maria del Sole, which used to be 
erroneously regarded as the temple of Vesta. 
There was another temple of Hercules by the 
Circus Maximus, near the Porta Trigemina. 
52. T. Solis, a splendid temple built by Aurelian, 
E. of the Quirinal. 53. T. Florae, an ancient 
temple on the S. point of the Quirinal ; but the 
time of its foundation is not recorded. 54. Vul- 
eanale, was not a temple, but only an Area dedi- 
cated to the god with an altar, on the N. side of 
the forum above the Comitium ; it was so large 
that not only were the Curia Hostilia and the 
Aedes Concordiae built there, but also a fish- 
market Avas held in the place. — IV. Circi. The 
Circi were places for chariot-races and horse-races. 
1. Circus Maonmus, frequently called simply the 
Circus, was foimded by Tarquinius Priscus, in the 
plain between the Palatine and Aventine, and was 
successively enlarged by Julius Caesar and Trajan. 
Under the emperors it contained seats for 385,000 



<;5'J ROMA. 

persons. It was restored by Coiwtantine the 
Great, and games were celebrated in it as late as 
the 6th century. 2. C. Flaminius, erected by Fla- 
minius in B.C. 221 in the Prata Flaminia before 
the Porta Cannentalis ; it was not sufficiently 
large for the population of Rome, and was there- 
fore seldom used. 3. C. Nero?iis, erected by Ca- 
ligula in the gardens of Agrippina on the other 
side of the Tiber. There was also another 
C. Neronis, on the other side of the Tiber, near 
the Moles Hadriani, in the gardens of Domitia. 
4. C. Palatinus, on the Palatine in which the 
Ludi Palatini were celebrated. There are traces 
of it in the Orto Roncioni on the S. part of the 
hill. 5. C. Helioffabali, in the gardens of this 
emperor, behind the Amphitheatrura Castrense, at 
the E, point of the Aurelian walls. 6. C. Max- 
entii. commonly called Circo di Caracalla, before 
the Porta Appia in the S. part of the city. Among 
the Circi we may also reckon : 7. The Stadium^ 
likewise called C. Agoiialis and C. Alexandria in 
the Campus Martius, erected by Domitian in place 
of the wooden Stadium built by Augustus. It 
contained seats for 33,888 persons. Its remains 
still exist in the Piazza Navona. — V. Theatres. 
Theatres were not built at Rome till a com- 
paratively late period, and long after the Circi. 
At first they were only made of wood for tem- 
porary purposes, and Avere afterwards broken up ; 
but many of these wooden theatres were notwith- 
standing constructed with great magnificence. 
The splendid wooden theatre of M. Aemilius 
Scaurus was capable of containing 80,000 spec- 
tators. 1. Tkeatrum Pompeii^ the first permanent 
stone theatre, was erected by Cn. Pompey, b. c. 55, 
in the Campus Martius, N. E. of the Circus Fla- 
minius, after the model of the theatre of Mytilene. 
It contained seats for 40,000 spectators. It was 
restored successively by Augustus, Tiberius, Cali- 
gula, Diocletian, and Theodorich. Its ruins are 
by the Palazzo Pio, not far from the Campo di 
F*iore. 2. Th. Cornelii Balbi, S. E. of the pre- 
ceding, near the Tiber, on the site of the Palazzo 
Cenci. It was dedicated by Cornelius Balbus in 
B. c. 13, was partly burnt down under Titus, but 
was subsequently restored. It contained seats for 
11,600 persons. 3. Th. Marcelli^ in the forum 
Olitorium, W. of the preceding, between the slope 
of the Capitoline and the island of the Tiber, on 
the site of the temple of Pietas. It was begun by 
Julius Caesar, and dedicated by Augustus in 
B. c. 13, to the memorj' of his nephew Marcellus. 
It was restored by Vespasian, and perhaps also by 
Alexander Severus. It contained seats for 20,000 
spectators. The remains of its Cavea exist near 
the Piazza Montanara. These were the only 3 
theatres at Rome, whence Ovid speaks of terna 
ilieatra. There was, however, an Odeum or con- 
cert-house, which may be classed among the 
theatres. 4. Odeum^ in the Campus ]\Iartius, built 
by Domitian, though some writers attribute its 
erection to Trajan : it contained seats for about 
11,000 persons.— VI. Amphitheatres. The am- 
phitheatres, like the theatres, were originally 
made of wood for temporary purposes. They were 
used for the shows of gladiators and wild beasts. 
The first wooden amphiclieatre was built by C. Scri- 
bonius Curio (the celebrated partisan of Caesar), 
and the next by Julius Caesar during his perpetual 
dictatorship, b. c. 46. 1. Amph. Statilii Tauri, in 
the Campus Martius, was the first stone amphi- 



ROMA. . 

theatre in Rome, and was built by Statilius Taurus, 
B. c. 30. This edifice was the only one of the 
kind until the building of the Flavian amphi- 
theatre. It did not satisfy Caligula, who com- 
menced an amphitheatre near the Septa ; but the 
work was not continued by Claudius. Nero too, 
A. D. 57, erected a vast amphitheatre of wood, but 
this was only a temporary building. The amphi- 
theatre of Taurus was destroyed in the burning of 
Rome, A. D. 64, and was probably never restored, 
as it is not again mentioned. 2. Amph. F/aviuin, 
or, as it has been called since the time of Bede, 
the Colosseum or Colisaeum, a name said to be de- 
rived from the Colossus of Nero, which stood close 
by. It was situated in the valley between the 
Caelius, the Esquiline and the Velia on the marshy 
ground which was previously the pond of Nero's 
palace. It was commenced by Vespasian, and was 
completed by Titus, who dedicated it in a. d. 80, 
when 5000 animals of different kinds were slaugh- 
tered. This wonderful building, of which there 
are still extensive remains, covered nearly 6 acres 
of ground, and furnished seats for 87,000 spec- 
tators. In the reign of Macrinus it was struck by 
lightning, and so much damage was done to it 
that the games were for some years celebrated in 
the Stadium. Its restoration was commenced by 
Elagabalus and completed by Alexander Severus. 
3. Amph. Castrense, at the S. E. of the Aurelian 
walls. — VII. Naumachiae. These were build- 
ings of a kind similar to the amphitheatres. They 
were used for representations of sea-fights, and 
consisted of artificial lakes or ponds, with stone 
seats around them to accommodate the spectators. 
1. Naumachia Julii Caesaris, in the middle part 
of the Campus Martius, called the " Lesser Co- 
deta." This lake was filled up in the time of 
Augustus, so that we find in later writers mention 
of only 2 Naumachiae. 2. N. Augusti, constructed 
by Augustus on the other side of the Tiber under 
the Janiculus and near the Porta Portuensis. It 
was subsequently called the Vetus Naumachia, to 
distinguish it from the following one. 3. N. Do- 
mitiani, constructed by the emperor Domitian, pro- 
bably on the other side of the Tiber under the 
Vatican and the Circus Neronis. — VIIL Ther- 
mae. The Thermae were some of the most mag- 
nificent buildings of imperial Rome. They were dis- 
tinct from the Balneae, or common baths, of which 
there were a great number at Rome. In the 
Thermae the baths constituted a small part of the 
building. They were, properly speaking, a Roman 
adaptation of the Greek gymnasia ; and besides 
the baths they contained places for athletic games 
and youthful sports, exedrae or public halls, por- 
ticoes and vestibules for the idle, and libraries for 
the learned. They were decorated with the finest 
objects of art, and adorned with fountains, and 
shaded walks and plantations. 1. TJiermae Agrip- 
pae, in the Campus Martius, erected by M. 
Agrippa. The Pantheon, still existing, is sup- 
posed by some, but without sufficient reason, to 
have served originally as a vestibule to these 
Therviae. 2. Th. Nero?iis, erected by Nero in 
the Campus Martius alongside of the Thermae 
of Agrippa : they were restored by Alexander 
Severus, and were from that time called TTi. Alex- 
andrinae. 3. Th. Titi., on the Esquiline, near 
the amphitheatre of this emperor, of which there 
are still considerable remains. 4. Th. Trajani., 
also on the Esquiline, immediately behind the 



ROMA. 




Temple of Vespasii 



LTofacep. 652. 



ROMA. 




Colosseum. Page 652. 



Elevation of Colosseum. Page 652. 

To face p. 65S.] 



ROMA. 

two prccodincr, towards the N. E. 5. 77/. Com- 
modianae and Th. Severianae, close to one another, 
near S, Balbina, in tlie S. E. part of the city. 
6. Th. Ant07iinianae, also in the S. E. part of the 
city, behind the two preceding, one of the most 
magnificent of all the Thermae, in which 2,300 
men could bathe at the same time. The greater 
part of it was built by Caracalla, and it was com- 
pleted by Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. 
There are still extensive remains of this immense 
building below S. Balbina. 7. Th. Diodetiani, 
in the N. E. part of the city between the Agger 
of Servius and the Viminal and Quirinal. It was 
the most extensive of all the Thermae, containing 
a library, picture gallery, Odeum, &c., and such 
immense baths that 3,000 men could bathe in 
them at the same time. There are still extensive 
remains of this building near S. Maria d'Angeli. 
8. Th. Constantini, on the Quirinal, on the site of 
the modern Palazzo Rospigliosi, but of which all 
traces have disappeared. The following Thermae 
were smaller and less celebrated. 9. Tit. Dedanae^ 
on the Aventine. 10. Tk Suranae, erected by 
Trajan to the memory of his friend Sulpicius Sura, 
also in the neighbourhood of the Aventine, pro- 
bably the same as the Th. Varianae. 11. Th. Phi- 
lippic near S. Matteo in Merulana. 12. Th. Agrip- 
pinae, on the Viminal behind S. Lorenzo. 13. Th. 
Caii et Lticii, on the Esquiline, called in the middle 
ages the Terme di Galluccio. — IX. Basilicae. 
The Basilicae were buildings which served as 
courts of law, and exchanges or places of meeting 
for merchants and men of business. 1. Basilica 
Porda, erected by M. Porcius Cato, in the forum 
adjoining the Curia, b, c. 184. It was burnt down 
along with the Curia in the riots which followed 
the death of Clodius, 52. 2. B. Ftdvia^ also 
called Aemilia et Fulvia, because it was built by 
the censors L. Aemilius Lepidus and M. Fulvius 
Nobilior in 179. It was situated in the forum 
near the preceding one. It was restored by 
Aemilius Paulus in the time of Caesar, and was 
hence called B. Aemilia or Pauli. It was dedi- 
cated by his son Paulus Aemilius Lepidus in his 
consulship, 34. It was burnt down 20 years 
afterwards (14), and was rebuilt nominally by 
Paulus Lepidus, but in reality by Augustus and 
the friends of Paulus. The new building was a 
most magnificent one ; its columns of Phrygian 
marble were especially celebrated. It Avas re- 
paired by another Lepidus in the reign of Tibe- 
rius, A. D. 22. 3. B. Sempronia, built by Ti. 
Sempronius Gracchus, B.C. 171, in the forum at 
the end of the Vicus Tuscus. 4. B. Opimia., in the 
forum near the temple of Concordia. 5. B. Julia, 
commenced by Julius Caesar and finished by 
Augustus, in the forum between the temples of 
Castor and Saturn, probably on the site of the 
B. Sempronia mentioned above. Some writers sup- 
pose that Aemilus Paulus built two Basilicae, and 
that the B. Julia occupied the site of one of them. 
6. B. Argentaria, in the forum near the Clivus 
Argentarius and before the temple of Concordia, 
probably the same as the one mentioned under the 
name of B. Vascularia. The remains of this 
building are behind S. Martina, along side of the 
Salita di Marforio. 7. B. Ulpia, in the middle of 
the forum of Trajan, of which there are still con- 
siderable remains. 8, B. Cotistaniiana, between 
the temple of Peace and the temple of Rome and 
Venus. — X. Porticoes. The Porticoes {Porticus) 



ROMA. 65S 

Avere covered walks, supported b}' columns, and opea 
on one side. There were several public porticoes 
at Rome, many of them of great size, which were 
used as places of recreation, and for the transaction 
of business. 1. Poriicus Pompeii, adjoining the 
theatre of Pompey, and erected to affbrd shelter to 
the spectators in the theatre during a shower of 
rain. It was restored by Diocletian, and was 
hence called P. Jovia. 2. P. Argonautarum, or 
Neptuni or Agrippae, erected by Agrippa in the 
Campus Martins around the temple of Neptune, 
and adorned Avith a celebrated painting of the 
Argonauts. 3. P. Philippi, by the side of the 
T. Herculis Musarum and the Porticus Octaviae, 
built by M. Philippus the father-in-law of Au- 
gustus, and adorned Avith splendid Avorks of art. 
4. P. Minudi in the Campus Martins, near the 
Circus Flaminius, built by Q. Minucius Rufus in 
B. c. 1 09, to commemorate his victories over the 
Scordisci and Triballi in the preceding year. 
There appear to have been 2 porticos of this name, 
since Ave find mention of a Minuda Vetus et Fru- 
mentaria. It appears that the tesserae, or tickets, 
which entitled persons to a share in the public 
distributions of corn Avere given to them in the 
P. Minucia. 5. P. Meielli, built by Q. Metellus, 
after his triumph over Perseus, king of Macedonia, 
B. c. 146. It was situated in the Campus Martins 
betAveen the Circus Flaminius and the theatre of 
Marcellus, and surrounded the 2 temples of 
Jupiter Stator and Juno Regina. 6. P. Odaviae, 
built b)'' Augustus on the site of the P. Metelli 
just mentioned, in honour of his sister Octavia. 
It was a magnificent building, containing a vast 
number of works of art, and a public library, in 
Avhich the senate frequently assembled ; hence it 
is sometimes called Curia Odavia. It was burnt 
down in the reign of Titus. Its ruins are near 
the church of S. Angelo in Pescaria. 7. P- Oc- 
tavia, Avhich must be carefully distinguished from 
the P. Octaviae just mentioned, was built by Cn. 
Octavius, Avho commanded the Roman fleet in the 
Avar against Perseus, king of Macedonia. It Avas 
situated in the Campus Martius between the 
theatre of Pompey and the Circus Flaminius. It 
Avas rebuilt by Augustus, and contained 2 rows of 
columns of the Corinthian order, with brazen 
capitals, whence it was also called P. Corinthia. 
8. P. Eiiropae, probably at the foot of the Pincius, 
in Avhich foot-races took place. 9. P. Polae, built 
by the sister of Agrippa in the Campus Agrippae, 
in Avhich also foot-races took place. 10. P. Livia, 
on the Esquiline, surrounding a temple of Con- 
cordia. 11. P. Julia, or P. Caii et Lucii, built by 
Julia in honour of these 2 sons of Agrippa, was 
probably also situated on the Esquiline near the 
Thermae Caii et Lucii. The foUoAving Porticoes 
Avere less celebrated : 12. P. Vipsania, supposed 
by some writers to be only a later name of the 
P. Argonautarum. 1 3. P. Claudia, on the Esqui- 
line. — XI. Triumphal Arches. The Triumphal 
Arches (Arcus) were structures peculiar to the 
Romans, and were erected by victorious generals 
in commemoration of their victories. They were 
built across the principal streets of the city, and, 
according to the space of their respective localities, 
consisted either of a single arch-Avay or of a central 
one for carriages, Avith 2 smaller ones on each side 
for foot passengers. Ancient Avriters mention 21 
arches in the city of Rome. Of these the most 
important Avere : 1. Arcus FaUanus^ also called 



634 ROMA. 

Foi-nix Fahianus^ near the beginning of the Via 
Sacra, built by FabiuB Maximus in B.C. 121, in 
commemoration of his victory over the Allobroges. 
2. A. Di-usi, erected by the senate in B. c. 9, in 
honour of Nero Claudius Drusus. It was situated 
on the Via Appia, and still exists, forming the 
inner gate of the Porta di S. Sebastiano. 3. A. 
Augusti, in the forum near the house of Julius 
Caesar. 4, A. Tiberii, near the temple of Saturn 
on the Clivus Capitolinus erected by Tiberius, 
A. D. 16, in honour of the victories of Germanicus 
in Germany. 5. A. Claudii, in the plain E. of 
the Quirinal, erected a. d. 51, to commemorate the 
victories of Claudius in Britain. Remains of it 
have been dug up at the beginning of the Piazza 
di Sciarra, by the Via di Pietra. 6. A. Titi, in 
the middle of the Via Sacra at the foet of the 
Palatine, which still exists. It Avas erected to the 
honour of Titus, after his conquest of Judaea, but 
was not finished till after his death ; since in the 
inscription upon it hp is called " Divus," and he 
is also represented as being carried up to heaven 
upon an eagle. The bas-reliefs of this arch repre- 
sent the spoils from the temple of Jerusalem 
carried in triumphal procession. 7. A. Trajani, 
in the forum of this emperor, at the point where 
you enter it from the forum of Augustus. 8. 
A. Vert, on the Via Appia, erected to the honour 
of Verus after his victory over the Parthians. 9. 
A. Marci Aurelii, in the 7th Regie, probably 
erected to commemorate the victory of this em- 
peror over the Marcomanni. It existed under dif- 
ferent names near the Piazzo Fiano down to 1662, 
when it was broken up by order of Alexander VII. 

10. A. Septimii Sever i, in the forum at the end of 
the Via Sacra and the Clivus Capitolinus before 
the temple of Concordia, and still extant near the 
church of SS. Sergio e Bacco, was erected by the 
senate, A. d. 203, in honour of Septimius Severus 
and his 2 sons, Caracalla and Geta, on account of 
his victories over the Parthians and Arabians. 

11. ^. Gordiani, on the Esquiline. 12. ^. Gallieni, 
erected to the honour of Gallienus by a private 
individual, M. Aurelius Victor, also on the Esqui- 
line, S.E. of the Porta Esquilina. It is still extant 
near the church of S.Vito. 12. A. Diocletiani, 
probably identical with the A. Novtis, in the 7th 
Regie. 13. A. Constanti7ii, at the entrance to the 
valley between the Palatine and the Coelius, is 
still extant. It was erected by the senate in 
honour of Constantine after his victory over Max- 
entius, a.d. 312. It is profusely ornamented, and 
many of the bas-reliefs which adorn it were taken 
from one of the arches erected in the time of 
Trajan. 13. A. Theodosiani, Gratiani et Valen- 
tiniani^ opposite the Pons Aelius and the Moles 
Hadriani. — XII. Curiae or Senate-Houses. 1. 
Curia Hostilia, frequently called Curia simply, 
was built by Tullus Hostilius, and Avas used as the 
ordinary place of assembly for the senate down to 
the time of Julius Caesar. It stood in the Forum 
on the N. side of the Comitium. It was burnt to 
the ground in the riots which followed the death 
of Clodius, B. c. 52. It was however soon re- 
built, the direction of the work being entrusted to 
Faustus, the son of the dictator Sulla ; but scarcely 
had it been finished, when the senate, at the sug- 
gestion of Caesar, decreed that it should be de- 
stroyed, and a temple of Fortune erected on its 
site, while a new Curia should be erected, which 
should bear the name of Julia. (See belovv^.) 2. 



ROMA. 

C. Poinpeia or Pompeii, attached to the Portico of 
Pompey in the Campus Martius. It was in this 
Curia that Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of 
March. 3. C. Julia^ the decree for the erection of 
which has been mentioned above, was finished 
and consecrated by Augustus. It did not stand 
on the site of the Curia Hostilia, as many modern 
writers have supposed, but at the S.W. angle of 
the Comitium, between the temple of Vesta and 
that of Castor and Pollux. 4. C. Pompiliana, 
built by Domitian and restored by Diocletian, was 
the usual place of the senate's meeting from the 
time of Domitian. It was situated alongside of 
the temple of Janus, Avhich was said to have been 
built by Numa Pompilius, whence this curia was 
called Pompiliana. — XII. Prisons. There were 
2 public prisons (carceres) in Rome. The more 
ancient one, called Career Mamertinus (a name 
however which does not occur in any ancient 
author), was built by Ancus Martius on the slope 
of the Capitoline overhanging the Fomm. It was 
enlarged by Servius Tullius, who added to it a 
dismal subterranean dungeon, called from him 
Tullianum, where the conspirators of Catiline were 
put to death. This dungeon was 12 feet imder 
ground, walled on each side, and arched over with 
stone-work. It is still extant, and serves as a 
subterranean chapel to a small church built on the 
spot called S. Pietro in Carcere. Near this prison 
Avere the Scalae Gemoniae or steps, down which 
the bodies of those who had been executed were 
thrown into the Forum, to be exposed to the gaze 
of the Roman populace. The other state prison 
was called Lautumiae, and was probably situated 
towards the N. side of the Forum, near the Curia 
Hostilia and Basilica Porcia. Some writers how- 
ever suppose Lautumiae to be only another name 
of the Career Mamertinus. — XIII. Castra or 
Barracks. 1. Castra Praetoria, in the N.E. 
corner of the city on the slope of the Quirinal and 
Viminal, and beyond the Thermae of Diocletian, 
were built by the emperor Tiberius in the form of 
a Roman camp. Here the Praetorian troops or 
imperial guards were always quartered. 2. Castra 
Peregri7ia, on the Caelius, probably built by Sep- 
timius Severus for the use of the foreign troops, 
who might serve as a coimterpoise against the 
Praetorians. — XIV. Aqueducts. The Aqueducts 
(Aquaeductus) supplied Rome with an abundance 
of pure water from the hills which surround the 
Campagna. The Romans at first had recoxu:se to 
the Tiber and to wells sunk in the city. It was 
not till B. c. 313 that the first aqueduct was con- 
structed, but their number was gradually increased 
till they amoimted to 14 in the time of Procopius, 
that is, the 6th century of the Christian era. 1. 
Aqua Appia, was begim by the censor Appius 
Claudius Caecus in B.C. 313. Its sources were 
near the Via Praenestina, between the 7th and 8th 
milestones, and its termination was at the Salinae 
by the Porta Trigemina. Its length was 11,190 
passus ; for 11,130 of which it was carried under 
the earth, and for the remaining 60 passus, within 
the city, from the Porta Capena to the Porta Tri- 
gemina, it was on arches. No traces of it remain. 
2. Anio Vetus, commenced B. c. 273, by the censor 
M'. Curius Dentatus, and finished by M. Fulvius 
Flaccus. The water was derived from the river 
Anio, above Tibur, at a distance of 20 Roman 
miles from the city; but, on account of its windings 
its actual length was 43 miles, of which length 



ROMA. 




EOMA, 




Mausoleum of Hadrian restored. Page 656, col. 2. 




Tomb of Caecilia Metella. Page 656, col. 2. 

Tof.tcp -n. 6.-^3 



ROMA. 



ROMA. 



655 



less than a quarter of a mile only (viz. 221 passus) 
was above the ground. There are considerable 
remains of this aqueduct on the Aurelian wall, near 
the Porta Maggiore, and also in the neighbourhood 
of Tivoli. 3. Aqua Marcia, which brought the cold- 
est and most wholesome water to Rome, was built 
by the praetor Q. Marcius Rex, by command of 
the senate, in B. c. 144. It commenced at the side 
of the Via Valeria, 36 miles from Rome; its length 
was 61,7101 passus, of which only 7463 were 
above ground; namely, 528 on solid substructions, 
and 6935 on arches. It was high enough to supply 
water to the summit of the Capitoline mount. It 
was repaired by Agrippa in his aedileship, B.C. 33 
(see below No. 5), and the volume of its water 
was increased by Augustus, by means of the water 
of a spring 800 passus from it : the short aqueduct 
which conveyed this water was called Aqtm Au- 
gusta, but is never enumerated as a distinct aque- 
duct. Several arches of the Aqua Marcia are still 
standing. 4. Aqua Tepuh, which was built by 
the censors Cn. Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius 
Longinus in B. c. 127, began in a spot in the Lu- 
cullan or Tusculan land, 2 miles to the right of the 
10th milestone on the Via Latina. It was after- 
wards connected with, — 5. Aqua Julia. Among 
the splendid public works executed by Agrippa in 
his aedileship, B. c, 33, was the formation of a new 
aquedr.ct, and the restoration of all the old ones. 
From a source 2 miles to the right of the r2th 
milestone of the Via Latina, he constructed his 
aqueduct (the Aqua Julia) first to the Aqua Tepula, 
in which it was merged as far as the reservoir 
(piscina) on the Via Latina, 7 miles from Rome. 
From the reservoir, the water was carried along 2 
distinct channels, on the same substructions (which 
were probably the original substructions of the 
Aqua Tepula newly restored), the lower channel 
being called the Aqzia Tepula, and the upper the 
Aqua Julia ; and this double aqueduct again was 
united with the Aqua Marcia, over the water- 
course of which the other tv.'o were carried. The 
monument erected at the junction of these 3 aque- 
ducts is still to be seen close to the Porta S. Lorenzo. 
It bears an inscription referring to the repairs under 
Caracalla. The whole course of the Aqua Julia, 
from its source, amounted to 15,426 passus, partly 
on massive substructions and partly on arches. 6. 
Aqua Virgo, built by Agrippa to supply his baths. 
Its water was as highly esteemed for bathing as 
that of the Aqua Marcia was for drinking. It 
commenced by the 8th milestone on the Via Col- 
latina, and was conducted by a very circuitous 
route, chiefly under the groimd, to the M. Pincius, 
whence it was carried on arches to the Campus 
Martius : its length was 14,105 passus, of which 
12,865 were under ground. 7. Aqua Alsietina, 
sometimes called also Aqua Augusta, on the other 
side of the Tiber, was constructed by Augustus from 
the Lacus Alsietinus (Lago di Martignano) which 
lay 6500 passus to the right of the l4th milestone, on 
the Via Claudia, and was brought to the part of the 
Regie Transtiberina below the Janiculus. Its length 
was 22,172 passus, of which only 358 were on 
arches; and its water was so bad that it could only 
have been intended for the supply of Augustus's 
Naumachia, and for watering gardens. 8, 9. Aqua 
Claudia and Anio Novus (or Aqua Aniena Nova), 
the 2 most magnificent of all the aqueducts, both 
commenced \>j Caligula in A. D. 36, and finished 
ty Claudius in a. d. 50. The Aqua Claudia com- 



menced near the 38th milestone on the Via Subla- 
censis. Its water was reckoned the best after the 
Marcia. Its length was 46,406 passus (nearly 
461 miles) of which 9567 were on arches. The 
Anio Novus began at the 42nd milestone on the Via 
Sublacensis. Its length was 58,700 passus (nearly 
59 miles) and some of its arches were 109 feet high. 
In the neighbourhood of the city, these two aque- 
ducts were united, forming two channels on the same 
arches, the Claudia below and the Anio Novus 
above. An interesting monument connected with 
these aqueducts is the gate now called Porta Mag- 
giore, which was originally a magnificent double 
arch, by means of which the aqueduct was carried 
over the Via Labicana and the Via Praenestina. 
Over the double arch are three inscriptions, which 
record the names of Claudius as the builder, and of 
Vespasian and Titus as the restorers of the aque- 
duct. By the side of this arch the aqueduct passes 
along the wall of Aurelian for some distance, and 
then it is continued upon the Arcus Neroniani or 
Caelimontani, which were added by Nero to the 
original structure, and which terminated at the 
temple of Claudius, which Avas also built by Nero, 
on the Caelius, where the water was probably con- 
veyed to a castellum already built for the Aqua 
Julia, and for a branch of the Aqua Marcia, which 
had been at some previous time continued to the 
Caelius. 10. Aqua Crabra, which had its source 
near that of the Julia, and which was originally 
carried right through the Circus Maximus; but the 
water was so bad, that Agrippa would not bring it 
into the Julia, but abandoned it to the people of 
the Tusculan land. Hence it was called Aqua 
Damnata. At a later period, part of the water was 
brought into the Aqua Julia. Considerable traces 
of it remain. 11. Aqua Trajana, Avas brought by 
Trajan from the Lacus Sabatinus (now Bracciano) 
to supply the Janiculus and the Regio Transtibe- 
rina. 12. Aqua Aleoeandrina, constructed by Alex- 
ander Severus ; its source Avas in the lands of Tus- 
culum, about 14 miles from Rome, betAveen Gabii 
and the lake Regillus. Its small height shoAvs 
that it was intended for the baths of Severus, Avhich 
Avere in one of the valleys of Rome. 13. Aqua 
Septimiana, built by Septimius Severus, Avas perhaps 
only a branch of the Aqua Julia, formed by the em- 
peror to bring Avater to his baths. 14. Aqua Algeniia 
had its source at M. Algidus by the Via Tusculana. 
Its builder is unknown. Three of these aqueducts 
still supply the modern city of Rome with water. 
(1) The Acqua Vergine, the ancient Aq?M Virgo, 
which Avas restored by Pope Pius IV. and further 
embellished by Benedict XIV. and Clement XIII. 
The chief portion of its waters gush out through 
the beautiful Fontana di Trevi, but it also supplies 
12 other public fountains and the greater part of 
the lower city. (2) The Acqua Felice^ named after 
the conventual name of its restorer Sixtus V. (Fra 
Felice), is, probably, a part of the ancient Aqua 
Claudia, though some take it for the Aleoeandrina. 
It supplies 27 public fountains and the eastern part 
of the city. (3) The Acqua Paola, the ancient 
Alsietina, supplies the Transtevere and the Vatican, 
and feeds, among others, the splendid fountains 
before St. Peter's.— XV. Sewers. Of these the 
most celebrated Avas the Cloaca Maxima, con- 
structed by Tarquinius Prisons, Avhich was formed 
to carry off the Avaters brought down from the ad- 
jacent hills into the Velabrum and valley of the 
Forum. It empties itself into the Tiber nearly 



ers ROMA. 

opposite one extremity of the Tusula Tiberina. 
This cloaca was fonned by 3 arches, one within 
the other, the innermost of which is a semicircular 
vault about 14 feet in diameter. It is still extant 
in its original state, with not a stone displaced.— 
XVL PaSaces. 1 . Palatium, or the imperial pa- 
lace, was situated on the N.E. side of the Palatine 
between the arch of Titus and the sanctuary of 
Vesta ; its front was turned towards the Forum, 
and the approach to it was from the "Via Sacra 
close by the aixh of Titus. It was originally the 
house of the orator Hortensius, and was enlarged 
by Augustus, who made it the imperial residence, 
A part of the Palatium was called Domus Tiberiana, 
which was originally a separate house of Tiberius 
on the Palatine, and was afterwards united to the 
palace of Augustus. It was on the side of the hill 
turned towards the Circus and the Velabrum, and 
is sometimes called Posiica Pars Palatii. It was 
through this part of the palace that the emperor 
Otho fled into the Velabrum, We read of the 
Domus Tiberiana even after the imperial palace 
had been burnt to the ground in the reign of Nero; 
v.-hence it follows that when the palace was rebuilt 
a portion of it still continued to bear this name. 
The Palatium was considerably enlarged by Ca- 
ligula ; but it did not satisfy Nero's love of pomp 
and splendour, Nero built 2 magnificent palaces 
which must be distinguished from one another. 
The first, called the Domus Transitoria Xeronis, 
covered the whole of the Palatine, and extended as 
far as the Esquiline to the gardens of Maecenas. 
This palace was burnt to the groimd in the great 
fire of Rome, whereupon Nero commenced a new 
palace known by the name ol Domus Aurea, which 
embraced the whole of the Palatine, the Velia, the 
valley of the Colosseum and the heights of the 
Thermae of Titus, extended near the Esquiline 
gate, and T^-as cut through not only by the Via 
Sacra but also by other streets. The whole build- 
ing however was not finished at the time of Nero's 
death ; and Vespawan confined the imperial palace 
to the Palatmc, courerting the other parts of the 
Domus Aurea into public or private buildings. The 
palace itself was not finished till the time of Do- 
mitian, who adorned it with munerous works of 
art. The emperor Septimius Severus added on the 
S, side of the Palatine a building called the Sep- 
tizonium, which was probably intended as an 
Atrium. There were considerable remains of this 
Septizonium down to the end of the 16th century, 
when Sixtus V, caused them to be destroyed, and 
the pillars brought to the Vatican. Among the 
numerous private palaces at Rome the following 
were some of the most important. 2. Domiis 
Ciceronis, close to the Porticus Catuli, probably on 
the N.E. edge of the Palatine, was built by M. 
Livius Drusus, and purchased by Cicero of one of 
the Crassi. It was destroyed by Claudius after 
the banishment of Cicero, but was subsequently 
rebuilt at the public expense. 3. D. Pompeii, the 
palace of Pompey was situated in the Carinae near 
the temple of Tellus. It was afterwards the resi- 
dence of M. Antonius. 4. D. Crassi, the palace of 
L. Crassus the orator, on the Palatine. 5. D. 
Scauri also on the Palatine, celebrated for its mag- 
nificence, subsequently belonged to Clodius. 6. D. 
Laieranorum, on the' E. confines of the Caelius, 
was a palace originally belonging to the distin- 
guished family of the Plantii Laterani ; but after 
the execution of Plautius Lateranus under Nero, 



ROMA. 

it became imperial property. It was given bj 
Septimius Severus to his friend Lateranus, and 
was subsequently the palace of Constantine, who 
adorned it with great magnificence. The modern 
palace of the Lateran occupies its site. — XVII. 
Horti. The Horti were parks or gardens, which 
were laid out by wealthy Roman nobles, on the 
hills around the city, and were adorned with 
beautiful buildings and works of art. 1. Horti 
LucuUiani, on M. Pincius, which hill was hence 
called CoUis Hortorum. They were laid out by 
LucuUus the conqueror of Mithridates. In the 
reign of Claudius they belonged to Valerius Asia- 
ticus, who was put to death through the influence 
of Messalina, chiefly because she coveted the pos- 
session of these gardens. From this time they 
appear to have belonged to the imperial house. 2. 
H. SaUustiani, laid out b}' the historian Sallust, 
on his return from Numidia, in the valley between 
the Quirinal and the Pincius. 3. H. Caesaris^ 
bequeathed by Julius Caesar to the people, were 
situated on the right bank of the Tiber at the foot 
of the Janiculus, probably on the spot where 
Augustus afterwards constructed his great Nauma- 
chia, 4. H. Maecenatis, in the Campus Esquilinus, 
bequeathed by Maecenas to Augustus and fre- 
quently used by the imperial family. 5, H. Agrip- 
pinae, on the right bank of the Tiber, in which 
Caligula built his Circus. It was here that Nero 
burnt the Christians to serve as lights for his noc- 
turnal games, after previously -nTapping them up 
in pitch. 6. H. Dotnitiae, also on the right bank 
of the Tiber, in which Hadrian built his Mauso- 
leum. 7. H. Pallantiani, on the Esquiline, laid out 
by Pallas, the powerful freedman of Claudius, 8. 
H. Getae, on the other side of the Tiber, laid out 
by Septimius Severus, — XVIII. Sepulchral Mo- 
ntunents, 1, Mausoleum Auffusti, was situated 
in the Campus ]\Iartius and was built by Augustus 
as the burial-place of the imperial family. It was 
surrounded with an extensive garden or park, and 
was considered one of the most magnificent build- 
ings of his reign ; but there are only some insig- 
nificant ruins of it still extant. 2. Mausoleum 
Hadriani, was commenced by Hadrian in the 
gardens of Domitia on the right bank of the Tiber, 
and was connected with the city by the Pons 
Aelius ; it was finished and dedicated by Anto- 
ninus Pius, A. D. 140. Here were buried Hadrian, 
Antoninus Pius, L. Verus, Commodus, and pro- 
bably also Septimius Severus, Geta, and Caracalla. 
This building, stripped of its ornaments, still forms 
the fortress of modern Rome (the castle of S. Angelo). 
3. Mausoleum Helenae, a round building on the Es- 
quiline, of considerable extent, erected b)' Constan- 
tine as the sepulchre of his mother. Its remains, 
situated in the street on the right of the Porta Mag- 
giore, are now called Torre Piguattara. 4. Sepul- 
crum Scipionum, the burial-place of the Scipios, was 
situated, left of the Via Appia, near the Porta 
Capena. Most of the tombs of the distinguished 
Roman families during the Republican period lay 
on the Via Appia. The tomb of the Scipios was 
discovered in 1780, about 400 paces within the 
modern Porta S. Sebastiano. It contained many 
interesting monuments and inscriptions, which are 
now deposited in the Museo Pio-Clementino. 
5. Sepulcrum Caeciliae Meiellae, erected to the 
memory of Caecilia ^Metella, the daughter of Me- 
telhis Creticus, not far from the Circus Maxentii. 
This imposing monument is still extant and known 



EOMA. 




Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina. Page 649. Bridges, No. 7. 



ITofacep. 656. 



COINS OF PERSONS. SALONINA — SOE.AIIS. 




Salonina, wife of Gallienus, and mother of Saloninus. 
Page 668. 



Seleucus n. Callinicu?. Kins of Svria, b. c. 246 —'226. 
Page 693. 




Seleucus III. Ceraunu?, King of Syria, b. c. 22*5 — 223. 
Page 6M. 




Seleucus lY. Philopator, King of Svria, e. c. 187—175 
Page 694. 

Tofa-ie p. 637.: 



Seleucus XI. Epiphanes, b. c. 95 — 93. Page 691. 





Alexander Sevenis. Eoman Emperor, a. d. 222 — 235. 
Page 701. 




I Flavius Taleriui Severus. Roman Emperor, a. d. 306 — 307. 
Pasie 701. 




i.-ui. i: .n- Emperor, a. d. 431 — 4*35. Page 602. 





Septimius Severus, Eoman Emperor, k. d. 193 211. 

Page 702. 




Soemis or Soaemias, mother of Elagabalus, ob. a. d. 222. 
Page 715. 



ROMA. 



ROMULUS. 



657 



by the name of Capo di 13ove. 6. Sepulcrum Cestii, 
situated S. of the Aventine, near the Porta 
Ostiensis, being partly within and partly without 
the walls of Aurelian. This monument, which 
is still extant, is in the form of a pyramid, and 
was built in the time of Augustus for a certain 
C. Cestius. 7. Sepulcrum Septimii Severi, on the 
Via Appia, built by Septimius Severus in his life- 
time, after the model of his Septizonium. [See above, 
XVI., No, 1.].— XIX. Columns. Columns {Colum- 
nae) were frequently erected at Rome to commemo- 
rate persons and events. 1. Columna Maenia, near 
the end of the Forum, towards the Capitol, was 
erected to the honour of the consul C. Maenius, 
who conquered the Latins and took the town of 
Apftium, B. c. 338. 2. Col. Roslraia, also in the 
Forum, erected in honour of the consul C. Duilius, to 
commemorate his victory over the Carthaginian fleet, 

I B. c. 260. The name of Rostrata was given to it 
from its being adorned with the beaks of the con- 
quered ships. The inscription upon this column, 
written in obsolete Latin, is still preserved. 3. Col. 
Trajani in the Forum, in which the ashes of the 

' emperor Trajan were deposited. This column is 
Gtill extant, and is one of the most interesting 
monuments of ancient Rome. It is, including the 
pedestal, 117 feet high. The top was originally 
crowned with the statue of the emperor ; it is now 
surmounted by that of the apostle Peter. A spiral 
bas-relief is folded round the pillar, which repre- 
sents the emperor's wars against Decebalus and 
the Dacians, and is one of the most valuable 
authorities for archaeological inquiries. 4. Col. 

i; Antonini Pii, erected in honour of Antoninus Pius 
after his death, consisted of a column of red granite 
on a pediment of white marble, and was situated 
in the Campus Martins, near the temple dedicated 
to this emperor. It stood at an earlier period not 
far from the Curia Innocenziana on Monte Citorio, 
in the garden of the Casa della Missione. At 
present the basis only is extant, and is preserved 
in the garden of the Vatican. 5. Col. M. Aurelii 
Antonini, generally called the Antonine Column, 
erected to the memory of the emperor M. Aurelius. 
also in the Campus Martins, and still extant. It 
is an imitation of the Column of Trajan, and con- 
tains bas-reliefs representing the wars of M. Au- 
relius against the Marcomanni. — XX. Obelisks. 
The Obelisks (Obelisei) at Rome were mostly 
works of Egyptian art, which were transported 
from Egypt to Rome in the time of the emperors. 
Augustus caused 2 obelisks to be brought to 
Rome, one of which was erected in the Circus and 
another in the Campus Martins. The former was 
restored in 1589, and is called at present the 
Flarainian Obelisk. Its whole height is about 
116 feet, and without the base about 78 feet. The 
obelisk in the Campus Martins was set up by 
Augustus as a sun-dial. It stands at present on 
the Monte Citorio, where it was placed in 1792. 
Its whole height is about 110 feet, and without 
the base about 71 feet. Another obelisk was 
brought to Rome by Caligula, and placed on the 
Vatican in the Circus of Caligula. It stands at 
present in front of St. Peter's, where it was placed 
in 1586, and its whole height is about 132 feet, 
and without the base and modern ornaments at 
top about 83 feet. But the largest obelisk at 
Rome is that which was originally transported 
from Heliopolis to Alexandria by Constantine, 
and convftved to Rome by his son Constantius, 



who placed it in the Circus Maximus. Its present 
position is before the north portico of the Lateran 
church, where it was placed in 1588. Its whole 
height is about 149 feet, and without the base 
about 105 feet. There are 8 other obelisks at Rome, 
besides those mentioned above, but none of them 
are of historical importance. — G. Roads leading 
out of Rome. Of these the most important were : 

I. Via Latina, the most ancient of the south roads, 
which issued at first from the Porta Capena, and 
after the time of Aurelian from the Porta Latina. 
It joined the Via Appia at Beneventum. 2. Vm 
Appia, the Great South Road, also issued from the 
Porta Capena, and was the most celebrated of all 
the Roman roads. It was commenced by Appius 
Claudius, when censor, and was eventually carried 
to Brundusium. [Appia Via.] 3. Via Ostiensis, 
originally passed through the Porta Trigemina, 
afterwards through the Porta Ostiensis, and kept 
the left bank of the Tiber to Ostia. 4. Via Por- 
tuensis, issued from the same gate as the Via 
Ostiensis, and kept the right bank of the Tiber to 
Portus, the new harbour founded by Claudius, 
near Ostia. 5. Via Lahicana, issued from the 
Porta Esquilina, and passing Labicum fell into the 
Via Latina at the station ad Bivium, 30 miles 
from Rome. 6. Via Praenestina, originally the 
Via Gahina. issued at first from the Porta Es- 
quilina, and subsequently from the Porta Prae- 
nestina. Passing through Gabii and Praeneste, it 
joined the Via Latina just below Anagnia. 7. Via 
Tihurtina, issued originally from the Porta Esqui- 
lina, or from the Porta Viminalis, and subsequently 
from the Porta Tiburtina, and proceeded to Tibur, 
from which it was continued under the name of the 
Via Valeria, past Corfinium to Adria. 8. Via 
IVomentana, anciently Ficulnensis, ran from the 
Porta CoUina, subsequently from the Porta No- 
mentana, across the Anio to Nomentum, and a 
little beyond fell into the Via Salaria at Eretrum. 

9. Via Salaria, ran from the Porta Collina, sub- 
sequently from the Porta Salaria, past Fidenae to 
Reate and Asculum Picenum. At Castrum Tru- 
entinum it reached the coast, which it followed 
until it joined the Via Flaminia at Ancona. 

10. Via Flaminia, the Great North Road, com- 
menced in the censorship of C. Flaminius, issued 
from the Porta Flaminia, and proceeded past 
Ocriculum, Narnia and Pisaurum to Ariminum, 
from which town it was continued under the name 
of the Via Aemilia to Placentia and Aquileia. 

II. Via Aurelia, the Great Coast Road, issued 
originally from the Porta Janiculensis. It reached 
the coast at Alsium, and followed the shore of the 
Lower Sea along Etruria and Liguria by Genoa, 
as far as Forum Julii in Gaul. 

Romulea, an ancient town of the Hirpini in 
Samnium, on the road from Beneventum to Ta- 
rentum, destroyed at an early period by the 
Romans. 

R5mulus, the founder of the city of Rome, must 
not be regarded as a real personage. The stories 
about him are mythical, and represent the tradi- 
tional belief of the Roman people respecting their 
origin. Romulus, Avhich is only a lengthened form 
of Romus, is the Roman people represented as an 
individual. The common legend about Romulus 
ran as follows: — At Alba Longa there reigned a 
succession of kings, descended from lulus, the son 
of Aeneas. One of the last of these kings left two 
sons, Numitor and Araiilius. The latter, who was 

V V 



i 



658 ROMULUS, 
the younger, deprived Numitor of the kingdom, 
but allowed hira to live in the enjoyment of his 
private fortune. Fearful, however, lest the heirs 
of Numitor might not submit so quietly to his 
usurpation, he caused his only sou to be murdered, 
and made his daughter Silvia, or Rhea Silvia, 
one of the Vestal virgins. Silvia was violated by 
Mars, and in course of time gave birth to twins. 
Amulius doomed the guilty Vestal and her babes 
to be drowned in the river. In the Anio Silvia 
exchanged her earthly life for that of a goddess, 
and became the wife of the river god. The stream 
carried the cradle in which the children were lying 
into the Tiber, which had overflowed its banks 
far and wide. It was stranded at the foot of the 
Palatine, and overturned on the root of a wild fig- 
tree, which, under the name of the Ficus Rumi- 
nalis, was preserved and held sacred for many ages 
after. A she-wolf, which had come to drink of the 
stream, carried them into her den hard by, and 
suckled them ; where they were discovered by 
Faustulus, the king's shepherd, who took the 
children to his own house, and gave them to the 
care of his wife, Acca Larentia. They were called 
E-onmlus and Eemus, and were brought up v.-ith 
the other shepherds on the Palatine hill. As 
they grew up, they became distinguished by the 
beauty of their person and the bravery of their 
deeds, and fought boldly against wild beasts and 
robbers. A quarrel having arisen between these 
shepherds and the herdsmen of Numitor, who 
stalled their cattle on the neighbouring hill of the 
Aventine, Remus was taken by a stratagem, during 
the absence of his brother, and carried off to Numi- 
tor. This led to the discovery of the parentage 
both of Romulus and Remus, who now slew Amu- 
lius, and placed their grandfather Numitor on the 
throne. — Romulus and Remus loved their old abode, 
and therefore left Alba to found a city on the 
banks of the Tiber. A strife arose between the 
brothers where the city should be built, and after 
whose name it should be called. Romulus wished 
to build it on the Palatine, Remus on the Aven- 
tine. It was agreed that the question should be 
decided by augury ; and each took his station on 
the top of his chosen hill. The night passed away, 
and as the day was dawning Remus saw 6 vultures ; 
but at sim-rise, when these tidings were brought 
to Romulus, 12 vultures flew by him. Each claimed 
the augury in his own favour ; but the shepherds 
decided for Romulus, and Remus was obliged to 
yield. Romulus now proceeded to mark out the 
pomoerium of his city (see I}ict. of Anfiq. s. r.), 
and to raise the waL. Remus, who still resented 
the wTong he had suffered, leapt over the waU in 
scorn, whereupon he was slain by his brother. As 
soon as the city was built, Romulus found his 
people too few in numbers. He therefore set apart, 
on the Capitoline hill, an asylum, or a sanctuary, 
in which homicides and runaway slaves might take 
refuge. The city thus became filled with men, but 
they wanted women. Romulus, therefore, tried 
to form treaties with the neighbouring tribes, in 
order to obtain connubium, or the right of legal 
marriage their citizens ; but his offers were 
treated with disdain, and he accordingly resolved 
to obtain by force what he could not gain by en- 
treaty. In the fourth month after the foundation 
of the city, he proclaimed that games were to be 
celebrated in honour of the god Census, and invited 
Lis neighbours, the Latins and Sabines, to the 



ROMULUS. 

festival. Suspecting no treachery, they came in 
numbers, with their -wives and children. But the 
Roman youths rushed upon their guests, and car- 
ried off the ^•irgins. The parents of the virgins 
returned home and prepared for vengeance. The 
inhabitants of 3 of the Latin towns, Caenina, An- 
temnae, and Crustumerium, took up arms one 
after the other, and were successively defeated by 
the Romans. Romulus slew with his own hand 
Acron, king of Caenina, and dedicated his arms 
and armour, as spolia opima, to Jupiter At last 
the Sabine king, Titus Tatius, advanced with a 
powerful army against Rome. The fortress of the 
Saturnian, afterwards called the Capitoline hill, 
was surrendered to the Sabines, by the treachery 
of Tarpeia, the daughter of the commander of the 
fortress. [Tarpeia.] On the next day the 
Romans endeavoured to recover the hill ; and a 
long and desperate battle was fought in the valley 
between the Palatine and the Capitoline. At 
length, when both parties were exhausted ■with the 
struggle, the Sabine women rushed in between 
them, and prayed their husbands and fathers to be 
reconciled. Their prayer was heard ; the two 
people not only made peace, but agreed to form 
only one nation. The Romans continued to dwell 
on the Palatine under their king Romulus ; the 
Sabines built a new town on the Capitoline and 
Quirinal hiUs, where they lived under their king 
Titus Tatius. The two kings and their senates met 
for deliberation in the valley between the" Palatine 
and Capitoline hills, which was hence called comi- 
iium, or the place of meeting. But this union did 
not last long. Titus Tatius was slain at a festival at 
Lavinium by some Laurentines, to whom he had 
refused satisfaction for outrages which had been 
committed by his kinsmen. Henceforward Romu- 
lus ruled alone over both Romans and Sabines. 
After reigning 37 years, he was at length taken 
away from the world. One day as he was review- 
ing his people in the Campus Martius, near the 
Goat's Pool, the sun was suddenly eclipsed, dark- 
ness overspread the earth, and a dreadful storm 
dispersed the people. When daylight had re- 
turned Romulus had disappeared, for his father 
Mars had carried him up to heaven in a fiery 
chariot. {Quirinus JMartis equis Acheronta fugit, 
Hor. Carm. iii. 3.) Shortly afterwards he ap- 
peared in more than mortal beauty to Proculus 
Julius, and bade him tell the Romans to worship 
him as their guardian god under the name of 
Quirinus. Such was the glorified end of Romtilus 
in the genuine legend. But as it staggered the 
faith of a later age, a tale was invented to account 
for his mysterious disappearance. It was related 
that the senators, discontented with the tyrannical 
rule of their king, miurdered him during the 
gloom of a tempest, cut up his body, and car- 
ried home the mangled pieces under their robes. 
— As Romulus was regarded as the founder 
of Rome, its most ancient political institutions 
and the organisation of the people were ascribed 
to him. Thus he is said to have divided the 
people into 3 tribes, which bore the names Ram- 
nes, Titles, and Luceres. The Ramnes were sup- 
posed to have derived their name from Romu- 
lus, the Titles from Titus Tatius the Sabine king, 
and the Luceres firom Lucttmo, an Etruscan chief 
Avho had assisted Romulus in the war agauist the 
Sabines. Each tribe contained 10 curiae, which 
received their names firom the 30 Sabine womec 



I 



ROMULUS. 



RUESIUM. 



659 



who had brought about the peace between the 
Romans and their own people. Further, each curia 
contained 10 gentes,and each gens 100 men. Thus 
the people, according to the general belief, Avere 
divided originally into 3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 
300 gentes, which mustered 3000 men, who fought 
on foot, and were called a legion. Besides those 
there were 300 horsemen, called Celeres, the same 
body as the Equites of a later time. To assist him 
in the government of the people Romulus is said to 
have selected a number of the aged men in the 
state, who were called Patres, or Senatores. The 
council itself, which was called the senatus, ori- 
ginally consisted of 100 members ; but this number 
was increased to 200 when the Sabines were in- 
corporated in the state. In addition to the senate, 
there was another assembly, consisting of the mem- 
bers of the gentes, which bore the name of comitia 
curiata, because they voted in it according to their 
division into curiae. 
Romulus Augustulus. [Augustulus.J 
Romulus Silvius. [Silvius.] 
Roscianum (Rossano), a fortress on the E. coast 
of Bruttium between Thurii and Paternum. 

i Roscillus [Aegus.] 

Roscius. 1. L., a Roman ambassador sent to 
Fidenae in b. c. 438. He and his three colleagues 
were killed by the inhabitants of Fidenae, at the 

I instigation of Lar Tolumnius, king of the Veientes. 

; The statues of all four were erected in the Rostra 

i at Rome. — 2. Sex., of Ameria, a town in Urabria. 
The father of this Roscius had been murdered at 
the instigation of 2 of his relations and fellow- 
townsmen, T. Roscius Magnus and T. Roscius 
Capito, who coveted the wealth of their neighbour. 
These two Roscii struck a bargain with Chry- 
sogonus, the freedman and favourite of Sulla, to 

; divide the property of the murdered man between 

: them. But as the proceeding excited the utmost 
indignation at Ameria, and the magistrates of the 
town made an effort to obtain from Sulla the 

. restitution of the property to the son, the robbers 
accused young Roscius of the murder of his father, 
and hired witnesses to swear to the fact. Roscius 
was defended by Cicero (b. c. 80) in an oration 
which is still extant, and was acquitted. Cicero's 
speech was greatly admired at the time, and though 
at a later period he found fault with it himself, as 
bearing marks of youthful exaggeration, it displays 
abundant evidence of his great oratorical powers. 
— 3. Q., the most celebrated comic actor at Rome, 
was a native of Solonium, a small place in the 
neighbourhood of Lanuvium. His histrionic powers 
procured him the favour of many of the Roman 
nobles, and, among others, of the dictator Sulla, 
who presented him with a gold ring, the symbol 
of equestrian rank. Roscius enjoyed the friend- 
ship of Cicero, who constantly speaks of him in 
terms both of admiration and affection. Roscius 
was considered by the Romans to have reached 
such perfection in his own profession, that it be- 
came the fashion to call every one who became 
particularly distinguished in his own art, by the 
name of Roscius. In his younger years Cicero 
received instruction from Roscius ; and at a later 
time he and Roscius often used to try which of 
them could express a thought with the greatest 
effect, the orator by his eloquence, or the actor 
by his gestures. These exercises gave Roscius so 
high an opinion of his art, that he wrote a work 
in which he compared eloquence and acting. Like 



his celebrated contemporary, the tragic actor Ae- 
sopus, Roscius realized an immense fortune by his 
profession. He died in 62. — One of Cicero's ex- 
tant orations is entitled Pro Q. Roscio Comoedo. 
It was delivered before the judex C. Piso, proba- 
bly in 68, and relates to a claim for 50,000 ses- 
terces, which one C. Fannius Chaerea brought 
against Roscius. — 4. Fabatus. [Fabatus.] — 
5. Otho. [Otho.] 

Rotomagus. [Ratomagus.] 
Roxana ('Pwlai/??), daughter of Oxj'-artes the 
Bactrian, fell into the hands of Alexander on his 
capture of the hill-fort in Sogdiana, named " the 
rock," B.C. 327. Alexander was so captivated b}' 
her charms, that he married her. Soon after 
Alexander's death (323), she gave birth to a son 
(Alexander Aegus), who was admitted to share 
the nominal sovereignty with Arrhidaeus, under 
the regency of Perdiccas. Before the birth of the 
boy she had drawn Statira, or Barsine, to Babylon 
by a friendly letter, and there caused her to be 
murdered. Roxana afterwards crossed over to 
Europe with her son, and placed herself under the 
protection of Olympias. She shared the fortunes 
of Olympias, and threw herself into Pydna along 
with the latter, where they were besieged by Cas- 
sander. In 316 Pj^dna was taken by Cassander; 
Olympias was put to death ; and Roxana and hei 
son were placed in confinement in Arnphipolis. 
Here they were detained under the charge of 
Glaucias till 311, in which year, soon after the 
general peace then concluded, they were murdered 
in accordance with orders from Cassander. 
Roxolani. [Rhoxolani.] 
Rubi (Rubustinus: Euvo\ a town in Apulia 
on the road from Canusium to Brundusium. 

Rnbico, a small river in Italy, falling into the 
Adriatic a little N. of Ariminum, formed the 
boundary in the republican period between the 
province of Gallia Cisalpina and Itaha proper. It 
is celebrated in history on account of Caesar's pas- 
sage across it at the head of his army, by which 
act he declared war against the republic. A papal 
decree, issued in 1756, declared the modern Lztsa 
to be the ancient Rubico, but the Pisatello^ a little 
further N., has better claims to this honour. 

Rubra Saxa, called Rubrae breves (sc. petrae) 
by Martial, a small place in Etruria only a few 
miles from Rome, near the river Cremera, and on 
the Via Flaminia. It was near this spot that the 
great battle was fought, in which Maxentius was 
defeated by Constantino, A. d. 312. 
Rubresus Lacus. [Narbo.] 
Rubricatus. I. Or TJbus (xSeiioz^s), a consider- 
able river of Numidia in N. Africa, rising in the 
mountains S. E. of Cirta [Constantineh), flowing 
N. E., and falling into the Mediterranean E. of 
Hippo Regius {Bonah).—~2. (Llobregat), a small 
river of Hispania Tarraconensis, flowing into the 
sea W. of Barcino. 
Rubrum Mare. [Ervthraeum Mare.] 
Rndiae (Rudinus: Rotigliano ov Ruge)^ a to^ra. 
of the Peucetii in Apulia, on the road from Brun- 
dusium to Venusia, was originally a Greek colony, 
and afterwards a Roman municipium. Rudiae is 
celebrated as the birth-place of Ennius, 

Ruesium, a town of the Vellavi or Velauni, 
hence called simply Civitas Vellavorum, in Gallia 
Aquitanica (in the modern Velay), probably the 
modern St. Paulien or Patdhan on the frontiers of 
Auvergne. 

u u 2 



660 RUFINUS. 

Rufinus. 1. P. Cornelius Rufinus, v/as consul 
b. c. 290, with M'. Ciirius Dentatus, and in conjunc- 
tion with his colleague brought tlie Samnite war to a 
conclusion, and obtained a triumph in consequence. 
He was consul a second time in 277, and carried 
on the war against the Samnites and the Greeks 
in Southern Italy. The chief event of his second 
consulship was the capture of the important town 
of Croton. In 275, Rufinus was expelled from 
the senate by the censors C. Fabricius and Q. Ae- 
milius Papus, on account of his possessing 10 
pounds of silver plate. The dictator Sulla was 
descended from this Rufinus. His grandson was 
the first of the family who assumed the surname 
of Sulla. — 2. Licinius Rufinus, a jurist, who 
lived under Alexander Sevenis. There are in the 
Digest 17 excerpts from 12 books of Regulate by 
Rufinus. — 3. The chief minister of state under 
Theodosius the Great, was an able, but at the same 
time a treacherous and dangerous man. He insti- 
gated Theodosius to those cruel measures which 
brought ruin upon Antioch, a. d. 390. After the 
death of Theodosius in 395, Rufinus exercised 
paramount influence over the weak Arcadius ; but 
towards the end of the year a conspiracy was 
formed against him by Eutropius and Stilicho, who 
induced Gainas, the Gothic ally of Arcadius, to 
join in the plot. Rufinus was in consequence 
slain by the troops of Gainas. — 4. Surnamed Ty- 
rannius or Turranius, or Toranus, a celebrated 
ecclesiastical writer, was probably born about a. d. 
345 in Italy. He was at first an inmate of the 
monastery at Aquileia, and he afterwards resided 
many years at a monastery in Palestine, Avhere he 
became very intimate with St. Jerome. The two 
friends afterwards quarrelled ; and Jerome attacked 
Rufinus with the utmost vehemence on account of 
his supporting the tenets of Origen. After re- 
maining in the East for about 26 years, Rufinus 
returned to Italy in 397, where he published a j 
Latin translation of the Apology for Origen by j 
Pamphilus, and of the books of Origen De Prin- 
c-ipiis, together with an original tract De Adultera- 
tione Lihrorum Orige'iiis. In the preface to the De 
Principiis^ he quoted a panegyric, which Jerome 
had at an earlier period pronounced upon Origen. 
This led to a bitter correspondence between the 2 
former friends, which was crowned by the Apologia 
of the one adversus Hieronymum, and the Apologia 
of the other adversus Rufinum. Pvufinus died in 
Sicily in 410, to which island he had fled upon 
the invasion of Italy by Alaric. Several of his 
works are extant, but there is no complete edition 
of them. — 5. The author of a little poem in 22 
lines, Pasiphaes Fahula ex omnibus Metris Ho- 
ratianis, which, as the name imports, contains an 
example of each of the different metres employed 
by Horace. His date is quite uncertain, but he 
may be the same person with the following. — 6. 
A grammarian of Antioch, whose treatise De Me- 
tris Cumicis, or rather extracts from it, is contained 
in the Grammaticae Latinae Audores Aniiqui of 
Putschius, Hannov. 1605.— 7. The author of 38 
epigrams in the Greek Anthology. His date is 
uncertain ; but there can be no doubt that he was 
a Byzantine. His verses are of the same light 
amatory character as those of Agathias, Paulus, 
Macedonius, and others. 

Rufrae, a town in Campania,' frequently con- 
foimded with Rufrium. 

Rufrium, a town of the Hirpini in Samnium. 



RUPILIUS. 

Riifus, Curtius. [Curtius.] 

Rufus Ephesius, so called from the place of 
his birth, a celebrated Greek physician, lived in the 
reign of Trajan (a. d. 98 — 1 17), and wrote several 
medical works, some of which are still extant. 

Rufus, L. Caecilius, brother of P. Sulla by the 
same mother, but not by the same father. He was 
tribune of the plebs, B.C. 63, when he rendered 
warm support to Cicero, and in particular opposed 
the agragrian law of RuUus. In his praetorship, 
57, he joined most of the other magistrates in pro- 
posing the recall of Cicero from banishment. 

Rftfus, M. Caelius, a young Roman noble, dis- 
tinguished as an elegant writer and eloquent 
speaker, but equally conspicuous for his profligacy 
and extravagance. Notwithstanding his vices he 
lived on intimate terms with Cicero, who defended 
him in B.C. 56 in an oration still extant. The 
accusation was brought against him by Semproniua 
Atratinus, at the instigation of Clodia Quadran- 
taria, whom he had lately deserted. Clodia 
charged him with having borrowed money from 
her in order to murder Dion, the head of the 
embassy sent by Ptolemy Auletes to Rome ; and 
with having made an attempt to poison her. In 
52 Caelius was tribune of the plebs, and in 50 
aedile. During the years 51 and 50 he carried 
on an active correspondence with Cicero, who was 
then in Cilicia, and many of the letters which he 
wrote to Cicero at that time are preserved in the 
collection of Cicero's Letters. On the breaking 
out of the civil war in 49 he espoused Caesar's 
side, and Avas rewarded for his services by the 
praetorship, in 48. Being at this time overwhelmed 
with debt, he availed himself of Caesar's absence 
from Italy to bring forward a law for the abolition 
of debts. He was, however, resisted by the other 
magistrates and deprived of his office ; whereupon 
he went into the S. of Italy to join Milo, whom 
he had secretly sent for from Massilia. Milo was 
killed near Thurii before Caelius could join him 
[Milo]; and Caelius himself was put to death 
shortly afterwards at Thurii. 

Rufus, Sextus. [Sextus Rufus.] 

Rugii, an important people in Germany, origi-;; 
nally dwelt on the coast of the Baltic between thi 
Viadus (Oder) and the Vistula. After disappear- 
ing a long time from history, they are found at a 
later time in Attila's army ; and after Attila's 
death they founded a new kingdom on the N. 
bank of the Danube in Austria and Hungary, the 
name of which is still preserved in the modem 
Rugiland. They have left traces of their name in 
the country which they originally inhabited in the 
modern Rugen, Riigenwalde, Rega, Regenwalde. 

Rullus, P. Servllius, tribune of the plebs, B. c. 
63, proposed an agrarian law, which Cicero at- 
tacked in 3 orations which have come down to us. 
It was the most extensive agrarian law that had 
ever been brought forward ; but as it was im- 
possible to carrj' such a sweeping measure, it was 
withdrawn by Rullus himself. 

P. Rupilius, consul b.c. 132, prosecuted with 
the utmost vehemence all the adherents of Tib. Grac- 
chus, who had been slain in the preceding year. In 
his consulship he was sent into Sicily against the 
slaves, and brought the servile war to a close. He 
remained in the island as proconsul in the following 
year; and, with 10 commissioners appointed by 
the senate, he made various regulations for the 
government of the province, which were known by 



h 



RUSCINO. 

the name of Leges Rupiliae. Rupilius was con- 
demned in the tribunate of C.Gracchus, 123, on 
account of his illegal and cruel acts in the prose- 
cution of the friends of Tib. Gracchus. He was 
an intimate friend of Scipio Africanus the younger, 
who obtained the consulship for him, but who 
failed in gaining the same honour for his brother 
Lucius. He is said to have taken his brother's 
failure so much to heart as to have died in conse- 
quence. 

Euscino, a town of the Sordones or Sordi in 
the S.E. part of Gallia Narbonensis, at the foot of 
the Pyrenees, on the river Ruscino {Tet)^ and on 
the road from Spain to Narbo. A tower of the 
ancient town is still extant near Perpignau, called 
la Tour de RousiUon. 

Eusellae (Rusellanus : nr. Grosseto Ru.), one 
of the most ancient cities of Etruria, situated on 
an eminence E. of the lake Prelius and on the Via 
Aurelia. It is first mentioned in the time of 
Tarquinius Priscus. It was taken by the Romans 
in B. c. 294, when 2000 of its inhabitants were 
slain, and as many more made prisoners. It 
was subsequently a Roman colony, and con- 
tinued in existence till 1138, when its inhabi- 
tants were removed to Grosseto. The walls 
of Rusellae still remain, and are some of the most 
ancient in Italy. They are formed of enormous 
masses of travertine, piled up without regard to 
form, with small stones inserted in the interstices. 
The masses vary from 6 to 8 feet in length, and 
from 4 to 8 in height. The area enclosed by the 
walls forms an irregular quadrangle, between 
10,000 and 1 1,000 feet, or about 2 miles in circuit. 

Rusicada (S. E. of Storah Ru.), a sea- port and 
Roman colony in Numidia, used especially as the 
port of Cirta. 

Ruspinum, a town of Africa Propria (Byza- 
cium), 2 miles from the sea, between Leptis Parva 
and Hadruraetur. 

Russadir (Ras-ud-Dir, or C. di Tres Foveas : 
7?«s in ancient Punic, and Ras in Arabic, alike 
mean cape), a promontory of Mauretania Tingitana, 
in N, Africa, on the coast of the Metagonitae. 
S. E. of it was a city of the same name (prob. 
Melillah). 

Rusticus, Fabius, a Roman historian, and a 
contemporar}'- of Claudius and Nero. 

Rusticus, L. Junius Arulenus, more usually 
called Arulenus Rusticus, but sometimes Junius 
Rusticus. He was a friend and pupil of Paetus 
Thrasea, and an ardent admirer of the Stoic phi- 
losophy. He was put to death by Doraitian, be- 
cause he had written a panegyric upon Thrasea. 

Rusucurrum {Coleah, opposite Algier), a consi- 
derable sea-port in the E. part of MauretaniaCaesar- 
iensis, constituted a Roman colony under Claudius. 

Ruteni, a people in Gallia Aquitanica on the 
frontiers of Gallia Narbonensis in tlie modern 
Rovergne. Their chief town was Segodunum, 
afterwards Civitas Rutenorum {Rodez). The coun- 
try of the Ruteni contained silver mines, and 
produced excellent flax. 

Rutilius Lupus. [Lupus.] 

Rutilius Numatianus, Claudius, a Roman 
poet, and a native of Gaul, lived at the beginning 
of the 5th century of the Christian aera. He re- 
sided at Rome a considerable time, where he at- 
tained the dignity of praefectus urbi, about a. d. 
413 or 414. He afterwards returned to his native 
country, and has described his return to Gaul in an 



SABA. 661 

' elegiac poem, which bears the title of Itlnerariiim, 
or Be Reditu. Of this poem the first book, con- 
sisting of 644 lines, and a small portion of the 
second, have come down to us. It is superior 
both in poetical colouring and purity of language 
to most of the productions of the age ; and the 
passage in which he celebrates the praises of Rome 
is not unworthy of the pen of Claudian. Rutilius 
was a heathen, and attacks the Jews and monks 
with no small severity. The best edition is by 
A. W. Zumpt, Berlin, 1840. 

P. Rutilius Rufus, a Roman statesman and 
orator. He was military tribune under Scipio in 
the Numantine war, praetor B.C. Ill, consul 105, 
and legatus in 95 under Q. Mucius Scaevola, pro- 
consul of Asia. While acting in this capacity he 
displayed so much honesty and firmness in re- 
pressing the extortions of the publicani, that he 
became an object of fear and hatred to the whole 
body. Accordingly, on his return to Rome, he 
was impeached of malversation [de repetundis), 
found guilty, and compelled to withdraw into 
banishment, 92. He retired first to Mytilene, 
and from thence to Smyrna, where he fixed his 
abode, and passed the remainder of his days in 
tranquillity, having refused to return to Rome, 
although recalled by Sulla. Besides his orations, 
Rutilius wrote an autobiography, and a History of 
Rome in Greek, which contained an account of 
the Numantine war, but we know not what period 
it embraced. 

Rutilus, C. Marcius, was consul b. c. 357, 
when he took the town of Privernum. In 356 
he was appointed dictator, being the first time 
that a plebeian had attained this dignity. In his 
dictatorship he defeated the Etruscans with great 
slaughter. In 352 he was consul a second time 
and in 351, he was the first plebeian censor. He 
was consul for the third time in 344, for the fourth, 
time in 342. The son of this Rutilus took the. 
surname of Censorinus, which in the next genera- 
tion entirely supplanted that of Rutilus, and be- 
came the name of the family. [Censorinus.] 

Rutuba (Rot/a), a river on the coast of Liguria,, 
which flows into the sea near Albium Inte- 
melium. 

Rutuli, an ancient people in Ital}-, inhabiting 
a narrow slip of country on the coast of Latiuai a 
little to the S. of the" Tiber. Their chief town- 
was Ardea, which was the residence of Turnus.. 
They were subdued at an early period by the. 
Romans, and disappear from history. 

Riltupae or Rutiipiae (Richborough\ a port 
town of the Cantii in the S. E. of Britain, from 
which persons frequently crossed over to the har- 
bour of Gessoriacum in Gaul, Excellent oysters 
were obtained in the neighbourhood of this place 
{Rutupino edita fundo ostrea, Juv. iv. 141). There 
are still several Roman remains at Richborough, 

S. 

Saba (2a§o). 1. (0. T. Sheba), the capital of 
the Sabaei in Arabia Felix, lay on a high woody 
mountain, and was pointed out, by an Arabian 
tradition, as the residence of the " Queen of Sheba," 
who went to Jerusalem to hear the wisdom of 
Solomon. Its exact site is doubtful. — 2. There 
was another city of the same name in the interior 
[ of Arabia Felix, where a place Sabea is still found, 

u u 3 



662 SABACON. 

about in the centre of El-Yemen.~—Z. A seaport 
town of Aethiopia, on the Red Sea, S. of Ptolemais 
Theron. A town called 2a§aT and '^.a^Sara is 
mentioned by Ptolemy, who places it on the Sinus 
Adulitanus ; and about in the same position Strabo 
mentions a town Sabae (Sa^ai) as distinct from 
Saba. The sites of these places (if they are really 
different) are sought by geographers at Nowarat, 
or Port Mornington, in the S. part of the coast of 
Nubia, and JMassawah on Foul Bay^ on the N.E. 
coast of Abyssinia. 

Sabacon (SaSaKoDj/), a king of Ethiopia, who 
invaded Egypt in the reign of the blind king Any- 
sis, whom he dethroned and drove into the marshes. 
The Ethiopian conqueror then reigned over Egypt 
for 50 years, but at length quitted the country in 
consequence of a dream, whereupon Anysis regained 
his kingdom. This is the account which Herodotus 
received from the priests (ii. 137 — 140); but it 
appears from Manetho, that there were 3 Ethiopian 
kings who reigned over Egypt, named Sabaco?i, 
Sebichus, and Taracus, whose collective reigns 
amount to 40 or 50 years, and who form the 25th 
dynasty of that writer. The account of Manetho 
is to be preferred to that of Herodotus. It appears 
that this Ethiopian dynasty reigned over Egypt in 
the latter half of the 8th century before the Chris- 
tian era. They are mentioned in the Jewish re- 
cords. The -5*0, king of Egypt, with whom Hosea, 
king of Israel, made an alliance about B.C. 722 
(2 Kings, xvii. 4), was probably the same as 
Sebichus ; and the Tirliakah, king of the Ethi- 
opians, who was preparing to make war against 
Sennacherib, in 711 (Is. xxxvii. 9), is the same 
as Taracus. 

Sabaei or Sabae {^aSatoi, 2a§at : 0. T. She- 
baiim), one of the chief peoples of Arabia, dwelt 
in the S.W. comer of the peninsula, in the most 
beautiful part of Arabia Felix, the N. and centre 
of the province of El-Yemen. So, at least, Ptolemy 
places them ; but the earlier geographers give them 
a wider extent, quite to the S. of El-Yemen. The 
fact seems to be that they are the chief repre- 
sentatives of a race which, at an early period, was 
widely spread on both sides of the S. part of the 
Red Sea, where Arabia and Aethiopia all but 
joined at the narrow strait oi Bab-el-Mandeb ; and 
hence, probably, the confusion often made between 
the Sheba and Seba of Scripture, or between the 
Shebai'im of Arabia and the Sebai'im of Aethiopia. 
Another proof of the wide extent of this race is 
furnished by the mention, in the book of .Job, of 
Sabeans as far N., probably, as Arabia Deserta 
(Job, i. 15). The Sabeans of El-Yevien were 
celebrated for their wealth and luxury. Their 
country produced all the most precious spices and 
perfumes of Arabia, and they carried on an ex- 
tensive trade with the East. Their capital was at 
Saba, where we are told that their king was kept 
a close prisoner in his palace. The monarchy was 
not hereditary, but descended according to an 
order of succession arranged among the chief 
families of the country. 

Sabate, a town of Etruria on the road from 
Cosa to Rome, and on the N.W. corner of a lake, 
which was named after it Lacus Sabatinus {Lago 
di Bracciayio). 

Sabatini, a people in Campania, who derived 
their name from the river Sabatus (Sabbato), a 
tributary of the Calor, which flows into the Vul- 
turnus. 



SABINA. 

SabaziTls (2a§d^ios), a Phrygian divinity, com- 
monly described as a son of Rhea or Cybele. In 
later times he was identified with the mystic 
Dionysus, who hence is sometimes called Dionysus 
Sabazius. For the same reason Sabazius is called 
a son of Zeus by Persephone, and is said to have 
been reared by a nymph Nyssa; though others, 
by philosophical speculations, were led to consider 
him a son of Cabirus, Dionysus, or Cronos. He 
was torn by the Titans into 7 pieces. The con- 
nection of Sabazius with the Phrygian mother of 
the gods accounts for the fact that he was identified, 
to a certain extent, with Zeus himself, who is 
mentioned as Zeus Sabazius, both Zeus and Dio- 
nysus having been brought up by Cybele or RK?a. 
His worship and festivals (Sabazia) were also 
introduced into Greece ; but, at least in the time 
of Demosthenes, it was not thought reputable to 
take part in them, for they were celebrated at 
night by both sexes in a licentious manner. Ser- 
pents, which were sacred to him, acted a prominent 
part at the Sabazia and in the processions : the 
god himself was represented with horns, because, 
it is said, he was the first that yoked oxen to the 
plough for agriculture. ., 
S&belli. [Sabini.] A 
Sabellius, an heresiarch of the 3rd century,^' 
of whose personal history hardly anything is 
known. He broached his heresies in the Libyan 
Pentapolis, of which he appears to have been a 
native. His characteristic dogma related to the 
Divine Nature, in which he conceived that there 
was only one hypostasis or person, identifying with 
each other the Father, the Son, and the Spirit, 
" so that in one hypostasis there are three desig- 
nations'''' {(lis elvai eV /jlio. virocrracrei Tpe7s ovo- 
fxacr'ias). 

Sabina, the wife of the emperor Hadrian, was 
the grand-niece of Trajan, being the daughter of 
i\Iatidia, who was the daughter of Marciana, the 
sister of Trajan. Sabina was married to Hadrian 
about A. D. 100 through the influence of Plotina, 
the wife of Trajan. The marriage did not prove 
a happy one. Sabina at length put an end to her 
life, and there was a report that she had even 
been poisoned by her husband. She was certainly 
alive in 136, and probably did not die till 138, a 
few months before Hadrian. She was enrolled 
among the gods after her decease. 

Sabina, Poppaea, awoman of surpassing beauty, 
but licentious morals, was the daughter of T. 01- 
lius, but assumed the name of her maternal grand- 
father Poppaeus Sabinus, who had been consul in 
A. D. 9. She was first married to Rufius Cris- 
pinus, and afterwards to Otho, who was one of the 
boon companions of Nero. The latter soon became 
enamoured of her ; and in order to get Otho out of 
the way Nero sent him to govern the province of 
Lusitania (58). Poppaea now became the ac- 
knowledged mistress of Nero, over whom she 
exercised absolute sway. Anxious to become the 
wife of the emperor, she persuaded Nero first to 
murder his mother Agrippina (59), who was op- 
posed to such a disgraceful union, and next to 
divorce and shortly afterwards put to death his 
innocent and virtuous wife Octavia (62). Im- 
mediately after the divorce of Octavia, Poppaea 
became the wife of Nero. In the following year 
she gave birth to a daughter at Antium ; but the 
infant died at the age of 4 months. In 65 Pop- 
paea was pregnant again, but was killed by a kids 



SABINI. 

from her brutal husband in a fit of passion. She 
was enrolled among the gods, and a magnificent 
temple was dedicated to her by Nero. Poppaea 
was inordinately fond of luxury and pomp, and 
took immense pains to preserve the beauty of her 
person. Thus we are told that all her mules were 
shod with gold, and that 500 asses were daily 
milked to supply her with a bath. 

Sabini, one of the most ancient and powerful of 
the peoples of central Italy. The ancients usually 
derived their name from Sabinus, a son of the na- 
tive god Sancus. The diflferent tribes of the Sabine 
race were widely spread over the whole of central 
Italy, and were connected with the Opicans, IJm- 
brians, and those other peoples whose languages 
were akin to the Greek. The earliest traces of 
the Sabines are found in the neighbourhood of 
Amiternum at the foot of the main chain of the 
Apennines, whence they spread as far S. as the 
confines of Lucania and Apulia. The Sabines 
may be divided into 3 great classes, called by the 
names of Sabini, Sabelli, and Samnites respectivel}^ 
The Sabini proper inhabited the country between 
the Nar, the Anio and the Tiber, between Latium, 
Etruria, Umbria and Picenum. This district was 
mountainous, and better adapted for pasturage 
than corn. The chief towns were Amiternum, 
Reate, Nursia, Cutiliae, Cures, Eretrum and No- 
mentum. The Sabelli were the smaller tribes 
who issued from the Sabines. To these belong 
the Vestini, Marsi, Marrucini, Peligni, Frentani 
and Hirpini. In addition to these peoples, to 
whom the name of Sabellians is usually restricted, 
the Picentes in Picenum, the Picentini, who were 
transplanted from the latter country to Campania, 
and the Lucani, were also of Sabine origin. The 
Samnites, who were by far the most powerful of 
all the Sabine peoples, are treated of in a separate 
article. [Samnium.] There were certain na- 
tional characteristics which distinguished the whole 
Sabine race. They were a people of simple and 
virtuous habits, faithful to their word, and imbued 
with deep religious feeling. Hence we find fre- 
quent mention of omens and prodigies in their 
country. They were a migratory race, and adopted 
a peculiar system of emigration. In times of 
great danger and distress they vowed a Ver Sa- 
crum, or Sacred Spring ; and all the children born 
in that spring were regarded as sacred to the god, 
and were compelled, at the end of 20 years, to 
leave their native country and seek a new home 
in foreign lands. The form of government among 
the Sabines was republican, but in war they chose 
a sovereign ruler {Embratur), whom the Romans 
sometimes call dictator, and sometimes king. With 
the exception of the Sabines in Lucania and Cam- 
pania, they never attained any high degree of 
civilisation or mental culture ; but they were 
always distinguished by their love of freedom, 
which they maintained with the greatest bravery. 
Of this the Samnites were the most striking ex- 
ample. After the decline of the Etruscan power, 
the Sabines were for a long time the greatest 
people in Italy ; and if they had remained united, 
they might have conquered the whole peninsula. 
The Sabines formed one of the elements of Avhich 
the Roman people was composed. In the time of 
Romulus, a portion of the Sabines, after the rape 
of their wives and daughters, became incorporated 
with the Romans, and the 2 peoples were united 
into one under the general name of Quirites. The 



SABINUS. 663 
f remaindef of the Sabini proper, who were less 
warlike than the Samnites and Sabellians, were 
finally subdued by M\ Curius Dentatus,B. c. 290^ 
and received the Roman franchise, si7ie suffragio. 
The Sabellian tribes concluded a treaty with the 
Romans at an early period, namely, the Vestini in 
328, and the Marsi, Marrucini, Peligni and Fren- 
tani in 304 ; but these peoples again took up arms 
against the Romans in the Social War (90 — ^88), 
which ended in the complete subjugation of all 
the Sabellian tribes. The history of the wars 
between the Samnites and the Romans is given 
under Samnium. 

Sabinus. 1. A contemporary poet and a friend 
of Ovid. Ovid informs us that Sabinus had 
written answers to six of the Epistolae Heroidum 
of Ovid. Three answers enumerated by Ovid in 
this passage are printed in many editions of the 
poet's Avorks as the genuine poems of Sabinus; 
but they were Avritten by a modern scholar. An ■ 
gelus Sabinus, about the year 1467. — 2. M. 
Caelius, a Roman jurist, who succeeded Cassius 
Longinus, was consul A. d. 69. He was not the 
Sabinus from whom the Sabiniani took their name. 
He wrote a work, Ad Edidum Aedilium Curulium. 
There are no extracts from Caelius in the Digest, 
but he is often cited, sometimes as Caelius Sabinus, 
sometimes by the name of Sabinus only. — 3. 
C. Calvisms, one of Caesar's legates in the civil 
war, B. c. 48. In 45 he received the province of 
Africa from Caesar. Having been elected praetor 
in 44, he obtained from Antony the province of 
Africa again ; but he did not return to Africa, as 
the senate, after the departure of Antony for Mu- 
tina, conferred it upon Q. Cornificius. Sabinus 
was consul 39, and in the following year com- 
manded the fleet of Octavian in the war with Sex. 
Pompey. He was superseded by Agrippa in the 
command of the fleet. He is mentioned too at a 
later time as one of the friends of Octavian. —4. 
T. Flavins, father of the emperor Vespasian, was 
one of the farmers of the taxes in Asia, and after- 
wards carried on business as a money-lender among 
the Helvetians. —■ 5. Flavins, elder son of the 
preceding, and brother of the emperor Vespasian. 
He governed Moesia for 7 years during the reign 
of Claudius, and held the important office of prae- 
fectus urbis during the last 11 years of Nero's 
reign. He was removed from this office by Galba, 
but was replaced in it on the accession of Otho, 
who was anxious to conciliate Vespasian, who 
commanded the Roman legions in the East. He 
continued to retain the dignity under Vitellius ; 
but when Vespasian was proclaimed general by the 
legions in the East, and Antonius Primus and his 
other generals in the West, after the defeat of the 
troops of Vitellius, were marching upon Rome, 
. Vitellius, despairing of success, offered to surrender 
the empire, and to place the supreme power in the 
hands of Sabinus till the arrival of his brother. 
The German soldiers of Vitellius, however, refused 
submission to this arrangement, and resolved to 
support their sovereign by arms. Sabinus there- 
upon took refuge in the Capitol, Avhere he was 
attacked by the Vitellian troops. In the assault 
the Capitol was burnt to the ground, Sabinus was 
taken prisoner, and put to death by the soldiers in 
the presence of Vitellius, who endeavoured in vain 
to save his life. Sabinus Avas a man of distin- 
guished reputation, and of unspotted character. 
He left 2 sons, Flavins Sabinus, and Flaviua 

u u 4 



664 



SABIS. 



SAGARIS. 



Clemens. [Clemens.] — 6. Flavius, sdn of the 

preceding, married Julia, the daughter of his cou- 
sin Titus. He was consul 82, with his cousin 
Domitian, but was afterwards slain by the latter. 
— 7. Massurius, a hearer of Ateius Capito, 
was a distinguished jurist in the time of Tibe- 
rius. This is the Sabinus from whom the 
school of the Sabiniani took its name. [Capito.] 
There is no direct excerpt from Sabinus in the 
Digest, but he is often cited by other jurists, who 
commented upon his Libri tres Juris Civilis. It 
is conjectured that Persius means to refer to this 
work {Sat. V. 90), when he says, " Excepto si 
quid Masuri rubrica vetavit." Massurius also 
wrote numerous other works, which are cited by 
name in the Digest. — 8. Nymphidius. [Nym- 
PHiDius.]— 9. Poppaeus, consul .\. d. 9, was 
appointed in the lifetime of Augustus governor of 
Moesia, and was not only confirmed in this govern- 
ment by Tiberius, but received from the latter the 
provinces of Achaia and Macedonia in addition. 
He continued to hold these provinces till his death 
in 35, having ruled over Moesia for 24 years. 
He was the maternal grandfather of Poppaea Sa- 
bina, the mistress, and afterwards the wife of 
Nero. — 10. Q. Titurius, one of Caesar's legates 
in Gaul, who perished along with L. Aurunculeius 
Cotta in the attack made upon them by Ambiorix 
in B. c. 54. 

Sabis (Sambre) 1. A broad and deep river in 
Gallia Belgica and in the territory of the Ambiani, 
falling into the river Mosa, — 2. A small river on 
the coast of Carmania. — 3. See Sapis. 

Sabrata. [Abrotonum.] 

Sabrina, also called Sabriana (Seveni), a river 
in the W. of Britain, which flowed by Venta Si- 
lurum into the ocean. 

Sacadas (2a/<o5as), of Argos, an eminent Greek 
musician, was one of the masters who established at 
Sparta the second great school of music, of which 
Thaletas was the founder, as Terpander had been of 
the first. He gained the prize for flute-playing at the 
first of the musical contests which the Araphictyons 
established in connection with the Pythian games 
'b. c. 590), and also at the next two festivals in 
succession (586, 582). Sacadas was a composer of 
elegies, as well as a musician. 

Sacae (2a/{ai), one of the most numerous and 
most powerful of the Scythian nomad tribes, had 
their abodes E. and N. E. of the Massagetae, as 
far as Serica, in the steppes of Central Asia, which 
are now peopled by the Kirghiz Khasaks, in whose 
name that of their ancestors is traced by some 
geographers. They were very warlike, and ex- 
celled especially as cavalry, and as archers both 
on horse and foot. Their women shared in their 
military spirit ; and, if we are to believe Aelian, 
they had the custom of settling before marriage, 
whether the man or woman should rule the house, 
by the result of a combat between them. In early 
times they extended their predatory incursions as 
far W. as Armenia and Cappadocia. They were 
made tributary to the Persian empire, to the army 
of which they furnished a large force of cavalry 
and archers, who were among the best troops that 
the kings of Persia had. It should be remembered 
that the name of the Sacae is often used loosely 
for other Scythian tribes, and sometimes for the 
Scythians in general, 

Sacasene {2,aKaa-nu-fi), a fertile district of Ar- 
menia Major, on the river Cyrus and the confines 



of Albania, so called from its having been at one 
period conquered by the Sacae. A district of 
Drangiana bore the same name for a similar reason. 

Sacer Mons. 1. An isolated hill in the country 
of the Sabines, on the right bank of the Anio and 
W. of the Via Nomentana, 3 miles from Rome, to 
which the plebeians repaired in their celebrated 
secessions. The hill is not called by any special 
name at the present day, but there is upon its 
summit the Torre di Specchio. — ■ 2. A mountain in 
Hispania Tarraconensis near the Minius, probably 
the modern Puerto de Rabanon near Ponferrada. 

Sacili, with the surname Martialium, a town of 
the Turduli in Hispania Baetica. 

Sacra Via. [Roma, p. 650, a.] 

Sacraria, a town in Umbria on the road be- 
tween Treba and Spoletium, supposed by some to 
be identical with Clitumni Fanum on the river 
Clitumnus. 

Sacriportus, a small place in Latium, of un- 
certain site, memorable for the victory of Sulla 
over the yoimger Marius, b. c. 82. 

Sacrum Flumen. 1. (Z7ras), a river on the 
W. coast of Sardinia.— 2. {Tavignano)., a river on 
the E. coast of Corsica, which flowed into the sea 
at Aleria. 

Sacrum Promontorium. 1. {C. St. Vincent)^ 
on the W. coast of Spain, said by Strabo to be 
the most W.-ly point in the whole earth. — 2. 
(C. Corso)^ the N. E. point of Corsica.— 3. {C.Iria, 
also Makri^ Efla Kavi or Jedi Burun, i. e. the 7 
points), the extreme point of the mountain Cragus 
in Lycia, between Xanthus and Telmissus. — 

4. {C. Klielidoni), another promontory in Lycia, 
near the confines of Pamphylia, and opposite the 
Chelidonian islands, whence it is also called. 
Prom Chelidonium. 

Sadyattes (SaSuoTTTjs), king of Lydia, suc- 
ceeded his father Ardys, and reigned B. c. 629 — 
617. He carried on war with the Milesians for 6 
years, and at his death bequeathed the war to his 
son and successor, Alyattes. [Alyattes.] 

Saepinum or Sepinum (Sepinas, -atis : Sepino% 
a municipium in Samnium on the road from Allifae 
to Beneventura. 

Saetabis. 1. {Alcoyf), a river on the S. coast 
of Hispania Tarraconensis, W. of the Sucro. — 
2. Or Setabis (Setabitanus : Ja^im), an important 
town of the Contestani in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
and a Roman m^unicipium, was situated on a hill 

5. of the Sucro, and was celebrated for its manu- 
facture of linen. 

Sagalassus {:S,ayaKa(T(r6s : AUahsim^ Ru.), a 
large fortified city of Pisidia, near the Phrygian 
border, a day's journey S. E. of Apamea Cibotus. 
It lay, as its large ruins still show, in the form of 
an amphitheatre on the side of a hill, and had a 
citadel on a rock 30 feet high. Its inhabitants 
were reckoned the bravest of the Pisidians, and 
seem, from the word AaKeSai/jLau on their coins, to 
have claimed a Spartan origin. Among the ruins 
of the city are the remains of a very fine temple, 
of an amphitheatre, and of 52 other large 
buildings. 

Saganus (liayavos), a small river on the coast 
of Carmania. 

Sagapa, one of the mouths of the Indus. 

Sagaris, (Ovid, Ex Pont. iv. 10, 47) a river of 
Sarmatia Europaea, falling into a bay in the N.W. 
of the Euxine, which was called after it Sagaricus 
Sinus, and which also received the river Axiaces. 



SAGARTII. 



SAL AM IS. 



66b 



The bay appears to be that on which Odessa now 
stands, and the rivers the Bol-Kou'ialnik and the 
Mal-Konialnik. 

Sagartii {'^ayapTioi), according to Herodotus, 
a nomad people of Persis. Afterwards, they are 
found, on the authority of Ptolemy, in Media and 
the passes of M. Zagros. 

Sagra, a small river in Magna Graecia on the 
S. E. coast of Bruttium, falling into the sea 
between Caulonia and Locri, on the banks of 
which a memorable victory was gained by 10,000 
Locrians over 120,000 Crotoniates. This victory 
appeared so extraordinary, that it gave rise to the 
proverbial expression, ''It is truer than what 
happened on the Sagra," when a person wished to 
make any strong asseveration. 

Saguntia. 1. {Xigonza or Gigonza, N. W. of 
Medina Sidonia), a town in the W. part of His- 
pania Baetica, S. of the Baetis.— 2. A town of the 
Arevaci in Hispania Tarraconensis, S. W. of Bil- 
bilis near the Mons Solarius. 

Sitguntum, more rarely Saguntus (Saguntinus: 
Murviedro\ a town of the Edetani or Sedetani in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, S. of the Iberus on the 
river Palantias, about 3 miles from the coast. It 
is said to have been founded by Greeks from 
Zacynthus, with whom Rutulians from Ardea 
were intermingled, whence it is sometimes called 
Ausonia Saguntus. It was situated on an eminence 
in the midut of a fertile country, and became a 
pl,ice of great commercial importance. Although 
S. of the Iberus it had formed an alliance with 
the Romans ; and its siege by Hannibal, B. c. 219, 
was the immediate cause of the 2nd Punic war. 
The inhabitants defended their city with the 
utmost bravery against Hannibal, who did not 
succeed in taking the place till after a siege of 
nearly 8 months. The greater part of the city 
was destroyed by Hannibal ; but it was rebuilt by 
the Romans 8 years afterwards, and made a colony. 
Saguntum was celebrated for its manufacture of 
beautiful drinking-cups ; and the figs of the sur- 
rounding country were much valued in antiquity. 
The ruins of the ancient town, consisting of a 
theatre and a temple of Bacchus, are extant at 
Murviedro, which is a corruption of Muri veteres. 

Sais (Xa'is, Satrrjs : Sa-el-HaJjar, Ru.), a great 
city of Egypt, in the Delta, on the E. side of the 
Canopic branch of the Nile. It was the ancient 
capital of Lower Egypt, and contained the palace 
and burial place of the Pharaohs, as well as the 
tomb of Osiris. It was the chief seat of the wor- 
ship of the Eg\'ptian goddess Neith (also called 
Sais), who had here a splendid temple in the 
middle of an artificial lake, where a great feast of 
lamps was celebrated yearly by worshippers from 
all parts of Egypt. The city gave its name to the 
Saites Nomos. 

Saitis (Sorris), a surname of Athena, under 
which she had a sanctuary on Mount Pontinus, 
near Lerna in Argolis. The name was traced by 
the Greeks to the Egyptians, among whom Athena 
was said to have been called Sais. 

Sala. 1. (Saale), a river of Germany, between 
which and the Rhine Drusus died. It was a tri- 
butary of the Albis. — 2. (Saale), also a river of 
Germany and a tributary of the Moenus, which 
formed the boundary between the Hermunduri 
and Chatti, with great salt springs in its neigh- 
bourhood, for the possession of which these 2 
peoples frequently contended. — 8. (Swrnr^'a^), a 



river in the N. part of the W. coast of Mauretania 
Tingitana, rises in the Atlas Minor, and falls into 
the Atlantic, N. of a town of the same name. — 

4. A river in the same province, S. of the one last 
mentioned, rises in the Atlas Major and falls into 
the Atlantic near the S. boundary of Mauretania. 
—5. A Samothracian town in Thrace on the coast 
of the Aegaean sea, W. of the mouth of the 
Hebrus. — 6. A town in Pannonia on the road from 
Sabaria to Poetovio. — 7. {SJiella), a town in the 
N. part of the W. coast of Mauretania Tingitana, 

5. of the mouth of the river of the same name 
mentioned under No. 3. This town was the 
furthest place in Mauretania towards the S. pos- 
sessed by the Romans ; for although the province 
nominally extended further S., the Romans never 
fully subdued the nomad tribes beyond this point. 

Salacia, the female divinity of the sea among 
the Romans, and the wife of Neptune. The name 
is evidently connected with sal (oAs), and accord- 
ingly denotes the wide, open sea. 

Salacia {Alcacer do Sal), a municipium of 
Lusitania in the territory of the Turdetani, N. W. 
of Pax Julia and S. W. of Ebora, with the sur- 
name of Urbs Imperatoria, celebrated for its 
woollen manufactures. 

Salamis (2aAa/ity : 5aAo/uiVios). 1. (Koluri), 
an island off the W. coast of Attica, from which 
it is separated by a narrow channel. It forms 
the S. boundary of the bay of Eleusis. Its form 
is that of an irregular semicircle towards the 
W., with many small indentations along the coast. 
Its greatest length, from N. to S., is about 10 
miles, and its width, in its broadest part, from E. 
to W., is a little more. In ancient times it is said 
to have been called Fiit/ussa, from the pines which 
grew in it, and also Sciras and Cychrea, from the 
names of 2 native heroes. It is further said to 
have been called Salamis from a daughter of 
Asopus of this name. It was colonised at an early 
time by the Aeacidae of Aegina. Telamon, the 
son of Aeacus, fled thither after the murder of his 
half-brother Phocus, and became sovereign of the 
island. His son Ajax accompanied the Greeks 
with 12 Salaminian ships to thu Trojan war. 
Salamis continued an independent state till about 
the beginning of the 40th Olympiad (b. c. 620), 
when a dispute arose for its possession between 
the Megarians and the Athenians After a long 
struggle it first fell into the hands of the Me- 
garians, but was finally taken possession of by the 
Athenians through a stratagem of Solon [Solon], 
and became one of the Attic demi. It continued 
to belong to Athens till the time of Cassander, Avhen 
its inhabitants voluntarily surrendered it to the 
Macedonians, 318. The Athenians recovered the 
island in 232 through means of Aratus, and 
punished the Salaminians for their desertion to 
the Macedonians with great severity. The old 
city of Salamis stood on the S. side of the island 
opposite Aegina ; but this was afterwards deserted, 
and a new city of the same name built on the E. 
coast opposite Attica, on a small bay now called 
Amhelakia. Even this new city was in ruins in 
the time of Pausanians. At the extremity of the 
S. promontory forming this bay was the small 
island of Psyttalia {Lypsokutali), which is about 
a mile long, and from 200 to 300 yards wide. — . 
Salamis is chiefly memorable on account of the 
great battle fought off its coast, in which the 
Persian fleet of Xerxes was defeated by the 



6*66 



SAL API A. 



SALINATOR. 



Greeks, 480. The battle took place in the strait 
between the E. part of the island and the coast of 
Attica, and the Greek fleet was drawn up in the 
amall bay in front of the town of Salamis. The 
battle was witnessed by Xerxes from the Attic 
coast, who had erected for himself a lofty throne 
on one of the projecting declivities of Mt. Ae- 
galeos, «— 2. A city of Cyprus, situated in the 
middle of the E. coast a little N. of the river 
Pediaeus. It is said to have been founded by 
Teucer, the son of Telamon, who gave it the name 
of his native island, from which he had been 
banished by his father. Salamis possessed an 
excellent harbour, and was by far the most im- 
portant city in the whole of Cyprus. It became 
subject to the Persians with the rest of the island ; 
but it recovered its independence about 385 under 
Evagoras, who extended his sovereignty over the 
greater part of the island. [Cyprus.] tFnder the 
Romans the whole of the E. part of the island 
formed part of the territory of Salamis. In the 
time of Trajan a great part of the town was 
destroyed in an insurrection of the Jews ; and 
under Constantine it suffered still more from an 
earthquake, which buried a large portion of the 
inhabitants beneath its ruins. It was, however, 
rebuilt by Constantine, who gave it the name of 
Constantia, and made it the capital of the island. 
There are still a few ruins of this town. 

Salapia (Salapinus : Salpi)^ an ancient town of 
Apulia in the district Daunia, was situated S. of 
Sipontum on a lake named after it. According to 
the common tradition it was founded by Diomedes, 
though others ascribe its foundation to the Khodian 
Elpias. It is not mentioned till the 2nd Punic 
war, when it revolted to Hannibal after the battle 
of Cannae, but it subsequently surrendered to the 
Romans, and delivered to the latter the Cartha- 
ginian garrison stationed in the town. The original 
site of Salapia was at some distance from the 
coast ; but in consequence of the unhealthy exha- 
lations arising from the lake above mentioned, the 
inhabitants removed to a new town on the sea 
coast, which was built by M. Hostilius with the 
approbation of the Roman senate, about B. c, 200. 
This new town served as the harbour of Arpi. 
The ruins of the ancient town still exist at some 
distarxce from the coast at the village of Salpi. 

Salapina Palus {Lago di Salpi), a lake of 
Apulia, between the mouths of the Cerbalus and 
Aufidus, which derived its name from the town of 
Salapia situated upon it, and which M. Hostilius 
connected with the Adriatic by means of a canal. 

S§.laria, a town of the Bastetani in Hispania 
Tarraconensis and a Roman colony. 

Salaria Via. [Roma, p. 657, b.] 

Salassi, a brave and warlike people in Gallia 
Transpadana, in tlie valley of the Duria at the foot 
of the Grasan and Pennine Alps, whom some re- 
garded as a branch of the Salyes or Salluvii in 
Gaul. They defended the passes of the Alps in 
their territory with such obstinacy and courage 
that it was long before the Romans were able to 
subdue them. At length in the reign of Augustus 
the country was permanently occupied by Terentius 
Varro with a powerful Roman force ; the greater 
part of the Salassi were destroyed in battle, and 
the rest amounting to 36,000 were sold as slaves. 
Their chief town was Augusta Praetoria (Aosia), 
which Augustus colonised with soldiers of the 
Praetorian cohorts. 



Saldae (SaASai : Boujayah, Ru. or Ddlyz, Ru?) 
a large seaport \ovm of N. Africa, originally the 
E. frontier town of the kingdom of Mauretania, 
afterwards in Mauretania Caesariensis, and, after 
the division of that province, the W. frontier town 
of Mauretania Sitifensis. Augustus made it a 
colon}-. 

Salduba, I. {Rio Verde), a river in the territory 
of the Turduli in Hispania Baetica, at the mouth 
of which was situated a town of the same name. — 
2. See Caesaraugusta. 

Sale (2aA7?), a town on the coast of Thrace. 

Salebro, a place in Etruria between Cosa and 
Populonium. 

Saleius Bassus. [Bassus.] 

Salem, i.e. peace, the original name of Jeru- 
salem (Gen. xiv. 18). 

Salentini or Sallentini, a people in the S. part 
of Calabria, who dwelt around the promontory 
lapygium, which is hence called Salentiiitini or 
Salentina. They laid claim to a Greek origin 
and pretended to have come from Crete into Italy 
under the guidance of Idomeneus. They were 
subdued by the Romans at the conclusion of their 
war with Pyrrhus, and having revolted in the 2nd 
Punic war Avere again easily reduced to subjection. 

Salemum (Salemitanus : Salerno), an ancient 
town in Campania at the innermost comer of the 
Sinus Paestanus, was situated on a height not 
far from the coast, and possessed a harbour at the 
foot of 4he hill. It was made a Roman colony at 
the same time as Puteoli, B. c. 194; but it attained 
its greatest prosperity in the middle ages, after it 
had been fortified by the Lombards. 

Salganeus or Salganea {'^aXyavevs : 20A70- 
vios, '2a\yaveLTT]s), a small town of Boeotia on 
the Euripus, and on the road from Anthedon to 
Chalcis. 

Salinae, salt-works, the name of several towns 
which possessed salt- works in their vicinity. 1. A 
town in Britain on the E. coast, in the S. part of 
Lincolnshire. — 2. A town of the Suetrii in the 
Maritime Alps in Gallia Naibonensis, E. of Reii. 
— 3. {Torre delle Saliiie), a place on the coast of 
Apulia near Salapia. — 4. A place in Picenum on 
the river Sannus {Salino).^b. {Tarda), a place in 
Dacia. — 6. Salinae Herculeae, near Herculanum 
in Campania. 

Salinator, Livms. 1. M., consul b.c. 219, with 
L. Aemilius Paulus, carried on war along with his 
colleague against the lUyrians. On their return to 
Rome, both consuls were brought to trial on the 
charge of having imfairly divided the booty among 
the soldiers. Paulus escaped with difficulty, but 
Livius was condemned. The sentence seems to 
have been an unjust one, and Livius took his dis- 
grace so much to heart that he left the city and re- 
tired to his estate in the country, where he lived 
some years without taking any part in public 
affairs. In 210 the consuls compelled him to return 
to the city, and in 207 he was elected consul a 2nd 
time with C. Claudius Nero. He shared with his 
colleague in the glory of defeating Hasdrubal on 
the Metaiu:us. [For details, see Nero, Claudius, 
No. 2,] Next year (206) Livius was stationed in 
Etruria, as proconsul, with an army, and his impe- 
rium was prolonged for 2 successive years. In 
204 he was censor with his former colleague in the 
consulship, Claudius Nero. The two censors had 
long been enemies ; and their long-smothered re- 
sentment now burst forth, and occasioned no small 



SALLENTINI. 



SALLUSTIUS. 



667 



scandal in the state. Livius, in his censorship, 
imposed a tax upon salt, in consequence of which 
he received the surname of Saiinator, which seems 
to have been given him in derision, but which be- 
came, notwithstanding, hereditary in his family. 
— 2. C, curule aedile 203, and praetor 202, in 
which year he obtained Bruttii as his province. In 
193 he fought under the consul against the Boil, 
and in the same year was an unsuccessful candi- 
date for the consulship. — 3. C, praetor 191, when 
he had the command of the fleet in the war against 
Antiochus. He was consul 188, and obtained 
Gaul as his province. 

Sallentini. [Salentini.] 

Sallustius or Salustius {%aXov(nios), 1. 
Praefectus Praetorio under the emperor Julian, 
with whom he was on terms of friendship. Sal- 
lustius was a heathen, but dissuaded the emperor 
from persecuting the Christians. He was probably 
the author of a treatise Ilepl Sf^Ssv kol K6afxov, 
which is still extant. If so, he was attached to 
the doctrines of the Neo-Platonists. The best 
edition of this treatise is by Orellius, Turici, 1821. 
— - 2. A Cynic philosopher of some note, who 
lived in the latter part of the 5th century after 
Christ. He was a native of Emesa in Syria, and 
studied successively at Emesa, Alexandria, and 
Athens. Sallustius was suspected of holding some- 
what impious opinions regarding the gods. He 
seems at least to have been unsparing in his attacks 
upon the fanatical theology of the Neo-Platonists. 

C. Sallustius Crispus, or Salustius. 1. The 
Roman historian, belonged to a plebeian family, 
and was bom B. c. 86, at Amiternum, in the coun- 
try of the Sabines. He was quaestor about 59, 
and tribune of the plebs in 52, the year in which 
Clodius was killed by Milo, In his tribunate he 
joined the popular party, and took an active part 
in opposing Milo. It is said that he had been 
caught by Milo in the act of adultery with his wife 
Fausta, the daughter of the dictator Sulla ; that he 
had received a sound whipping from the husband ; 
and that he had been only let olF on payment of a 
sum of money. In 50 Sallust was expelled from the 
senate by the censors, probably because he belonged 
to Caesar's party, though some give as the ground 
of his ejection from the senate the act of adultery 
already mentioned. In the civil war he followed 
Caesar's fortune. In 47 we find him praetor elect, 
by obtaining which dignity he was restored to his 
rank. He nearly lost his life in a mutiny of some 
of Caesar's troops in Campania, who had been led 
thither to pass over into Africa. He accompanied 
Caesar in his African war, 46, and was left by 
Caesar as the governor of Numidia, in which capa- 
city he is charged with having oppressed the people, 
and enriched himself by unjust means. He was 
accused of maladministration before Caesar, but it 
does not appear that he was brought to trial. The 
charge is somewhat confirmed by the fact of his 
becoming immensely rich, as was shown by the 
expensive gardens which he formed {horti Sal- 
lustiani) on the Quirinalis. He retired into pri- 
vacy after he returned from Africa, and he passed 
quietly through the troublesome period after 
Caesax's death. He died 34, about 4 years before 
the battle of Actium, The story of his marrying 
Cicero's wife, Terentia, ought to be rejected. It was 
probably not till after his return from Africa that 
Sallust wrote his historical works. 1. The Cati- 
linay or Bellum Catilinarium, is a history of the 



conspiracy of Catiline during the consulship of 
Cicero, 63. The introduction to this history, which 
some critics admire, is only a feeble and rhetorical 
attempt to act the philosopher and moralist. The 
history, however, is valuable. Sallust was a living 
spectator of the events which he describes, and 
considering that he was not a friend of Cicero, and 
was a partisan of Caesar, he wrote with fairness. 
The speeches which he has inserted in his history 
are certainly his own composition ; but we may 
assume that Caesar's speech was extant, and that 
he gave the substance of it. 2. The Jugurtha^ or 
Bdlum Jugurthinum, contains the history of the 
war of the Romans against Jugurtha, king of 
Numidia, which began 111, and continued until 
106. It is likely enough that Sallust was led to 
write this work from having resided in Africa, and 
that he collected some materials there. He cites 
the Punic Books of King Hiempsal, as authority 
for his general geographical description {Jug. c. 
17). The Jugurthine war has a philosophical in- 
troduction of the same stamp as that to the Cati- 
Ima. As a history of the campaign, the Jugurthine 
war is of no value : there is a total neglect of geo- 
graphical precision, and apparently not a very strict 
regard to chronology. 3. Sallustius also wrote 
Historiarum Lihri Quinqm, which were dedicated 
to Lucullus, a son of L. Licinius LucuUus. The 
work is supposed to have comprised the period from 
the consulship of M. Aemilius Lepidus and Q. 
Lutatius Catulus, 78, the year of Sulla's death, to 
the consulship of L. Vulcatius Tullus and M. Ae- 
milius Lepidus, 66, the year in which Cicero was 
praetor. This work is lost, with the exception of 
fragments which have been collected and arranged. 
The fragments contain, among other things, several 
orations and letters. Some fragments belonging to 
the 3rd book, and relating to the war with Spar- 
tacus, have been published fi-om a Vatican MS. in 
the present century. 4. Duae Epistolae de Re 
Puhlica ordinanda, which appear to be addressed 
to Caesar at the time when he was engaged in his 
Spanish campaign (49) against Petreius and Afra- 
nius, and are attributed to Sallust; but the opi- 
nions of critics on their authenticity are divided, 
5. The Declamatio in Sallustmm^ which is attri- 
buted to Cicero, is generally admitted to be the 
work of some rhetorician, the matter of which is 
the well-known hostility between the orator and 
the historian. The same opinion is generally 
maintained as to the Declamatio in Cicerofiem, 
which is attributed to Sallust. — Some of the Roman 
writers considered that Sallustius imitated the 
style of Thucydides. His language is generally 
concise and perspicuous : perhaps his love of bre- 
vity may have caused the ambiguity that is some- 
times found in his sentences. He also affected 
archaic words. Though he has considerable merit 
as a writer, his art is always apparent. He had no 
pretensions to great research or precision about 
facts. His reflections have often something of the 
same artificial and constrained character as his ex- 
pressions. One may judge that his object was to 
obtain distinction as a writer ; that style was what 
he thought of more than matter. He has, how- 
ever, probably the merit of being the first Roman 
who wrote what is usually called history. He 
was not above his contemporaries as a politician ; 
he was a party man, and there are no indications 
of any comprehensive views, which had a whole 
nation for their object. He hated the nobility, as 



668 



SALMANTICA. 



SALUS. 



a man may do, without loving the people. The 
best editions of Sallust are by Corte. Lips. 1724 ; 
Gerlach. Basil. 1823— ISSL 3 vols.; and bv 
Kritz, Lips. 1828—1834, 2 vols. — 2. The grand- 
son of the sister of the historian, was adopted 
by the latter, and inherited his great wealth. In 
imitation of Maecenas, he preferred remaining a 
Roman eques. On the fall of Maecenas he became 
the principal adviser of Augustus. He died in 
A. D. 20, at an advanced age. One of Horace's 
odes (Carm. ii. 2) is addressed to him. 

Salmantica (Salamartca), called Helmantica 
or Hermandiea by Livy, and Elmantica by Po- 
lybius, an important town of the Vettones in Lu- 
sitania, S. of the Durius, on the road from Emerita 
to Caesaraugusta. It was taken by Hannibal. A 
bridge was built here by Trajan, of which the 
piers still exist. 

Salmona or Salmonia ('XaX/idotni, SaAuwv/a), a 
town of Elis in the district Pisatis, on the river 
Enipeiis, said to have been founded by Salmoneus. 

Salmoneus (l^aXnuvevs), son of Aeolus and 
Enarete, and brother of Sisyphus. He was first 
married to Alcidice and afterwards to Sidero ; by 
the former of whom he became the father of Tyro, 
He originally lived in Thessaly, but emigrated to 
Elis, where he built the town of Salmone. His 
presumption and arrogance were so great that he 
deemed himself equal to Zeus, and ordered sacri- 
fices to be olFered to himself; nay, he even imi- 
tated the thunder and lightning of Zeus, but the 
father of the gods killed him with his thunder- 
bolt, destroyed his town, and punished him in the 
lower world. His daughter T}to bears the patro- 
nymic Sahno7iis. 

Salmonium or Salmona (SaXjucivtov, SoAucoj/tj : 
C. Salmon), the most E.-ly promontory of Crete. 

Salmydessus, called Halmydessus also in later 
times (XaXuvS-ncraSs, 'AXij.vBr]aa6s : ^oAuuStjo-- 
aios : Midja or Midjeh), a town of Thrace on 
the coast of the Euxine, S. of the promontory 
Thynias. The name was originally applied to the 
whole coast from this promontory to the entrance 
of the Bosporus ; and it was from this coast that 
the Black Sea obtained the name of Pontus^a^Kos 
("A^euos), or inhospitable. The coast itself was 
rendered dangerous by shallows and marshes, and 
the inhabitants were accustomed to plunder any 
shipii that were driven upon them. 

Salo (Xalon), a tributary of the Iberus in Celti- 
beria, which flowed by Bilbilis, the birth-place of 
Martial, who accordingly frequently mentions it in 
his poems. 

Salona, Salonae, or Salon (Salona), an im- 
portant town of Illyria and the capital of Dalmatia, 
was situated on a small bay of the sea. It was 
strongly fortified by the Romans after their con- 
quest of the country, and was at a later time made 
a Roman colony, and the seat of a conventus juri- 
dicus. The emperor Diocletian was bom at the 
small village Dioclea near Salona ; and after his 
abdication he retired to the neighbourhood of this 
town, and here spent the rest of his days. The 
remains of his magnificent palace are still to be 
seen at the village of Spalatro, the ancient Spola- 
tum, 3 miles S. of Salona. 

Salonina. Cornelia, wife of Gallienus and mo- 
ther of Saloninus. She witnessed with her own 
eves the death of her husband before Milan, in 
A. D. 268. 

Saloninus, P. Licinius Comelins Valerianus, 



son of Gallienus and Salonina, grandson of the em- 
I peror Valerian. When his father and grandfather 
I assumed the title of Augustas, in a. d. 253, the 
\ youth received the designation of Caesar. Some 

years afterwards he was left in Gaul, and was put 
j to death upon the capture of Colonia Agrippina 

by Postumus in 259, being about 17 years old, 
Salordnnun {Soleure or Solothum), a town of 

the Helvetii on the road from Aventicum to 

Vindonissa, was fortified by the Romans about 

A. D. 350, 

Salstun Flumen, a tributary of the Baetis in 
Hispania Baetica, between Attegua and Attubis. 
Salvianns, an accomplished ecclesiastical WTiter 
j of the 5th century, was bom in the vicinity of Treves, 
! and passed the latter part of his life as a presbyter 
of the church at Marseilles, The following works 
of Salvianus are still extant : — 1. Adversus Ava- 
riiiam Libri IV. ad Ecdesiam Catholicam, pub- 
lished under the name of Timotheus, about a. d, 
440. 2. De Providentia s, de Gubernatione Dei et 
de Jtisto Dei praesentique Judieio Libri, written du- 
I ring the inroads by the barbarians upon the Roman 
] empire, 451 — 455, 3, Epistolae /AT., addressed 
i to friends upon familiar topics. The best edition 
' of these works is by Baluzius, 8vo. Paris, 1684, 
I Q,. Salvidienns Eufos, one of the early friends 
I of Octavian (Augustus), whose fleet he commanded 
i in the war against Sex. Pompeius, B. c. 42. In 
I the Perusinian war (41 — 40) he took an active part 
I as one of Octavian's legates against L. Antonius and 
Fulvia, He was afterwards sent into Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, from whence he wrote to M, Antonius, 
off'ering to induce the troops in his province to de- 
sert from Octavian, But Antonius, who had just 
been reconciled to Octavian, betrayed the treachery 
of Salvidienus. The latter was forthwith simi- 
moned to Rome on some pretext, and on his arrival 
was accused by Augustus in the senate, and con- 
demned to death, 40. 

SalviTis, the leader of the revolted slaves in 
Sicily, better known by the name of Tryphon, 
which he assumed. [Tryphon.] 
Salvius Julianns. [Juliaxus.] 
Salvius Otho. [Otho.] 

Sains, a Roman goddess, the personification of 
health, prosperity, and the public welfare. In the 
first of these three senses she answers closely to 
the Greek Hygieia, and was accordingly represented 
in works of art -with the same attributes as the 
Greek goddess. In the second sense she repre- 
sents prosperity in general. In the third sense she 
is the goddess of the public welfare {Salus publica 
or Romana). In this capacity a temple had been 
vowed to her in the year B. c. 307, by the censor 
' C, Junius Bubulcus on the Quirinal hill, which 
was afterwards decorated with paintings by C. 
Fabius Pictor. She was worshipped publicly on 
the 30th of April, in conjunction with Pax, Con- 
cordia, and Janus. It had been customary at 
Rome every year, about the time when the consuls 
entered upon their office, for the augurs and other 
high-priests to observe the signs for the purpose of 
ascertaining the fortunes of the republic during the 
coming year ; this observation of the signs was 
called augurium Saliitis. In the time of Cicero, 
this ceremony had become neglected ; but Augustus 
restored it. and the custom afterwards remained as 
long as paganism was the religion of the state. 
Salus was represented, like Fortuna, with a rudder, 
a globe at her feet, and sometimes in a sitting 



SALUSTITJS. 

posture, pouring from a patera a libation upon an 
altar, around which a serpent is winding. 

Salustius. [Sallustius.] 

Salyes or Salluvii, the most powerful and most 
celebrated of all the Ligurian tribes, inhabited the 
S. coast of Gaul from the Rhone to the Maritime 
Alps. They were troublesome neighbours to Mas- 
silia, with which city they frequently carried on 
war. They were subdued by the Romans in B. c. 
123 after a long and obstinate struggle, and the 
colony of Aquae Sextiae was founded in their ter- 
ritory by the consul Sextius. 

Samachonitis Lacus [Semechonitjs LacusJ. 

Samara. [Samarobriva.] 

Samaria (Sa^uapeia : Heb. Shoraron, Chaldee, 
Shamrain : Sa^uapeus, So^wapeiTTjs, Samarltes, pi. 
2a/iapeiS, SajUapeirai, Samaritae), aft. Sebaste 
(5€§ao-T^ : Sebustieh, Ru.), one of the chief cities 
of Palestine, was built by Omri, king of Israel 
(about B.C. 922), on a hill in the midst of a plain 
surrounded by mountains, just in the centre of 
Palestine W. of the Jordan. Its name was de- 
rived from Shemer, the owner of the hill which 
Omri purchased for its site. It was the capital of 
the kingdom of Israel, and the chief seat of the 
idolatrous worship to which the ten tribes were 
addicted, imtil it was taken by Shalmaneser, king 
of Assyria (about b. c. 720), who carried away 
the inhabitants of the city and of the surrounding 
country, which is also known in history as Samaria 
(see below), and replaced them by heathen peoples 
from the E. provinces of his empire. These settlers, 
being troubled with the wild beasts who had be- 
come numerous in the depopulated country, sought 
to propitiate the god of the land ; and Esar- 
haddon sent them a priest of the tribe of Levi, 
who resided at Bethel, and taught them the wor- 
ship of the true God. The result was a strange 
mixture of religions and of races. When the Jews 
returned from the Babylonish captivity, those of 
the Samaritans who worshipped Jehovah offered 
to assist them in rebuilding the temple at Jeru- 
salem ; but their aid was refused, and hence arose 
the lasting hatred between the Jews and the Sa- 
maritans. This religious animosity reached its 
height when, in the reign of Darius Nothus, the 
son of the Jewish high-priest, having married the 
daughter of Sanballat, governor of Samaria, went 
over to the Samaritans and became high-priest of 
a temple which his father-in-law built for him, on 
Mt. Gerizim, near Sichem. The erection of this 
temple had also the effect of diminishing the im- 
portance of the city of Samaria. Under the Syrian 
kings and the Maccabean princes, we find the 
name of Samaria used distinctly as that of a 
province, which consisted of the district between 
Galilee on the N. and Judaea on the S. In the 
persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, the Sama- 
ritans escaped by conforming to the king's edicts 
and dedicating the temple on Mt. Gerizim to Zeus 
Hellenius, B.C. 167. As the power of the As- 
monean princes increased, they attacked the 
Samaritans; and, about B.C. 129, John Hyrcanus 
took and destroyed the temple on Mt. Gerizim 
and the city of Samaria. The latter seems to 
have been soon rebuilt. Pompey assigned the 
district to the province of Syria, and Gabinius 
fortified the city anew. Augustus gave the district 
to Herod, who greatly renovated the city of Sa- 
maria, which he called Sebaste in honour of his 
patron. Still, as the Samaritans continued to 



SAMNIUM. 669 

worship on Mt. Gerizim, even after their temple 
had been destroyed, the neighbouring city of 
Sichem was regarded as their capital, and, as it 
grew, Samaria declined ; and, by the 4th century 
of our era it had become a place of no importance. 
Its beautiful site is now occupied by a poor village, 
which bears the Greek name of the city, slightly 
altered, viz. Sebustieh. — As a district of Palestine, 
Samaria extended from Ginaea (Jemn) on the N. 
to Bethhoron, N. W. of Gibeon on the S. , or, along 
the coast, from a little S. of Caesarea on the N. to 
a little N. of Joppa on the S. It was intersected 
by the Mountains of Ephraim, running N. and S. 
through its middle, and by their lateral branches, 
which divide the country into beautiful and fertile 
valleys. For its political history after the time of 
Herod the Great, see Palaestina. — A remnant 
of the ancient Samaritans have remained in the 
country to the present day, especially at Nahlous 
(the ancient Sichem), and have preserved their 
ancient version of the Five Books of Moses, the 
only part of the Old Testament which they 
acknowledge. This version is known as the 
Samaritan Pentateuch, and is of vast importance 
in biblical criticism. 

Samarobriva, afterwards Ambiani {Amiens)^ 
the chief town of the Ambiani in Gallia Belgica, 
on the river Samara ; whence its name, which sig- 
nifies Samara-Bridge. ' 

Sambana (Sa^ilom), a city of Assyria, 2 days' 
journey N. of Sittace. In its neighbourhood 
dwelt the people called Sambatae (2a/x§aTat). 

Sambastae {^afx^aarai), a people of India 
intra Gangem, on the Lower Indus, near the island 
Pattalene. The fort of Sevistan or Sehoim in the 
same neighbourhood has been thought to preserve 
their name, and is by some identified with the 
Brahman city taken by Alexander. 

Same or Samos (Sauij, Sdjuos), the ancient 
name of Cephallenia. [Cepallenia.] It was 
also the name of one of the 4 towns of Cephallenia. 
The town Same or Samos was situated on the E. 
coast, opposite Ithaca, and was taken and destroyed 
by the Romans, B. c. 189. 

Samia (2a^ia : Khaiaffa\ a town of Elis in the 
district Triphylia, S. of Olympia, between Lepreura 
and the Alpheus, with a citadel called Samicum 
{^aixiKov), the same as the Homeric Arene. 

Samintbus {'Xaixivdos : nr. Phiklia), a place in 
Argolis, on the W. edge of the Argive plain, oppo- 
site Mycenae. 

Samnium (Samnites, more rarely Samnitae, pi.), 
a country in the centre of Italj-, bounded on the 
N. by the Marsi, Peligni, and Marrucini, on the 
W. by Latiura and Campania, on the S. by Lucania, 
and on the E. by the Frentani and Apulia. The 
Samnites were an offshoot of the Sabines, Avho 
emigrated from their country between the Nar, the 
Tiber, and the Anio, before the foundation of 
Rome, and settled in the country afterwards called 
Samnium. [Sabini.] This country was at the 
time of their migration inhabited by Opicans, 
whom the Samnites conquered, and whose language 
they adopted ; for we find at a later time that the 
Samnites spoke Opican or Oscan. Samnium is a 
country marked by striking physical features. The 
greater part of it is occupied by a huge mass of moun- 
tains, called at the present day the Matese, which 
stands out from the central line of the Apennines. 
The circumference of the Matese is between 70 
and 80 miles, and its greatest height is 6000 feet. 



670 



SAMOS. 



SAMOS. 



The 2 most important tribes of the Samnites were 
the Caudini and Pentri, of whom the former occu- 
pied the S. side, and the latter the N. side of the 
Matese. To tlie Caudini belonged the towns of 
Allifae, Telesia, and Beneventum ; to the Pentri, 
those of Aesernia, Bovianum, and Sepinum. Be- 
sides these 2 chief tribes, we find mention of the 
Caraceni, who dwelt N. of the Pentri, and to whom 
the town of Aufidena belonged; and of the Hirpini, 
Avho dwelt SE. of the Caudini, but Avho are some- 
times mentioned as distinct from the Samnites. 
The Samnites were distinguished for their bravery 
and love of freedom. Issuing from their mountain 
fastnesses, they overran a great part of Campania ; 
and it was in consequence of Capua applying to 
the Romans for assistance against the Samnites, 
that war broke out between the 2 peoples in B. c. 
343. The Romans found the Samnites the most 
warlike and formidable enemies whom they had 
yet encountered in Italy; and the war, which com- 
menced in 3-13, was continued with few inter- 
ruptions for the space of 53 years. It was not till 
290, when all their bravest troops had fallen, and 
their country had been repeatedly ravaged in every 
direction by the Roman legions, that the Samnites 
sued for peace and submitted to the supremacy of 
Rome. They never, however, lost their love of 
freedom; and accordingly they not only joined the 
other Italian allies 'in the war against Rome (90), 
but, even after the other allies had submitted, they 
still continued in arms. The civil war between 
Marius and Sulla gave them hopes of recovering 
their independence ; but they Avere defeated by 
Sulla before the gates of Rome (82), the greater 
part of their troops fell in battle, and the remainder 
were put to death. Their towns were laid waste, 
the inhabitants sold as slaves, and their place sup- 
plied by Roman colonists. 

Samos or Samus (2a/xoy : Sa^uio?, Samius : Grk. 
Samo, Turk. Susam Adassi), one of the principal 
islands of the Aegean Sea, lying in that portion of 
it called the Icarian Sea, off the coast of Ionia, 
from which it is separated only by a narrow strait 
formed by the overlapping of its E. promontory 
Posidium (C. Colonna) with the W.-most spur of 
M. Mycale, Pr.Trogiliura (C. S. Maria). This strait, 
which is little more than 8-4ths of a mile wide, 
was the scene of the battle of Mycale. The 
island is formed by a range of mountains extending 
from E. to W., whence it derived its name ; for 
'ZoLjj.os was an old Greek word signifying a moun- 
tain : and the same root is seen in Same, the old 
name of Cephallenia, and Saraothrace, i. e. the 
Thracian Samos. The circumference of the island 
is about 80 miles. It was and is very fertile; and 
some of its products are indicated by its ancient 
names, Dryusa, Anthemura, Melamphyllus and 
Cyparissia. According to the earliest traditions, 
it was a chief seat of the Carians and Leleges, and 
the residence of their first king, Ancaeus; and was 
afterwards colonised by Aeolians from Lesbos, and 
by lonians from Epidaurus. In the earliest histo- 
rical records, we find Samos decidedly Ionian, and 
a powerful member of the Ionic confederacy. Thu- 
cydides telL-^ us that the Samians were the first of 
the Greeks, after the Corinthians, who paid great 
attention to naval affairs. They early acquired 
such power at sea that, besides obtaining possession 
of parts of the opposite coast of Asia, they founded 
many colonies; among which were, Bisanthe and 
Perinthus, in Thrace ; Celenderis and Nagidus, in 



Cilicia ; Cydonia, in Crete ; Dicaearchia (Puteoli), 
in Italy ; and Zancle (Messana), in Sicily. After 
a transition from the state of aft heroic monarch}-, 
through an aristocracy, to a democracy, the island 
became subject to the most distinguished of the 
so-called tyrants, Polycrates (b. c. 532), under 
whom its power and splendour reached their highest 
pitch, and Samos would probably have become the 
mistress of the Aegean, but for the murder of 
Polycrates. At this period the Samians had ex- 
tensive commercial relations with Egypt, and they 
obtained from Amasis the privilege of a separate 
temple at Naucratis. Their commerce extended 
into the interior of Africa, partly through their 
relations with Gyrene, and also by means of a 
settlement which they effected in one of the Oases, 
7 days' journey from Thebes. The Samians now 
became subject to the Persian empire, under which 
they Avere governed by tyrants, with a brief in- 
terval at the time of the Ionic revolt, until the 
battle of Mycale, which made them independent, 
B. c. 479. They now joined the Athenian confe- 
derac}'-, of which they continued independent mem- 
bers until B. c. 440, when an opportunity arose for 
reducing them to entire subjection and depriving 
them of their fleet, which was effected by Pericles 
after an obstinate resistance of 9 months' duration. 
(For the details see the histories of Greece.) In 
the Peloponnesian war, Samos held firm to Athens 
to the last; and, in the history of the latter part of 
that war, the island becomes extremely important 
as the head-quarters of the exiled democratical 
part}' of the Athenians. Transferred to Sparta 
after the battle of Aegospotami, 405, it was soon 
restored to Athens by that of Cnidus, 394 ; but 
went over to Sparta again in 390. Soon after, it 
fell into the hands of the Persians, being conquered 
by the satrap Tigranes ; but it was recovered by 
Timotheus for Athens. In the Social war, the 
Athenians successfully defended it against the at- 
tacks of the confederated Chians, Rhodians, and 
Byzantines, and placed in it a body of 2000 cle- 
ruchi, B. c. 352. After Alexander's death, it was 
taken from the Athenians by Perdiccas, 323; but 
restored to them by Polysperchon, 319. In the 
subsequent period, it seems to have been rather 
nominally than really a part of the Greco-Syrian 
kingdom : we find it engaged in a long contest 
with Priene on a question of boundary, which was 
referred to Antiochus II., and afterwards to the 
Roman senate. In the Macedonian war, Samos was 
taken by the Rhodians, then by Philip, and lastly 
by the Rhodians again, b. c. 200. In the Syrian war, 
the Samians took part with Antiochus the Great 
against Rome. Little further mention is made of 
Samos till the time of Mithridates, with whom it took 
part in his first war against Rome, on the conclusion 
of which it was finally united to the province of 
Asia, B. c. 84. Meanwhile it had greatly declined, 
and during the war it had been wasted by the 
incursions of pirates. Its prosperity was partially 
restored under the propraetorship of Q. Cicero, B.C. 
62, but still more by the residence in it of Antony 
and Cleopatra, 32, and afterwards of Octavianus, 
who made Samos a free state. It was favom-ed by 
Caligula, but was deprived of its freedom by Ves- 
pasian, and it sank into insignificance as earlj'- as 
the 2nd century, although its departed glory is 
found still recorded, under the emperor Decius, by 
the inscription on its coins, 'Zafxiuv irpdrcou 'Iwuias. 
— Samos may be regarded as almcst the chief 



SAMOSATA. 
centre of Ionian manners, energies, luxury, science, 
and art. In very early times, there was a native 
school of statuary, at the head of which was Rhoe- 
cus, to whom tradition ascribed the invention of 
casting in metal. [Rhoecus, Telecles, Theodo- 
RUS.] In the hands of the same school archi- 
tecture flourished greatly; the Heraeum, one of 
the finest of Greek temples, was erected in a marsh, 
on the W. side of the city of Samoa ; and the city 
itself, especially under the government of Poly- 
crates, was furnished with other splendid works, 
among which was an aqueduct pierced through a 
mountain. Samian architects became famous also 
beyond their own island ; as, for example, Man- 
drocles, who constructed Darius's bridge over the 
Bosporus. In painting, the island produced Calli- 
phon, Theodorus, Agatharchus, and Timanthes. 
Its pottery was celebrated throughout the ancient 
world. In literature, Samos was made illustrious 
by the poets Asius, Choerilus, and Aeschrion ; by 
the philosophers Pythagoras and Melissus ; and 
by the historians Pagaeus and Duris. — The capital 
city, also called Samos, stood on the S. E. side of 
the island, opposite Pr. Trogilium, partly on the 
shore, and partly rising on the hills behind in the 
form of an amphitheatre. It had a magnificent 
harbour, and numerous splendid buildings, among 
which, besides the Heraeum and other temples, 
the chief were the senate-house, the theatre, and 
a gymnasium dedicated to Eros. In the time 
of Herodotus, Samos was reckoned one of the 
finest cities of the world. Its ruins are so con- 
siderable as to allow its plan to be traced : there 
are remains of its Avails and towers, and of the 
theatre and aqueduct. The Heraeum already 
mentioned, celebrated as one of the best early 
specimens of the Doric order of architecture, and 
as the chief centre of the worship of Hera among 
the Ionian Greeks, stood about 2 miles W. of the 
city. Its erection is ascribed to Rhoecus and his 
sons. It was burnt by the Persians, but soon re- 
built, probably in the time of Polycrates. This 
second temple Avas of the Ionic order, decastyle 
dipteral, 346 feet long by 189 wide, and is spoken 
of by Herodotus as the largest temple that he 
knew. It was gradually filled with works of 
sculpture and painting, of which it was plundered, 
first by the pirates in the Mithridatic War, then 
by Verres, and lastly by M. Antonius. Nothing 
is left of it but traces of the foimdations and a 
single capital and base. 

Samosata (ra ^.a^xSaara : Sa/ioo-areiiy, Samosa- 
tensis : Someisat), the capital of the province, and 
afterwards kingdom, of Commagene, in the N. of 
Syria, stood on the right bank of the Euphrates, 
N.W. of Edessa. It was strongly fortified as a 
frontier post against Osroene. In the 1st century 
of our era, it was the capital of the kings of Com- 
magene. It is celebrated, in literary history, as 
the birthplace of Lucian, and, in church history, as 
that of the heretic Paul, bishop of Antioch, in the 
3rd century. Nothing remains of it but a heap 
of ruins on an artificial mound. 

Samothrace {^aaaQpaKi], ^afxodpc^Kia, Ep. ^ 
Sdixos QprjiKi-n : ^a/xdOpc^Kes : SamothraM), a small 
island in the N. of the Aegaean sea, opposite the 
mouth of the Hebrus in Thrace, from which it was 
38 miles distant. It is about 32 miles in cir- 
cumference, and contains in its centre a lofty 
mountain, called Saoce, from Avhich Homer says 
t^t.lit Troy could be seen. Samothrace bore various 



SANCUS. 671 

names in ancient times. It is said to have been 
called Melite, Saonnesus, Leucosia, and more fre- 
quently Dardania, from Dardanus, the founder of 
Troy, Avho is reported to have settled here. Homer 
calls the island simply Samos ; sometimes the 
Thracian Samos, because it Avas colonised, accord- 
ing to some accounts, from Samos on the coast of 
Asia Minor. Samothrace was the chief seat of 
the Avorship of the Cabiri [Cabiri], and Avas cele- 
brated for its religious mysteries, Avhich were some 
of the most famous in the ancient Avorld. Their 
origin dates from the time of the Pelasgians, Avho 
are said to have been the original inhabitants of 
the island; and they enjoyed great celebrity down 
to a very late period. Both Philip of Macedon 
and his Avife Olympias Avere initiated in them. 
The political history of Samothrace is of little 
importance. The Samothracians fought on the 
side of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis ; and at 
this time they possessed on the Thracian main- 
land a few places, such as Sale, Serrhion, Mesam- 
bria, and Tempyra. In the time of the Macedonian 
kings, Samothrace appears to have been regarded 
as a kind of asylum, and Perseus accordingly fled 
thither after his defeat by the Romans at the 
battle of Pydna. 

Sampsiceramus, the name of a petty prince of 
Emesa in Syria, a nickname given by Cicero to 
Cn. Pompeius. 

Sanchuniathon (^ayxowidOwu), said to have 
been an ancient Phoenician writer, Avhose Avorks 
Avere translated into Greek by Philo Byblius, Avho 
lived in the latter half of the first century of the 
Christian era. A considerable fragment of the 
translation of Philo is preserved by Eusebius in 
the first book of his Praeparatio Evangelica. The 
most opposite opinions have been held by the 
learned respecting the authenticity and value of 
the Avork of Sanchuniathon ; but it is now gene- 
rally agreed among modern scholars, that the work 
was a forgery of Philo. Nor is it difficult to see Avith 
Avhat object the forgery was executed. Philo was 
one of the many adherents of the doctrine of Euhe- 
merus, that all the gods Avere originally men, who 
had distinguished themselves in their lives as kings, 
warriors, or benefactors of man, and became wor- 
shipped as divinities after their death. This doc- 
trine Philo applied to the religious system of the 
Oriental nations, and especially of the Phoenicians ; 
and in order to gain more credit for his statements, 
he pretended that they Avere taken from an an- 
cient Phoenician Avriter. Sanchuniathon, he says, 
Avas a native of Berytus, lived in the time of Semi- 
ramis, and dedicated his work to Abibalus, king of 
Berytus. The fragments of this work have been 
published separately by J. C. Orelli, Lips. 1826. 
In 1835 a manuscript, purporting to be the entire 
translation of Philo Byblius, AA^as discovered in a 
convent in Portugal. The Greek text Avas pub- 
lished by Wagenfeld, Bremae, 1837. It was at 
first regarded as genuine, but is noAv universally 
agreed to have been the forgery of a later age. 

Sancus, Sangus, or Semo Sancus, a Roman 
divinity, said to have been originally a Sabine god, 
and identical with Hercules and Dius Fidius, 
The name, which is etymologically the same as 
Sandus, and connected Avith Sancire, seems to jus- 
tify this belief, and characterises Sancus as a divi- 
nity presiding over oaths. Sancus also had a 
temple at Rome, on the Quirinal, opposite that of 
Quirinus, and close by the gate which derived from 



C72 



SANDROCOTTUS. 



SARDANAPALUS. 



hira the name of San/jualis porta. This sanctuary- 
was the same as that of Dius Fidius, which was 
consecrated B. c. 465 by Sp. Postumius, but was 
said to have been founded by Tarquinius Superbus. 

Sandr8cottus {1,a.vhp6Korros\ an Indian king 
at the time of Seleucus Nicator, ruled over the 
powerful nation of the Gangaridae and Prasii on 
the banks of the Ganges. He was a man of mean 
origin, and was the leader of a band of robbers, 
before he obtained the supreme power. In the 
troubles which followed the death of Alexander, 
he extended his dominions over the greater part of 
northern India, and conquered the Macedonians, 
who had been left by Alexander in the Panjab. 
His dominions were invaded by Seleucus, who did 
not however succeed in the object of his expedition ; 
for, in the peace concluded between the two mo- 
narchs, Seleucus ceded to Sandrocottus not only his 
conquests in the Panjab, but also the country of the 
Paropamisus. Seleucus in return received 500 war 
elephants. Megasthenes subsequently resided for 
many years at the court of Sandrocottus as the 
ambassador of Seleucus. [Megasthenes.] San- 
drocottus is probably the same as the Cliandragupta 
of the Sanscrit writers. The history of Chandra- 
gupta forms the subject of a Hindu drama, entitled 
Aficdra Rakshasa, which has been translated from 
the Sanscrit by Prof. Wilson. 

Sangarius, Sangaris, or Sagaris (2,ayydpios, 
'Sayyapis, 2dypayos : Sakariyeh), the largest 
river of Asia Minor after the Halys, had its source 
in a mountain called Adoreus, near the little town 
of Sangia, on the borders of Galatia and Phrygia, 
whence it flowed first N. through Galatia, then 
W. and N. W. through the N.E. part of Phrygia, 
and then N. through Bithynia, of which it origi- 
nally formed the E. boundary-. It fell at last into 
the Euxine, about half way between the Bosporus 
and Heraclea. It was navigable in the lower part 
of its course. Its chief tributaries were the Thym- 
bres or Thymbrus, the Bathys, and the Gallus, 
flowing into it from the W. 

Sangia. [Sangarius.] 

Sannio, a name of the buifoon in the mimes, 
derived from sayina^ whence comes the Italian Zanni 
(hence our Zany). 

Sannyrioii {^awvpibiv).^ an Athenian comic 
poet, belonging to the latter years of the Old 
Comedy, and the beginning of the Middle. He 
flourished B.C. 407, and onwards. We know 
nothing of his personal history, except that his 
excessive leanness was ridiculed by Strattis and 
Aristophanes. 

Santones or Santoni, a powerful people in 
Gallia Aquitanica, dwelt on the coast of the ocean, 
N. of the Garumna. Under the Romans they 
were a free people. Their chief town was Me- 
diolanum, afterwards Santones {Saintes). Their 
country produced a species of wormwood which 
was much valued. 

Saocoras. [Mascas.] 

Sapaei (2a7raroj, 2a7raioi), a people in Thrace, 
dwelt on Mt. Pangaeus, between the lake Bistonis 
and the coast. 

Saphar, Sapphar, or Taphar (2d<pap or^A^ap, 
:Sdn(pap, Tdcbapou. Dhafar, Ru.), one of the chief 
cities of Arabia, stood on the S. coast of Arabia 
Felix, opposite to the Aromata Pr. in Africa 
(C. Guardafui). It was the capital of the Ho- 
meritae, a part of which tribe bore the name of 
Sapharitae or Sappharitae (2a7r^a/>?Tai). 



Sapis {Savio), a small river in Gallia Cisalpina., 
rising in the Apennines, and flowing into the 
Adriatic S. of Ravenna, between the Po and the 
Aternus. 

Saper. [Sassanidae.] 

Sappho (2a7r(^w, or, in her own Aeolic dialect, 
'VdTT(pa), one of the two great leaders of the Aeolian 
school of lyric poetry (Alcaeus being the other), 
was a native of Mytilene, or, as some said, of 
Eresos in Lesbos. Her father's name was Sca- 
mandronymus, who died when she was only 6 
years old. She had 3 brothers, Cbaraxus, Larichus, 
and Eurigius. Charaxus was violently upbraided 
by his sister in a poem, because he became so 
enamoured of the courtezan Rhodopis at Naucratis 
in Egypt, as to ransom her from slavery at an 
immense price. [Charaxus.] Sappho was con- 
temporary with Alcaeus, Stesichorus, and Pittacus. 
That she was not only contemporary, but lived in 
friendly intercourse, with Alcaeus, is shown by 
existing fragments of the poetry of both. Of the 
events of her life we have no other information 
than an obscure allusion in the Parian Marble, and 
in Ovid {Her. xv. 51), to her flight from Mytilene 
to Sicily, to escape some unknown danger, between 
604 and 592 ; and the common story that being in 
love with Phaon, and finding her love unrequited, 
she leapt down from the Leucadian rock. This 
story however seems to have been an invention of 
later times. The name of Phaon does not occur in 
one of Sappho's fragments, and there is no evidence 
that it was mentioned in her poems. As for the 
leap from the Leucadian rock, it is a mere metaphor, 
which is taken from an expiator}- rite connected 
with the worship of Apollo, which seems to have 
been a frequent poetical image. At Mytilene 
Sappho appears to have been the centre of a female 
literary society, most of the members of which were 
her pupils in poetry, fashion and gallantry. Modern 
writers have indeed attempted to prove that the 
moral character of Sappho was free from all re- 
proach ; but it is impossible to read the fragments 
which remain of her poetry without being forced 
to come to the conclusion that a female, who could 
write such poetr}', could not be the pure and 
virtuous woman, which her modern apologists pre- 
tend. Of her poetical genius however there cannot 
be a question. The ancient writers agree in ex- 
pressing the most unbounded admiration for her 
poetry. Already in her own age the recitation of 
one of her poems so affected Solon, that he ex- 
pressed an earnest desire to leam it before he died. 
Her lyric poems formed 9 books, but of these only 
fragments have come Aovm. to us. The most im- 
portant is a splendid ode to Aphrodite (Venus), of 
which we perhaps possess the whole. The best 
separate edition of the fragments is by Neue, 
Berol, 1827. 

Sarancae, Sarangae or es {'Xapdyyai^ l,apa.y- 
7665* Herod.), a people of Sogdiana. 

Saravus {Saar), a small river in Gaul, flowing 
into the Mosella on its right bank. 

Sardanapalus (SapSaraTraAos), the last king of 
the Assyrian empire of Ninus or Nineveh, noted 
for his luxury, licentiousness and effeminacy. He 
passed his time in his palace unseen by any of his 
subjects, dressed in female apparel, and surrounded 
by concubines. At length Arbaces, satrap of Me- 
dia, and Belesys, the noblest of the Chaldaean 
priests, resolved to renounce allegiance to such a 
worthless monarch, and advanced at the head of 



SARDEMISUS. 

a formidable army against Nineveh. But all of a 
sudden the effeminate prince threw off his luxu- 
rious habits, and appeared an undaunted warrior. 
Placing himself at the head of his troops, he twice 
defeated the rebels, but was at length worsted and 
obliged to shut himself up in Nineveh. Here he 
sustained a siege for two years, till at length, 
finding it impossible to hold out any longer, he 
collected all his treasures, wives, and concubines, 
and placing them on an immense pile which he had 
constructed, set it on fire, and thus destroyed both 
himself and them. The enemies then obtained 
possession of the city. This is the account of Cte- 
sias, which has been preserved by Diodorus Siculus 
and which has been followed by most subsequent 
writers and chronologists. The death of Sardana- 
palus and the fall of the Assyrian empire is placed 
B. c. 876. Modern writers however have shown 
that the whole narrative of Ctesias is mythical, and 
must not be received as a genuine history. The 
legend of Sardanapalus, who so strangely appears 
at one time sunk in the lowest effeminacy, and 
immediately afterwards an heroic warrior, has pro- 
bably arisen from his being the same with the god 
Sandon, who was worshipped extensively in Asia, 
j both as an heroic and a female divinity. The 
1 account of Ctesias is also in direct contradiction to 
i Herodotus and the writers of the Old Testament. 

Herodotus places the revolt of the Medes from the 
j Assyrians about 710, but relates that an Assyrian 
I kingdom still continued to exist, which was not 
destroyed till the capture of Nineveh by the Me- 
dian king Cyaxares, about 606. Further, the 
writers of the Old Testament represent the Assyrian 
empire in its glory in the 8th century before the 
Christian era. It was during this period that 
Pul,Tiglath-pileser, Shalmaneser, and Sennacherib, 
appear as powerful kings of Assyria, who, not 
contented with their previous dominions, subdued 
Israel, Phoenicia, and the surrounding countries. 
In order to reconcile these statements with those 
of Ctesias, modern writers have invented two As- 
syrian kingdoms at Nineveh, one which was de- 
stroyed on the death of Sardanapalus, and another 
which was established after that event, and fell on 
the capture of Nineveh by Cyaxares. But this is 
a purely gratuitous assumption, unsupported by any 
evidence. We have only records of one Assyrian 
empire, and of one destruction of Nineveh. 

Sardemisus, a branch of M. Taurus, extending 
S.-wards on the borders of Pisidia and Pamphylia, 
as far as Phaselis in Lycia, whence it was con- 
tinued in the chain called Climax. It divided the 
' district of Milyas from Pisidia Proper. 

Sardene (SapSeVTj), a mountain of Mysia, N. of 
j the Hermus, near Cyme. The town of Neontichos 
was built on its side. 
Sardi. [Sardinia.] 

Sardinia (tj 2ap5w or lapZwv, G. 2opSovos, 
I D. 2a/)5or, A. 2ap5w : subsequently :^apduvia, 
I "^apdav'ia, or l,ap5r)v'ia : 2apS(jJos, '2,apS6vios, '2,ap- 
i SwVios, Sardus: Sai-difiia), a large island in the Me- 
I diterranean, is in shape in the form of a parallelo- 
gram, upwards of 140 nautical miles in length from 
j N. to S. with an average breadth of 60. It was 
j regarded by the ancients as the largest of the 
Mediterranean islands, and this opinion, though 
I usually considered an error, is now found to be 
correct ; since it appears by actual admeasurement 
that Sardinia is a little larger than Sicily. Sardinia 
lies in almost a central position between Spain, Gaul, 



SARDINIA. 67ii 

Italy, and Africa. The ancients derived its name 
from Sardus, a son of Hercules, who was worshipped 
in the island under the name of Sardus pater. The 
Greeks called it Ichnusa Qlxvovaa) from its re- 
semblance to the print of a foot, and Sandaliotis 
{'ZavZa.KiUTLs) from its likeness to a sandal. A chain 
of mountains runs along the whole of the E. side 
of the island from N. to S. occupying about 
I-3rd of its surface. These mountains were called 
by the ancients Insani Montes, a name which 
they probably derived from their wild and savage 
appearance, and from their being the haunt of 
numerous robbers. In the W. and S. parts of 
Sardinia there are numerous plains, intersected 
by ranges of smaller hills ; but this part of the 
island was in antiquity, as in the present day, 
exceedingly unhealthy. The principal rivers are 
the Termus (Termo) in the N., the Thyrsus 
{Oristano) on the W. (the largest river in the 
island), and the Flumen Sacrum (Uras) and the 
Saeprus {Flumendoso) on the E. The chief towns 
in the island were : on the N. coast, Tibula {Porte 
Polio) and Turris Libyssonis ; on the S. coast, Sulci 
and Caralis {Cagliari); on the E. coast, Olbia ; and 
in the interior, Cornus {Corneto) and Nora [Nurri). 
— Sardinia was very fertile, but was not exten- 
sively cultivated, in consequence of the uncivilised 
character of its inhabitants. Still the plains in 
the W. and S. parts of the island produced a great 
quantity of corn, of which a large quantity was ex- 
ported to Rome every year. Among the products of 
the island one of the most celebrated was the Sar- 
donica herba, a poisonous plant, which was said 
to produce fatal convulsions in the person who ate 
of it. These convulsions agitated and distorted 
the mouth, so that the person appeared to laugh, 
though in excruciating pain ; hence the well-known 
risus Sardonicus. No plant possessing these pro- 
perties is found at present in Sardinia ; and it 
is not impossible that the whole tale may have 
arisen from a piece of bad etymology, since we find 
mention in Homer of the 'S.apbdvios yihws, which 
cannot have any reference to Sardinia, but is pro- 
bably connected with the verb aa'ipeiv, " to grin," 
Another of the principal productions of Sardinia 
was its wool, which was obtained from a breed of 
domestic animals between a sheep and a goat, 
called musmones. The skins of these animals 
were used by the inhabitants as clothes, whence 
we find them often called Pelliti and Mastrucaii. 
Sardinia also contained a large quantity of the 
precious metals, especially silver, the mines of 
which were worked in antiquity to a great extent. 
There were likewise numerous mineral springs ; 
and large quantities of salt were manufactured on 
the W, and S. coasts. — The population of Sar- 
dinia was of a very mixed kind. To what race 
the original inhabitants belonged we are not in- 
formed ; but it appears that Phoenicians, Tyrrhe- 
nians, and Carthaginians settled in the island at 
different periods. The Greeks are also said to 
have planted colonies in the island, but this account 
is very suspicious. The first Greek colony is said 
to have been led by lolaus, a son of Hercules ; 
and from him a tribe in the island, called lolai 
{'l6\aoi, 'loAaeioJ, 'loA-aeTs), or Ilienses ('lAtetj), 
derived their name. These were some of the most 
ancient inhabitants of Sardinia, and were probably 
not of Greek, but Tyrrhenian origin. Their name 
is still preserved in the modern town of Iliola^ in 
the middle of the W. coast. We also find in the 



674 SAUDIS. 

island Corsi, who had crossed over from Corsica, 
and Balari, who Avere probably descendants of 
the Iberian and Libyan mercenaries of the Car- 
thaginians, who revolted from the latter in the 
first Punic war, and settled in the mountains. 
At a later time all these names became merged 
under the general appellation of Sardi, although, 
even in the Roman period, we still find mention 
of several tribes in the island under distinct names. 
The Sardi are described as a rude and savage 
people, addicted to thieverj'- and lying. — Sardinia 
was known to the Greeks as early as b. c. 500, 
since we find that Histiaeus of Miletus promised 
Darius that he would render the island of Sardo 
tributary to his power. It was conquered by the 
Carthaginians at an early period, and continued in 
their possession till the end of the first Punic war. 
Shortly after this event, the Romans availed them- 
selves of the dangerous war Avhich the Cartha- 
ginians were carrying on against their mercenaries 
in Africa, to take possession of Sardinia, B. c. 238. 
It was now formed into a Roman province under 
the government of a praetor ; but a large portion 
of it was only nominally subject to the Ptomans ; 
and it was not till after many years and numerous 
revolts, that the inhabitants submittedto theRom.an 
dominion. It was after one of these revolts that 
so many Sardinians were thrown upon the slave 
market as to give rise to the proverb, " Sardi ve- 
nales," to indicate any cheap and worthless com- 
modity. In fact, the inhabitants of the mountains 
in the E. side of the island, were never completely 
subdued, and gave trouble to the Romans even in 
the time of Tiberius. Sardinia continued to be- 
long to the Roman empire till the 5 th century', 
when it was taken possession of by the Vandals. 

Sardis or Sardes (ai SapSets, Ion. ^dpdies, con- 
tracted SapSis : 2ap5ios, 2apola^'^$s, Ion. ^apdn]v6s, 
Sardianus : Sa7-t, Ru.), one of the most ancient and 
famous cities of Asia Minor, and the capital of the 
great Lydian monarch}^ stood on the S. edge of 
the rich valley of the Hermus, at the N. foot of 
M. Tmolus, on the little river Pactolus, 30 stadia 
(3 geog. miles) S. of the junction of that river 
with the Hermus. On a lofty precipitous rock, 
forming an outpost of the range of Tmolus, was 
the almost impregnable citadel, which some sup- 
pose to be the Hyde of Homer, who, though he 
never mentions the Lydians or Sardis bj^ name, 
speaks of M. Tmolus and the lake of Gyges. 
The erection of this citadel was ascribed to Meles, 
an ancient king of Lydia. It was surrounded by 

triple wall, and contained the palace and trea- 
sury of the Lydian kings. At the downfall of the 
Lydian empire, it resisted all the attacks of Cyrus, 
and was only taken by surprise. The story is 
told by Herodotus, who relates other legends of 
the fortress. The rest of the city, which stood in 
the plain on both sides of the Pactolus, was very 
slightly built, and was repeatedly burnt down, 
first by the Cimmerians, then by the Greeks in 
the great Ionic revolt, and again, in part at least, 
by Antiochus the Great ; but on each occasion it 
was restored. For its history, as the capital of 
the Lydian monarchy, see Lydia. Under the 
Persian and Greco- Syrian empires, it was the 
residence of the satrap of Lydia. The rise of 
Pergamus greatly diminished its importance ; but 
under the Romans it was still a considerable city, 
and the seat of a conventus juridicus. In the 
reign of Tiberius, it was almost entirely destroyed 



SARMATIA. 

by an earthquake, but it was restored by the 
emperor's add. It was one of the earliest seats of 
the Christian religion, and one of the 7 churches 
of the province of Asia, to Avhich St. John ad- 
dressed the Apocalype ; but the apostle's language 
implies that the chiu-ch at Sardis had already sunk 
into almost hopeless decay (Rev. iii. 1, foil.). In 
the wars of the middle ages the city was entirely 
destroyed, and its site now presents one of the 
most melancholy scenes of desolation to be found 
among the ruins of ancient cities. Though its 
remains extend over a large surface on the plain, 
they scarcely present an object of importance, 
except two or three Ionic columns, belonging pro- 
bably to a celebrated temple of Cybele, The 
chief of the other remains are those of a theatre, 
stadium, and a building supposed to be the senate- 
house. The triple wall of the acropolis can still 
be traced, and some of its lofty towers are stand- 
ing. The necropolis of the city stood on the banks 
of the lake of Gyges [Gygaeus Lacus], near 
which the sepulchre of Alyattes may still be seen. 
[Alyattes.] 

Sardoum or Sardonicum Mare (rh 'Xapd^ov 
or '2,ap5d)VLov irdXayos)^ the part of the Mediter- 
ranean sea on the W. and S. of Sardinia, separated 
from the Libyan sea by a line drawn from the pro- 
montory Lilybaeum in Sicilj'-. 

Sarepta or Sarephtka (2,dpe(j)6a, SapeTrra, 2a- 
paivra : 0. T. Zarephath : Surafend^ SerpTiant, or 
Tzarphand)^ a city of Phoenicia, about 10 miles 
S. of Sidon, to the territory of which it belonged ; 
well known as the scene of 2 miracles of Elijah. 
(1 Kings xvii.) It was celebrated for its wine. 

Sargetia (Sirel or Strey^ a tributary of the 
Marosch), a river in Dacia, on which was situated 
the residence of Decebalus. 

SaripM Montes (ja :S,dpicpa opt) : Hazareh 
Mountains), a mountain-range of Central Asia, 
separating Margiana on the N. from Aria on the 
S., and forming a W. pai't of the great chain of 
the Indian Caucasus, which may be regarded as a 
prolongation through Central Asia of the chain of 
Anti-Taurus. 

Sarmatae or Sauromatae (Sap^araj, Strabo ; 
'^avpofxarai^ Herod.), a people of Asia, dwelling 
on the N. E. of the Palus Maeotis {Sea of Azov), 
E. of the river Tana'is (Don) which separated 
them from the Scythians of Europe. This is the 
account of Herodotus, who tells us that the Sar- 
matians were allied to the Scythians, and spoke a 
corrupted form of the Scythian language ; and that 
their origin was ascribed to the intercourse of Scy- 
thians with Amazons. Strabo also places the 
Sauromatae between the Tanais and the Caspian ; 
but he elsewhere uses the word in the much more 
extended sense, in which it was used by the 
Romans, and by the later geographers. [Sar- 
matia]. 

Sarmatia (v '^a.pnaria : ^apjuLarai, 'Savpop.aTai : 
the E. part of Poland, and S. part of Russia in 
Europe), a name first used by Mela for the part of 
N. Europe and Asia extending from the Vistula 
( Wisla) and the Sarmatici Montes on the W., 
which divided it from Germany, to the Rha {Volga) 
on the E., which divided it from Scythia ; bounded 
on the S. W. and S. by the rivers Ister (Datiuhe), 
Tibiscus {Theiss), and Tyras {Dniester), which 
divided it from Pannonia and Dacia, and, further, 
by the Euxine, and beyond it by M. Caucasus, 
which divided it from Colchis, Iberia, and Al- 



SARMATICAE. 



SASSANIDAE. 



675 



bania ; and extending on the N. as far as the Balth 
and the unknown regions of N. Europe. The part 
of this country which lies in Europe just corresponds 
to the Scythia of Herodotus. The people from whom 
the name of Sarraatia was derived inhabited only 
a small portion of the country. [Sarmatae.] 
The greater part of it was peopled by Scythian 
tribes ; but some of the inhabitants of its W. part 
seem to have been of German origin, as the 
Venedi on the Baltic, and the Iazyges, Rho- 
LOXANi, and Hamaxobii in S. Russia : the chief 
of the other tribes W. of the Tanais were the 
Alauni or Alani Scythae, a Scythian people who 
came out of Asia and settled in the central parts 
of Russia. [Alani.] The people E. of the 
Tanais were not of sufficient importance in ancient 
history to require specific mention. The whole 
country was divided by the river Tanais (Don) 
into 2 parts, called respectively Sarmatia Europaea 
and Sarmatia Asiatica {v iu Evpcoirr) and v 
Aa'ia, 'SapfxaTia) ; but it should be observed that, 
according to the modern division of the continent, 
the whole of Sarmatia belongs to Europe. It 
should also be noticed that the Chersonesus 
Taurica (Crimea), though falling within the speci- 
fied limits, was not considered as a part of Sar- 
matia, but as a separate country. 

Sarmaticae Portae (at ^apixariKoX irvXai : 
Pass o/Dariel), the central pass of the Caucasus, 
leading from Iberia to Sarmatia. It was more 
commonly called Caucasiae Portae. [Caucasus.] 
It Avas also called Caspiae Portae, apparently 
through a confusion with the pass of that name at 
the E. end of the Caucasus. [Caspiae Portae.] 
The remains of an ancient wall are still seen in 
the pass. 

Sarmatici Montes (to. ^apuaTiKo. 6pr] : part 
of the Carpathian Mountains), a range of moun- 
tains in central Europe, extending from the sources 
of the Vistula to the Danube, between Germany 
on the W. and Sarmatia on the E. 

Sarmaticus Oceanus and Fontus, Sarmaticum 
Mare (SapfxaTiKhs wKeaphs ; Baltic), a great sea, 
washing the N. coast of European Sarmatia. 

Sarmizegetliusa (nr. Vachely, also called Gra- 
dischie, Ru.), one of the most important towns of 
Dacia, and the residence of its kings, was situated 
on the river Sargetia (Strel or Strey). It was 
subsequently a Roman colony under the name of 
Col. Ulpia Trajana Aug., and the capital of the 
province in which a legion had its head- quarters. 

Sarnus (Samo), a river in Campania, flowing 
by Nuceria, and falling into the Sinus Puteolanus 
near Pompeii. Its course was changed by the 
great eruption of Vesuvius, a. d. 79. On its banks 
dwelt a people named Sarrastes, who are said to 
have migrated from Peloponnesus. 

Sar5n (Sapcov : 0. T. Sharon), a most beautiful 
and fertile plain of Palestine, extending along the 
coast N. of Joppa towards Caesarea; celebrated 
for its pastures and its flowers. 

Sar5uicus Sinus {SapwpiKhs k6\itos, also irSpos, 
ireAayos, and ttSvtos : G. of Egina), a bay of the 
Aegaean sea lying between Attica and Argolis, and 
commencing between the promontory of Sunium 
in Attica and that of Scyllaeum in Argolis. It 
contains within it the islands of Aegina and Sala- 
mis. Its name was usually derived from Saron, 
king of Troezene, who was supposed to have been 
drowned in this part of the sea while swimming in 
pursuit of a stag. 



Sarpedon (SapTr^Swi/). 1. Son of Zeus and 
Europa, and brother of Minos and Rhadamauthus. 
Being involved in a quarrel with Minos about 
Miletus, he took refuge with Cilix, whom he as- 
sisted against the Lycians. [Miletus.] He after- 
wards became king of the Lycians, and Zeus granted 
him the privilege of living 3 generations. — 2. Son 
of Zeus and Laodamia, or, according to others, of 
Evander and Deidamia, and a brother of Clarus 
and Themon. He was a Lycian prince, and a 
grandson of No. 1. In the Trojan Avar he was an 
ally of the Trojans, and distinguished himself by 
his valour, but was slain by Patroclus. Apollo, by 
the command of Zeus, cleansed Sarpedon 's body 
from blood and dust, covered it with ambrosia, and 
gave it to Sleep and Death to carry into Lycia, 
there to be honourably buried. 

Sarpedon Promontorium ('^apir-n^wvia aicpa : 
C. Lissan el Kapeh), a promontory of Cilicia, in 
long. 34° E., 80 stadia W. of the mouth of the 
Calycadnus. In the peace between the Romans 
and Antiochus the Great, the W. boundary of 
the Syrian kingdom was fixed here. 

Sarpedonium Prom. ^apTrrjdccvir) &Kpa), a 
promontory of Thrace between the mouths of the 
rivers Melas and Erginus, opposite the island of 
Imbros. 

Sarrastes. [Sarnus.] 

Sars (Sar), a small river on the W. coast of 
Hispania Tarraconensis, between the Prom. Ne- 
rium and the Minius. 

Sarsma (Sarsinas, -atis : Sarsina), an ancient 
town of Umbria, on the river Sapis, S.W. of Aii- 
minum, and subsequently a Roman municipium, 
celebrated as the birthplace of the comic poet 
Plautus. 

Sarus (6 'S.dpos : Seihan), a considerable river 
in the S. E. of Asia Minor. Rising in the Anti- 
Taurus, in the centre of Cappadocia, it flows S. 
past Coraana to tlie borders of Cilicia, where it 
receives a W. branch that has run nearly parallel 
to it ; and thence, flowing through Cilicia Cam- 
pestris in a winding course, it falls into the sea a 
little E. of the mouth of the Cydnus, and S. E. of 
Tarsus. Xenophon gives 3 plethra (303 feet) for 
its width at its mouth. 

Saso or Sasonis Insula (Saseno, Sassono,Sassa), 
a small rocky island off the coast of Illyria, N. of 
the Acroceraunian promontory, much frequented 
by pirates. 

Saspires, or -i, or Sapires (Sao-Trezpes, ZSao-Tret- 
poi, 2a7r6/pes, 'I^d-mreipes), a Scythian people of 
Asia, S. of Colchis and N. of Media, in an inland 
position (i. e. in Armenia) according to Herodotus, 
but, according to others, on the coast of the 
Euxine. 

Sassanidae, the name of a dynasty which 
reigned in Persia from A. D. 226 to a. d. 651. 
1. Artaxerxes (the ArdisMr or ArdsMr of the 

Persians), the founder of the dynasty of the Sas- 
sanidae, reigned A. d. 226 — 240. He was a son 
of one Babek, an inferior officer, who was the son 
of Sassan, perhaps a person of some consequence, 
since his royal descendants chose to call themselves 
after him. Artaxerxes had served with distinction 
in the army of Artabanus, the king of Parthia, 
Avas rewarded with ingratitude, and took revenge 
in revolt. He obtained assistance from several 
grandees, and having met with success, claimed 
the throne on the plea of being descended from the 
ancient kings of Persia, the progeny of the great 

X X 2 



676 



SASSANIDAE. 



SASSANIDAE. 



Cyrus. The people warmly supported his cause, 
as he declared himself the champion of the an- 
cient Persian religion. In 226 Artabanus was 
defeated, in a decisive battle ; and Artaxerxes 
thereupon assumed the pompous, but national title 
of " King of Kings." One of his first legislative 
acts was the restoration of the pure religion of 
Zoroaster and the worship of fire. The reigning 
branch of the Parthian Arsacidae was exterminated, 
hnt some collateral branches were suffered to live 
and to enjoy the privileges of Persian grandees, 
who, along with the Magi, formed a sort of senate. 
Having succeeded in establishing his authority at 
home, Artaxerxes demanded from the emperor 
Alexander Severus the immediate cession of all 
those portions of the Roman empire that had be- 
longed to Persia in the time of Cyrus and Xerxes, 
that is, the whole of the Roman possessions in 
Asia, as well as Egypt. An immediate war be- 
tween the two empires was the direct consequence. 
After a severe contest, peace was restored, shortly 
after the murder of Alexander in 237, each nation 
retaining the possessions which they held before 
the breaking out of the war. — 2. Sapor I. (Sha- 
pur), the son and successor of Artaxerxes I., 
reigned 240 — 273. He carried on war first against 
Gordian, and afterwards against Valerian. The 
latter emperor was defeated by Sapor, taken pri- 
soner, and kept in captivity for the remainder of 
Lis life. After the capture of Valerian, Sapor 
conquered S3'ria, destroyed Antioch, and having 
made himself master of the passes in the Taurus, 
laid Tarsus in ashes, and took Caesarea. His 
further progress was stopt by Odenathus and Ze- 
nobia, who drove the king back beyond the Eu- 
phrates, and founded a new empire, over which 
they ruled at Palmyra. In his reign lived the" 
celebrated Mani, who, endeavouring to amalgamate 
the Christian and Zoroastrian religions, gave rise 
to the famous sect of the Manichaeans, who spread 
over the whole East, exposing themselves to most 
sanguinary persecutions from both Christians and 
fire -worshippers. — 3. Hormisdas I. (Hormuz), 
son of the preceding, who reigned onh'- one year, 
and died 274. — 4. Varanes or Vararanes I. 
'^Bakram or Baharam), son of Hormisdas I., 
reigned 274 — 277. He carried on unprofitable 
wars against Zenobia, and, after her captivity, was 
involved in a contest with Aurelian, which, how- 
ever, was not attended with any serious results on 
account of the sudden death of Aurelian in 275. 
In his reign the celebrated Mani was put to death. 
— 5. Varanes II. (Bahram), son of Varanes I., 
reigned 277 — 294. He was defeated b}-- Carus, 
who took both Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and his 
dominions were only saved from further conquests 
by the sudden death of Carus (283). — 6. Va- 
ranes III. (Baliram), elder son of Varanes II., 
died after a reign of 8 months, 294.-7. Narses 
(Narsi), younger son of Varanes II., reigned 294 
■ — 303. He carried on a formidable war against the 
emperor Diocletian. The Roman army was com- 
manded by Galerius Caesar, who in the first cam- 
paign (296) sustained most signal defeats in Meso- 
potamia, and fled in disgrace to Antioch. In the 
second campaign Narses was defeated with great 
loss, and was obliged to conclude a peace with the 
Romans, by which he ceded to Diocletian Mesa- 
potaniia, five small provinces beyond the Tigris, 
the kingdom of Armenia, some adjacent Median 
districts, and the supremacy over Iberia, the kings 



of which were henceforth under the protection of 
Rome. In 303 Narses abdicated in favour of liis 
son, and died soon afterwards. — 8. Hormisdas II. 
(Hormuz), son of Narses, reigned 303 — 310. 
During his reign nothing of importance happened 
regarding Rome. —9. Sapor II. Postumus (Sha- 
pur), son of Hormisdas II., was bom after the 
death of his father, and was crowned in his mother's 
womb, the Magi placing the diadem with great 
solemnity upon the body of his mother. He reigned 
310 — 381. His reign was signalised by a cruel 
persecution of the Christians. He carried on war 
for many years against Constantius II. and his 
successors. The armies of Constantius were re- 
peatedly defeated ; Julian, as is related elsewhere 
[JuLiANUs], perished in battle; and the war was 
at length brought to a conclusion by Jovian ceding 
to the Persians the five provinces beyond the Ti- 
gris, and the fortresses of Nisibis, Singara, &c. 
Iberia and Armenia were left to their fate ; and 
were completely reduced by Sapor in 365, and the 
following year. Sapor has been surnamed the 
Great, and no Persian king had ever caused such 
terror to Rome as this monarch. — 10. Arta- 
xerxes II. (ArdisMr), the successor of Sapor II., 
reigned 381 — 385. He was a prince of royal 
blood, but was not a son of Sapor. — 11. Sapor III. 
(Shapur), reigned 385 — 390. He sent an em- 
bass}^ to Theodosius the Great, with splendid 
presents, which was returned by a Greek embassy 
headed by Stilicho going to Persia. Owing to 
these diplomatic transactions, an arrangement was 
made in 384, according to which Annenia and 
Iberia recovered their independence. — 12. Va- 
ranes rV. (Baliram), reigned a.d. 390—404, or 
perhaps not so long. He was the brother of 
Sapor III., and founded Kermanshah, still a 
flourishing town. — 13. Yesdigeid I. (Yezdijird), 
surnamed Ulathim, or the Sinner, son or brother 
of the preceding, reigned 404 — 420 or 421. He 
was on friendly terms with the emperor Arcadius, 
who is said to have appointed him the guardian 
of his infant son and successor, Theodosius the 
Younger. He concluded a peace with Arcadius 
for 100 years. — 14. Varanes V. (Baliram), son 
of Yesdigerd I., surnamed GouR, or the " Wild 
Ass," on account of his passion for the chase of 
that animal, reigned 420 or 421 — 448. He per- 
secuted his Christian subjects with such severity 
that thousands of them took refuge within the 
Roman dominions. He carried on war with Theo- 
dosius, which was terminated by a peace for 100 
years, which peace lasted till the r2th year of the 
reign of the emperor Anastasius. During the 
latter part of his reign Varanes carried on wars 
against the Huns, Turks, and Indians, in which 
he is said to have achieved those valorous deeds 
for which he has ever since continued to be a fa- 
vourite hero in Persian poetry. He was acci- 
dentally drowned in a deep well together with his 
horse, and neither man nor beast ever rose again 
from the fathomless pit. — 15. Yezdigerd II., son 
of the preceding, reigned 448 — 458. The perse- 
cutions against the Christians were renewed by 
him with unheard of cruelty. His relations with 
Rome were peaceful. — 16. Hormisdas III. (Hor- 
muz), and 17. Pereses (Firoze), sons of the pre- 
ceding, claimed the succession, and rose in arms 
against each other. Pereses gained the throne by 
the assistance of the White Huns, against wh/)ra 
he turned his sword in after years. He perished 



SASSANIDAE. 



SATURAE. 



677 



in a great battle with them in 484, together with 
all of his sons except Pallas and Cobades. — 18. 
Pallas (Pallasli), who reigned 484 — 488, had to 
contest the throne with Cobades. He perished in 
a battle with his brother Cobades in 488. — 19. 
Cobades (Eobad), reigned 488 — 498, and again 
501 or 502—531. The years from 408 till 502 
were filled up by the short reign of, 20. Zames 
(Jamaspes). The latter was the brother of Co- 
bades, whom he dethroned, and compelled to fly 
to the Huns, witli whose assistance Cobades re- 
covered his throne about 502. He carried on war 
with success against the emperor Anastasius ; but 
in consequence of the Huns, who had previously 
been his auxiliaries, turning their arms against 
him, he made peace with Anastasius in 505, on 
receiving 11,000 poimds of gold as an indemnity. 
He also restored Mesopotamia and his other con- 
quests to the Romans, being unable to maintain 
his authority there on account of the protracted 
war with the Huns. About this time the Romans 
constructed the fortress of Dara, the strongest bul- 
wark against Persia, and situated in the very face 
of Ctesiphon. The war with Constantinople was 
renewed in 521, in the reign of the emperor 
Justin I. — 21. Chosroes I. (Khosru or Khosrew), 
surnamed Nushirwan, or " the generous mind," 
reigned 531 — 579. He carried on several wars 
against the Romans. The first war was finished 
in 532 or 533, Justinian having purchased peace 
by an annual tribute of 440,000 pieces of gold. 
One of the conditions of Chosroes was, that 7 
Greek, but Pagan, philosophers who had resided 
some time at the Persian court, should be allowed 
to live in the Roman empire without being subject 
to the imperial laws against Pagans. The 2nd 
war lasted from 540 to 561. Peace was concluded 
on condition of Justinian promising an annual 
tribute of 40,000 pieces of gold, and receiving in 
return the cession of the Persian claims upon Colchis 
and Lazica. The third war broke out in 571, in the 
reign of Justin II., but Chosroes died before it 
was concluded. Chosroes was one of the greatest 
kings of Persia. In his protracted wars with the 
Romans he disputed the field with the conquerors 
of Africa and Italy, and with those very generals, 
Tiberius and Mauricius, who brought Persia to the 
brink of ruin but a few years after his death. 
His empire extended from the Indus to the Red 
Sea, and large tracts in Central Asia, perhaps a 
portion of eastern Europe, recognised him for a 
time as their sovereign. He received embassies 
and presents from the remotest kings of Asia and 
Africa. His internal government was despotic and 
creel, but of that firm description which pleases 
Orientals, so that he still lives in the memory of 
the Persians as a model of justice. He provided 
for all the wants of his subjects ; and agriculture, 
trade, and learning were equally protected by him. 
He caused the best Greek, Latin, and Indian 
works to be translated into Persian. — 22. Hor- 
misdas IV. (Hormuz), son of Chosroes, reigned 
579 — 590. He continued the war with the Ro- 
mans, which had been bequeathed him by his 
father, but was defeated successively by Mauricius 
and Heraclius. Hormisdas was deprived of his 
sight, and subsequently put to death by the Per- 
sian aristocracy. — 23. Varanes VI. (Baliram) 
Shubin, a royal prince, usurped the throne on the 
death of Hormisdae, and reigned 590 — 591. Un- 
able to maintain the throne against Chosroes, who 



was supported by the emperor Mauricius, he fled 
to the Turks. — 24. Chosroes II. (Khosru) Pur- 
wiz, reigned 590 or 591 — 628. He was the son of 
Hormisdas IV., and recovered his father's throne 
with the assistance of the emperor Mauricius. After 
the murder of Mauricius, Chosroes declared war 
against the tyrant Phocas, and met with extra- 
ordinary success. In several successive campaigns 
he conquered Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, 
Asia Minor, and finally pitched his camp at Chal- 
cedon, opposite Constantinople. At length Heraclius 
saved the empire from the brink of ruin, and in a 
series of splendid campaigns not only recovered the 
provinces which the Romans had lost, but carried 
his victorious arms into the heart of the Persian 
empire. Borne down by his misfortunes, and worn 
out by age and fatigue, Chosroes resolved, in 628, 
to abdicate in favour of his son Merdaza ; but Shir- 
weh, or Siroes, his eldest son, anticipated his design, 
and at the head of a band of conspirators seized 
upon the person of his father, deposed him, and 
put him to death. The Orientals say that Chos- 
roes reigned 6 years too long. No Persian king 
lived in such splendour as Chosroes ; and however 
fabulous the Eastern accounts respecting his mag- 
nificence may be, they are true in the main, as is 
attested by the Western writers. — 25. Siroes 
(Shirweh), reigned only 8 months, 628. He con- 
cluded peace with the emperor Heraclius. The 
numerous captives were restored on both sides. 
Siroes also restored the holy cross which had been 
taken at the conquest of Jerusalem. — 26. Arta- 
xerxes III. (ArdisMr), the infant son of Siroes, 
was murdered a few days after the death of his 
father. He was the last male Sassanid. After 
him the throne was disputed by a host of candi- 
dates of both sexes and doubtful descent, who had. 
no sooner ascended the throne than they were 
hurried from it into death or captivity. — The last 
king was Yesdigerd III., who was defeated and 
slain in 651 by Kaleb, the general of the khalif 
Abu-Bekr. Persia now became a Mohammedan 
country. 

Sassula, a town in Latium, belonging to the 
territory of Tiber. 

Satala (ra SaraAo, ij SaroAo), a considerable 
town in the N. E. of Armenia Minor, important 
as the key of the mountain passes into Pontus. 
It stood at the junction of 4 roads leading to 
places on the Euxine, a little N. of the Euphrates, 
in a valley surrounded by mountains, 325 Roman 
miles from Caesarea in Cappadocia, and 135 from 
Trapezus. Under the later Roman empire, it 
was the station of the 15th legion. Notwithstand- 
ing the above indications, its site has not yet been 
identified with certainty. 

Satarchae, a Scythian tribe on the E. coast of 
the Tauric Chersonesus. 

Saticiila (Saticulanus), a town of Samnium, 
situated upon a mountain on the frontiers of 
Campania, probably upon one of the furthest 
heights of the mountain chain of Cajazzo. It was 
conquered by the Romans and colonised B.C. 313. 

Satmois (Sarj/ideis : Tuzla), a river in the S. 
of the Troad, rising in M. Ida, and flowing W. 
into the Aegean N. of Prom. Lectum, between 
Larissa and Hamaxitus. 

Satricum (Satricanus : Casale di Conca), a town 
in Latium, near Antium, to the territory of which 
it belonged. It was destroyed by the Romans. 

Satiirae Palus {Lago di Paola\ a lake or marsh 
X X 3 



678 



SATURIUM. 



SATURNUS. 



in Latium, formed by the river Njinphaeus, and 
near the promontory Circeium. 

S§.turittm or Satureium (Saturo), a town in 
the S. of Italy near Tarentum, celebrated for its 
horses. (Hon Sat. i. 6. 59.) 

Saturnia. 1. An ancient name of Italy [Italia]. 
— 2. (Saturninus : Saturnia)., formerly called Au- 
rinia, an ancient town of Etruria, said to have 
been founded by the Pelasgians, was situated in 
the territory of Caletra, on the road from Rome to 
Cosa, about 20 miles from the sea. It was colo- 
nised by the Romans, B. c. 183. The ancient 
town was rather more than 2 miles in circuit, and 
there are still remains of its walls and tombs. 

Saturninus I., one of the Thirty Tyrants, was 
a general of Valerian, by whom he was much be- 
loved. Disgusted by the debauchery of Gallie- 
nus, he accepted from the soldiers the title of 
emperor, but was put to death by the troops, 
who could not endure the sterness of his discipline. 
The country, however, in which these events took 
place, is not mentioned. — II., a native of Gaul, 
and an able officer, was appointed by Aurelian 
commander of the Eastern frontier, and was pro- 
claimed emperor at Alexandria during the reign of 
Probus. He was eventually slain by the soldiers 
of Probus, although the emperor would willingly 
have spared his life. 

Satununus, L. Antonius, governor of Upper 
Germany in the reign of Domitian, raised a re- 
bellion against that emperor, A. D. 91, but was 
defeated and put to death by Appius Maximus, 
the general of Domitian. 

Sgfurninus, L. Appuleius, the celebrated de- 
magogue, was quaestor, B.C. 104, and tribune 
of the plebs for the first time, 102. He entered 
into a close alliance with Marius and his friends, 
and soon acquired great popularity. He became a 
candidate for the tribunate for the 2nd time, 100. 
At the same time Glaucia, who next to Saturninus 
was the greatest demagogue of the day, offered 
himself as a candidate for the praetorship, and 
Marius for the consulship. Marius and Glaucia 
carried their elections ; but A. Nonius, a partizan 
of the aristocracy, was chosen tribune instead of 
Saturninus. Nonius, however, was murdered on 
the same evening by the emissaries of Glaucia 
and Saturninus ; and early the following morn- 
ing, Saturninus was chosen to fill up the vacancy. 
As soon as he had entered upon his tribunate, 
he brought forward an agrarian law, which led 
to the banishment of Metellus Numidicus, as is 
related elsewhere. [Metellus, No. 10.] Satur- 
ninus proposed other popular measures, such as 
a Lex Frumentaria, and a law for founding new 
colonies in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia. In the 
comitia for the election of the magistrates for the 
following year, Saturninus obtained the tribunate 
for the third time, and along with him there was 
chosen a certain Equitius, a runaway slave, who 
pretended to be a son of Tib, Gracchus. Glaucia 
was at the same time a candidate for the consul- 
ship ; the two other candidates were M. Antonius 
and C. Memmius. The election of M. Antonius 
was certain, and the struggle lay between Glaucia 
and Memmius. As the latter seemed likely to 
carry his election, Saturninus and Glaucia hired 
some ruffians who murdered him openly in the 
comitia. This last act produced a complete reaction 
against Saturninus and his associates. The senate 
declared them public enemies, and ordered the 



consuls to put them down by force. Marius was 
unwilling to act against his friends, but he had no 
alternative, and his backwardness was compensated 
by the zeal of others. Driven out of the forum, 
Saturninus, Glaucia, and the quaestor Saufeius 
took refuge in the Capitol, but the partisans of the 
senate cut off the pipes which supplied the Capitol 
with water. Unable to hold out any longer, they 
surrendered to Marius. The latter did all he 
could to save their lives: as soon as they descended 
from the Capitol, he placed them for security in 
the Curia Hostilia, but the mob pulled off the tiles 
of the senate-house, and pelted them with the tiles 
till they died. The senate gave their sanction to 
these proceedings by rewarding with the citizen- 
ship a slave of the name of Scaeva, who claimed 
the honour of having killed Saturninus. Nearly 
40 years after these events, the tribune T. La- 
bienus accused an aged senator Kabirius, of having 
been the murderer of Saturninus. An account of 
this trial is given elsewhere. [Rabirius.] 

Saturninus, Claudius, a jurist from whose 
Liber Singularis de Poenis Paganorum there is a 
single excerpt in the Digest. He was praetor 
under Antoninus Pius. 

Saturninus, Pompeius, a contemporary of the 
younger Pliny, is praised by the latter as a dis- 
tinguished orator, historian, and poet. Several of 
Pliny's letters are addressed to him. 

Saturninus, C. Sentius. 1. Propraetor of Ma- 
cedonia during the Social war, and probably for 
some time afterwards. He defeated the Thracians, 
who had invaded his province. — 2. One of the 
persons of distinguished rank who deserted Sex. 
Pompeius in B. c. 35, and passed over to Octavian. 
He was consul in 19, and was afterwards appointed 
to the government of Syria. Three sons of Sa- 
turninus accompanied him as legati to Syria, and 
were present with their father at the trial of 
Herod's sons at Berytus in B. c. 6. 

Saturninus, Venuleius, a Roman jurist, is 
said to have been a pupil of Papinianus, and a 
consiliarius of Alexander Severus. There are 71 
excerpts from his writings in the Digest. 

Saturnius, that is, a son of Saturnus, and 
accordingly used as a surname of Jupiter, Neptune, 
and Pluto. For the same reason the name of Sa- 
turnia is given both to Jirno and Vesta. 

Saturnus, a mythical king of Italy to whom 
was ascribed the introduction of agriculture and 
the habits of civilised life in general. The name 
is connected with the verb sero, sevi^ satum. The 
Romans invariably identified Saturnus with the 
Greek Cronos, and hence made the former the 
father of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, &c. 
[Cronos] ; but there is in reality no resemblance 
between the attributes of the two deities, except 
that both were regarded as the most ancient di- 
vinities in their respective countries. The resem- 
blance is much stronger between Demeter and 
Saturn, for all that the Greeks ascribe to their 
Demeter is ascribed bj'- the Italians to Satum. 
Saturnus, then, deriving his name from sowing, is 
justly called the introducer of civilisation and social 
order, both of which are inseparably connected 
with agriculture. His reign is conceived for the 
same reason to have been the golden age of Italy, 
and more especially of the Aborigines, his subjects. 
As agricultural industry is the source of wealth 
and plenty, his wife was Ops, the representative 
of plenty. The story ran that the god came to 



SATYRI. 



SAXONES. 



6'i9 



Italy, in the reign of Janus, by whom he was 
hospitably received, and that he formed a settle- 
ment on the Capitoline hill, which was hence 
called the Saturnian hill. At the foot of that hill, 
on the road leading up to the Capitol, there stood 
in aftertimes the temple of Saturn. Saturn then 
taught the people agriculture, suppressed their 
savage mode of life, and introduced among them 
civilization and morality. The result was that the 
whole country was called Saturnia or the land of 
plenty. Saturn was suddenly removed from earth 
to the abodes of the gods, whereupon Janus erected 
an altar to him in the forum. It is further related 
that Latimn received its name (from lateo) from 
this disappearance of Saturn, who for the same 
reason was regarded by some as a divinity of the 
nether world. Respecting the festival solemnized 
by the Romans in honour of Saturn, see Did. of 
Antiq. s. v. Saturnalia. The statue of Saturnus 
was hollow and filled with oil, probably to denote 
the fertility of Latium in olives ; in his hand he 
held a crooked prunmg knife, and his feet were 
surrounded with a woollen riband. In the pedi- 
ment of the temple of Saturn were seen two figures 
resembling Tritons, with horns, and whose lower 
extremities grew out of the ground ; the temple 
itself was used as the treasury of the state, and 
many laws also were deposited in it. 

Satyri (Sarypoi), the name of a class of beings 
in Greek mythologj', who are inseparably con- 
nected with the worship of Dionysus, and represent 
the luxuriant vital powers of nature. Homer does 
not mention the Satyrs. Hesiod. describes them 
as a race good for nothing and imfit for work. 
They are commonly said to be the sons of 
Hermes and Iphthima, or of the Naiads. The 
Satyrs are represented with bristly hair, the nose 
round and somewhat turned upwards, the ears 
pointed at the top like those of animals, with 2 
small horns growing out of the top of the forehead, 
and with a tail like that of a horse or goat. In 
works of art they are represented at different 
stages of life ; the older ones were commonly called 
Sileni, and the younger ones are termed Satyrisci. 
The Satyrs are always described as fond of wine, 
(whence they often appear either with a cup or a 
thyrsus in their hand), and of every kind of 
sensual pleasure, whence they are seen sleeping, 
playing musical instruments, or engaged in volup- 
tuous dances with nymphs. Like all the gods 
dwelling in forests and fields, they were greatly 
dreaded by mortals. Later writers, especially the 
Roman poets, confound the Satyrs with the Italian 
Fauni, and accordingly represent them with larger 
horns and goats' feet, although originally they 
Avere quite distinct kinds of beings. Satyrs usually 
appear with flutes, the thyrsus, syrinx, the shep- 
herd's staff, cups or bags filled with wine ; they are 
dressed with the skins of animals, and wear wreaths 
of vine, ivy or fir. Representations of them are 
still very numerous, but the most celebrated in 
antiquity was the Satyr of Praxiteles at Athens. 

Satyrus (Sarvpos). 1. I, King of Bosporus, 
was a son of Spartacus I., and reigned B. c. 407 or 
406-393. He maintained friendly relations with 
Athens. He was slain at the siege of Theudosia 
in 393, and was succeeded by his son Leucon. — 
2. II., king of Bosporus, was the eldest of the sons 
of Paerisades I., whom he succeeded in 311, but 
reigned only 9 months.— 3. A distinguished comic 
actor at Athens, is said to have given instructions 



to Demosthenes in the art of giving full effect to 
his speeches by appropriate action. — 4. A dis- 
tinguished Peripatetic philosopher and historian, 
who lived in the time of Ptolemy Philopator, if 
not later. He wrote a collection of biographies, 
among which were lives of Philip and Demosthenes, 
and which is frequently cited by ancient writers. 
— 6. A physician in the 2nd century after Christ, 
who wrote some works, which are no longer 
extant. 
Sauconna. [Arar.] 

Saufeius. 1. C, quaestor b. c. 100, was one of 
the partisans of Saturninus, took refuge with him 
in the capitol, and was slain along with his leader, 
when they were obliged to surrender to Marius.— 
2. L., a Roman eques, was an intimate friend of 
Atticus, and a warm admirer of the Epicurean 
philosophy. He had very valuable property in 
Italy, which was confiscated by the triumvirs, but 
was restored to him through the exertions of 
Atticus. 

Saul5e Parthaunisa (SawAco?} Uapeavna-a), 
the later capital of Parthia, called by the Greeks 
Nisaea. Its site is not known. 

Sauromatae. [Sarmatae.] 

Saurbmates (^avpofidTris), the name of several 
kings of Bosporus, who are for the most part known 
only from their coins. We find kings of this name 
reigning over Bosporus from the time of Augustus 
to that of Constantine. 

Saverrio, P. Sulpicius. 1. Consul b. c. 304, 
when he carried on the war against the Samnites. 
He was censor in 229 with Sempronius Sophus, 
his former colleague in the consulship. In their 
censorship 2 new tribes were formed, the Aniensis 
and Terentina. — 2. Son of the preceding, consul 
279 with P. Decius Mus, commanded, with his 
colleague, against Pyrrhus. 

Savo (Saom), a river in Campania, which flows 
into the sea S. of Sinuessa. 

Savus (Save or Sau), a navigable tributary of 
the Danube, which rises in the Carnic Alps, forms 
first the boundary between Noricum and Italy, 
and afterwards between Pannonia and lUyria, and 
falls into the Danube near Singidunum. 

Saxa, Decidius, a native of Celtiberia, was ori- 
ginally one of Caesar's common soldiers. He was 
tribune of the plebs in 44, and after Caesar's death 
in this year he took an active part in supporting 
the friends of his murdered patron. He served 
under M. Antonius in the siege of Mutina, and 
subsequently under both Antonius and Octavianus 
in their war against Brutus and Cassius. After 
the battle of Philippi Saxa accompanied Antony 
to the East, and was made by the latter governor 
of Syria. Here he was defeated by the younger 
Labienus and the Parthians, and was slain in the 
flight after the battle (40). 

Saxa, Q. Voconius, tribune of the plebs, b. c. 
169, proposed the Voconia lex, which was sup- 
ported by the elder Cato, who spoke in its favour, 
when he was 65 years of age. Respecting this 
lex, see Diet, of Antiq. s. v. 

Saxa Eubra. [Rubra Saxa.] 

Saxones, a powerful people in Germany, who 
originally dwelt in the S. part of the Cimbric Cher- 
sonesus, between the rivers Albis and Chalusus 
(Trave), consequently in the modern Holstein. 
Thej are not mentioned loj Tacitus and Pliny, 
since these writers appear to have comprehended 
all the inhabitants of the Cimbric Chersonesus 

X X 4 



680 



SCAEVA. 



SCALABIS. 



under the general name of Cimbri, The Saxones 
first occur in history in a. d. 286, when they are 
mentioned as brave and skilful sailors, who often 
joined the Chauci in piratical expeditions against 
the coast of Gaul. The Saxones afterwards appear 
at the head of a powerful confederacy of German 
peoples, who became united under the general 
name of Saxons, and who eventually occupied the 
country between the Elbe, the Rhine, the Lippe, 
and the German ocean. A portion of the Saxons, 
in conjunction with the Angli, led by Hengist and 
Horsa, conquered Briton, as is well known, about 
the middle of the 5th century. The Romans never 
came into close contact with the Saxons. 

Scaeva, Cassius, a centurion in Caesar's army, 
who distinguished himself by his extraordinary 
feats of valour at the battle of Dyrrhachium. He 
survived the battle, and is mentioned as one of the 
partisans of Caesar, after the death of the latter. 

Scaevola, Q. Cervidius, a Roman jurist, lived 
under Antoninus Pius. He wrote several works, 
and there are 307 excerpts from him in the Digest. 

Scaevola, Mucius. 1. C, the hero of a cele- 
brated story in early Roman history. When King 
Porsenna was blockading Rome, C. Mucins, a 
young man of the patrician class, resolved to rid 
his countrj' of the invader. He went out of the 
city, with a dagger hid beneath his dress, and 
approached the place where Porsenna was sitting, 
with a secretary by his side, dressed nearly in the 
same style as the king himself. jNIistaking the 
secretary for the king, Mucins killed him on the 
spot. He was seized by the king's guards, and 
brought before the royal seat, when he declared 
his name, and his design to kill the king himself, 
and told him that there were many more Romans 
ready to attempt his life. The king in his passion 
and alarm ordered him to be burnt alive, unless he 
explained more clearly what he meant by his vague 
threats, upon which Mucins thrust his right hand 
into a fire which was already lighted for a sacri- 
fice, and held it there without flinching. The king, 
■who was amazed at his firmness, ordered him to be 
removed from the altar, and bade him go away 
free and uninjured. To make some return to the 
king for his generous behaviour. Mucins told him 
that there were 300 of the first youths of Rome 
who had agreed with one another to kill the king, 
that the lot fell on him to make the first attempt, 
and that the rest would do the same when their 
turn came. Mucins received the name of Scae- 
vola, or left-handed, from the circumstance of the 
loss of his right hand. Porsenna being alarmed 
for his life, which he could not secure against so 
many desperate men, made proposals of peace to 
the Romans, and evacuated the territory. The 
patricians gave Mucins a tract of land beyond 
the Tiber, which was thenceforth called Mucia 
Praia. The ]Mucius of this story was a patrician ; 
but the Mucii of the historical period were ple- 
beians. —2. Q., praetor B.C. 215, had Sardinia 
for his province, where he remained for the next 3 
years. He was decemvir sacrorum, and died 209. 
—3. Q., probably son of No. 2, was praetor 179, 
with Sicily for his province, and consul 174. — 4. 
P., brother of No. 3, was praetor with his brother 
179, and consul 175. In his consulship he gained 
a victory over the Ligurians. — 5. P., probably son 
of No. 4, was tribune of the plebs l4l ; praetor 
urbanus 136; and consul 133, the year in which 
Tib. Gracchus lost his life. In 131 he succeeded 



his brother Mucianus [Mucianus] as Pontifex 
Maximus. Scaevola was distinguished for his 
knowledge of the Jus Pojiiijicium. He was also 
famed for his skiU in playing at ball, as well as at 
the game called Duodecim Scripta. His fame as a 
lawyer is recorded by Cicero in several passages. 
There is no excerpt from his writings in the 
Digest, but he is cited several times by the jurists 
whose works were used for that compilation. — 6. 
Q., called the Augur, was son of No. 3, and mar- 
ried the daughter of C. Laelius, the friend of Scipio 
Africanus the younger. He was tribune of the 
plebs 128, plebeian aedile 125, and as praetor was 
governor of the province of Asia in 121, the year 
in which C. Gracchus lost his life. He was prose- 
cuted after his return from his province for the 
offence of Repetundae, in 120, by T. Albucius, but 
was acquitted. He was consul 1 1 7. He lived at 
least to the tribunate of P. Sulpicius Rufus 88. 
Cicero, who was bom 106, informs us, that after he 
had put on the toga virilis, his father took him to 
Scaevola, who was then an old man, and that he 
kept as close to him as he could, in order to profit 
by his remarks. After his death Cicero became a 
hearer of Q. Mucins Scaevola, the pontifex. The 
Augur was distinguished for his knowledge of the 
law ; but none of his writings are recordjed. — Mucia, 
the Augur's daughter, married L. Licinius Crassus, 
the orator, who was consul 95, with Q. Mucins 
Scaevola, the pontifex maximus ; whence it ap- 
pears that the Q. Mucins, who is one of the speakers 
in the treatise de Oratore, is not the pontifex and 
the colleague of Crassus, but the Augur, the father- 
in-law of Crassus. He is also one of the speakers 
in the Laelius sive de Amicitia (c. 1), and in the 
de RepuUica (i. 12). — 7. ft., Pontifex Maxi- 
mus, was son of No. 5, and is quoted by Cicero as 
an example of a son who aimed at excellence in 
that which had given his father distinction. He 
was tribime of the plebs in 106, curule aedile in 
104, and consul 95, with Licinius Crassus, the 
orator, as his colleague. After his consulship Scae- 
vola was the governor (proconsul) of the province 
of Asia, in which capacity he gained the esteem 
of the people who were vmder his government. 
Subsequently he was made pontifex maximus, by 
which title he is often distinguished from Q. Mu- 
cins the Augur. He lost his life in the consulship 
of C. Marius the younger and Cn. Papirius Carbo 
(82), having been proscribed by the Marian party, 
from whicli we may conclude that he belonged to 
Sulla's party. His body was thrown into the Tiber. 
The virtues of Scaevola are recorded by Cicero, 
who, after the death of the Augur, became an 
attendant (auditor) of the pontifex. The purity of 
his moral character, his exalted notions of equity 
and fair dealing, his abilities as an administrator, 
an orator, and a jurist, place him among the first of 
the illustrious men of £dl ages and countries. He 
was, says Cicero, the most eloquent of jurists, and 
the most learned jurist among orators, Q. Scae- 
vola the pontifex is the first Roman to whom we 
can attribute a scientific and systematic handling 
of the Jus Civile, which he accomplished in a work 
in 18 books. He also wrote a Liber Singularis 
Trepl opooi/, a work on Definitions, or perhaps, rather, 
short rules of law, from which there are 4 ex- 
cerpts in the Digest. This is the oldest work from 
which there are any excerpts in the Digest, and 
even these may have been taken at second hand. 
Scalabis {Santareni), a towTi in Lusitania, ca 



SCALDIS. 



SCAURUS. 



681 



the road from Olisipo to Emerita and Bracara, also 
a Roman colony with the surname Praesidiura Ju- 
liura, and the seat of one of the 3 Conventus 
Juridici of the province. The town is erroneously 
called Scalabiscus by Ptolemy. 

Scaldis (Scheldt), an important river in the N. 
of Gallia Belgica, flowing into the ocean, but which 
Caesar erroneously makes a tributary of the Mosa. 
Ptolemy calls this river Tabudas or Tabullas, which 
name it continued to bear in the middle ages 
under the form of Tubul or Tabula. 

Scamander {^Kd/.iavSpos). 1. A river in the 
W. part of the N. coast of Sicily, falling into the 
sea near Segesta. — 2. The celebrated river of the 
Troad. [Tro^s.] As a mythological personage, 
the river-god was called Xanthus by the gods. 
His contest with Achilles is described by Homer 
(II. xxi. 136, foil.). 

Scamandrius CSKauduSpios), son of Hector and 
Andromache, whom the people of Troy called 
Astyanax, because his father was the protector of 
the city of Troy. 

Scambomdae (S^a/igaJi/tSat), a demus in Attica, 
between Athens and Eleusis, belonging to the tribe 
Leontis. 

Scampa (S/caMTra : Skumbi or Iscampi), a town 
in the interior of Greek Illyria, on the Via Egnatia 
between Clodiana and Lychnidus. 

Scandea (2/cai/5eia). a port-town on the E. side 
of the island Cythera, forming the harbour of the 
town of Cythera, from which it was 10 stadia distant. 

Scandia or Scandinavia, the name given by 
the ancients to Norway, Sweden, and the sur- 
rounding islands. Even the later Romans had a 
very imperfect knowledge of the Scandinavian 
peninsula. They supposed it to have been sur- 
rounded by the ocean, and to have been composed 
of several islands called by Ptolemy Scandiae. Of 
these the largest bore especially the name of 
Scandia or Scandinavia, by which the modern 
Sweden was undoubtedly indicated. This country 
was inhabited by the Hilleviones, of whom the 
Suiones and Sitones appear to have been tribes. 

Scandila (Scandole)., a small island in the N.E. 
of the Aegaean sea, between Peparethos and Scyros. 

Scantia Silva, a wood in Campania, in which 
were probably the Aquae Scantiae mentioned by 
Pliny. 

Scapte Hyle (SKaTrxTj uAt?), also called, but 
less correctly, Scaptesyle (Skottttjo-uAtj), a small 
town on the coast of Thrace opposite the island of 
Thasos. It contained celebrated gold mines, which 
were originally worked by the Thasians. Thucy- 
dides, who had some property in these mines, re- 
tired to this place after his banishment from Athens, 
and here arranged the materials for his history. 

Scaptia (Scaptiensis or Scaptius), an ancient 
town in Latium, which gave its name to a Roman 
tribe, but which disappeared at an early period. 

Scapiila, P. Ostorius, succeeded A. Plautius as 
governor of Britain, about a. d. 50. He defeated 
the powerful tribe of the Silures, took prisoner 
their king Caractacus, and sent him in chains to 
Rome. In consequence of this success he received 
the insignia of a triumph, but died soon afterwards 
in the province. 

Scarabantia (Oedenburg), a town in Pannonia 
Superior on the road from Vindobona to Poetovio, 
and a municipium with the surname Flavia Au- 
gusta. 

Scardona {'ZKaoZuva or tKapBuv). 1, (Shar- 



dona or Shardvi)., the chief town of Liburnia in 
Illyria on the right bank of the Titius, 12 miles 
from its mouth, the seat of a Conventus Juridicus. 
— 2. (Arbe), a small island off the coast of Li- 
burnia, also called Arba, which was the name of 
its principal town. 

Scardus or Scordus Mens (rh 2/cop5ov opos), a 
range of lofty mountains, forming the boundary 
between Moesia and Macedonia. 

Scarphe, Scarphea or ScarpMa (s.KdprpT], 
2/{ap^em, E/fap^j'a : "ZKapcpevs, "SKapcpievs, '2,Kap- 
(pa7os, "XKapcptos), a town of the Epicnemidii Locri, 
10 stadia from the coast, at Avhich the roads united 
leading through Thermopylae. It possessed a 
harbour on the coast, probably at the mouth of the 
river Boagrius. 

Scarponna (Charpeigne), a town in Gallia Bel- 
gica on the Mosella, and on the road from Tullum 
to Divodurum. 

Scato or Cato, Vettius, one of the Italian 
generals in the Marsic war, b. c. 90. He defeated 
the consuls, L. Julius Caesar and P. Rutilius Lupus, 
in 2 successive battles. He was afterwards taken 
prisoner, and was stabbed to death by his own slave 
as he was being dragged before the Roman general, 
being thus delivered from the ignominy and punish- 
ment that awaited him. 

Scaurus, Aemilms. 1. M., raised his family 
from obscurity to the highest rank among the 
Roman nobles. He was born in B. c. 163. His 
father, notwithstanding his patrician descent, had 
been obliged, through poverty, to carry on the 
trade of a coal-merchant, and left his son a very 
slender patrimony. The latter had thought at 
first of carrying on the trade of a money-lender ; 
but he finally resolved to devote himself to the 
study of eloquence, with the hope of rising to the 
honours of the state. He likewise served in the 
army, where he appears to have gained some dis- 
tinction. He was curule aedile in 123. He ob- 
tained the consulship in 115, when he carried on 
war with success against several of the Alpine 
tribes. In 1 12 he was sent at the head of an em- 
bassy to Jugurtha; and in 111 he accompanied 
the consul L. Calpurnius Bestia, as one of his 
legates, in the war against Jugurtha. The Numi- 
dian king bestowed large sums of money upon both 
Bestia and Scaurus, in consequence of which the 
consul granted the king most favourable terms of 
peace. This disgraceful transaction excited the 
greatest indignation at Rome ; and C. Mamilius, 
the tribune of the plebs, 110, brought forward a 
bill, by which an inquiry was to be instituted 
against all those who had received bribes from 
Jugurtha. Although Scaurus had been one of the 
most guilty, such was his influence in the state 
that he contrived to be appointed one of the three 
quaesitores, who were elected under the bill, for 
the purpose of prosecuting the criminals. But 
though he thus secured himself, he was unable to 
save any of his accomplices. Bestia and many 
others were condemned. In 109, Scaurus was 
censor with M. Livius Drusus. In his consulship 
he restored the Milvian bridge, and constructed 
the Aemilian road, which ran by Pisae and Luna 
as far as Dertona. In 107, he was elected consul 
a second time, in place of L. Cassius Longinus, 
who had fallen in battle against the Tigurini. 
In the struggles between the aristocratical and 
popular parties, Scaurus was always a warm sup- 
porter of the former. He was several times ac- 



682 



SCAURUS. 



SCIATHUS. 



cused of different offences, chiefly by his private 
enemies ; but such was his influence in the state, 
that he was always acquitted. He died about 89. 
By his wife Caecilia Scaunis had three children, 2 
sons mentioned below, and a daughter Aemilia, 
first married to M*. Glabrio, and next to Cn. Pom- 
pey, subsequently the triumvir. — 2. M., eldest 
son of the preceding, and stepson of the dictator 
Sulla, whom his mother Caecilia married after the 
death of his father. In the third Mithridatic war 
he served under Pompey as quaestor. The latter 
sent him to Damascus with an army, and from 
thence he marched into Judaea, to settle the dis- 
putes between the brothers H}Tcanus and Aristo- 
bulus, Scaurus was left by Pompey in the com- 
mand of Syria with two legions. During his 
government of Syria he made a predatory incursion 
into Arabia Petraea, but withdrew on the pay- 
ment of 300 talents by Aretas, the king of the 
country. He was curule aedile in 58, when he 
celebrated the public games with extraordinary 
splendour. The temporary theatre which he built 
accommodated 80,000 spectators, and was adorned 
in the most magnificent manner. 360 pillars deco- 
rated the stage, arranged in 3 stories, of which the 
lowest was made of white marble, the middle one 
of glass, and the highest of gilt wood. The com- 
bats of wild beasts were equally astonishing. 150 
panthers were exhibited in the circus, and 5 cro- 
codiles and a hippopotamus were seen for the first 
time at Rome. In 56 he was praetor, and in the 
following year governed the province of Sardinia, 
which he plundered without mercy. On his re- 
turn to Rome he was accused of the crime of repe- 
tundae. He was defended by Cicero, Hortensius, 
and others, and was acquitted, notwithstanding his 
guilt. He was accused again in 52, under Pom- 
pey's new law against ambitus, and was con- 
demned. He married Mucia, who had been pre- 
viously the wife of Pompey, and by her he had 
one son [No. 4].— 3. Younger son of No. 1, 
fought under the proconsul, Q. Catulus, against 
the Cimbri at the Athesis, and having fled from 
the field, was indignantly commanded by his father 
not to come into his presence ; whereupon the 
youth put an end to his life. — 4. M., son of No. 
2, and Mucia, the former ivife of Pompey the tri- 
umvir, and consequently the half-brother of Sex. 
Pompey. He accompanied the latter into Asia, 
after the defeat of his fleet in Sicily, but betrayed 
him into the hands of the generals of M. Antonius, 
in 35. After the battle of Actium, he fell into the 
power of Octavian, and escaped death, to which he 
had been sentenced, only through the intercession 
of his mother, Mucia. — 6. Mamercus, son of 
No. 5, was a distinguished orator and poet, but of 
a dissolute character. He was a member of the 
senate at the time of the accession of Tiberius, 
A. D. 14, when he offended this suspicious emperor 
hy some remarks which he made in the senate, 
Being accused of majestas in 34, he put an end 
to his own life. 

Scaurus, M. Aurelius, consul suffectus b. c, 
108, was 3 years afterwards consular legate in 
Gaul, where he was defeated by the Cimbri, taken 
prisoner, and put to death. 

Scaurus, Q. Terentius, a celebrated gramma- 
rian who flourished under the emperor Hadrian, 
and whose son was one of the preceptors of the 
emperor Verus. He was the author of an Ars 
Grammatica and of commentaries upon Plautus, 



Virgil, and the Ars Pottica of Horace, which are 
known to us from a few scattered notices only, for 
the tract entitled Q. Terentii Scauri de Orthographia 
ad Theseum included in the " Grammaticae Latinae 
Auctores Antiqui " of Putschius (Hannov. 1605). 
is not believed to be a genuine production of this 
Scaurus. 

Sceleratus Campus. [Roma, p. 650, a.] 

Scenae (S/cTjj'at, i. e. tlie tents), a town of Meso- 
potamia, on the borders of Babylonia, on a canal 
of the Euphrates, 25 days' journey below Zeugma, 
It belonged to the Scenitae, and was evidently 
only a collection of tents or huts. 

Scenitae (SKTjftrat, i. e. dwellers in tents), the 
general name used by the Greeks for the Bedawee 
(Bedouin) tribes of Arabia Deserta, It was also 
applied to nomad tribes in Africa, who likewise 
lived in tents. 

Scepsis (2K7);|/is : prob. Eski-Upshi, ox EsU- 
Shupshe, Ru.), an ancient city in the interior of 
the Troad, S. E. of Alexandria, in the mountains 
of Ida. Its inhabitants were removed by Anti- 
gonus to Alexandria ; but being permitted by Ly- 
simachus to return to their homes, they built a 
new city, called tj vea Kdafir}, and the remains of the 
old town were then called U.a\ai(TK7j^s. Scepsis 
is celebrated in literary history as the place where 
certain MSS. of Aristotle and Theophrastus were 
buried, to prevent their transference to Pergamus. 
When dug up again, they were foimd nearly de- 
stroyed by mould and worms, and in this condition 
they were removed by Sulla to Athens. The 
philosopher Metrodorus and the grammarian De- 
metrius were natives of Scepsis. 

Scerdilaidas, or Scerdilaedus (2,Ksp5iXat5as or 
SwepSlAaiSos), king of Illyria, was in all proba- 
bility a son of Pleurattis, and younger brother of 
Agron, both of them kings of that country. After 
the defeat and abdication of Teuta (b. c. 229), he 
probably succeeded to a portion of her dominions, 
but did not assume the title of king, tUl after the 
death of his nephew Pinnes. He carried on war 
for some j-ears against Philip, king of Macedonia, 
and thus appears as an aUy of the Romans. He 
probably died about 205, and was succeeded by 
his son Pleuratus. 

Schedius (SxeStos). L Son of Iphitus and 
Hippoh^e, commanded the Phocians in the war 
against Troy, along with his brother Epistrophus. 
He was slain by Hector, and his remains were 
carried from Troy to Anticyra in Phocis. — 2. Son 
of Perimedes, likewise a Phocian who was killed 
at Troy by Hector. 

Schera (Scherinus), a town in the interior of 
Sicily in the S. W. part of the island. 

Scheria. [Phaeaces.] 

Schoenus (Sxo'i'o? : ^xo'i^'eus), a town of 
Boeotia, on a river of the same name^ and on the 
road from Thebes to Anthedon. 

Schoeniis (Xxoivovs -ovptos) 1. A harbour of 
Corinth, N. of Cenchreae, at the narrowest part of 
the isthmus. — 2. A place in the interior of Ar- 
cadia near INIethydriiam. 

Sciathus {':$Kiaeos : :^Kid6ios : Skiatho), a small 
island in the Aegaean sea, N. of Euboea and E. 
of the Magnesian coast of Thessaly, with a town 
of the same name upon it. It is said to have been 
originally colonised by Pelasgians from Thraae. 
It is frequently mentioned in the history of the 
invasion of Greece by Xerxes, since the Persian 
and Grecian fleets were stationed near its coasts. 



SCIDRUS. 



SCIPIO. 



683 



It subsequently became one of the subject allies of 
Athens, but attained such little prosperity that it 
only had to pay the small tribute of 200 drachmae 
yearly. Its chief town was destroyed by the last 
Philip of Macedonia. At a later time it was 
restored by Antonius to the Athenians. Sciathus 
produced good wine. 

Scidrus (2Ki'5pos), a place in the S. of Italy of 
uncertain site, in which some of the Sybarites 
settled after the destruction of their own city. 

ScilliiS (^KlXXOVS -OVVTOS : "SiKlWovi/tios, ^kl\- 

Kovaios), a town of Elis in the district Triphylia, 
on the river Selinus, 20 stadia S. of Olyrapia. It 
was destroyed by the Eleans in the war which 
they carried on against the Pisaeans, whose cause 
had been espoused by the inhabitants of Scillus. 
The Lacedaemonians subsequently took possession 
of the territory of Scillus ; and, although the 
Eleans still laid claim to it, they gave it to 
Xenophon after his banishment from Athens. 
Xenophon resided at this place during the re- 
mainder of his life, and erected here a sanctuary 
to Artemis, which he had vowed during the retreat 
of the Ten Thousand. 

Scingomagus, a small place in the S. E. part of 
Gallia Transpadana, in the kingdom of Cottius, 
W. of Segusio, at the pass across the Alps. 

Sci5ne {^Kidovq : ^KiwvaTos, liKiwveis), the 
cMef town in the Macedonian peninsula of Pal- 
lene, on the W. coast. It is said to have been 
founded by some Pellenians of Achaia, who settled 
here after their return from Troy. It revolted 
from the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war, but 
was retaken by Cleon ; whereupon all the men 
were put to death, the women and children sold as 
slaves, and the town given to the Plataeans. 

Scipio, the name of an illustrious patrician family 
of the Cornelia gens. This name, which signifies 
a stick or staff, is said to have been given to the 
founder of the family, because he served as a staff 
in directing his blind father. This family produced 
some of the greatest men in Rome, and to them 
she was more indebted than to any others for the 
empire of the world. The family-tomb of the 
Scipios was discovered in 1780, on the left of the 
Appia Via, about - 400 paces within the modern 
Porta S. Sebastiano. The inscriptions and other 
curiosities are now deposited in the Museo Pio-Cle- 
mentino, at Rome. — 1. P. Cornelius Scipio, ma- 
gister equitum, b. c. 396, and consular tribune 395, 
and 394.-2. LCorn. Scipio, consul 350.— 3. P. 
Com. Scipio Barbatus, consul 328, and dictator, 
306. He was also pontifex maximus. — 4. L. Corn. 
Scipio Barbatus, consul 298, when he carried on 
war against the Etruscans, and defeated them near 
Volaterrae. He also served under the consuls in 
297, 295, and 293 against the Samnites. This 
Scipio was the great great-grandfather of the can- 
queror of Hannibal. The genealogy of the family 
can be traced Avith more certainty from this time.— 
6, Cn. Corn. Scipio Asina, son of No. 4, was consul 
260, in the 1st Punic war. In an attempt upon 
the Liparaean islands, he was taken prisoner with 
17 ships. He probably recovered his liberty when 
Regulus invaded Africa ; for he was consul a 2nd 
time in 254. In tliis year he and his colleague A. 
Atilius Calatinus crossed over into Sicily, and took 
the town of Panonnus. — 6. L. Com. Scipio, also 
son of No. 4, was consul 259. He drove the Car- 
thaginians out of Sardinia and Corsica, defeating 
Hanno, the Carthaginian commander. He was 



censor in 258. — 7. P. Corn. Scipio Asina, son of 

No. 5, was consul 221, and carried on war, with 
his colleague M. Minucius Rufus, against the Istri, 
who were subdued by the consuls. He is mentioned 
again in 211, when he recommended that the senate 
should recall all the generals and armies from Italy 
for the defence of the capital, because Hannibal 
was marching upon the city.— 8. P. Com. Scipio, 
son of No. 6. was consul, with Ti. Sempronius 
Longus, in 218, the first year of the 2nd Punic 
War. He sailed with an army to Gaul, in order to 
encounter Hannibal before crossing the Alps ; but 
finding that Hannibal had crossed the Rhone, and 
had got the start of him by a 3 days' march, he 
resolved to sail back to Italy, and await Hannibal's 
arrival in Cisalpine Gaul. But as the Romans had 
an army of 25,000 men in Cisalpine Gaul, under 
the command of 2 praetors, Scipio sent into Spain 
the army which he had brought with him, under 
the command of his brother Cn. Scipio. On his 
return to Italy, Scipio took the command of the 
army in Cisalpine Gaul, and hastened to meet 
Hannibal. An engagement took place between 
the cavalry and light-armed troops of the 2 armies. 
The Romans were defeated ; the consul himself 
received a severe wound, and was only saved from 
death by the courage of his young son, Piiblius, 
the future conqueror of Hannibal. Scipio now 
retreated across the Ticinus, crossed the Po also, 
first took up his quarters at Placentia, and subse- 
quently withdrew to the hills on the left bank of 
the Trebia, where he was joined by the other 
consul, Sempronius Longus. The latter resolved 
upon a battle, in opposition to the advice of his 
colleague. The result was the complete defeat of 
the Roman army, which was obliged to take refuge 
within the walls of Placentia. In the following 
year 217, Scipio, whose imperium had been pro- 
longed, crossed over into Spain. He and his 
brother Cneius continued in Spain till their death 
in 211; but the history of their campaigns, though 
important in their results, is full of confusions and 
contradictions. They gained several victories over 
the enemy, and they felt themselves so strong by 
the beginning of 212, that they resolved to cross 
the Iberus, and to make a vigorous effort to drive 
the Carthaginians out of Spain. They accordingly 
divided their forces, but they were defeated and 
slain in battle by the Carthaginians.— 9. Cn. Corn. 
Scipio Calvus, son of No. 6, and brother of No. 8, 
was consul 222, with M. Claudius Marcellus. In 
conjunction with his colleague he carried on war 
against the Insubrians. In 218 he carried on war 
as the legate of his brother Publius for 8 years in 
Spain, as has been related above. — 10. P. Com. 
Scipio Africanus Major, son of No. 8. was bom 
in 234. He was unquestionably one of the greatest 
men of Rome, and he acquired at an early age the 
confidence and admiration of his countrymen. His 
enthusiastic mind led him to believe that he was 
a special favourite of the gods ; and he never 
engaged in any public or private business without 
first going to the Capitol, where he sat some time 
alone, enjoying communication from the gods. For 
all he proposed or executed he alleged the divine 
approval; and the Roman people gave credit to his 
assertions, and regarded him as a being almost 
superior to the common race of men. There can be 
no doubt that Scipio believed himself in the divine 
revelations, which he asserted to have been vouch- 
safed to him, and the extraordinary success which 



684 



SCIPIO. 



SCIPIO. 



attended all bis enterprises must have deepened 
this belief. He is iirst mentioned in 218 at the 
battle of the Ticinus, when he saved the life of his 
father as has been already related. He fought at 
Cannae two years afterward (216), when he was 
already a tribune of the soldiers, and was one of 
the few Roman officers who survived that fatal 
day. He was chosen along with Appius Claudius 
to command the remains of the army, which had 
taken refuse at Canusium ; and it was owing to 
his youthful heroism and presence of mind, that 
the Roman nobles, who had thought of leaving 
Italy in despair, were prevented from carrj'ing 
their rash project into effect. He had already 
gained the favour of the people to such an extent, 
that he was elected aedile in 212, although he 
had not yet reached the legal age. In 210, 
after the death of his father and uncle in Spain, 
the Romans resolved to increase their army in that 
country, and to place it under the command of a 
proconsul. But when the people assembled to 
elect a proconsul, none of the generals of experience 
ventured to sue for so dangerous a command. At 
length Scipio, who was then barely 24, offered 
himself as a candidate, and was chosen with en- 
thusiasm to take the command. His success in 
Spain was striking and rapid. In the first cam- 
paign (210) he took the important city of Carthago 
Nova, and in the course of the next 3 years he 
drove the Carthaginians entirely out of Spain, and 
became master of that country. He returned to 
Rome in 206, and was elected consul for the fol- 
lowing year (205), although he had not yet filled 
the office of praetor, and was only 30 years of age. 
He was anxious to cross over at once to Africa, 
and bring the contest to an end at the gates of 
Carthage ; but the oldest members of the senate, 
and among them Q. Fabius Maximus, opposed his 
project, partly through timidity and partly through 
jealousy of the youthful conqueror. AH that Scipio 
could obtain was the province of Sicily, with per- 
mission to cross over to Africa; but the senate 
refused him an army, thus making the permission 
of no practical use. But the allies had a truer 
view of the interests of Italy than the Roman 
senate ; and from all the towns of Italy volunteers 
flocked to join the standard of the youthful hero. 
The senate could not refuse to allow him to enlist 
volunteers ; and such was the enthusiasm in his 
favour, that he was able to cross over to Sicily with 
an army and a fleet contrary to the expectations 
and even the wishes of the senate. After spend- 
ing the winter in Sicily, and completing all his 
preparations for the invasion of Africa, he crossed 
over to the latter country in the course of the 
following year. Success again attended his arms. 
The Carthaginians and their ally Syphax were 
defeated with great slaughter ; and the former 
were compelled to recall Hannibal from Italy as 
the only hope of saving their coimtry. The long 
struggle between the 2 peoples was at length 
brought to a close by the battle fought near the 
city of Zama on the 19th of October, 202, in which 
Scipio gained a decisive and brilliant victory over 
Hannibal. Carthage had no alternative but sub- 
mission ; but the final treaty was not concluded 
till the following year (201). Scipio returned to 
Italy in 201, and entered Rome in triumph. He 
was received with universal enthusiasm, and the 
surname of Africanus was conferred upon him. 
The people wished to make him consul and dic- 



tator for life, and to erect his statue in the comitia, 
the rostra, the curia, and even in the Capitol, but 
he prudently declined all these invidious dis- 
tinctions. As he did not choose to usurp the su- 
preme power, and as he was an object of suspicion 
and dislike to the majority of the senate, he took 
no prominent part in public affairs during the next 
few years. He was censor in 199 with P. Aelius 
Faetus, and consul a second time in 194 with Ti. 
Sempronius Longus. In 193, he was one of the 
3 commissioners who were sent to Africa to me- 
diate between Masinissa and the Carthaginians ; 
and in the same year he was one of the ambas- 
sadors sent to Antiochus at Ephesus, at whose 
court Hannibal was then residing. The tale runs 
that he had there an interview with the great Car- 
thaginian, who declared him the greatest general 
that ever lived. The compliment was paid in a 
manner the most flattering to Scipio. The latter 
had asked, " Who was the greatest general ? " 
" Alexander the Great," was Hannibal's reply. 
" Who was the second ? " " Pyrrhus." " Who 
the third .5" " Myself," replied the Carthaginian. 
" What would you have said, then, if you had 
conquered me ? " asked Scipio, in astonishment. 
" I should then have placed myself before Alex- 
ander, before Pyrrhus, and before all other ge- 
nerals." — In 190 Africanus served as legate 
under his brother Lucius in the war against An- 
tiochus the Great. Shortly after his return, he 
and his brother Lucius were accused of having 
received bribes from Antiochus to let the monarch 
off too leniently, and of having appropriated to 
their own use part of the money which had been 
paid by Antiochus to the Roman state. The de- 
tails of the accusation are related with such dis- 
crepancies by the ancient authorities, that it is 
impossible to determine with certainty the true 
history of the affair, or the year in which it oc- 
curred. It appears, however, that there were 
two distinct prosecutions, and the following is 
perhaps the most probable history of the transac- 
tion. In 187, 2 tribunes of the people of the 
name of Petillii, instigated by Cato and the other 
enemies of the Scipios, required L. Scipio to render 
an account of all the sums of money which he 
had received from Antiochus. L. Scipio accord- 
ingly prepared his accounts, but as he was in the 
act of delivering them up, the proud conqueror of 
Hannibal indignantly snatched them out of his 
hands, and tore them up in pieces before the senate. 
But this haughty conduct appears to have produced 
an unfavourable impression, and his brother, when 
brought to trial in the course of the same year, was 
declared guilty, and sentenced to pay a heavy 
fine. The tribune C. Minucius Augurinus ordered 
him to be dragged to prison and there detained tUI 
the money was paid ; whereupon Africanus res- 
cued his brother from the hands of the tribune's 
officer. The contest would probably have been at- 
tended with fatal results had not Tib. Gracchus, 
the father of the celebrated tribune, and then 
tribune himself, had the prudence to release Lu- 
cius from the sentence of imprisonment. The 
successful issue of the prosecution of Lucius em- 
boldened his enemies to bring the great Africanus 
himself before the people. His accuser was M. 
Naevius, the tribune of the people, and the accu- 
sation was brought in 185. When the trial came 
on, and Africanus was summoned, he proudly re- 
minded the people that this was the anniversary 



SCIPIO. 



SCIPIO. 



685 



of the day on which he had defeated Hannibal at 
Zaina, and called upon them to follow him to the 
Capitol, in order there to return thanks to the 
immortal gods, and to pray that they would 
grant the Roman state other citizens like himself. 
Scipio struck a chord which vibrated on every 
heart, and was followed by crowds to the Ca- 
pitol. Having thus set all the laws at defiance, 
Scipio immediately quitted Rome, and retired to 
his country seat at Liternum. The tribunes 
wished to renew the prosecution, but Gracchus 
wisely persuaded them to let it drop. Scipio never 
returned to Rome. He passed his remaining days 
in the cultivation of his estate at Liternum ; and 
at his death is said to have requested that his 
body might be buried there, and not in his un- 
grateful country. The year of his death is equally 
uncertain ; but he probably died in 183. Scipio 
married Aemilia, the daughter of L. Aemilius 
Paulus, who fell at the battle of Cannae, and by 
her he had 4 children, 2 sons [Nos. 12, 13], and 
2 daughters, the elder of whom married P. Scipio 
Nasica Corculum [No. 17.], and the younger Tib. 
Gracchus, and thus became the mother of the two 
celebrated tribunes. [Cornelia.] —11. L, Corn. 
Scipio Asiaticus, also called Asiagenes or Asia- 
genus, was the son of No. 8, and the brother of 
the great Africanus. He served under his brother 
in Spain ; was praetor in 1 93, when he obtained the 
province of Sicily ; and consul in 190, with C.Lae- 
lius. The senate had not much confidence in his 
abilities, and it was only through the offer of his 
brother Africanus to accompany him as a legate 
that he obtained the province of Greece and the 
conduct of the war against Antiochus. He de- 
feated Antiochus at Mt. Sipylus, in 190, entered 
Rome in triumph in the following year, and as- 
sumed the surname of Asiaticus. The history of 
his accusation and condemnation has been already 
related in the life of his brother. He was a can- 
didate for the censorship in 184, but was defeated 
by the old enemy of his family, M. Porcius Cato, 
who deprived Asiaticus of his horse at the review 
of the equites. It appears, therefore, that even as 
late as this time an eques did not forfeit his horse 
by becoming a senator. — 12. P. Corn. Scipio 
Africanus, elder son of the great Africanus, was 
prevented by his weak health from taking any part 
in public affairs. Cicero praises his oratiunculae 
and his Greek history, and remarks that, with the 
greatness of his father's mind he possessed a larger 
amount of learning. He had no son of his own, 
but adopted the son of L. Aemilius Paulus [see 
below. No. 15]. —13. L. or Cn. Corn. Scipio 
Africanus, younger son of the great Africanus. 
He accompanied his father into Asia in 190, and 
was taken prisoner by Antiochus. This Scipio 
was a degenerate son of an illustrious sire, and 
only obtained the praetorship, in 174, through 
Cicereius, who had been a scriba of his father, 
giving way to him. In the same year he was ex- 
pelled from the senate by the censors. — 14. L. 
Corn. Scipio Asiaticus, a descendant of No. 1 1 , 
belonged to the Marian party, and was consul 83 
with C. Norbanus. In this year Sulla returned 
to Italy : Scipio was deserted by his troops, and 
taken prisoner in his camp along with his son 
Lucius, but was dismissed by Sulla uninjured. 
He was, however, included in the proscription in 
the following year (82), whereupon he fled to 
Massilia, and passed there the remainder of his 



life. His daughter was married to P. Sestius. 
— 15. P. Com. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus 
Minor, was the younger son of L. Aemilius Paulus, 
the conqueror of Macedonia, and was adopted by 
P. Scipio [No. 12], the son of the conqueror of 
Hannibal. He was born about 185. In his 17th 
year he accompanied his father Paulus to Greece, 
and fought under him at the battle of Pydna, 
1 68. Scipio devoted himself with ardour to the 
study of literature, and formed an intimate friend- 
ship with Polybius, when the latter came to Rome 
along with the other Achaean exiles in 167. 
[Polybius.] At a later period he also cultivated 
the acquaintance of the philosopher Panaetius, 
and he likewise admitted the poets Lucilius and 
Terence to his intimacj'-, and is said to have as- 
sisted the latter in the composition of his come- 
dies. His friendship with Laelius, whose tastes 
and pursuits were so congenial to his own, has 
been immortalised by Cicero's celebrated treatise 
entitled "Laelius sive de Amicitia." Although 
thus devoted to the study of polite literature, 
Scipio is said to have cultivated the virtues which 
distinguished the older Romans, and to have made 
Cato the model of his conduct. If we may believe 
his panegyrists, he possessed all the simple virtues 
of an old Roman, mellowed by the refining in- 
fluences of Greek civilisation. Scipio first served 
in Spain with great distinction as military tribune 
under the consul L. Lucullus in 151. On the 
breaking out of the 3rd Punic war in 149 he ac- 
companied the Roman army to Africa, again with 
the rank of military tribune. Here he gained 
still more renown. By his personal bravery and 
military skill he repaired, to a great extent, the 
mistakes of the consul Manilius, whose army on 
one occasion he saved from destruction. He 
returned to Rome in 148, and had already gained 
such popularity that when he became a candidate 
for the aedileship for the following year (147) he 
was elected consul, although he was only 37, and 
had not therefore attained the legal age. The 
senate assigned to him Africa as his province, to 
which he forthwith sailed, accompanied by his 
friends Polybius and Laelius. He prosecuted the 
siege of Carthage with the utmost vigour. The 
Carthaginians defended themselves with the cou- 
rage of despair, and the Romans were unable to 
force their way into the city till the spring of the 
following year (146). The inhabitants fought 
from street to street, and from house to house, and 
the work of destruction and butchery went on for 
days. The fate of this once magnificent city 
moved Scipio to tears, and anticipating that a 
similar catastrophe might one day befall Rome, he 
repeated the lines of the Iliad (vi. 448), in which 
Hector bewails the approaching fall of Troy. After 
reducing Africa to the form of a Roman province, 
Scipio returned to Rome in the same year, and 
celebrated a splendid triumph on account of his 
victory. The surname of Africanus, which he had 
inherited by adoption from the conqueror of Han- 
nibal, had been now acquired by him by his own 
exploits. In 142 Scipio was censor, and in the 
administration of the duties of his office he at- 
tempted to repress the growing luxury and immo- 
rality of his contemporaries. His efforts, however, 
were thwarted by his colleague Mummius, who 
had himself acquired a love for Greek and Asiatic 
luxuries. In 139 Scipio was accused by Ti. Clau- 
dius Asellus of majestas. Asellus attacked him 



686 



SCIPIU. 



SCIPIO. 



out of private animosity, because he had been 
deprived of his horse, and reduced to the condition 
of an aerarian by Scipio in his censorship. Scipio 
was acquitted, and the speeches which he delivered 
on the occasion obtained great celebrity, and were 
held in high esteem in a later age. It appears to 
have been after this event tliat Scipio was sent on 
an embassy to Egypt and Asia to attend to the 
Roman interests in those countries. The long 
continuance of the war in Spain again called Scipio 
to the consulship. He was appointed consul in his 
absence, and had the province of Spain assigned to 
him in 134. His operations were attended with 
success ; and in 133 he brought the war to a con- 
clusion by the capture of the city of Numantia 
after a long siege. He now received the surname 
of Numantinus in addition to that of Africanus. 
During his absence in Spain Tib. Gracchus had 
been put to death. Scipio was married to Sem- 
pronia, the sister of the fallen tribune, but he had 
no sympathy with his reforms, and no sorrow for 
his fate. Upon his return to Rome in 132, he 
did not disguise his sentiments, and when asked 
in the assembly of the tribes by C. Papirius Carbo, 
the tribime, what he thought of the death of Tib. 
Gracchus, he boldly replied that he was justly 
slain (jure caesum). The people loudly expressed 
their disapprobation ; whereupon Scipio proudly 
bad them be silent. He now took the lead in 
opposing the popular party, and endeavoured to 
prevent the agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus from 
being carried into effect. In order to accomplish 
this object, he proposed in the senate (129), that 
all disputes respecting the lands of the allies should 
be taken out of the hands of the commissioners 
appointed imder the law of Tib. Gracchus, and 
should be committed to other persons. This 
would have been equivalent to an abrogation of 
the law; and accordingly Fulv ius Flaccus, Pa- 
pirius Carbo and C. Gracchus, the 3 commission- 
ers, offered the most vehement opposition to his 
proposal. In the forum he was accused by Carbo 
with the bitterest invectives as the enemy of the 
people, and upon his again expressing his approval 
of the death of Tib. Gracchus, the people shouted 
out, " Down with the tA-rant." In the evening 
he went home with the intention of composing a 
speech for the following day ; but next day he 
was found dead in his room. The most contra- 
dictory rumours were circulated respecting his 
death, but it was generally believed that he was 
murdered. Suspicion fell upon various persons ; 
his wife Sempronia and her mother Cornelia were 
suspected by some ; Carbo, Fulvius, and C. Grac- 
chus by others. Of all these Carbo was most 
generally believed to have been guilty, and is 
expressly mentioned as the murderer by Cicero. 
The general opinion entertained by the Romans of 
a subsequent age respecting Scipio is given b^-- 
Cicero in his work on the Republic, in which Scipio 
is introduced as the principal speaker. — 16. P. 
Corn. Scipio Nasica, that is, Scipio with the 
pointed nose," was the son of Cn. Scipio Calvus, 
who fell in Spain in 211. [No. 9.] He is first 
Tuentioned in 204 as a yoimg man who was judged 
\iy the senate to be the best citizen in the state, 
and was therefore sent to Ostia along with the 
Roman matrons to receive the statue of the Idaean 
Mother, which had been brought from Pessinus. 
He was cui-ule aedile 196 ; praetor in 194, when 
lie fought with success in Further Spain; and consul 



191, when he defeated the Boii, and triumphed 
over them on his retiu-n to Rome. Scipio Nasica 
was a celebrated jurist, and a house was given him 
by the state in the Via Sacra, in order that he 
might be more easily consulted. — 17. P. Corn, 
Scipio Nasica Corctiium, son of No. 16, inherited 
from his father a love of jurisprudence, and became 
so celebrated for his discernment and for his know- 
ledge of the pontifical and civil law, that he received 
the surname of Corculum. He married a daughter 
of Scipio Africanus the elder. He was consul for 
the first time 1 62, but abdicated, together with his 
colleague, almost immediately after they had en- 
tered upon their office, on account of some fault in 
the auspices. He was censor 159 with M. PopiUius 
Laenas, and was consul a 2nd time in 155, when 
he subdued the Dalmatians. He was a firm up- 
holder of the old Roman habits and manners, and 
in his 2nd consulship he induced the senate to 
order the demolition of a theatre, which was near 
completion, as injurious to public morals. When 
Cato repeatedly expressed his desire for the de- 
struction of Carthage, Scipio, on the other hand, 
declared that he wished for its preservation, since 
the existence of such a rival would prove a useful 
check upon the licentiousness of the multitude. 
He was elected pontifex maximus in 150.— 18. P. 
Corn. Scipio Nasica Serapio, son of No. 17, is 
chiefly known as the leader of the senate in the 
murder of Tib. Gracchus. He was consul in 138, 
and in consequence of the severity with which he 
and his colleague conducted the levy of troops, 
they were thro\\'n into prison by C. Curiatius, 
the tribune of the plebs. It was this Curiatius 
who gave Nasica the nickname of Serapio, from 
his resemblance to a person of low rank of this 
name ; but though given him in derision, it after- 
wards became his distinguishing surname. In 133, 
when the tribes met to re-elect Tib. Gracchus to 
the tribimate, and the utmost confusion prevailed 
in the forum, Nasica called upon the consuls to 
save the republic ; but as they refused to have 
recourse to violence, he exclaimed, " As the consul 
betrays the state, do you who wish to obey the 
laws follow me," and so saying he rushed forth from 
the temple of Fides, where the senate was sitting, 
followed by the greater number of the senators. 
The people gave way before them, and Gracchus 
was assassinated as he attempted to escape. In 
consequence of his conduct on this occasion Nasica 
became an object of such detestation to the people, 
that the senate found it advisable to send him on a 
pretended mission to Asia, although he was pontifex 
maximus, and ought not, therefore, to have quitted 
Italy. He did not venture to return to Rome, and 
after wandering about from place to place, died 
soon afterwards at Pergamum. — 19. P. Com. 
Scipio Nasica, son of No. 18, was consul 111, and 
died during his consulship. — 20. P. Corn. Scipio 
Nasica, son of No. 19, praetor 94, is mentioned 
by Cicero as one of the advocates of Sex. Roscius 
of Ameria. He married Licinia, the 2nd daughter 
of L. Crassus, the orator. He had 2 sons, both of 
whom were adopted, one by his maternal grand- 
father L. Crassus in his testament, and is therefore 
called L. Licinius Crassus Scipio ; and the other 
by Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius, consul 80, and is 
therefore called Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio. 
This Scipio became the father in-law of Cn. Pompey 
the triumvir, and fell in Africa in 46. His life is 
given imder Metellus, No. 15. — 21. Cn. Com. 



SCIRAS. 

Scipio Hispallns, son of L. Scipio who is only 
known as a brothev of the 2 Scipios who fell in 
Spain, liispallus was praetor 179, and consul 171. 
— 22. Cn. Corn. Scipio HispaUus, son of No. 21, 

was praetor, 139, when he published an edict that 
all Chaldaeans (i. e. astrologers) should leave Rome 
and Italy within 10 days. 

Sciras or Sclerias (S/ci'pas, '^KX-qpias), of Ta- 
rentum, was one of the followers of Rhinthon in 
that peculiar sort of comedy, or rather burlesque 
tragedy, which was cultivated by the Dorians of 
Magna Graecia, and especially at Tarentum. 
[Rhinthon.] 

Sciras (SKipds), a surname of Athena, under 
which she had a temple in the Attic port of Pha- 
leron, and in the island of Salamis. The foun- 
dation of the temple at Phaleron is ascribed by 
Pausanias to a soothsayer, Scirus of Dodona, who 
is said to have come to Attica at the time when 
the Eleusinians were at war with Erechtheus. 

Sciritis {^Kip7Tis), a wild and mountainous 
district in the N. of Laconia, on the borders of 
Arcadia, with a town called Scirus (:S.K7pos), 
which originally belonged to Arcadia. Its inha- 
bitants, the Sciritae (S/ftprrat), formed a special 
division of the Lacedaemonian army. This body, 
which in the time of the Peloponnesian war, was 
600 in number, was stationed in battle at the 
extreme left of the line, formed on march the 
vanguard, and was usually employed on the most 
dangerous kinds of service. 

Sciron {'^Kipoov or S/cei'pwi'), a famous robber 
who infested the frontier between Attica and 
Megaris. He not only robbed the travellers who 
passed through the country, but compelled them, 
on the Scironian rock to wash his feet, and kicked 
them into the sea, while they were thus employed. 
At the foot of the rock there was a tortoise, which 
devoured the bodies of the robber's victims. He 
was slain by Theseus. 

Scironia Saxa {^KipuviSes TreVpat, also 
pddes : Derveni Bound), large rocks on the E. 
coast of Megaris, between which and the sea there 
was only a narrow dangerous pass, called the 
Scironian road (J) liKipdivri or '2,Kipwv\s bZ6s : KaU 
Skala). This road was afterwards enlarged by the 
emperor Hadrian. The name of the rocks was 
derived from the celebrated robber Sciron. 

Scirri or Sciri, a people in European Sarmatia, 
on the N. coast, immediately E. of the Vistula, in 
the modern Curland and Samogiiien. The Sciri 
afterwards joined 'the Huns; and to this people 
belonged Odoacer, the conqueror of Italy. 

Scirtonium {'S.KipTcaviov), a town in the S. of 
Arcadia, belonging to the district Aegytis, the 
inhabitants of which removed to Megalopolis, upon 
the foundation of the latter. 

Scirtus {^KipTos : Jillah), a river in Mesopo- 
tamia, flowing past Edessa into a small lake near 
Charrae. Its name, which signifies leaping, was 
derived fi-om its rapid descent in a series of small 
cascades. 

Sclerias. [Sciras.] 

Scodra (Scodrensis : Scodar or Scutari), one of 
the most important towns in Illyricum, on the left 
bank of the river Barbana, at the S. E. corner of 
the Lacus Labeatis, and about 17 miles from the 
coast. It was strongly fortified, and was the resi- 
dence of the Illyrian king Gentius. It subse- 
quently contained many Roman inhabitants. 

Scodms. [ScARDus.] 



SCOPAS. 687 

Scoedises, Scydisses, or Scordiscus (2«:ot- 
Sia7]s, S/cvSitrcTTjy, ^KopdlffKos : Dassim DagJi, or 
Chambur-Bel Dagh), a mountain in the N. E. of 
Asia Minor, dividing Pontus Cappadocius from 
Armenia Minor, and forming a part of the same 
range as M. Paryades. 

ScoUis (2/co'AA.is : Sandameri), a rocky moun- 
tain between Elis and Achaia, 3333 feet high, 
which joins on the E. the mountain Lampea. 

Scoloti (^kSKotqi), the native name of the 
Scythians, according to Herodotus, is in all proba- 
bility the Greek form of Slave-nie or Slove-nie, the 
generic name of the Slavonian race. [Scythia.] 
The later Greek writers call them '2KXa€riuoi. 

Scolus (2kw\os : 'ZkwXios, '2,Kw\ievs). 1. An 
ancient town in Boeotia, on the road from Thebes 
to Aphidna in Attica, was situated on the N. 
slope of Mt. Cithaeron and 40 stadia S. of the 
river Asopus. — 2. A small place in Macedonia, 
near Olynthus. 

Scombraria {Islote), an island in front of the 
bay, on the S. E. coast of Spain, which formed the 
harbour of Carthago Nova. It received its name 
from the scombri, or mackerel, taken off its coast, 
from which the Romans prepared their garum. 

Scomius Mons (t^j '2,k6/jliov opos), a mountain 
in Macedonia, which runs E. of Mt. Scardus, in 
the direction of N. to S. towards Mt. Haemus. 

Scopas (5/co7ras). 1. An Aetolian, who held a 
leading position among his countrymen at the 
period of the outbreak of the war with Philip and 
the Achaeans, b. c. 220. He commanded the 
Aetolian army in the first year of the war ; and 
he is mentioned again as general of the Aetolian s, 
when the latter people concluded an alliance with 
the Romans to assist them against Philip (211). 
After the close of the war with Philip, Scopas and 
Dorimachus were appointed to reform the Aetolian 
constitution (204). Scopas had only undertaken 
the charge from motives of personal ambition ; on 
finding himself disappointed in this object, he with- 
drew to Alexandria. Here he was received with 
the utmost favour by the ministers of the young 
king, Ptolemy V., and appointed to the chief com- 
mand of the army against Antiochus the Great. 
At first he was successful, but was afterwards 
defeated by Antiochus at Panium, and reduced to 
shut himself up within the walls of Sidon, where 
he was ultimately compelled by famine to surrender. 
Notwithstanding this ill success he continued in 
high favour at the Egyptian court ; but having 
formed a plot in 296 to obtain by force the chief 
administration of the kingdom, he was arrested and 
put to death. — 2. A distinguished sculptor, was a 
native of Paros, and appears to have belonged to 
a family of artists in that island. He flourished 
from B. c. 395 to 350. He was probably somewhat 
older than Praxiteles, with whom he stands at the 
head of that second period of perfected art which 
is called the later Attic school (in contradistinction 
to the earlier Attic school of Phidias), and Avhich 
arose at Athens after the Peloponnesian war. 
Scopas was an architect and a statuary as well as 
a sculptor. He was the architect of the temple of 
Athena Alea, at Tegea, in Arcadia, which was com- 
menced soon after B. c. 394. He was one of the 
artists employed in executing the bas-reliefs, which 
decorated the frieze of the Mausoleum at Hali- 
carnassus in Caria. A portion of these bas-reliefs 
is now deposited in the British Museum. Among 
the single statues and groups of Scopas, the best 



6-88 



SCOPAS. 



SCYLITZES. 



known in modern times is his group of figures 
representing the destruction of the sons and 
daughters of Niobe. In Pliny's time the statues 
stood in the temple of Apollo Sosianus. The 
remaining statues of this group, or copies of them, 
are all in the Florence Gallery, with the exception 
of the so-called Ilioneus, at Munich, which some 
suppose to have belonged to the group. There is 
a head of Niobe in the collection of Lord Yar- 
borough, which has some claim to be considered 
as the original. But the most esteemed of all 
the works of Scopas, in antiquity, was his group 
which stood in the shrine of Cn. Domitius in 
the Flaminian circus, representing Achilles con- 
ducted to the island of Leuce by the divinities 
of the sea. It consisted of figures of Neptune, 
Thetis, and Achilles, surrounded by Nereids, and 
attended by Tritons, and by an assemblage of sea 
monsters. 

Scopas (SfOTTay : Aladan\ a river of Galatia, 
falling into the Sangarius, from the E., at Julio- 
polis. 

Scordisci, a people in Pannonia Superior, are 
sometimes classed among the Illyrians, but were 
the remains of an ancient and powerful Celtic 
tribe. They dwelt between the Savus and Dravus. 

Scordiscus. [Scoedises.] 

Scofi, a people mentioned, together with the 
PiCTi, by the later Roman writers as one of the 
the chief tribes of the ancient Caledonians. They 
dwelt in the S. of Scotland and in Ireland ; and 
from them the former country has derived its 
name. 

Scotitas (SKOTtVas), a woody district in the 
N. of Laconia on the frontiers of Tegeatis. 

Scotussa (SfcoToucrcra : 1,KQTQV(X(Taios), a very 
ancient touTi of Thessaly, in the district Pelas- 
giotis, near the source of the Onchestus, and not 
far from the hills Cynoscephalae, where Flami- 
ninus gained his celebrated victory over Philip, 
B.C. 197. 

Scribonia, wife of Octavianus, afterwards the 
emperor Augustus, had been married twice before. 
By one of her former husbands, P. Scipio, she had 
two children, P. Scipio, who was consul, B. c. 16, 
and a daughter, Cornelia, who was married to 
Paulus Aemilius Lepidus, censor b. c. 22. Scri- 
bonia was the sister of L. Scribonius Libo, who 
was the father-in-law of Sex. Pompey. Augustus 
married her in 40, on the advice of Maecenas, 
because he was then afraid that Sex. Pompey 
would form an alliance with Antony to crush him ; 
but having renewed his alliance with Antony, 
Octavian divorced her in the following year (39), 
in order to marry Livia on the very day on which 
she had borne him a daughter, Julia. Scribonia 
long survived her separation from Octavian. In 
A.D, 2 she accompanied, of her owti accord, her 
aaughter Julia into exile, to the island of Pan- 
dateria. 

Scribonius Curio. [Curio.] 
Scribonius Largns. [Largus.] 
Scribonius Libo. [Libo.] 
ScribSnius Proculus. [Proculus.] 
Scultenna {Panaro), a river in Gallia Cispa- 
dana, rising in the Apennines, and flowing to the E. 
of Mutina into the Po. 

Scupi ( Uskub). a town in Moesia Superior on 
the Axius, and the capital of Dardania. It was 
the residence of the archbishop of Illyricum, and 
in the middle ages of the Servian kings. 



Scydisses. [Scoedisim.] 

Scylace (S/cuAoktj), or Scylaceion, an ancient 
citj'- on the coast of Mysia Minor, at the foot of 
M. Olympus, said to have been founded by the 
Pelasgians. 

Scylacium, also Scylaceum, or Scylletium 

(SkuAo/cioj', '2,Kv\aKe7ov, '2,kv\\7]tiov : Sguillace), 
a Greek town on the E. coast of Bruttium, was 
situated on 2 adjoining hills at a short distance 
from the coast, between the rivers Caecinus and 
Carcines. It is said to have been founded by the 
Athenians. It belonged to the territory of Croton, 
but was subsequently given by the elder Dionysins 
to the Locrians, and came eventualh' into the pos- 
session of the Romans. It had no harbour, whence 
Virgil (^Aen. in. 553) speaks of it as navifragum 
Scylaceum. From this town the Scylacius or 
Scylleticus Sinus CSKvWr^TiKhs kSXttos) derived 
its name. The isthmus which separated this bay 
from the Sinus Hipponiates on the W. coast of 
Bruttium, was only 20 miles broad, and formed 
the ancient boundary of Oenotria. 

Scylax (S/cuAal). 1. Of Caryanda in Caria, 
was sent by Darius Hystaspis on a voyage of dis- 
covery down the Indus. Setting out from the city 
of Caspatyrus and the Pactyican district, Scylax 
reached the sea, and then sailed W. through the 
Indian Ocean to the Red Sea, performing the whole 
voyage in 30 months. — 2. Of Halicamassus, a 
friend of Panaetius, distinguished for his knowledge 
of the stars, and for his political influence in his own 
state. — There is still extant a Pci-iplus, containing 
a brief description of certain countries in Europe, 
Asia, and Africa, and bearing the name of Scylax of 
Caryanda. This work has been ascribed by some 
writers to the Scylax mentioned by Herodotus, 
and by others to the contemporary of Panaetius 
and Polybius ; but most modem scholars suppose 
the writer to have lived in the first half of the 
reign of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, 
about b. c. 350. It is clear from internal evi- 
dence that the Periplus must have been composed 
long after the time of Herodotus ; whilst, from its 
omitting to mention any of the cities founded by 
Alexander, such as Alexandria in Egypt, we may 
conclude that it was drawn up before the reign of 
Alexander. It is probable that the author prefixed 
to his work the name of Scylax of Caryanda, on 
account of the celebrity of this navigator. This 
Periplus is printed by Hudson, in his GeograpM 
Graeci Minores, and by Klausen, attached to his 
fragments of Hecataeus, Berlin, 1831. 

Scylax (2/cu'Aa| : Chotedek-Irmak), a river in 
the S. W. of Pontus, falling into the Iris, between 
Amasia and Gaziura. 

Scylitzes or Scylitza, Joannes, a Byzantine 
historian, sumamed, from his office, Curopalates, 
flourished A. d. 1081. His work extends from 
the death of Nicephorus I. (811), down to the 
reign of Nicephorus Botaniotes (1078 — 1081). 
The portion of the history of Cedrenus, which 
extends from the death of Nicephorus I. (811) 
to the close of the work (1057), is found almost 
verbatim in the history of Scylitzes. Hence it 
has been supposed that Scylitzes copied from 
Cedrenus, and consequently the entire work of 
Scylitzes has not been published separateh', but 
only the part extending from 1057 to 1080, which 
has been printed as an appendix to Cedrenus. 
[Cedrenus.] It is now, however, generally ad- 
mitted that Cedrenus copied from Scylitzes. 



RHEA OR CYBELE. SATYR. SILENUS. SISYPHUS. 




Khea, or Cybele. Rlie'i orCvhPip 

(From a MedaUion of Hadrian.) Pages 642, 643. From a Roman Lamp:) Pages 612, 643. 



iToface 



SCYLLA. 



SCYTHIA. 



6b9 



Scylla (^KvKKa) and Charybdis, the names of 
two rocks between Italy and Sicily, and only a 
short distance from one another. In the one of 
these locks which was nearest to Italy, there was 
a cave, in which dwelt Scylla, a daughter of Cra- 
taeis, a fearful monster, barking like a dog, with 
12 feet, and 6 long necks and heads, each of which 
contained 3 rows of sharp teeth. The opposite 
rock, which was much lower, contained an im- 
mense fig-tree, under which dwelt Charybdis, who 
thrice every day swallowed down the waters of 
the sea, and thrice threw them up again : both 
were formidable to the ships which had to pass 
between them. This is the Homeric account. 
Later traditions give different accoimts of Scylla's 
parentage. Some describe her as a monster with 
6 heads of different animals, or with only 3 heads. 
One tradition relates that Scylla was originally a 
beautiful maiden, who often played with the 
nymphs of the sea, and was beloved by the marine 
god Glaucus. The latter applied to Circe for 
means to make Scylla return his love ; but Circe, 
jealous of the fair maiden, threw magic herbs into 
the well in which Scylla was wont to bathe, by 
means of which the lower part of her body was 
changed into the tail of a fish or serpent, sur- 
rounded by dogs, while the upper part remained 
that of a woman. Another tradition related that 
Scylla was beloved by Poseidon, and that Amphi- 
trite, from jealousy, metamorphosed her into a 
monster. Hercules is said to have killed her, be- 
tause she stole some of the oxen of Geryon ; but 
Phorcys is said to have restored her to life. Virgil 
{Aen. vi. 286) speaks of several Scyllae, and 
places them in the lower world. Charybdis is de- 
scribed as a daughter of Poseidon and Gaea, and 
a voracious woman, who stole oxen from Hercules, 
and was hurled by the thunderbolt of Zeus into 
the sea. 

Scylla, daughter of king Nisus of Megara, who 
fell in love with Minos. For details see Nisus, 
and Minos. 

Scyllaeum (2,Kv\\aiou). 1. (Scigilo), a pro- 
montory on the coast of Bruttium, at the N. entrance 
to the Sicilian straits, where the monster Scylla 
was supposed to live [Scylla].— 2. (Scilla or 
Sciglio), a town in Bruttium, on the above-named 
promontory. There are still remains of the ancient 
citadel. — 3. A promontory in Argolis on the coast 
of Troezen, forming, with the promontory of Su- 
nium in Attica, the entrance to the Saronic gulf. 
It is said to have derived its name from Scylla, 
the daughter of Nisus. [Nisus.] 

Scylleticus Sinus. [Scylacium.] 

Scylletium. [Scylacium.] 

Scyllis. [DiPOENus.] 

Scymnus (S/cwjUi/os), of Chios, wrote a Periege- 
sts, or description of the earth, which is referred 
to by later writers. This work was in prose, and 
consequently different from the Periegesis in Iam- 
bic m.etre, which has come down to us, and which 
many modern writers have erroneously ascribed to 
Scymnus of Chios. The poem is dedicated to king 
Nicomedes, whom some modern writers suppose to 
be the same as Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia, 
who died B. c. 74 ; but this is quite uncertain. 
The best edition of the poem is by Meineke, 
Berlin, 1846. 

Scyros (XKvpos: Swt'pjos: Sci/ro), an island in 
the Aegaean sea, E. of Euboea, and one of the 
Sporades. It contained a town of the same name, 



and a river called Cephissus. Its ancient inhabi- 
tants are said to have been Pelasgians, Carians, 
and Dolopians. The island is frequently mentioned 
in the stories of the mythical period. Here Theti8 
concealed her son Achilles in woman's attire among 
the daughters of Lycomedes, in order to save him 
from the fate Avhich awaited him under the walla 
of Troy. It was here also that Pyrrhus, the son 
of Achilles by Deidamia, was brought up, and it 
was from this island that Ulysses fetched him to 
the Trojan war. According to another tradition, 
the island was conquered by Acliilles, in order to 
revenge the death of Theseus, who is said to have 
been treacherously destroyed in Scyros by Lyco- 
medes. The bones of Theseus were discovered by 
Cimon in Scyros, after his conquest of the island 
in B. c. 476, and were convej'ed to Athens, where 
they were preserved in the Theseum. From this 
time Scyros continued subject to Athens till the 
period of the Macedonian supremacy ; but the 
Romans compelled the last Philip to restore it to 
Athens in 1 96. The soil of Scyros was unpro- 
ductive ; but it Avas celebrated for its breed of 
goats, and for its quarries of variegated marble. 

Scythia (77 S/cu^j/ct/, t] 2/fu0i'a, Ion. 'I^kvO'lt}, ?f 
tS)u ^Kvdeuv x^PV, Herod.: Skw^ijs, Scythes, 
Scytha, pi. 2/fu0ot, Scythae ; fern. 2/cu0i's, Scythis, 
Scythissa), a name applied to very different coun- 
tries at different times. The Scythia of Herodotus 
comprises, to speak generally, the S. E. parts of 
Europe, between the Carpathian mountains and 
the river Tanai's (Don). The Greeks became 
acquainted Avith this country through their settle- 
ments on the Euxine ; and Herodotus, who had 
himself visited the coasts of the Euxine, collected 
all the information he could obtain about the 
Scythians and their country, and embodied the 
results in a most interesting digression, which 
forms the first part of his 4th book. The details, 
for which there is not room in this article, must 
be read m Herodotus. He describes the country 
as a square of 4000 stadia (400 geog. miles) each 
way, the W. boundary being the Ister (Da?iube) 
and the mountains of the Agathyrsi ; the S. the 
shores of the Euxine and Palus Maeotis, from the 
mouth of the Ister to that of the Tanais, this side 
being divided into 2 equal parts, of 2000 stadia 
each, by the mouth of the Borysthenes {Dnieper) ; 
the E. boundary was the Tanais, and on the N. 
Scythia was divided by deserts from the Melan- 
chlaeni, Androphagi, and Budini. It corresponded 
to the S. part of Russia in Europe. The people 
who inhabited this region were called by the 
Greeks 2Ki;9aj, a word of doubtful origin, which 
first occurs in Hesiod ; but, in their own language, 
^k6\otoi^ i. e. Slavonians. They were believed 
by Herodotus to be of Asiatic origin ; and his 
account of them, taken in connection with the 
description given by Hippocrates of their physical 
peculiarities, leaves no doubt that they were a 
part of the great Mongol race, who have wandered, 
from unknown antiquity, over the steppes of 
Central Asia. Herodotus says further that they 
were driven out of their abodes in Asia, N. of 
the Araxes, by the Massagetae ; and that, mi- 
grating into Europe, they drove out the Cimme- 
rians. If this account be true, it can hardly but 
have some connection Avith the irruption of the 
Cimmerians into Asia Minor, in the reign of the 
Lydian king Ardys, about b. c. 640. The Scy- 
thians were a nomad people, that is, shepherds 



690 



SCYTHIA. 



SECUNDUS. 



or herdsmen, who had no fixed habitations, but 
roamed over a vast tract of country at their plea- 
sure, and according to the wants of their cattle. 
They lived in a kind of covered waggons, which 
Aeschylus describes as " lofty houses of wicker- 
work, on well-wheeled chariots." They kept large 
troops of horses, and were most expert in cavalry 
exercises and archery ; and hence, as the Persian 
king Darius found, when he invaded their country 
(B.C. 507), it was almost impossible for an invading 
army to act against them. They simply retreated, 
waggons and all, before the enemy, harassing him 
with their light cavalry, and leaving famine and 
exposure, in their bare steppes, to do the rest. 
Like all the Mongol race, they Avere divided into 
several hordes, the chief of whom were called the 
Royal Scythians ; and to these all the rest owned 
some degree of allegiance. Their government was 
a sort of patriarchal monarchy or chieftainship. 
An important modification of their habits had, 
however, taken place, to a certain extent, before 
Herodotus described them. The fertility of the 
plains on the N. of the Euxine, and the influence of 
the Greek settlements at the mouth of the Borys- 
thenes, and along the coast, had led the inhabitants 
of this part of Scythia to settle down as cultivators 
of the soil, and had brought them into commercial 
and other relations with the Greeks. Accordingly, 
Herodotus mentions 2 classes or hordes of Scy- 
thians, who had thus abandoned their nomad 
life ; first, on the W. of the Borysthenes, 2 tribes 
of Hellenized Scythians, called Callipidae and 
Alazones ; then, beyond these, " the Scythians 
who are ploughers {^Kvdai aporripes)^ who do not 
grow their corn for food, but for sale these 
dwelt about the river Hypanis (Boug) in the 
region now called the Ukraine, which is still, 
as it was to the Greeks, a great corn exporting 
country. Again, on the E. of the Borysthenes 
were " the Scythians who are husbandmen " 
(^Kvdai yewpyoi), i. e. who grew corn for their 
own consumption : these were called Borysthenitae 
by the Greeks : their country extended 3 days' 
journey E. of the Borysthenes to the river Pan- 
TICAPES. Beyond these, to the E., dwelt " the 
nomad Scythians (w/xdSes 'S.kvQoll)^ who neither 
sow nor plough at all." Herodotus expressly 
states that the tribes E. of the Borysthenes Avere 
not Scythian. Of the history of these Scythian 
tribes there is little to state, beyond the tradition 
already mentioned, that they migrated from Asia, 
and expelled the Cimmerians ; their invasion of 
Media, in the reign of Cyaxares, when they held the 
supremacy of W. Asia for 28 years ; and the dis- 
astrous expedition of Darius into their country. 
In later times, they were gradually overpowered 
by the neighbouring people, especially the Sar- 
matians, who gave their name to the whole country. 
[Sarmatia.] Meanwhile, the conquests of 
Alexander and his successors in Central Asia had 
made the Greeks acquainted with tribes beyond 
the Oxus and the Jaxartes, who resembled the 
Scythians, and belonged, in fact, to the same 
great Mongol race, and to whom, accordingly, the 
same name was applied. Hence, in Avriters of the 
time of the Roman empire, the name of Scythia 
denotes the whole of N. Asia, from the river Rha 
( Volga) on the W., Avhich divided it from Asiatic 
Sarmatia, to Serica on the E., extending to India 
on the S. It was divided, by M. Imaus, into 2 
parts, called respectively Scythia intra Imaum, 



i. e. on the N. W. side of the range, and Scythia 
extra Imaum, on its S. E. side. Of the people of 
this region nothing was known except some names ; 
but the absence of knowledge was supplied by 
some marvellous and not uninteresting fables. 

Sc3rtliini (^KvQivoi), a people on the W. border 
of Armenia, through whose country the Greeks 
under Xenophon marched 4 days' journey. Their 
territory was bounded on the E. by the river Har- 
pasus, and on the W. by the river Apsarus. 

Scythinus {'S.KvQ'ivos), of Teos, an iambic poet, 
turned into verse the great work of the philosopher 
Heraclitus, of which a considerable fragment is 
preserved by Stobaeus. 

Scythopolis {^kvBottoXis : 0. T. Bethshean : 
Beisan, Ru.), an important city of Palestine, in 
the S. E. of Galilee, according to the usual division, 
but sometimes also reckoned to Samaria, sometimes 
to Decapolis, and sometimes to Coele-Syria. It 
stood on a hill in the Jordan valley, W. of the 
river, and near one of its fords. Its site was fer- 
tilised by numerous springs ; and to this advantage, 
as well as to its being the centre of several roads, 
it owed its great prosperity and its importance in 
the history of Palestine. It is often mentioned in 
0. T. history, in the time of the Maccabees, and 
under the Romans. It had a mixed population of 
Canaanites, Philistines, and Assyrian settlers; 
Josephus adds Scythians, but this is perhaps an 
error, founded on a false etymology of the name. 
Under the later Roman empire, it became the seat 
of the archbishop of Palaestina Secunda, and it 
continued a flourishing city to the time of the first 
Crusade. 

Scythotauri, Tauri Scythae, or Tauroscy- 
thae, a people of Sarmatia Europaea, just without 
the Chersonesus Taurica, between the rivers Car- 
cinites and Hypanis, as far as the tongue of land 
called Droraos Achilleos. 

Sebaste (2egafrT^= Augusta : ^eiaar-qvSs) . 1. 
{Ayash, Ru.), a city on the coast of Cilicia Aspera, 
built for a residence by Archelaus, king of Cappa- 
docia, to whom the Romans had granted the 
sovereignty of Cilicia, and named in honour of 
Augustus. It stood W. of the river Lamus, on a 
small island called Eleousa, the name of which 
appears to have been afterwards transferred to the 
city. — - 2. (Segikler), a city of Phrygia, N. W. of 
Eumenia. — 3. [Cabira.] This city was also 
called 2e§d(rTezo. — . 4. [Samaria.] 

Sebastopolis (2,€€a(Tr6TroXis : Tarkhal), a city 
of Pontus, on the Iris, S. E. of Amasia, by some 
identified with Gaziura. There were some other 
places of the name, which do not require particular 
notice. 

Sebennytus (2e§eVj/uTos, 77 ^e§evvvTiKT] tto- 
Ais : Semennout, Ru.), a considerable city of Lower 
Egypt, in the Delta, on the W. side of the branch 
of the Nile called after it the Sebennytic Mouth, 
just at the fork made by this and the Phatnitic 
Mouth, and S. of Busiris. It was the capital of 
the Nomos Sebennytes or Sebennyticus. 

Sebethus {Maddalena), a small river in Cam- 
pania, flowing round Vesuvius, and falling into the 
Sinus Puteolanus at the E. side of Neapolis. 

Sebinus Lacus {Lago Seo or Tseo), a lake in 
Gallia Cisalpina, formed by the river OUius be- 
tween the lakes Larius and Benacus. 

Secundus, Pomponius, a distinguished poet in 
the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius. He 
was one of the friends of Sejanus, and on the fall 



SEDETANI. 



SEJANUS. 



of that minister in A. d. 31 was thrown into prison, 
where he remained till the accession of Caligula in 
37, by whom he was released. He was consul in 
41, and in the reign of Claudius commanded in 
Germany, when he defeated the Chatti. Secun- 
dus was an intimate friend of the elder Pliny, who 
wrote his life in 2 books. His tragedies were the 
most celebrated of his literary compositions. 

Sedetani. [Edetani.] 

Sedigitus, Volcatms, from whose work De 
Poetis A. Gellius (xv. 24) has preserved 1 3 Iambic 
senarians, in which the principal Latin comic dra- 
matists are enumerated in the order of merit. In 
this "Canon," as it has been termed, the 1st 
place is assigned to Caecilius Statius, the 2nd to 
Plautus, the 3rd to Naevius, the 4th to Licinius, 
the 5th to Attilius, the 6th to Terentius, the 7th 
to Turpilius, the 8th to Trabea, the 9th to Luscius, 
the 10th, " causa antiquitatis," to Ennius. 

Sedulius, Coelius, of Seville, a Christian poet, 
flourished about A. D. 450. Of his personal his- 
tory we know nothing. His works are: — 1. 
Paschale Carmen s. Mirahilium Divinorum Li- 
hri v., in heroic measure. 2. Veteris et Novi 
Testamenti Collatio, a sort of hymn containing a 
collection of texts from the Old and New Testa- 
ments, arranged in such a manner as to enable the 
reader to compare the two dispensations. 3. Hym- 
nus de Christo, an account of the life and miracles 
of Christ. 4. De Verbi Incarnatione, a Cento 
Virgilianus. The best editions are by Cellarius, 
Hal. 1704 and 1739 ; by Arntzenius, Leovard. 
1761 ; and by Arevalus, Rom. 1794. 

Seduni, an Alpine people in Gallia Belgica, E. 
of the lake of Geneva, in the valley of the Rhone, 
in the modern Vallais. Their chief town was 
called Civitas Sedunorum, the modern Sio7i. 

Sedusli, a German people, forming part of the 
army of Ariovistus, when he invaded Gaul, b. c. 
58. They are not mentioned at a later period, 
and consequently their site cannot be determined. 

Segesama or Segisamo (Segisamonensis: Sa- 
samo), a town of the Murbogi or Turmodigi in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Tarraco 
to Asturica. 

Segesta (Segestanus : nx.Alcamo Ru.),the later 
Roman form of the town, called by the Greeks 
Egesta or Aegesta {"'Er/eara^ A^'yeara, in Virg. 
Acesta : 'Eyearaios, Alyearavos, Acestaeus), situ- 
ated in the N. W. of Sicily, near the coast between 
Panormus and Drepanum. It is said to have been 
founded by the Trojans on. 2 small rivers, to which 
they gave the names of Simois and Scamander ; 
hence the Romans made it a colony of Aeneas. 
One tradition, indeed, ascribed to it a Greek 
origin ; but in later times it was never regarded as 
a Greek city. Its inhabitants were constantly en- 
gaged in hostilities with Selinus ; and it was at 
their solicitation that the Athenians were led to 
embark in their unfortunate expedition against 
Sicily. The town was taken by Agathocles, who 
destroyed or sold as slaves all its inhabitants, 
peopled the city with a body of deserters, and 
changed its name into that of Dicaeopolis ; but 
after the death of this tyrant, the remains of the 
ancient inhabitants returned to the city and re- 
sumed their former name. In the neighbourhood 
of the city, on the road to Drepanum, were cele- 
brated mineral springs, called Aquae Segestanae or 
Aquae Pintianae. 

Segestes, a Cheruscan chieftain, the opponent 



of Arminius. Private injuries embittered their 
political feud, for Arminius carried off and forcibly 
married the daughter of Segestes. In A. D. 9 Se- 
gestes warned Quintilius Varus of the conspiracy 
of Arminius, and other Cheruscan chiefs against 
him ; but his warning was disregarded, and Varus 
perished. In 14 Segestes was forced by his tribes- 
men into a war with Rome; but he afterwards 
made his peace with the Romans, and was allowed 
to reside at Narbonne. 

Segetia, a Roman divinity, who, together with 
Setia or Seja and Semonia, was invoked by the 
early Italians at seed time, for Segetia, like the 
two other names, is connected with sero and seges, 

Segni, a German people in Gallia Belgica, be- 
tween the Treveri and Eburones, the name of 
whom is still preserved in the modern town of 
Sinei or Signei. 

Segobriga, the chief town of the Celtiberi,. ia 
Hispania Tarraconensis, S.W. of Caesaraugusta, pro- 
bably in the neighbourhood of the modern Priego. 

Segontia or Seguntia, a town of the Celtiberi, 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, 16 miles from Caesar- 
augusta. 

Segovia. 1. {Segovia), a town of the Arevaci^ 
on the road from Emerita to Caesaraugusta. A 
magnificent Roman aqueduct is still extant at Se- 
govia. — 2. A town in Hispania Baetica on the Flu- 
men Silicense, near Sacili. 

Segusiani, one of the most important peoples in 
Gallia Lugdunensis, bounded by the AUobroges on 
the S., by the Sequani on the E., by the Aedui oa 
the N., and by the Arverni on the W. In the 
time of Caesar they Avere dependent on the AeduL 
In their territory was the town of Lugdunum, the 
capital of the province. 

Segusio (Stisa), the capital of the Segusini and 
the residence of king Cottius, was situated ia 
Gallia Transpadana, at the foot of the Cottian Alps. 
The triumphal arch, erected at this place by 
Cottius in honour of Augustus, is still extant, 

Seius Strabo. [Sejanus.] 

Sejaaus, Aelius, was born at Vulsinii, ia 
Etruria, and was the son of Seius Strabo, who was 
commander of the praetorian troops at the close of 
the reign of Augustus, A. D. 14. In the same 
year Sejanus was made the colleague of his father 
in the command of the praetorian bands; and upon 
his father being sent as governor to Egypt, he 
obtained the sole command of these troops. He 
ultimately gained such influence over Tiberius, 
that this suspicious man, who was close and re- 
served to all mankind, opened his bosom to Sejanus, 
and made him his confidant. For many years he 
governed Tiberius ; but not content with this high 
position, he formed the design of obtaining the 
imperial power. With this view he sought to 
make himself popular with the soldiers, and gave 
posts of honour and emolument to his creatures 
and favourites. With the same object he resolved 
to get rid of all the members of the imperial family. 
He debauched Livia, the wife of Drusus, the son 
of Tiberius ; and by promising her marriage and a 
participation in the imperial power, he was enabled 
to poison Drusus with her connivance and assist- 
ance (23). An accident increased the credit of 
Sejanus, and confirmed the confidence of Tiberius. 
The emperor, with Sejanus and others, was feast- 
ing in a natural cave, between Amyclae, which 
was on the sea coast, and the hills of Fundi. Tka 
entrance of the cave suddenly fell in. and crushed 



692 



SELENE. 



SELEUCIA. 



some of the slaves ; and all the guests, in alarm, 
tried to make their escape. Sejanus, resting his 
knees on the couch of Tiberius, and placing his 
shoulders under the falling rock, protected his 
master, and was discovered in this posture by the 
soldiers who came to their relief. After Tiberius 
had shut himself up in the island of Capreae, Se- 
janus had full scope for his machinations ; and the 
death of Livia, the mother of Tiberius (29), was 
followed by the banishment of Agrippina and her 
sons Nero and Drusus. Tiberius at last began to 
suspect the designs of Sejanus, and felt that it was 
time to rid himself of a man who was almost more 
than a rival. To cover his schemes and remove 
Sejanus from about him, Tiberius made him joint 
consul with himself, in 31. He then sent Ser- 
torius Macro to Rome, with a commission to take 
the command of the praetorian cohorts. Macro, 
after assuring himself of the troops, and depriving 
Sejanus of his usual guard, produced a letter from 
Tiberius to the senate, in which the emperor ex- 
pressed his apprehensions of Sejanus. The consul 
Regulus conducted him to prison, and the people 
loaded him with insult and outrage. The senate 
on the same day decreed his death, and he v/as 
immediately executed. His body was dragged 
about the streets, and finally thrown into the 
Tiber. Many of the friends of Sejanus perished 
at the same time ; and his son and daughter 
shared his fate. 

Selene CSeXwri), called Luna by the Romans, 
was the goddess of the moon, or the moon per- 
sonified as a divine being. She is called a 
daughter of Hyperion and Thia, and accordingly 
a sister of Helios (Sol) and Eos (Aurora) ; but 
others speak of her as a daughter of Hyperion by 
Euryphaessa, or of Pallas, or of Zeus and Latona. 
She is also called Phoebe, as the sister of Phoebus, 
the god of the sun. By Endymion, whom she 
loved, and whom she sent to sleep in order to kiss 
him, she became the mother of 50 daughters ; and 
to Zeus she bore Pandia, Ersa, and Nemea. Pan 
also is said to have had connexion with her in the 
shape of a white ram. Selene is described as a 
very beautiful goddess, with long wings and a 
golden diadem. She rode, like her brother Helios, 
across the heavens in a chariot drawn by two 
white horses. In later times Selene was identified 
with Artemis or Diana, and the worship of the 
two became amalgamated. In works of art, how- 
ever, the two divinities are usually distinguished ; 
the face of Selene being more full and round, her 
figure less tall, and always clothed in a long robe ; 
her veil forms an arch over her head, and above 
it there is the crescent. At Rome Luna had a 
temple on the Aventine. 

Selene. [Cleopatra, No. 9.] 

Seleucia, and rarely Seleucea (SeAevfceta : 2e- 
XevKfvs : Seleucensis, Seleucenus), the name of 
several cities in Asia, built by Seleucus I., king 
of Syria. 1. S. ad Tigrm(77 inl tov Tiypr)Tos 
TTOTaiJLov, TTphs T'ljpei, airh T'lypio':), also called S. 
Babylonia (2. 77 eV BagvXwvi), S. Assyriae, and S. 
Parthorum, a great city on the confines of Assyria 
and Babylonia, and for a long time the capital of 
W. Asia, until it was eclipsed by Ctesiphon. 
Its exact site has been disputed ; but the most 
probable opinion is that it stood on the W. bank 
of the Tigris, N. of its junction with the Royal 
Canal, opposite to the mouth of the river Delas 
or Silla (Diala), and to the spot where Ctesiphon 



was afterwards built by the Parthians. It was a 
little to the S. of the modern city of Bagdad. 
Perhaps a better site could not be found in W. 
Asia. It commanded the navigation of the Tigris 
and Euphrates, and the whole plain of those two 
rivers ; and it stood at the junction of all the chief 
caravan roads by which the traffic between E. and 
W. Asia was carried on. In addition to these 
advantages, its people had, by the gift of Seleucus, 
the government of their own affairs. It was built 
in the form of an eagle with expanded wings, and 
was peopled by settlers from Assyria, Mesopo- 
tamia, Babylonia, Syria, and Judaea. It rapidly 
rose, and eclipsed Babylon in wealth and splen- 
dour. Even after the Parthian kings had become 
masters of the banks of the Tigris, and had fixed 
their residence at Ctesiphon, Seleucia, though de- 
prived of much of its importance, remained a very 
considerable city. In the reign of Titus, it had, 
according to Pliny, 600,000 inhabitants. It was 
burned by Trajan in his Parthian expedition, and 
again by L. Verus, the colleague of M. Aurelius 
Antoninus, when its population is given by dif- 
ferent authorities as 300,000 or 400,000. It was 
again taken by Severus; and from this blow it 
never recovered. In Julian's expedition it was 
found entirely deserted. — 2. S. Pieria (2. Uiepia, 
V eV Uiepia, 7] irphs 'AvTioxei'a, tj irphs ^aXdcra-a, 
7] iin9a\\a(T(TLa, Ru., called Seleukeh or Kepse, 
near Suadeiah), a great city and fortress of Syria, 
founded by Seleucus in April, b. c. 300, one month 
before the foundation of Antioch. It stood on the 
site of an ancient fortress, on the rocks over- 
hanging the sea, at the foot of M. Pieria, about 
4 miles N. of the Orontes, and 12 miles W. of 
Antioch. Its natural strength was improved by 
every known art of fortification, to which were 
added all the works of architecture and engineer- 
ing required to make it a splendid city and a 
great seaport, while it obtained abundant supplies 
from the fertile plain between the city and Antioch. 
The remains of Seleucus I. were interred at Se- 
leucia, in a mausoleum surrounded by a grove. In 
the war with Egypt, which ensued upon the murder 
of Antiochus II., Seleucia surrendered to Ptolemy 
III. Euergetes (b. c. 246). It Avas afterwards 
recovered by Antiochus the Great (219). In 
the war between Antiochus VIII. and IX. the 
people of Seleucia made themselves independent 
(109 or 108). Afterwards, having successfully 
resisted the attacks of Tigranes for 14 years 
(84 — 70), they were confirmed in their freedom 
by Pompey. The city had fallen entirely into 
decay by the 6th century of our era. There are 
considerable ruins of the harbour and mole, of the 
walls of the city, and of its necropolis. The sur- 
rounding district was called Seleucis. — 3. S, ad 
Belnm, a city of Syria, in the valley of the Orontes, 
near Apamea. Its site is doubtful.— 4. S. Trache- 
otis {Selefkeh Ru.), an important city of Cilicia 
Aspera, was built by Seleucus I. on the W. bank 
of the river Calycadnus, about 4 miles from its 
mouth, and peopled with the inhabitants of several 
neighbouring cities. It had an oracle of Apollo, 
and annual games in honour of Zeus Olympius. It 
vied with Tarsus in power and splendour, and was 
a free city under the Romans. It has remarkable 
claims to renown both in political and literary 
history : in the former, as the place where Trajan 
and Frederick Barbarossa died ; in the latter, as 
the birthplace of the philosophers Athenaeus and 



SELEUCIS. 



SELEUCUS. 



693 



Xenarchus, of the sophist Alexander, the secretary 
of M. Aurelius Antoninus, and of other learned 
men. On its site are still seen the ruins of temples, 
porticoes, aqueducts, and tombs. — 5. S. in Meso- 
potamia {Bir)i on the left bank of the Euphrates, 
opposite to the ford of Zeugma, was a fortress of 
considerable importance in ancient military history. 
— 6. A considerable city of Margiana, built by 
Alexander the Great, in a beautiful situation, and 
called Alexandria ; destroyed by the barbarians, 
and rebuilt by Antiochus I., who named it Seleucia 
after his father Seleucus I. The Roman prisoners 
taken at the defeat of Crassus by the Parthians 
were settled here by king Orodes.— 7. S. in Caria 
[Tralles]. — There were other cities of the 
name, of less importance, in Pisidia, Pamphylia, 
Palestine, and Elymais. 

Seleucis (SeAeuKi's). 1. The most beautiful and 
fertile district of Syria, containing the N.W. part 
of the country, between M. Amanus on the N., the 
Mediterranean on the AV., the districts of Cyr- 
rhestice and Chalybonitis on the N.E., the desert 
on the E., and Coelesyria and the mountains of 
Lebanon on the S. It included the valley of the 
lower Orontes, and contained the 4 great cities of 
Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea, and Apamea, whence 
it was also called Tetrapolis. In later times, the 
name was confined to the small district N. of the 
Orontes ; the S. part of the former Seleucis being 
divided into Cassiotis, W. of the Orontes, and 
Apamene, E. of the river. — 2. A district of Cap- 
padocia. — 3. A name which Seleucus I. endea- 
voured to give to the Caspian Sea, in memory of a 
voyage of exploration made round it by his command. 

Seleucus (SeAeuKos), the name of several kings 
of Syria, I. Surnamed Nicator, the founder of 
the Syrian monarchy, reigned B. c. 312 — 280. 
He was the son of Antiochus, a Macedonian of 
distinction among the officers of Philip II., and 
was bom about 358. He accompanied Alexander 
on his expedition to Asia, and distinguished him- 
self particularly in the Indian campaigns. After 
the death of Alexander (323) he espoused the 
side of Perdiccas, whom he accompanied on his 
expedition against Egypt ; but he took a leading 
part in the mutiny of the soldiers, which ended in 
the death of Perdiccas (321). In the 2nd par- 
tition of the provinces Avhich followed, Seleucus 
obtained the wealthy and important satrapy of 
Babylonia. In the war between Antigonus and 
Eumenes, Seleucus afforded efficient support to the 
former ; but after the death of Eumenes (316), 
Antigonus began to treat the other satraps as his 
subjects. Thereupon Seleucus fled to Egypt, where 
he induced Ptolemy to unite with Lysimachus and 
Cassander in a league against their common enemy. 
In the war that ensued Seleucus took an active 
part. At length, in 312, he recovered Babylon; 
and it is from this period, that the Syrian mo- 
narchy is commonly reckoned to commence. This 
era of the Seleucidae, as it is termed, has been 
determined by chronologers to the 1st of October, 
312. Soon afterwards Seleucus defeated Nicanor, 
the satrap of Media, and followed up his victory 
by the conquest of Susiana, Media, and some 
adjacent districts. For the next few years he 
gradually extended his power over all the eastern 
provinces which had formed part of the empire of 
Alexander, from the Euphrates to the banks of 
the Oxus and the Indus. In 306 Seleucus fol- 
lowed the example of Antigonus and Ptolemy, by 



formally assuming the regal title and diadem. In 
302 he joined the league formed for the second 
time by Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, 
against their common enemy Antigonus. The 
united forces of Seleucus and Lysimachus gained 
a decisive victory over Antigonus at Ipsus (301), 
in which Antigonus himself was slain. In the 
division of the spoil, Seleucus obtained the largest 
share, being rewarded for his services with a 
great part of Asia Minor (which was divided 
between him and Lysimachus) as well as with 
the whole of Syria, from the Euphrates to the 
Mediterranean. The empire of Seleucus was now 
b)'- far the most extensive and powerful of those 
which had been formed out of the dominions of 
Alexander. It comprised the whole of Asia, from 
the remote provinces of Bactria and Sogdiana to 
the coasts of Phoenicia, and from the Paropamisus 
to the central plains of Phrygia, where the bound- 
ary which separated him from Lysimachus is not 
clearly defined. Seleucus appears to have felt the 
difficulty of exercising a vigilant control over so 
extensive an empire, and accordingly, in 293, he 
consigned the government of all the provinces be- 
yond the Euphrates to his son Antiochus, upon 
whom he bestowed the title of king, as well as the 
hand of his own youthful wife, Stratonice, for 
whom the prince had conceived a violent attach- 
ment. In 288, the ambitious designs of Demetrius 
(now become king of Macedonia) once more aroused 
the common jealousy of his old adversaries, and 
led Seleucus again to unite in a league with Pto- 
lem)' and Lysimachus against him. After De- 
metrius had been driven from his kingdom by 
Lysimachus, he transported the seat of war into 
Asia Minor, but he was compelled to surrender to 
Seleucus in 286. The Syrian king kept Demetrius 
in confinement till 3 years afterwards, but during; 
the whole of that time treated him in a friendly 
and liberal manner. For some time jealousies hadr 
existed between Seleucus and Lysimachus ; but. 
the immediate cause of the war between the 2 
monarchs, which terminated in the defeat and 
death of Lysimachus (281), is related in the life 
of the latter. Seleucus now crossed the Helles- 
pont in order to take possession of the throne of 
Macedonia, which had been left vacant by the 
death of Lysimachus ; but he had advanced no ■ 
farther than Lysimachia, when he was assassinated 
by Ptolemy Ceraunus, to whom, as the son of his 
old friend and ally, he had extended a friendly 
protection. His death took place in the beginning 
of 280, only 7 months after that of Lysimachus,. 
and in the 32nd year of his reign. He was in his 
78th year. Seleucus appears to have carried out,, 
with great energy and perseverance, the projects- 
originally formed by Alexander himself, for the- 
Hellenisation of his Asiatic empire ; and we find hinv 
founding, in almost every province, Greek or Ma- 
cedonian colonies, which became so many centres 
of civilisation and refinement. Of these no less 
than 16 are mentioned as bearing the name of 
Antiochia after his father ; 5 that of Laodicea, 
from his mother ; 7 were called after himself Se- 
leucia ; 3 from the name of his first wife, Apamea ; 
and one Stratonicea, from his second wife, the 
daughter of Demetrius. Numerous otlier cities, 
whose names attest their Macedonian origin-^ 
Beroea, Edessa, Pella, &c. — likev/ise owed their 
first foundation to Seleucus. —11. Surnamed Cal- 
linicus (246—226), was the eldest sou of Antio- 



€94 



SELEUCUS. 



SELLI. 



chus II. by his first wife Laodice. The first mea- 
sure of his administration, or rather that of his 
mother, was to put to death his stepmother Bere- 
nice, together with her infant son. This act of 
cruelty produced the most disastrous effects. In 
order to avenge his sister, Ptolemy Euergetes, 
king of Egypt, invaded the dominions of Seleucus, 
and not only made himself master of Antioch and 
the whole of Syria, but carried his arms unop- 
posed beyond the Euphrates and the Tigris. During 
these operations Seleucus kept wholly aloof ; but 
when Ptolemy had been recalled to his own domi- 
nions by domestic disturbances, he recovered pos- 
session of the greater part of the provinces which 
he had lost. Soon afterwards Seleucus became 
involved in a dangerous war with his brother An- 
tjochus Hierax, who attempted to obtain Asia 
Minor as an independent kingdom for himself. 
This war lasted several years, but was at length 
terminated by the decisive defeat of Antiochus, 
who was obliged to quit Asia Minor and take re- 
fuge in Egypt. Seleucus undertook an expedition 
to the East, with the vieAv of reducing the revolted 
provinces of Parthia and Bactria, which had availed 
themselves of the disordered state of the Syrian 
empu-e to throw off its yoke. He was, however, 
defeated by Arsaces, king of Parthia, in a great 
battle which was long after celebrated by the Par- 
thians as the foundation of their independence. 
After the expulsion of Antiochus, Attains, king of 
Pergamus, extended his dominions over the greater 
part of Asia Minor ; and Seleucus appears to have 
been engaged in an expedition for the recovery of 
these provinces, when he was accidentally killed 
by a fall from his horse, in the 21st year of his 
reign, 226. He left 2 sons, who successively 
ascended the throne, Seleucus Ceraunus and An- 
tiochus, afterwards sumamed the Great. His own 
surname of Callinicus was probably assumed after 
his recovery of the provinces that had been overrun 
by Ptolemy.— III. Sumamed Ceraunus (226 — 
223), eldest son and successor of Seleucus II. The 
surname of Ceraunus was given him by the sol- 
diery, apparently in derision, as he appears to have 
been feeble both in mind and body. He was assas- 
sinated by 2 of his officers, after a reign of only 3 
years, and was succeeded by his brother, Antio- 
chus the Great. — IV. Sumamed PMlopator (187 
— 175), was the son and successor of Antiochus the 
Great. The defeat of his father by the Romans, 
and the ignominious peace which followed it, had 
greatly diminished the power of the Syrian mon- 
archy, and the reign of Seleucus was in conse- 
quence feeble and inglorious, and was marked by 
BO striking events. He was assassinated in 175 
by one of his own ministers. He left 2 children : 
Demetrius, who subsequently ascended the throne ; 
and Laodice, married to Perseus, king of Macedo- 
nia. —V. Eldest son of Demetrius IL, assumed 
the royal diadem on learning the death of his 
father, 125 ; but his mother Cleopatra, who had 
herself put Demetrius to death, was indignant at 
hearing that her son had ventured to take such a 
step without her a.uthority, and caused Seleucus 
also to be assassinated. — VI. Surnamed Epi- 
phanes, and also Mcator (95 — 93) was the eldest 
of the 5 sons of Antiochus VITI. Grypus. On the 
death of his father, in 95, he ascended the throne, 
and defeated and slew in battle his uncle Antiochus 
Cyzicenus, who had laid claim to the kingdom. 
But shortly after Seleucus was in his turn defeated 



by Antiochus Eusebes, the son of Cyzicenus, and 
expelled from Syria. He took refuge in Cilicia, 
where he established himself in the city of Mop- 
suestia ; but in consequence of his tyranny, he was 
burned to death by the inhabitants in his palace. 

Selge (2eA7r7 : :Zc\yevs : Siirk ? Ru.), one of the 
chief of the independent mountain cities of Pisidia, 
stood on the S. side of M. Taurus, on the Eury- 
medon, just where the river breaks through the 
mountain chain. On a rock above it was a citadel 
named KecrgeSto;/, in which was a temple of Hera. 
Its inhabitants, who were the most warlike of all 
the Pisidians, claimed descent from the Lacedae- 
monians, and inscribed the name AaKedai/jLcov on 
their coins. They could bring an army of 20,000 
men into the field, and, as late as the 5 th century, 
we find them beating back a horde of Goths. In a 
valley near the city, in the heart of lofty mountains, 
grew wine and oil and other products of the most 
luxuriant vegetation. 

Seliniis C^^Xivovs -ovutos, contraction of creKi- 
vSeLs from aeXivov "parsley"). 1. A small river 
on the S.W. coast of Sicily, flowing by the town 
of the same name. — 2. (Crestena), a river of Elis, 
in the district Triphylia, near Scillus, flowing into 
the Alpheus W. of Olympia.— 3. ( Vostitza), a river 
of Achaia, rising inMt. Erymanthus.- 4. A tribu- 
tary of the Caicus in Mysia, flowing by the town 
of Pergamum. — 4. {SeXivovPTLo^, 'ZeKivovarios : 
nr. Castel vetrano^ Ru.), one of the most important 
towns in Sicily, situated upon a hill on the S.W. 
coast, and upon a river of the same name. It was 
founded by the Dorians from Megara Hyblaea on 
the E. coast of Sicily, B. c. 628. It soon attained 
great prosperity ; but it was taken by the Cartha- 
ginians in 409, when most of its inhabitants were 
slain or sold as slaves, and the greater part of the 
city destroyed. The population of Selinus must at 
that time have been very considerable, since we 
are told that 16,000 men fell in the siege and con- 
quest of the town, 5000 v^ere carried to Carthage 
as slaves, 2600 fled to Agrigentum, and many 
others took refuge in the surrounding villages. The 
Carthaginians however allowed the inhabitants to 
return to Selinus in the course of the same year, 
and it continued to be a place of secondary im- 
portance till 249, when it was again destroyed by 
the Carthaginians and its inhabitants transferred to 
Lilybaeura. The surrounding country produced 
excellent wheat. East of Selinus on the road to 
Agrigentum, were celebrated mineral springs called 
Aquae Selinuntiae, subsequently Aquae Lahodae or 
Lahodes^ the modern Batlis of Sciacca. There are 
still considerable ruins of Selinus. — 5. (Selenti)^ a 
town in Cilicia, situated on the coast and upon a 
rock which Avas almost entirely surrounded by the 
sea. In consequence of the death of the emperor 
Trajan in this town, it was for a long time called 
Trajanopolis. 

Sellasia {^eWacria or SeAatr/a), a town in 
Laconica, N. of Sparta, was situated near the river 
Oenus, and commanded one of the principal passes 
leading to Sparta. Here the celebrated battle was 
fought between Cleomenes III. and Antigonus 
Doson, B. c. 221, in which the former was defeated. 

Ssileis (2eAA?]eis). 1. A river in Elis, on which 
the Homeric Ephyra stood, rising in mount Pholoe 
and falling into the sea, S. of the Peneus. — 2. A 
river near Sicyon. — 3. A river in Troas near 
Arisbe, and a tributary of tire Rhodius. 

Selli or Helli. [Dodona.] 



SELYMBRIA. 



SENECA. 



696 



Selymbria or Selybria (X-nXvfxSpia, 2?jAu§pta, 
Dor. 'S.aKajxSpia : '^ri\vfi§piav6s : Selivria\ an im- 
portant town in Thrace, situated on the Propontis. 
It was a colony of the Megarians, and was founded 
earlier than Byzantium. It perhaps derived its 
name from its founder Selys and the Thracian word 
Bria, a town. It continued to be a place of con- 
siderable importance till its conquest by Philip, 
the father of Alexander, from which time its de- 
cline may be dated. Under the later emperors it 
was called Eudoxiupolis, in honour of Eudoxia, 
the wife of Arcadius; but it afterwards recovered 
its ancient name. 

Semechonitis or Samaclionitis Lacus (2e/ie- 
XoiVLTis^ '2,aiJ.ax(»vlTLS and -nSiv Xifj-ur] : 0. T. 
Waters of Merom : Nahr-el-Huleh), a small lake 
in the N. of Palestine, the highest of the 3 formed 
by the Jordan, both branches of which fall into its 
N. end, while the river flows out of its S. end in 
one stream. The valley in which it lies is enclosed 
on the W. and E. by mountains belonging to the 
two ranges of Lebanon, forming a position which 
has been of military importance both in ancient 
and modern times, especially as the great Damascus 
road crosses the Jordan just below the lake. Ac- 
cording to the division of Palestine under the 
Roman empire, it belonged to Galilee, but in earlier 
times, under the Syrian kings, it was reckoned to 
Coelesyria. 

Semele (Se^w.eATj), daughter of Cadmus and 
Harmonia, at Thebes, and accordingly sister of Ino, 
Agave, Autonoe, and Polydorus. She was beloved 
by Zeus. Hera, stimulated by jealousy, appeared 
to her in the form of her aged nurse Beroe, and 
induced her to ask Zeus to visit her in the same 
splendour and majesty with which he appeared to 
Hera. Zeus warned her of the danger of her re- 
quest ; but as he had sworn to grant whatever she 
desired, he was obliged to comply with her prayer. 
He accordingly appeared before her as the god of 
thunder, and Semele was consumed by the light- 
ning ; but Zeus saved her child Dionysus, with 
whom she was pregnant. Her son afterwards car- 
ried her out of the lower world, and conducted her 
to Olympus where she became immortal under the 
name of Thyone. 

Semiramis (Se^tpajuis) andNinus (Nrj/os),the 
mythical founders of the Assyrian empire of Ninus 
or Nineveh. Ninus was a great warrior, who built 
the town of Ninus or Nineveh, about B. c. 2182, 
and subdued the greater part of Asia. Semiramis 
was the daughter of the fish-goddess Derceto of 
Ascalon in Syria by a Syrian youth ; but being 
ashamed of her frailty, she made away with the 
youth, and exposed her infant daughter. But the 
child was miraculously preserved by doves, who 
fed her till she was discovered by the shepherds 
of the neighbourhood. She was then brought up 
by the chief shepherd of the royal herds, whose 
name was Simmas, and from whom she derived 
the name of Semiramis. Her surpassing beauty 
attracted the notice of Onnes, ojie of the king's 
friends and generals, who married her. He subse- 
quently sent for his wife to the army, where the 
Assyrians were engaged in the siege of Bactra, 
which they had long endeavoured in vain to take. 
Upon her arrival in the camp she planned an at- 
tack upon the citadel of the town, mounted the 
walls with a few brave followers, and obtained 
possession of the place. Ninus was so charmed 
by her bravery and beauty, that he resolved to 



make her his Avife, whereupon her unfortunate 
husband put an end to his life. By Ninus Semi- 
ramis had a son, Ninyas, and on the death of Ninus 
she succeeded him on the throne. According to 
another account, Semiramis had obtained from her 
husband permission to rule over Asia for 5 days, 
and availed herself of this opportunity to cast the 
king into a dungeon, or, as is also related, to put 
him to death, and thus obtained the sovereign 
power. Her fame threw into the shade that of 
Ninus ; and later ages loved to tell of her marvel- 
lous deeds and her heroic achievements. She built 
numerous cities, and erected many wonderful build- 
ings ; and several of the most extraordinary works 
in the East, which were extant in a later age, and the 
authors of which were unknown, were ascribed by 
popular tradition to this queen. In Nineveh she 
erected a tomb for her husband, 9 stadia high, and 
10 wide ; she built the city of Babylon, with all 
its wonders; and she constructed the hanging gar- 
dens in Media, of which later writers give us such 
strange accounts. Besides conquering many nations 
of Asia, she subdued Egypt and a great part of 
Ethiopia, but was unsuccessful in an attack which, 
she made upon India. After a reign of 42 years 
she resigned the sovereignty to her son Ninyas, 
and disappeared from the earth, taking her flight . 
to heaven in the form of a dove. The fabulous 
nature of this narrative is apparent. It is probable 
that Semiramis was originally a Syrian goddess, 
perhaps the same who was worshipped at Ascalon 
under the name of Astarte, or the Heavenly Aphro- 
dite, to whom the dove was sacred. Hence the 
stories of her voluptuousness, which were current 
even in the time of Augustus (Ov. ^to. i. 5. 11). 

Semnones, more rarely Sennones, a German 
people, described by Tacitus as the most powerful 
tribe of the Suevic race, dwelt beween the rivers 
Viadus {Oder) and Albis {Elbe), from the Riesen- 
gebirge in the S. as far as the country around 
Frankfurt on the Oder and Potsdam in the N. 

Semo Sancus. [Sancus.] 

Sempronia. 1. Daughter of Tib. Gracchus, cen- 
sor B. c. 169, and sister of the 2 celebrated tribunes, 
married Scipio Africanus minor. — 2. Wife of D. 
Junius Brutus, consul 77, was a woman of great 
personal attractions and literary accomplishments, 
but of a profligate character. She took part in 
Catiline's conspiracy, though her husband was not 
privy to it. 

Sempronia Gens, was of great antiquity, and 
one of its members, A. Sempronius Atratinus, ob- 
tained the consulship as early as b. c. 497, 12 years 
after the foundation of the republic. The Sem- 
pronii were divided into many families, of which 
the Atratini were patrician, but all the others 
were plebeian : their names are Asellio, Blaesus, 
Gracchus, Sophus, Tuditanus. 

Sena (Senensis). 1. {Senigaglid)^ surnamed 
Gallica, and sometimes called Senogallia, a town 
on the coast of Umbria, at the mouth of the small 
river Sena, was founded by the Senones, a Gallic 
people, and Avas made a colony by the Romans 
after the conquest of the Senones, b. c. 283. In 
the civil war it espoused the Marian party, and 
was taken and sacked by Pompey,— 2. {Siena), a 
tov/n in Etruria and a Roman colony, on the road 
from Clusium to Florentia, is only mentioned in 
the times of the emperors. 

Seneca. 1. M. Annaeus, the rhetorician, was 
I born at Corduba {Cordova) in Spain, about B.C. 61, 

Y Y 4 



m SENECA. 
Seneca was at Rome in the early period of the 
power of Augustus, for he says that he had seen 
Ovid declaiming before Arellius Fuscus. He after- 
wards returned to Spain, and married Helvia, by 
whom he had 3 sons, L. Annaeus Seneca, L. An- 
naeus Mela or Mella, the father of the poet Lucan, 
and M. Novatus. Novatus was the eldest son, and 
took the name of Junius Gallio, upon being adopted 
by Junius Gallio. Seneca was rich, and he belonged 
to the equestrian class. At a later period Seneca re- 
turned to Rome, where he resided till his death, 
which probably occurred near the end of the reign 
of Tiberius. Two of Seneca's works have come 
down to us. 1. Coniroversiarum Libri decern^ which 
he addressed to his 3 sons. The 1st, 2nd, 7th, 
8th, and 10th books only are extant, and these are 
somewhat mutilated : of the other books only frag- 
ments remain. These Controversiae are rhetorical 
exercises on imaginary cases, filled with common- 
places, such as a man of large verbal memory and 
great reading carries about with him as his ready 
money. 2. Suasoriarum Liber, which is probably 
not complete. We may collect from its contents 
what the subjects v/ere on which the rhetoricians 
of that age exercised their wits : one of them is, 
" Shall Cicero apologise to M. Antonius ? Shall he 
agree to burn his Philippics, if Antonius requires 
it ? " Another is, " Shall Alexander embark on 
the ocean?" If there are some good ideas and 
apt expressions in these puerile declamations, they 
have no value where they stand ; and probably 
most of them are borrowed. No merit of form can 
compensate for worthlessness of matter. The best 
edition of these works is by A. Schottus, Heidel- 
berg, 1603, frequently reprinted.— 2. L. Annaeus, 
the philosopher, the son of the preceding, was born 
at Corduba, probably a few years b. c, and brought 
to Rome by his parents when he was a child. 
Though he was naturally of a weak bod}"-, he was 
a hard student from his youth, and he devoted 
himself with great ardour to rhetoric and philo- 
sophy. He also soon gained distinction as a pleader 
of causes, and he excited the jealousy and hatred 
of Caligula by the ability with which he conducted 
a case in the senate before the emperor. In the 
first year of the reign of Claudius (a. d. 41), Seneca 
was banished to Corsica, on account of his intimacy 
with Julia, the niece of Claudius, of whom Messa- 
lina was jealous. After 8 years' residence in Cor- 
sica, Seneca was recalled (49) by the influence of 
Agrippina, who had just married her uncle the 
emperor Claudius. He now obtained a praetorship, 
and was made the tutor of the young Domitius, 
afterwards the emperor Nero, who was the son of 
Agrippina by a former husband. On the accession 
of his pupil to the imperial throne (54) after the 
death of Claudius, Seneca became one of the chief 
advisers of the young emperor. He exerted his 
influence to check Nero's vicious propensities, but 
at the same time he profited from his position to 
amass an immense fortune. He supported Nero in 
his contests with his mother Agrippina, and was 
not only a party to the death of the latter (60), 
but he wrote the letter which Nero addressed to 
the senate in justification of the murder. After 
the death of his mother Nero abandoned himself 
without any restraint to his vicious propensities ; 
and the presence of Seneca soon became irksome to 
him, while the wealth of the philosopher excited 
the emperor's cupidity. Burrus, the praefect of 
the praetorian guards, who had always been a firm 



SENECA. 

supporter of Seneca, died in 63. His death broke 
the power of Seneca ; and Nero now fell into the 
hands of persons who were exactly suited to his 
taste. Tigellinus and Fennius Rufus, who suc- 
ceeded Burrus in the command of the praetorians, 
began an attack on Seneca. His enormous wealth, 
his gardens and villas, more magnificent than those 
of the emperor, his exclusive claims to eloquence, 
and his disparagement of Nero's skill in driving 
and singing, were all urged against him ; and it 
was time, they said, for Nero to get rid of a 
teacher. Seneca heard of the charges against him : 
he was rich, and he knew that Nero wanted money. 
He asked the emperor for permission to retire, and 
ofiered to surrender all that he had. Nero affected 
to be grateful for his past services, refused the 
proffered gift, and sent him away with perfidious as- 
surances of his respect and affection. Seneca now- 
altered his mode of life, saw little company, and 
seldom visited the city, on the ground of feeble 
health, or being occupied with his philosophical 
studies. The conspiracy of Piso (65) gave the 
emperor a pretext for putting his teacher to death.^ 
though there was not complete evidence of Seneca 
being a party to the conspiracy. Seneca was at 
the time returning from Campania, and had rested 
at a villa 4 miles from the cit}'. Nero sent a tri- 
bune to him with the order of death. Without 
showing any sign of alarm, Seneca cheered hiis 
weeping friends by reminding them of the lessons 
of philosophy. Embracing his wife Pompeia Pau- 
lina, he prayed her to moderate her grief, and to 
console herself for the loss of her husband by the 
reflection that he had lived an honourable life. 
But as Paulina protested that she would die with 
him, Seneca consented, and the same blow opened 
the veins in the arms of both. Seneca's body was 
attenuated by age and meagre diet ; the blood 
would not flow easily, and he opened the veins in 
his legs. His torture was excessive ; and to save 
himself and his wife the pain of seeing one another 
suffer, he bade her retire to her chamber. His 
last words were taken down in writing by persons 
who were called in for the purpose, and were after- 
wards published. Seneca's torments being still 
prolonged, he took hemlock from his friend and 
physician, Statius Annaeus, but it had no effect. 
At last he entered a warm bath, and as he 
sprinkled some of the water on the slaves nearest 
to him, he said, that he made a libation to Jupiter 
the Liberator. He was then taken into a vapour 
stove, where he was quickly suffocated. Seneca 
died, as was the fashion among the Romans, with 
the courage of a stoic, but with somewhat of a 
theatrical affectation which detracts from the dig- 
nity of the scene. Seneca's great misfortune was 
to have known Nero ; and though we cannot say 
that he was a truly great or a truly good man, his 
character will not lose by comparison with that of 
many others who have been placed in equally diffi- 
cult circumstances. — Seneca's fame rests on his 
numerous writings, of which the following are 
extant: — 1. De Ira, in 3 books, addressed to 
Novatus, probably the earliest of Seneca's works. 
In the 1st book he combats what Aristotle says of 
Anger in his Ethics. 2. De Consolatione ad Hel- 
viam Matrem Liber, a consolatory letter to his 
mother, written during his residence in Corsica. 
It is one of his best treatises. 3. De Consolatione 
ad Polyhium Liber, also written in Corsica. If it 
is the work of Seneca, it does him no credit. PoIy« 



SENECA. 



SENONES. 



697 



bius was the powerful freedman of Claudius, and 
the Consolatio is intended to comfort him on the 
occasion of the loss of his brother. But it also con- 
tains adulation of the emperor, and many expres- 
sions unworthy of a true stoic, or of an honest 
man. 4. Liher de Consolatione ad Marciam, written 
after his return from exile, was designed to console 
Marcia for the loss of her son. Marcia was the 
daughter of A. Cremutiiis Cordus. 5. De Frovi- 
dentia Liber, or Quare bonis viris mala accidant 
cum sit Providentia, is addressed to the younger 
Lucilius, procurator of Sicily. The question that 
is here discussed often engaged the ancient philo- 
sophers: the stoical solution of the difficulty is 
that suicide is the remedy when misfortune has 
become intolerable. In this discourse Seneca says 
that he intends to prove " that Providence hath a 
power over all things, and that God is always pre- 
sent with us." 6. De Animi Tranquillitate, ad- 
dressed to Serenus, probably written soon after 
Seneca's return from exile. It is in the form of a 
letter rather than a treatise : the object is to dis- 
cover the means by which tranquillity of mind can 
be obtained. 7. De Constantia Sapientis sen qmd 
in sapientem non cadit injuria, also addressed to 
Serenus, is founded on the stoical doctrine of the 
impassiveness of the wise man. 8. De dementia 
ad Neronem Caesarem Libri duo, written at the 
beginning of Nero's reign. There is too much of 
the flatterer in this ; but the advice is good. The 
2nd book is incomplete. It is in the 1st chapter of 
this 2nd book that the anecdote is told of Nero's 
unwillingness to sign a sentence of execution, and 
his exclamation, " I would I could neither read nor 
write." 9. De Brevitate Vitae ad Paulinum Liber, 
recommends the proper employment of time and 
the getting of wisdom as the chief purpose of life. 
10. De Vita Beata ad Gallionem, addressed to his 
brother, L. Junius Gallio, is probably one of the 
later works of Seneca, in which he maintains the 
stoical doctrine that there is no happiness without 
virtue ; but he does not deny that other things, as 
health and riches, have their value. The conclusion 
of the treatise is lost. \\. De Olio aut Secessu Sa- 
pientis, is sometimes joined to No. 1 0. 1 2. De Bene- 
ficiis Libri septem, addressed to Aebucius Liberalis, 
is an excellent discussion of the way of conferring a 
favour, and of the duties of the giver and of the 
receiver. The handling is not very methodical, 
but it is very complete. It is a treatise which all 
persons might read with profit. 1 3. Epistolae ad 
Lucilium, 1 24 in number, are not the correspond- 
ence of daily life, like that of Cicero, but a collec- 
tion of moral maxims and remarks without any sys- 
tematic order. They contain much good matter, 
and have been favourite reading with many distin- 
guished men. It is possible that these letters, and 
indeed many of Seneca's moral treatises, Avere 
written in the latter part of his life, and probably 
after he had lest the favour of Nero. That Seneca 
sought consolation and tranquillity of mind in lite- 
rary occupation is manifest. 14. Apocolocyntosis, is 
a satire against the emperor Claudius. The word 
is a play on the term Apotheosis or deification, and 
is equivalent in meaning to Pumpkinification, or the 
reception of Claudius among the pumpkins. The 
subject was well enough, but the treatment has no 
great merit ; and Seneca probably had no other 
object than to gratify his spite against the em- 
peror. 15. Quaestionum Naturalium Libri septem, 
addressed to Lucilius Junior, is not a systematic 



work, but a collection of natural facts from various 
writers, Greek and Roman, many of which are 
curious. The 1st book treats of meteors, the 2nd 
of thunder and lightning, the 3rd of water, the 4th 
of hail, snow, and ice, the 5th of winds, the 6th of 
earthquakes and the sources of the Nile, and the 
7th of comets. Moral remarks are scattered through 
the work ; and indeed the design of the whole ap- 
pears to be to find a foundation for ethic, the chief 
part of philosophy, in the knowledge of nature 
(Physic). 16. Tragoediae, 10 in number. They 
are entitled Hercules Furens, Thyestes, Thebais or 
Fhoenissae, Hippolytus or Phaedra, Oedipus, Tro- 
ades or Hecuba, Medea, Agamemnon, Hercules 
Oetaeus, and Octavia. The titles themselves, with 
the exception of the Octavia, indicate sufficiently 
what the tragedies are, Greek mythological subjects 
treated in a peculiar fashion. They are written 
in Iambic senarii, interspersed with choral parts, in 
anapaestic and other metres. The subject of the 
Octavia is Nero's ill-treatment of his wife, his 
passion for Poppaea, and the exile of Octavia. 
These tragedies are not adapted, and certainly 
were never intended for the stage. They were 
designed for reading or for recitation after the 
Roman fashion, and they bear the stamp of a rhe- 
torical age. They contain many striking passages, 
and have some merit as poems. Moral sentiments 
and maxims abound, and the style and character of 
Seneca are as conspicuous here as in his prose 
works. — The judgments on Seneca's writings have 
been as various as the opinions about his character ; 
and both in extremes. It has been said of him 
that he looks best in quotations ; but this is an 
admission that there is something worth quoting, 
which cannot be said of all writers. That Seneca 
possessed great mental powers cannot be doubted. 
He had seen much of human life, and he knew 
well what man was. His philosophy, so far as he 
adopted a system, was the stoical, but it was 
rather an eclecticism of stoicism than pure stoicism. 
His style is antithetical, and apparently laboured ; 
and Avhen there is much labour, there is generally 
affectation. Yet his language is clear and forcible; 
it is not mere words : there is thought always. It 
would not be easy to name any modern writer who 
has treated on morality, and has said so much that 
is practically good and true, or has treated the 
matter in so attractive a way. The best editions 
of Seneca are by J. F. Gronovius, Leiden, 1649 — 
1658, 4 vols. 12mo.; by Ruhkopf, Leipzig, 1797 — 
181 1, 5 vols. 8vo.; and the Bipont edition, Strass- 
burg, 1809, 5 vols. 8vo. 

Senecio, Herennius, was a native of Baetica in 
Spain, where he served as quaestor. He was put 
to death by Domitian on the accusation of Metius 
Carus, in consequence of his having written the 
life of Helvidius Priscus, which he composed at 
the request of Fannia, the wife of Helvidius. 

Senia (Senensis : Segna or Zengg), a Romar. 
colony in Liburnia in Illyricum, on the coast, and 
on the road from Aquileia to Siscia. 

Senones, a powerful people in Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis, dwelt along the upper course of the Sequana 
{Seine), and were bounded on the N. by the Pari- 
sii, on the W, by the Carnutes, on the S. by the 
Aedui, and on the E. by the Lingones and Mandu- 
bii. Their chief town was Agendicum, afterwards 
called Senones (Sens). A portion of this people 
crossed the Alps about b. c. 400, in order to settle 
in Italy ; and as the greater part of Upper Italy 



698 



SENTINUM. 



SERENUS. 



■was already occupied by other Celtic tribes, the 
Senones were obliged to penetrate a considerable 
distance to the S., and took up their abode on the 
Adriatic sea between the rivers Utis and Aesis 
(between Ravenna and Ancona), after expelling 
the Umbrians. In this country they founded the 
town of Sena. They extended their ravages into 
Etruria ; and it was in consequence of the inter- 
ference of the Romans while they were laying 
siege to Clusium, that they marched against Rome 
and took the city, b. c. 390. From this time we 
find them engaged in constant hostilities with the 
Romans, till they were at length completely sub- 
dued and the greater part of them destroyed by 
the consul Dolabella, 283. 

Sentinum (Sentinas, Sentinatis : nr. Sassofer- 
rato, Ru.), a fortified town in Umbria, not far 
from the river Aesis. 

Sentius Saturninus. [Saturninus.] 

Sepias (STjTTias : St.George), a promontory in the 
S.E. of Thessaly in the district Magnesia, on which 
a great part of the fleet of Xerxes was wrecked. 

Seplasia, one of the principal streets in Capua, 
where perfumes and luxuries of a similar kind 
were sold. 

Sepphoris {:^eir(poopl5 : Sefurieh), a city of Pa- 
lestine, in the middle of Galilee, about half-way 
between M. Carmel and the lake of Tiberias, was 
an insignificant place, until Herod Antipas fortified 
it, and made it the capital of Galilee, under the 
name of Diocaesarea. Tt was the seat of one of 
the 5 Jewish Sanhedrim; and continued to flourish 
imtil the 4th century, when it was destroyed by 
the Caesar Gallus, on account of a revolt of its 
inhabitants. 

Septem Aquae, a place in the territory of the 
Sabini, near Reate. 

Septem Fratres ('ETrxa aSeA^oi : Jebel Zatout, 
i. e. Apes'' Hill), a mountain on the N. coast of 
Mauretania Tingitana, at the narrowest part of the 
Fretum Gaditanum {Straits of Gibraltar), con- 
nected by a low tongue of land with the promon- 
tory of Abyla, which is also included under the 
modem name. 

Septem Maria, the name given by the ancients 
to the lagoons formed at the mouth of the Po by 
the frequent overflows of this river. Persons 
usually sailed through these lagoons from Ravenna 
to Altinum. 

Septempeda (Septempedanus : Sa?i Severino), a 
Roman municipium in the interior of Picenum, on 
the road from Auximum to Urbs Salvia. 

Septimius Geta, [Get a.] 

Septimius Serenus. [Serenus.] 

Septimius Severus. [Severus.] 

Septimius Titius, a Roman poet, whom Horace 
(i. 3. 9 — 14) represents as having ventured to quaff 
a draught from the Pindaric spring, and as having 
been ambitious to achieve distinction in tragedy. 
In this passage Horace speaks of him under the 
name of Titius ; and he is probably the same indi- 
vidual vnih the Septimius who is addressed in the 
6th ode of the 2nd book, and who is introduced in 
the 9th epistle of the 1st book. 

Sequana (Sei?ie), one of the principal rivers of 
Gaul, rising in the central parts of that country, 
and flowing through the province of Gallia Lug- 
dunensis into the ocean opposite Britain. It is 346 
miles in length. Its principal affluents are the 
Matrona (Marne), Esia (0/se) with its tributary 
the Axona {Aisne) and Incaimus {Yonne). This 



river has a slow current, and is navigable beyond 
Lutetia Parisrorum {Paris). 

Sequani, a powerful Celtic people in Gallia 
Belgica, separated from the Helvetii by Mons 
J iirassus, from the Aedui by the Arar, and from 
the province Narbonensis by the Rhone, inhabit- 
ing the country called Frayiche Comptt and Bur- 
gundy. In the later division of the provinces of 
the empire, the country of the Sequani formed a 
special province under the name of Maxima Sequa- 
norum. They derived their name from the river 
Sequana, which had its source in the N. W. fron- 
tiers of their territory ; but their country was 
chiefly watered by the rivers Arar and Dubis. 
Their chief town was Vesontio {Besanq^on). They 
were governed by kings of their own, and were 
constantly at wax with the Aedui. 

Sequester, Vibius, the name attached to a glos- 
sary which professes to give an account of the geo- 
graphical names contained in the Roman poets. 
The tract is divided into 7 sections : — 1. Flumina. 
2. Fo?ites. 3. Laeus. 4. Nemora. 5. Paludes. 
6. Monies. 7. Gentes. To which in some MSS. 
an 8th is added, containing a list of the seven 
wonders of the world. Concerning the author per- 
sonally we know nothing ; and he probably lived 
not earlier than the middle of the 5th century. The 
best edition is by Oberlinus, Argent. 1778. 

Sera. [S erica.] 

Serapio, a surname of P. Cornelius Scipio Na- 
sica, consul B.C. 138. [SciPio, No. 18.] 

Serapion (SepaTriwv), a physician of Alexandria, 
who lived in the 3rd century B.C. He belonged to 
the sect of the Empirici, and so much extended and 
improved the system of Philinus, that the invention 
of it is by some authors attributed to him. Sera- 
pion wrote against Hippocrates with much vehe- 
mence ; but neither this, nor any of his other works, 
are now extant. He is several times mentioned 
and quoted by Celsus, Galen, and others. 

Serapis or Sarapis (papains), an Egyptian 
divinity, whose worship was introduced into Greece 
in the time of the Ptolemies. His worship was 
introduced into Rome with that of Isis. [Isis.] 

Serbonis Lacus. [Sirbonis Lacus.] 

Serdica or Sardica, an important town m 
Upper Moesia, and the capital of Dacia Interior, 
situated in a fertile plain near the sources of the 
Oescus, and on the road from Naissus to Philippo- 
polis. It was the birthplace of the emperor 
Maximianus ; it was destroyed by Attila, but was 
soon afterwards rebuilt ; and it bore in the middle 
ages the name of Triaditza. Its extensive ruins 
are to be seen S. of Soplda. Serdica derived its 
name from the Thracian people Serdi. 

Serena, niece of Theodosius the Great, foster- 
mother of the emperor Honorius, and wife of Sti- 
licho. 

Serenus, Annaeus, one of the most intimate 
friends of the philosopher Seneca, who dedicated to 
him his work De Traiiquillitate and De Constaiitia. 
He was praefectus vigilura under Nero, and died in 
consequence of eating a poisonous kind of fungus. 

Serenus, Q. Sammonicus (or Samonicus), en- 
joyed a high reputation at Rome, in the early part 
of the 3rd century after Christ, as a man of taste 
and varied knowledge. As the friend of Geta, by 
whom his compositions were studied with great 
pleasure, he was murdered while at supper, by 
command of Caracalla, a. d. 212, leaving behind 
him many learned works. His son, who bore the 



SERENUS. 



SERTORIUS. 



699 



same name, was the preceptor of the j'ounger Gor- 
dian, and bequeathed to his pupil the magnificent 
library which he had inherited from his father, A 
medical poem, extending to 115 hexameter lines, 
has descended to us under the title Q. Sereni Sam- 
monici de Medicina praecepia saluherrima, or Prae- 
cepia de Medicina parvo pretio parabili, which is 
usually ascribed to the elder Sammonicus. It con- 
tains a considerable amount of information, ex- 
tracted from the best authorities, on natural history 
and the healing art, mixed up with a number of 
puerile superstitions, the whole expressed in plain 
and almost prosaic language. The best edition is 
that of Burmann, in his Poetae Latini Minores 
(4to. Leid. 1731, vol. ii. pp. 187—388). 

Serenus, A. Septimius, a Roman lyric poet, 
who exercised his muse chiefly in depicting the 
charms of the country and the delight of rural pur- 
suits. His works are lost, but are frequently 
quoted by the grammarians. 

Seres. [Skrica.] 

Sergia Gens, patrician. The Sergii traced their 
descent from the Trojan Sergestus (Virg. Aen. v. 
121). The Sergii were distinguished in the early 
history of the republic, and the first member of the 
gens who obtained the consulship was L. Sergius 
Fidenas, in b. c. 437. Catiline belonged to this 
gens. [Catilina.] The Sergii bore also the sur- 
names of Esquilinus, Fidenas^ Orata, Paulus^ Plan- 
cus, and Silus ; but none of them are of sufficient 
importance to require a separate notice. 

Sergius, a grammarian of uncertain date, but 
later than the 4th century after Christ, the author 
of 2 tracts ; the 1st entitled In primant Donati 
Editionem Commentarium ; the 2nd, In secundam 
Donati Editionem Commentaria. They are printed 
in the Grammaticae Latinae auctores antiqui of 
Putschius (Hannov. 1605, pp. 1816—1838). 

Serica [rj Stjpijc?], STjpes ; Seres, also rarely in 
the sing. 2^7p, Ser), a country in the extreme E. of 
Asia, famous as the native region of the silkworm, 
which was also called crr\p • and hence the adjec- 
tive ' sericus' for silken. The name was known to 
the W. nations at a very early period, through the 
use of silk, first in W. Asia, and afterwards in 
Greece. It is clear, however, that, until some 
time after the commencement of our era, the name 
had no distinct geographical signification. Serica 
and Seres were simply the unknown country and 
people in the far East, from whom the article of 
commerce, silk, was obtained. At a later period, 
some knowledge of the country was obtained from 
the traders, the results of which are recorded by 
Ptolemy, who names several positions that can be 
identified with reasonable probability, but the 
detailed mention of which does not fall within the 
object of this work. The Serica of Ptolemy cor- 
responds to the N. W. part of China^ and the 
adjacent portions of Thibet and Chinese Tartary. 
The capital. Sera, is supposed by most to be 
Singan, on the Hoang-ho., but by some Peking. 
The country was bounded, according to Ptolem.y, 
on the N. by unknown regions, on the W. by 
Scythia, on the S. and S. E. by India and the 
Sinae. The people were said by some to be of 
Indian, by others of Scythian, origin, and by 
others to be a mixed race. The Great Wall of 
China is mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus 
under the name of Aggeres Serium. 

Seriphus (2,4pi^os : 2epi'4)ios : Serpho), an 
island in the Aegean sea, and one of the Cyclades, 



lying between Cythnus and Siphnus. It was a 
small rocky island about 12 miles in circum- 
ference. It is celebrated in mythology as the 
island where Danae and Perseus landed after 
they had been exposed by Acrisius, where Per- 
seus was brought up, and where he afterwards 
turned the inhabitants into stone with the Gor- 
gon's head. Seriphus was colonised by lonians 
from Athens, and it was one of the few islands 
which refused submission to Xerxes. At a later 
time the inhabitants of Seriphus were noted for 
their poverty and wretchedness ; and for this 
reason the island was employed by the Roman 
emperors as a place of banishment for state crimi- 
nals. The ancient writers relate that the frogs in 
Seriphos were mute. 

Serm.yla (Sep/^uATj : 'Sepfjt.vXios), a town in 
Macedonia on the isthmus of the peninsula Si- 
thonia. 

Serranus, Atilius. Serranus was originally 
an agn'bmen of C. Atilius Regulus, consul B. c. 257, 
but afterwards became the name of a distinct 
family of the Atilia gens. Most of the ancient 
writers derive the name from severe, and relate 
that Regulus received the surname of Serranus, 
because he was engaged in sowing when the news 
was brought him of his elevation to the consulship 
(Virg. Aen. vi. 845). It appears, however, from 
coins, that Saranus is the proper form of the name, 
and some modem writers think that it is derived 
from Saranum, a town of Umbria. — -1. C, praetor, 
B. c. 218, the 1st year of the 2nd Punic war, and 
was sent into northern Italy. At a later period of 
the year he resigned his command to the consul 
P. Scipio. He was an unsuccessful candidate for 
the consulship for 216. — 2. C, curule aedile 193, 
with L. Scribonius Libo. They were the 1st 
aediles who exhibited the Megalesia as ludi sce- 
nici. He was praetor 185. — 3. A., praetor 192, 
when he obtained, as his province, Macedonia 
and the command of the fleet. He was praetor a 
2nd time in 173. He was consul in 170. — 4. M., 
praetor 174, when he obtained the province of 
Sardinia. — 5. M., praetor 152, in Further Spain, 
defeated the Lusitani.— 6. Sex., consul 136.— 
7. C, consul 106 with Q. Servilius Caepio, the 
year in which Cicero and Pompey were bom. 
Although a " stultissimus homo," according to 
Cicero, he was elected in preference to Q. Catulus. 
He was one of the senators who took up arms 
against Saturninus in 100. — 8. Sex., surnamed 
Gavianus, because he originally belonged to the 
Gavia gens. He was quaestor in 63 in the consul- 
ship of Cicero, who treated him with distinguished 
favour ; but in his tribunate of the plebs, 57, he 
took an active part in opposing Cicero's recal from 
banishment. After Cicero's return to ome he 
put his veto upon the decree of the senate restoring 
to Cicero the site on which his house had stood, but 
he found it advisable to withdraw his opposition. 

SerrMum (^.e^peiov), a promontory of Thrace 
in the Aegaean Sea, opposite the island of Samo- 
thrace, with a fortress of the same name upon it. 

Q. Sertorius, one of the most extraordinary 
men in the later times of the republic, was a native 
of Nursia, a Sabine village, and was born of ob- 
scure but respectable parents. He served under 
Marius in the war against the Teutones; and before 
the battle of Aquae Sextiae (Aisc), b. c. 102, he 
entered the camp of the Teutones in disguise as a 
spy, for which hazardous undertaking his intrepid 



700 SERVILIA. 
character and some knowledge of the Gallic lan- 
guage well qualified him. He also served as tri- 
bunus militum in Spain under T. Didius (97). 
He was quaestor in 91, and had before this time 
lost an eye in battle. On the outbreak of the 
civil war in 88, he declared himself against the 
party of the nobles, though he was by no means an 
admirer of his old commander, C. Marius, whose 
character he well understood. He commanded one 
of the 4 armies which besieged Rome under Ma- 
rius and Cinna. He was however opposed to the 
bloody massacre which ensued after Marius and 
Cinna entered Rome ; and he was so indignant at 
the horrible deeds committed by the slaves, whom 
Marius kept as guards, that he fell upon them in 
their camp, and speared 4000 of them. In 83 
Sertorius was praetor, and either in this year or 
the following he went into Spain, which had been 
assigned to him as his province by the Marian 
party. After collecting a small body of troops in 
Spam, he crossed over to Mauretania, where he 
gained a victory over Paccianus, one of Sulla's 
generals. In consequence of his success in Africa, 
he was invited by the Lusitani, who were exposed 
to the invasion of the Romans, to become their 
leader. He gained great influence over the Lusi- 
tanians and the other barbarians in Spain, and 
soon succeeded in forming an army, which for 
some years successfully opposed all the power of 
Rome. He also availed himself of the superstitious 
character of the people among whom he was, to 
strengthen his authority over them. A fawn was 
brought to him by one of the natives as a present, 
which soon became so tame as to accompany him 
in his walks, and attend him on all occasions. 
After Sulla had become master of Italy, Sertorius 
was joined by many Romans who had been pro- 
scribed by the dictator ; and this not only added 
to his consideration, but brought him many good 
officers. In 79 Metellus Pius was sent into Spain 
with a considerable force against Sertorius ; but 
Metellus could effect nothing against the enemy. 
He was unable to bring Sertorius to anj' decisive 
battle, but was constantly harassed by the guerilla 
warfare of the latter. In 77 Sertorius was joined 
by M, Perpema with 53 cohorts [Perperna], 
To give some show of form to his formidable power, 
Sertorius established a senate of 300, into which 
no provincial was admitted ; but to soothe the 
more distinguished Spaniards, and to have some 
security for their fidelity, he established a school at 
Huesca (Osca), in Aragon, for the education of 
their children in Greek and Roman learning. The 
continued want of success on the part of Metellus 
induced the Romans to send Pompey to his assist- 
ance, but with an independent command. Pompey 
arrived in Spain in 76 with 30,000 infantry and 
1000 cavalrj', but even with this formidable force 
he was unable to gain any decisive advantages over 
Sertorius. For the next 5 years Sertorius kept 
both Metellus and Pompey at bay, and cut to 
pieces a large number of their forces. Sertorius 
was at length assassinated in 72 at a banquet b}' 
Perperna and some other Roman officers, who had 
long been jealous of the authority of their com- 
mander. 

Servilia. 1. Daughter of Q. Servilius Caepio 
and the daughter of Livia, the sister of the cele- 
brated jM. Livius Drusus, tribune of the plebs, 
B. c. 91. Servilia was married twice; first to M. 
Junius Brutus, by whom she became the mother 



SESOSTRIS. 

of the murderer of Caesar, and secondly to D. Ju- 
nius Silanus, consul 62. She was the favourite 
mistress of the dictator Caesar ; and it is reported 
that Brutus was her son by Caesar. This tale 
however cannot be true, as Caesar was only 15 
years older than Brutus, the former having been 
born in 100, and the latter in 85. She survived 
both her lover and her son. After the battle of 
Philippi, Ajitony sent her the ashes of her son.— 
2. Sister of the preceding, was the 2nd wife of 
L. Lucullus, consul 74. She bore LucuUus a son, 
but, like her sister, she was faithless to her hus- 
band ; and the latter, after putting up with her 
conduct for some time from regard to M. Cato Uti- 
censis, her half-brother, at length divorced her. 

Servilia Gens, was one of the Alban houses 
removed to Rome by TuUus Hostilius. This gens 
was very celebrated during the early ages of the 
republic, and it continued to produce men of influ- 
ence in the state down to the imperial period. It 
was divided into numerous families, of which the 
most important bore the names of : — Ahala, Cae- 
pio, Casca, Glaucia, Rullus, Vatia. 

Servius Manrus Honoratus, or Servius Ma- 
rius Honoratus, a celebrated Latin grammarian, 
contemporary with Macrobius, who introduces him 
among the dramatis personae of the Saturnalia, 
His most celebrated production was an elaborate 
commentary upon Virgil. This is, nominally at 
least, still extant ; but from the widely different 
forms which it assmnes in different MSS. it is 
clear that it must have been changed and inter- 
polated to such an extent by the transcribers of the 
middle ages, that it is impossible to determine how 
much belongs to Servius and how much to later 
hands. Even in its present condition, however, it 
is deservedly regarded as the most important and 
valuable of all the Latin Scholia. It is attached 
to many of the earlier editions of Virgil, but it 
will be found under its best form in the edition of 
Virgil by Burmann. We possess also the following 
treatises bearing the name of Servius : — 1 . In 
secundam Donati Editionem Interpretatio. 2. De 
Ratione ultimarum Syllabarum ad Aquilinum Li- 
ber. 3. Ars de centum Metris s. Centimetrum. 

Servius Tullius. [Tullius.] 

Sesamus (2r)(ra/i(5s), a little coast river of 
Paphlagonia, with a town of the same name : both 
called afterwards Amastris. 

Sesostris (SeVwo-Tpis), the name given by the 
Greeks to the great king of Egypt, who is called 
in Manetho and on the monuments Ramses or 
Ramesses. Ramses is a name common to several 
kings of the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties; but 
Sesostris must be identified with Ramses, the 3rd 
king of the 1 9th dynasty, the son of Seti, and the 
father of Menephthah. Sesostris was a great con- 
queror. He is said to have subdued Ethiopia, 
the greater part of Asia, and the Tliracians in 
Europe ; and in all the countries which he con- 
quered he erected stelae^ on which he inscribed 
his own name. He returned to Egypt after an 
absence of 9 5'ears, and the countless captives 
whom he brought back with him were employed 
in the erection of numerous public works. Memo- 
rials of Ramses- Sesostris still exist throughout the 
whole of Eg}'pt, from the mouth of the Nile to 
the south of Nubia. In the remains of his palace- 
temple at Thebes we see his victories and conquests 
represented on the walls, and we can still trace 
there some of the nations of Africa and Asia whom 



SESTIANAE. 



SEVERUS. 



701 



he subdued. The name of Sesostris is not found 
on monuments, and it was probably a popular sur- 
name given to the great hero of the 19th dynasty, 
and borrowed from Sesostris, one of the renowned 
kings of the r2th dynasty, or perhaps from Sesor- 
thus, a king of the 3rd dynasty. 

Sestianae Arae (C Villano), the most W.-ly 
promontory on the N. coast of Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis in Gallaecia, with 3 altars consecrated to 
Augustus. 

Sestinum (Sestinas, -atis : Sesiino), a town in 
Umbria on the Apennines, near the sources of the 
Pisaunis. 

Sestius. [Sextius.] 

Sestus {2wt6s : 'SiiffTios : lalova), a town 
in Thrace, situated at the narrowest part of the 
Hellespont opposite Abydos in Asia, from which 
it was only 7 stadia distant. It was founded by 
the Aeolians. It was celebrated in Grecian poetry 
on account of the loves of Leander and Hero 
[Leander], and in history on account of the 
bridge of boats which Xerxes here built across the 
Hellespont. Sestus was always reckoned a place 
of importance in consequence of its commanding 
to a great extent the passage of the Hellespont. 
It was for some time in the possession of the Per- 
sians, but was retaken by the Greeks, b. c. 478, 
after a long siege. It subsequently formed part 
of the Athenian empire. 

Setabis. [Saetabis.] 

Setlion (Se^wj/), a priest of Hephaestus, made 
himself master of Egypt after the expulsion of 
Sabacon, king of the Ethiopians, and was suc- 
ceeded by the Dodecarchia, or government of the 
12 chiefs, which ended in the sole sovereignty of 
Psammitichus. Herodotus relates (ii. 141) that 
in Sethon's reign Sanacharibus, king of the Ara- 
bians and Assyrians, advanced against Egypt, at 
which Sethon was in great alarm, as he had in- 
sulted the warrior class, and deprived them of 
their lands, and they now refused to follow him to 
the war. But the god Hephaestus came to his 
assistance; for while the two armies were encamped 
near Pelusium, the field-mice in the night gnawed 
to pieces the bow-strings, the quivers, and the 
shield-handles of the Assyrians, who fled on the 
following day with great loss. The recollection of 
this miracle was perpetuated by a statue of the 
king in the temple of Hephaestus, holding a mouse 
in his hand, and saying, " Let every one look at 
me and be pious." This Sanacharibus is the Sen- 
nacherib of the Scriptures, and the destruction of 
the Assyrians at Pelusium is evidently only another 
version of the miraculous destruction of the Assy- 
rians by the angel of the Lord, when they had ad- 
vanced against Jerusalem in the reign of Hezekiah. 
According to the Jewish records, this event hap- 
pened in B.C. 71 1. 

Setia (Setinus : Sezza or Sesse), an ancient 
town of Latium in the E. of the Pontine Marshes, 
originally belonged to the Volscian confederacy, 
but was subsequently taken by the Romans and 
colonised. It was here that the Romans kept the 
Carthaginian hostages. It was celebrated for the 
excellent Avine grown in the neighbourhood of the 
town, which was reckoned in the time of Augustus 
the finest wine in Ital_y. 

Severus, M. Aurelius Alexander, usually 
called Alexander Severus, Roman emperor, a . d. 
222 — 235, the son of Gessius Marcianus and Julia 
Mamaea, and first cousin of Elagabalus, was born 



at Arce, in Phoenicia, in the temple of Alexander 
the Great, to which his parents had repaired for 
the celebration of a festival, the 1st of October, 
A. D. 205. His original name appears to have been 
Aleocia7ius Bassianus, the latter appellation having 
been derived from his maternal grandfather. Upon 
the elevation of Elagabalus, he accompanied his 
mother and the court to Rome, a report having 
been spread abroad that he also, as well as the 
emperor, was the son of Caracalla. In 221 he was 
adopted by Elagabalus and created Caesar. The 
names Alexianus and Bassianus were laid aside, 
and those of M. Aurelius Alexander substituted ; 
M. Aurelius in virtue of his adoption ; Alexander 
in consequence, as was asserted, of a direct reve- 
lation on the part of the Syrian god. On the death 
of Elagabalus, on the 11th of March, a. p. 222, 
Alexander ascended the throne, adding Severus to 
his other designations, in order to mark more ex- 
plicitly the descent which he claimed from the 
father of Caracalla. After reigning in peace some 
years, during which he reformed many abuses in 
the state, he was involved in a war with Arta- 
xerxes, king of Persia, who had lately founded the 
new empire of the Sassanidae on the ruins of the 
Parthian monarchy. Alexander gained a great 
victory over Artaxerxes in 232 ; but he was unable 
to prosecute his advantage in consequence of intel- 
ligence having reached him of a great movement 
among the German tribes. He celebrated a tri- 
umph at Rome in 233, and in the following year 
(234) set out for Gaul, which the Germans were 
devastating ; but before he had made any progress 
in the campaign, he was waylaid by a small band 
of mutinous soldiers, instigated, it is said, by Max- 
iminus, and slain, along with his mother, in the 
early part of 235, in the 30th year of his age, and 
the 14th of his reign. Alexander Severus was 
distinguished by justice, wisdom, and clemency in 
all public transactions, and by the simplicity and 
purity of his private life. 

Sgverus, A. Caecina. [Caecixa.] 
Severus, Cassius, a celebrated orator and 
satirical writer in the time of Augustus and Tibe- 
rius, was born about b. c. 50 at Longula, in La- 
tium. He was a man of low origin and dissolute 
character, but was much feared by the severity of 
his attacks upon the Roman nobles. He must 
I have commenced his career as a public slanderer 
very early, if he is the person against whom the 
6th epode of Horace is directed, as is supposed by 
many ancient and modern commentators. Towards 
the latter end of the reign of Augustus, Severus 
was banished by Augustus to the island of Crete 
on account of his libellous verses ; but as he still 
continued to write libels, he was removed by Tibe- 
rius in A. D. 24 to the desert island of Seriphos, 
where he died in great poverty in the 25th year 
of his exile, A. D. 33. 

_ Severus, Cornelius, the author of a poem en- 
titled Bellum Siculum, was contemporary with 
Ovid, by whom he is addressed in one of the 
Epistles written from Pontus. 

Severus, Flavins Valerius, Roman emperor, 
A. D. 306 — 307. He was proclaimed Caesar by 
Galerius in 305 ; and on the death of Constantius 
Chlorus, in the following year, he was further pro- 
claimed Augustus by Galerius. Soon afterwards 
he was sent against Maxentius, who had assumed 
the imperial title at Rome. The expedition how- 
ever was unsuccessful; and Severus having siuv. 



702 



3EVERUS. 



SEXTUS. 



rendered at Ravenna, was taken prisoner to Rome 
and compelled to put an end to his life. 

SSverus, Libius, Roman emperor a. d. 461 — 
465, was a Lucanian by birth, and owed his acces- 
sion to Ricimer, who placed him on the throne after 
the assassination of Majorian. During his reign 
the real government was in the hands of Ricimer. 
Severus died a natural death. 

Severus, L. Septimius, Roman emperor a. b. 
193 — 211, was born 146, near Leptis in Africa. 
After holding various important military commands 
under M. Aurelius and Commodus, he was at 
length appointed commander-in-chief of the army 
in Pannonia and lUyria. By this army he was 
proclaimed emperor after the death of Pertinax 
(193). He forthwith marched upon Rome, where 
Julianus had been made emperor by the praetorian 
troops. Julianus was put to death upon his arrival 
before the city. [Julianus.] Severus then turned 
his arms against Pescennius Niger, who had been 
saluted emperor by the eastern legions. The 
struggle was brought to a close by a decisive battle 
near Issus, in which Niger was defeated by Severus, 
and having been shortly afterwards taken prisoner 
was put to death by order of the latter (194). 
Severus then laid siege to Byzantium, which re- 
fused to submit to him even after the death of 
Niger, and which was not taken till 196. The 
cit)' was treated ^vith great severity by Severus. 
Its walls were levelled with the earth, its soldiers 
and magistrates put to death, and the town itself, 
deprived of all its political privileges, made over to 
the Perinthians. During the continuance of this 
siege, Severus had crossed the Euphrates (195) and 
subdued the Mesopotamian Arabians. He returned 
to Italy in 196, and in the same year proceeded to 
Gaul to oppose Albinus, who had been proclaimed 
emperor by the troops in that country. Albinus 
was defeated and slain in a terrible battle fought 
near Lyons on the 19th of February, 197. Severus 
returned to Rome in the same year ; but after re- 
maining a short time in the capital, he set out for 
the East in order to repel the invasion of the Par- 
thians, who were ravaging Mesopotamia. He 
crossed the Euphrates early in 198, and commenced 
a series of operations which were attended with 
brilliant results. Seleucia and Babylon were 
evacuated by the enemy ; and Ctesiphon was taken 
and plundered after a short siege. After spending 
3 years in the East, and \-isiting Arabia, Palestine, 
and Egypt, Severus returned to Rome in 202. For 
the next 7 years he remained tranquilly at Rome ; 
but in 208 he went to Britain with his sons Cara- 
calla and Geta. Here he carried on war against 
the Caledonians, and erected the celebrated wall, 
which bore his name, from the Solway to the mouth 
of the Tyne. After remaining 2 years in Britain 
he died at Eboracum (York) on the 4th of February, 
211, in the 65th year of his age, and the 18th of 
his reign. 

Severus, Sulpicius, chiefly celebrated as an ec- 
clesiastical historian, was a native of Aquitania, 
and flourished towards the close of the 4th century 
under Arcadius and Honorius. He was descended , 
from a noble family, and was originally an advocate ; 1 
but he eventually became a presbyter of the church, ! 
and attached himself closely to St. ]\Iartin of 
Tours. The extant works of Severus are : — 1 . j 
Historia Sacra, an epitome of sacred history, ex- | 
tending fi'om the creation of the world to the con- 'i 
sulship of Stilicho and Aurelianus, a. d. 400. 2. ' 



Vim S. Martini Turonensis. 3. Tres Epistolae, 
4. Dialogi dm, containing a review of the dissensions 
which had arisen among ecclesiastics in the East 
regarding the works of Origen. 5. Epistolae Sex. 
The best edition of the complete works of Severus 
is by Hieronymus de Prato, 4to. 2 vols. Veron. 
1741—1754. 

Seuthes (26u07?s), the name of several kings of 
the Odrysians in Thrace. Of these the most im- 
portant was the nephew of Sitalces, whom he suc- 
ceeded on the throne in 424. During a long reign 
he raised his kingdom to a height of power and 
prosperity, which it had never previously attained. 

Sextia or Sestia Gens, plebeian, one of whose 
members, namely, L. Sextius Sextinus Lateranus, 
was the first plebeian who obtained the consulship, 
B. c. 366. 

Sextiae Aquae. [Aquae Sextiae.] 

Sextius or Sestius. 1. P., quaestor b. c. 63, 
and tribune of the plebs 57. In the latter year 
he took an active part in obtaining Cicero's recal 
from banishment. Like Milo, he kept a band of 
armed retainers to oppose P. Clodius and his par- 
tizans; and in the following year (56) he was 
accused of Vis on account of his violent acts during 
his tribunate. He was defended by Cicero in an 
oration still extant, and was acquitted on the 14th 
of March, chiefly in consequence of the powerful 
influence of Pompey. In 53, Sextius was praetor. 
On the breaking out of the civil war in 49, Sextius 
first espoused Pompey's party, but he afterwards 
joined Caesar, who sent him, in 48, into Cappa- 
docia. He was alive in 43, as appears from Cicero's 
correspondence.— 2. L., son of the preceding by 
his first wife, Postumia. He served under M. Bru- 
tus in Macedonia, but subsequently became the 
friend of Augustus. One of Horace's odes is ad- 
dressed to him. — 3. T., one of Caesar's legates in 
Gaul, and afterwards governor of the province of 
Numidia, or New Africa, at the time of Caesar's 
death (44). Here he carried on war against Q. 
Comificius, who held the province of Old Africa 
and whom he defeated and slew in battle. 

Sextius Calvinus. [Calvinus.] 

Sextus Empiricus, was a physician, and re- 
ceived his name Empiricus from belonging to the 
school of the Empirici. He was a contemporary of 
Galen, and lived in the first half of the 3rd century 
of the Christian aera. Nothing is known of his 
life. He belonged to the Sceptical school of philo- 
sophy. Two of his works are extant : — 1. Tlvppw- 
viai 'TiroTvn-cocreLS '/) uk^tttiko. vTTOjxvi]ixara, contain- 
ing the doctrines of the Sceptics in 3 books. 2. 
Tlpos Toi/j fxaOrjixaTLKovs aPTippriTiKoi, against the 
Mathematici, in 11 books, is an attack upon all 
positive philosophy. The first 6 books are a re- 
futation of the 6 sciences of grammar, rhetoric, 
geometry, arithmetic, astrology, and music. The 
remaining 5 books are directed against logicians, 
physical philosophers, and ethical writers, and 
form, in fact, a distinct work, which may be viewed 
as belonging to the "TiroTvirdoaeis. The two works 
are a great repository of doubts ; the language is as 
clear and perspicuous as the subject will allow. 
Edited by Fabricius, Lips. 1718. 

Sextus Rufus. 1. The name prefixed to a work 
entitled De Regionibus Urhis Romae, published by 
Onuphrius Panvinius at Frankfort in 1558. This 
Avork is believed by the best topographers to have 
been compiled at a late period, and is not regarded 
as a document of authority. — 2. Sextus Eufus is 



SIBAE. 



SICILIA. 



703 



also the name prefixed to an abridgment of Roman 
History in 28 short chapters, entitled Bveviarium 
de Vidoriis et Provinciis Populi RortiMii^ and ex- 
ecuted by command of the emperor Valens, to 
■whom it is dedicated. This work is usually printed 
with the larger editions of Eutropius, and of the 
minor Roman historians. There are no grounds 
for establishing a connexion between Sextus Rufus 
the historian and the author of the work De Re- 
gionibus. 

Sihae or Sibi (Si'^ai, Si^ot), a rude people in 
the N. W. of India (in the Punjah\ above the 
confluence of the rivers Hydaspes {Jelum) and 
Acesines {Chenah\ who were clothed in skins and 
armed with clubs, and whom therefore the soldiers 
of Alexander regarded, whether seriously or in 
jest, as descendants of Hercules. 

Sibyllae (2/§uA\ai), the name by which several 
prophetic women are designated. The first Sibyl, 
from whom all the rest are said to have derived 
their name, is called a daughter of Dardanus and 
Neso. Some authors mention only 4 Sibyls, the 
Erythraean, the Samian, the Egyptian, and the 
Sardian ; but it was more commonly believed that 
there were 10, namely, the Babylonian, the Li- 
byan, the Delphian (an elder Delphian, who was a 
daughter of Zeus and Lamia, and a younger one), 
the Cimmerian, the Erythraean (also an elder and 
a younger one, the latter of whom was called He- 
rophile), the Samian, the Cumaean (sometimes 
identified with the Erythraean), the Hellespontian, 
or Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Tiburtine. The 
most celebrated of these Sibyls is the Cumaean, 
who is mentioned under the names of Herophile, 
Demo, Phemonoe, Deiphobe, Demophile, and Amal- 
thea. She was consulted by Aeneas before he 
descended into the lower world. She is said to 
have come to Italy from the East, and she is the 
one who, according to tradition, appeared before 
king Tarquinius, offering him the Sibylline books 
for sale. Respecting the Sibylline books, see Did. 
of Antiq. art. SibylUni Libri. 

Sicambri. [Sygambri.] 

Sicani, Siceli, Siceliotae. [Sicilia.] 

Sic§,rii (i. e. assassins), the name given by the 
Romans to certain savage mountain tribes of the 
Lebanon, who were, like the Thugs of India, 
avowed murderers by profession. In the same 
mountains there existed, at the time of the 
Crusades, a branch of the fanatic sect called 
Assassins, whose habits resembled those of the 
Sicarii, and whose name the Crusaders imported 
into Europe ; but these were of Arabian origin. 

Sicca Veneria (prob. Al-Kaff), a considerable 
city of N. Africa, on the frontier of Numidia and 
Zeugitana, built on a hill near the river Bagradas. 
It derived its name from a temple of Venus, in 
which the goddess was worshipped with rites 
peculiar to the corresponding eastern deity Astarte, 
whence it may be inferred that the place was a 
Phoenician settlement. 

Sichaeus, also called Acerbas. [Acerbas.] 

SlCllia {Sicily), one of the largest islands in the 
Mediterranean Sea. It was supposed by the an- 
cients to be the same as the Homeric island Tliri- 
nacia (QpivaKia), and it was therefore frequently 
called Thrinacia, Trinacia, or Trinacris, a name 
which was believed to be derived from the tri- 
angular figure of the island. For the same reason 
the Roman poets called it Triquetra. Its more 
usual name came from its later inhabitants, the 



Siceli, whence it was called Sicelia (St/feAfo), 
which the Romans changed into Sicilia. As the 
Siceli also bore the name of Sicani, the island was 
also called Sicania (^iKavia). Sicily is separated 
from the S. coast of Italy by a narrow channel 
called Fretum Siculum, sometimes simply Fretum 
(Uop6iJL6s), and also Scyllaeum Fretum, of which 
the modern name is Fai-o di Messina. The sea on 
the E. and S. of the island was also called Mare 
Siculum. The island itself is in the shape of a 
triangle. The N. and S. sides are about 175 
miles each in length, not including the windings of 
the coast ; and the length of the E. side is about 
115 miles. The N. W. point, the Prom. Lily- 
haeum, is about 90 miles from C. Bon on the coast 
of Africa ; the N. E. point, Prom. Pelorus, is about 
3 miles from the coast of Calabria in Italy ; and 
the S. E, point. Prom. Pachynus, is 60 miles from 
the island of Malta. Sicily formed originally 
part of Italy, and was torn away from it by some 
volcanic eruption, as the ancients generally be- 
lieved. A range of mountains, which are a conti- 
nuation of the Apennines, extends throughout the 
island from E. to W. The general name of this 
mountain-range was Nebrodi Montes (Madonia), 
of which there were several offshoots known by 
different names. Of these the most important 
were, the celebrated volcano Aetna on the E. side 
of the island, Eryx {St. Giuliano) in the extreme 
W. near Drepanura, and the Heraei Montes 
{Monti Sori) in the S. running do-wn to the pro- 
montory Pachynus. A large number of rivers 
flow down from the mountains, but most of them 
are dry, or nearly so, in the summer. The soil of 
Sicily was very fertile, and produced in antiquity 
an immense quantity of wheat, on Avhich the popu- 
lation of Rome relied to a great extent for their 
subsistence. So celebrated was it even in early 
times on account of its corn, that it was repre- 
sented as sacred to Demeter (Ceres), and as the 
favourite abode of this goddess. Hence it was in 
this island that her daughter Persephone (Proser- 
pina) was carried away by Pluto. Besides com 
the island produced excellent wine, saffron, honey, 
almonds, and the other southern fruits. The earli- 
est inhai)itants of Sicily are said to have been the 
savage Cyclopes and Laestrygones ; but these are 
fabulous beings, and the first inhabitants men- 
tioned in history are the Sicani {%iKavoi), or 
Siculi (Si^eAoi), who crossed over into the island 
from Italy. Some writers, indeed, regard the 
Sicani and Siculi as two distinct peoples, supposing 
the latter only to have migrated from Italy, and 
the former to have been the aboriginal inhabitants 
of the country ; but there is no good reason for 
making any distinction between them. They ap- 
pear to have been a Celtic people. According to 
Thucydides their original settlement was on the 
river Sicanus in Iberia ; but as Thucydides extends 
Iberia as far as the Rhone, it is probable that 
Sicanus was a river of Gaul, and it may have been 
the Sequana, as some modem writers suppose. 
The ancient writers relate that these Sicani, being 
hard pressed by the Ligyes (Ligures), crossed the 
Alps and settled in Latium ; that, being driven 
out of this countrj'- by the Aborigines with the help 
of Pelasgians, they migrated to the S. of the penin- 
sula, where they lived for a considerable time along 
with the Oenotrians ; and that at last they crossed 
over to Sicily, to which they gave their name. 
They spread over the greater part of the island. 



704 SI CI LI A. 

but in later times were found chiefly in the interior 
and in the N. part; some of the most important 
towns belonging to them were Herbita, Agyrium, 
Adranimi, and Enna. The next immigrants into 
the island were Cretans, who are said to have 
come to Sicily under their king, Minos, in pursuit 
of Daedalus, and to have settled on the S. coast in 
the neighbourhood of Agrigentum, where they 
founded Minoa (afterwards Heraclea Minoa). 
Then came the Elymaei, a small band of fugitive 
Trojans, who are said to have built Entella, Eryx, 
and Egesta. These Cretans and Elymaei, how- 
ever, if indeed they ever visited Sicily, soon 
became incorporated with the Siculi. The Phoe- 
nicians likewise at an early period formed settle- 
ments, for the purposes of commerce, on all the 
coasts of Sicily, but more especially on the N. and 
N. W. parts. They were subsequently obliged to 
retire from the greater part of their settlements 
before the increasing power of the Greeks, and to 
confine themselves to Motya, Solus, and Panormus. 
But the most important of all the immigrants into 
Sicily were the Greeks. The first body of Greeks 
who landed in the island were Chalcidians from 
Euboea, and Megarians led by the Athenian 
Thucles. These Greek colonists built the town of 
Naxos, B. c. 735. They were soon followed by 
other Greek colonists, who founded a number of 
very flourishing cities, such as Syracuse in 734, 
Leontini and Catana in 730, Megara Hybla in 
726, Gela in 690, Selinus in 626, Agrigentum in 
.579, etc. The Greeks soon became the ruling 
race in the island, and received the name of Sice- 
liotae (2(/ceAiWTa<) to distinguish them from the 
earlier inhabitants. At a later time the Cartha- 
ginians obtained a firm footing in Sicily. Their 
first attempt was made in 480 ; but they were 
defeated by Gelon of Syracuse, and obliged to retire 
with great loss. Their 2nd invasion in 409 was 
more successful. They took Selinus in this year, 
and 4 years afterwards (405) the powerful city of 
Agrigentum. They now became the permanent 
masters of the W. part of the island, and were 
engaged in frequent wars with Syracuse and the 
other Greek cities. The struggle between the 
Carthaginians and Greeks continued, with a few 
interruptions, down to the 1st Punic war ; at 
the close of which (241) the Carthaginians were 
obliged to evacuate the island, the W. part of which 
now passed into the hands of the Romans, and was 
made a Roman province. The E. part still con- 
tinued under the rule of Hieron of Syracuse as an 
ally of Rome ; but after the revolt of Syracuse in 
the 2nd Punic war, and the conquest of that city 
by Marcellus, the whole island was made a Roman 
province, and was administered by a praetor. 
Under the Roman dominion more attention was 
paid to agriculture than to commerce ; and conse- 
quently the Greek cities on the coast gradually 
declined in prosperity and in wealth. The inha- 
bitants of the province received the Jus Latii from 
Julius Caesar ; and Antony conferred upon them, 
in accordance, as it was said, with Caesar's will, 
the full Roman franchise. Augustus, after his 
conquest of Sex. Pompey, who had held the island 
for several years, founded colonies at Messana, 
Tauromenium, Catana, Syracuse, Thermae, and 
Panormus. On the downfal of the Roman em- 
pire, Sicily formed part of the kingdom of the 
Ostrogoths; but it was taken from them by Beli- 
earius in a. d. 536, and annexed to the Byzantine 



SICYONIA. 

empire. It continued a province of this empire 
till 828, when it was conquered by the Saracens. 
— Literature and the arts were cultivated with 
great success in the Greek cities of Sicily. It was 
the birthplace of the philosophers Empedocles, Epif 
charmus, and Dicaearchus ; of the mathematician 
Archimedes; of the physicians Herodicus and 
Acron ; of the historians Diodorus, Antiochus. 
Philistus, and Timaeus ; of the rhetorician Gor- 
gias ; and of the poets Stesichorus and Theocritus. 

Sicima. [Neapolis, No. 5.] 

Sicinius. 1. L. Sicinius Bellutus, the leader 
of the plebeians in their secession to the Sacred 
Mount in b. c. 494. He was chosen one of the 
first tribunes. — 2. L. Sicinius Dentatus, called 
by some writers the Roman Achilles. He is said 
to have fought in 120 battles, to have slain 8 of 
the enemy in single combat, to have received 45 
wounds on the front of his body, and to have ac- 
companied the triumphs of 9 generals, whose vic- 
tories were principally owing to his valour. He was 
tribune of the plebs in 454. He was put to death 
by the decemvirs in 450, because he endeavoured 
to persuade the plebeians to secede to the Sacred 
Mount. The persons sent to assassinate him fell 
upon him in a lonely spot, but he killed most of 
them before they succeeded in despatching him. 

Sicmus (^'iKivos : 'S.lkivlttis : Sikino), a small 
island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades, 
between Pholegandrus and los, with a town of 
the same name. It is said to have been originally 
called Oenoe from its cultivation of the vine, but 
to have been named Sicinus after a son of Thoas 
and Oenoe. It was probably colonised by the 
lonians. During the Persian war it submitted to 
Xerxes, but it afterwards formed part of the Athe- 
nian maritime empire. 

Sicoris (Segre), a river in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, which had its source in the territory of the 
Cerretani, divided the Ilergetes and Lacetani, 
flowed by Ilerda, and after receiving the river 
Cinga (Cinca), fell into the Iberus, near Octogesa. 

Siculi. [Sicilia.] 

Siciilum Fretum, Siciilum Mare. [Sicilia.] 

Siciilus Flaccus. [Flaccus.] 

Stcyonia (SiKuwi'i'a), a small district in the 
NE. of Peloponnesus, bounded on the E. by the 
territory of Corinth, on the W. by Achaia, on the 
S. by the territory of Phlius and Cleonae, and on 
the N. by the Corinthian gulf. The area of the 
country was probably somewhat less than 100 
square miles. It consisted of a plain near the sea 
with mountains in the interior. Its rivers, which ran 
in a N.E.-ly direction, were Sythas on the frontier 
of Achaia, Helisson, Selleis, and Asopus in the in- 
terior, and Nemea on the frontier of the territory 
of Corinth. The land was fertile, and produced 
excellent oil. Its almonds and its fish were also 
much prized. Its chief town was Sicyon (^ikvwu : 
'2,iKvu>uios), which was situated a little to the W. 
of the river Asopus, and at the distance of 20, or, 
according to others, 12 stadia from the sea. The 
ancient city, which was situated in the plain, was 
destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and a new 
city, which bore for a short time the name of De- 
metrias, was built by him on the high ground 
close to the Acropolis. The harbour, which, ac- 
cording to some, was connected with the city by 
means of long walls, was well fortified, and formed 
a town of itself. Sicyon was one of the most an- 
cient cities of Greece. It is said to have been 



SIDA. 



SIDONIUS 



705 



originally called Aegialea or Aegiali (Ai'7:aA.eia, | 

A. l'yia\ol), after an ancient king, Aegialeus ; to 
have been subsequently named Mecone (MtjkoJj'tj), 
and to have been finally called Sicyon from an 
Athenian of this name. Sicyon is represented by 
Homer as forming part of the empire of Agamem- 
non ; but on the invasion of Peloponnesus it be- 
came subject to Phalces, the son of Teraenus, and 
was henceforward a Dorian state. The ancient 
inhabitants, however, were formed into a 4th tribe 
called Aegialeis, which possessed equal rights with 
the 3 tribes of the Hylleis, Pamphyli, and Dy- 
manatae, into which the Dorian conquerors were 
divided. Sicyon, on account of the small extent 
of its territory, never attained much political im- 
portance, and was generally dependent either on 
Argos or Sparta. At the time of the 2nd Messe- 
nian war it became subject to a succession of 
tyrants, who administered their power with mo- 
deration and justice for 100 years. The first of 
these tyrants, was Andreas, who began to rule 

B. C. 676. He was followed in succession by Myron, 
Aristonymus, and Clisthenes, on whose death, about 
576, a republican form of government was esta- 
blished. Clisthenes had no male children, but 
only a daughter, Agariste, who was married to the 
Athenian Megacles. In the Persian war the 
Sicyonianssent 15 ships to the battle of Salamis,and 
300 hoplites to the battle of Plataea. In the in- 
terval between the Persian and the Peloponnesian 
wars, the Sicyonians were twice defeated and their 
country laid waste by the Athenians, first under 
Tolmides in 456, and again under Pericles in 454. 
In the Peloponnesian war they took part with the 
Spartans. From this time till the Macedonian 
supremacy their history requires no special men- 
tion ; but in the middle of the 3rd century Sicyon 
took an active part in public affairs in consequence 
of its being the native town of Aratus, who united 
it to the Achaean league in 251. Under the 
Romans it gradually declined ; and in the time of 
Pausanias, in the 2nd century of the Christian era, 
many of its public buildings were in ruins. — 
Sicyon was for a long time the chief seat of Grecian 
art. It gave its name to one of the great schools 
of painting, which was founded by Eupompus, and 
which produced Pamphilus and Apelles. It is also 
said to have been the earliest school of statuary in 
Greece, Avhich was introduced into Sicyon by Di- 
poenus and Scyllis from Crete about 560 ; but its 
earliest native artist of celebrity was Canachus. 
Lysippus was also a native of Sicyon. The tovra 
was likewise celebrated for the taste and skill dis- 
played in the various articles of dress made by its 
inhabitants, among which we find mention of a 
particular kind of shoe, which was much prized in 
all parts of Greece. 

Sida, Side (2i5rj, SiSiTTjy, and 2t5?}T7js, Sidites 
and Sidetes). 1. {Eski Adalia, Ru.), a city of 
Pamphylia, on the coast, a little W. of the river 
Melas. It was an Aeolian colony from Cyme in 
Aeolis, and was a chief seat of the worship of 
Athena, who is represented on its coins holding a 
pomegranate ((ti'Stj) as the emblem of the city. In 
the division of the provinces under Constantine, it 
was made the capital of Pamphylia Prima. — 2. 
The old name of Polemonium, from Avhich a flat 
district in the N.E, of Pontus Polemoniacus, along 
the coast, obtained the name of Sidene {2,idr)vri). 

Sidenus. [Polemonium.] 

Bidicini, an Ausonian people in the N. W. of 



Campania and on the borders of Samnium, whc, 
being hard pressed by the Samnites, united them- 
selves to the Campanians. Their chief town was 
Teanum. 

Sidon, gen. onis (2tScJv, gen. SiSw^os, :S,Ld6vos^ 
0. T. Tsidon or, in the English form, Zidon : 
2i5a;i', StSwvios, 'SlSSuios, Sidonius : Saida, Ru.), 
for a long time the most powerful, and probably 
the most ancient, of the cities of Phoenice. As 
early as the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites, 
it is called 'Great Zidon' (Joshua, xi. 8.). It 
stood in a plain, about a mile wide, on the coast of 
the Mediterranean, 200 stadia (20 geog. miles) N. 
of Tyre, 400 stadia (40 geog. miles) S. of Berytus, 
66 miles W. of Damascus, and a day's journey 
N. W. of the source of the Jordan at Paneas. It had 
a fine double harbour, now almost filled with sand ; 
and was strongly fortified. It was the chief seat 
of the maritime power of Phoenice, until eclipsed 
by its own colony. Tyre [Tyrus] ; and its power 
on the land side seems to have extended over all 
Phoenice, and at one period (in the time of the 
Judges) over at least a part of Palestine. In the 
time of David and Solomon, Sidon appears to 
have been subject to the king of Tyre. It pro- 
bably regained its former rank, as the first of the 
Phoenician cities, by its submission to Shalmanezer 
at the time of the Assyrian conquest of Syria, for 
we find it governed by its own king under the 
Babylonians and the Persians. In the expedition 
of Xerxes against Greece, the Sidonians furnished 
the best ships in the whole fleet, and their king 
obtained the highest place, next to Xerxes, in the 
council, and above the king of Tyre. Sidon re- 
ceived the great blow to her prosperity in the 
reign of Artaxerxes III. Ochus, when the Si- 
donians, having taken part in the revolt of Phoe-- 
nice and Cyprus, and being betrayed to Ochus by 
their own king, Tennes, burnt themselves with 
their city, b. c. 351. The city was rebuilt, but 
the fortifications were not restored, and the place 
was, therefore, of no further importance in military 
history. It shared the fortunes of the rest of 
Phoenice, and under the Romans it retained 
much of its commercial importance, which it has 
not yet entirely lost. In addition to its commerce, 
Sidon was famed for its manufactures of glass, the 
invention of which was said to have been made in 
Phoenicia. 

Sidomus Apollinaris, whose full name was 
C. Sollius Sidonius Apollinaris,, was born at Lug- 
dunum {Lyons) about A. d. 431. At an early age 
he married Papianilla, the child of Flavius Avitus ; 
and upon the elevation of his father-in-law to the 
imperial dignity (456), he accompanied him to 
Rome, and celebrated his consulship in a poem still 
extant. Avitus raised Sidonius to the rank of a 
senator, nominated him prefect of the city, and 
caused his statue to be placed among the effigies 
which graced the library of Trajan. The downfal 
of Avitus threw a cloud over the fortunes of Sido- 
nius, who having - been shut up in Lyons, and 
having endured the hardships of the siege, pur- 
chased pardon by a complimentary address to the 
victorioiis Majorian. The poet was not only for- 
given, but was rewarded with a laurelled bust, and 
with the title of count. After passing some years 
in retirement during the reign of Severus, Sidonius 
was despatched to Rome (467) in the character of 
ambassador from the Arvemi to Anthemius, and 
on this occasion delivered a third panegyric in 

z z 



706 



SIDUS. 



SILANUS. 



honour of a third prince, whicli proved not less 
successful than liis former efforts, for he Avas now 
raised to the rank of a patrician, again appointed 
prefect of the city, and once more honoured with 
a statue. But a still more remarkable tribute was 
soon afterwards rendered to his talents ; for al- 
though not a priest, the vacant see of Clermont in 
Auvergne was forced upon his reluctant acceptance 
(472) at the death of the bishop Eparchius. During 
the remainder of his life he devoted himself to the 
duties of his sacred office, and especially resisted 
with energy the progress of Arianism. He died in 
482, or, according to others, in 484. The extant 
works of Sidonius are : — 1. Carmina, 24 in number, 
composed in various measures upon various subjects. 
Of these the most important are the 3 panegyrics 
already mentioned. 2. Epistolarum Lihri IX.^ 
containing 147 letters, many of them interspersed 
with pieces of poetry. They are addressed to a 
wide circle of relatives and friends upon topics con- 
nected with politics, literature, and domestic occur- 
rences, but seldom touch upon ecclesiastical matters. 
The writings of Sidonius are characterised by great 
subtlety of thought, expressed in phraseology 
abounding Avith harsh and violent metaphors. 
Hence he is generally obscure ; but his works 
throughout bear the impress of an acute, vigorous, 
and highly cultivated intellect. The best edition 
of his works is that of Sirmond, 4to. Paris, 1652. 

Sidus (StSoDs, -ovvros : 2t§owTtos), a fortified 
place in the territory of Corinth, on the bay of 
Cenchreae, and a little to the E. of Cromm3''on. It 
was celebrated for its apples, 

Sidussa (SiSoSa'a-a), a small place in Lydia, 
belonging to the territory of the Ionian city of 
Erythra. 

Sidyma (t^i 2i'5y^a : Tortoorcar Hisar^ Ru.), a 
town in the interior of Lycia, on a mountain, N. of 
the mouth of Xanthus. 

Siga (217a), a considerable sea-port town of 
Mauretania Caesariensis, on a river of the same 
name, the mouth of which opened into a large bay, 
which formed the harbour of the town. Its site 
has not been identified with certainty. 

Sfgeum {Yenislieri)^ the N.W. promontory of 
the Troad, of Asia Minor, and of all Asia, and 
the S. headland at the entrance of the Hellespont, 
opposite to the Prom. Mastusium (C. Helles), at 
the extremity of the Thracian Chersonese. It is 
here that Homer places the Grecian fleet and 
camp during the Trojan Avar. Near it was a sea- 
port toAvn of the same name, Avhich Avas the object 
of contention between the Aeolians and the 
Athenians, in the war in Avhich Pittacus distin- 
guished himself by his valour, and in Avhich 
Alcaeus lost his shield. [Pittacus : Alcaeus.] 
It Avas afterwards the residence of the Pisistra- 
tidae, when they Avere expelled from Athens. It 
was destroyed by the people of Ilium soon after 
the Macedonian conquest. 

Signia (Signinus : Segni\ a toAvn in Latium on 
the E, side of the Volscian mountains, founded by 
Tarquinius Prisons. It was celebrated for its 
temple of Jupiter Urius, for its astringent wine, 
for its pears, and for a particular kind of pavement 
for the floors of houses, called oj)us Signinum, con- 
sisting of plaster made of tiles beaten to powder 
and tempered Avith mortar. There are still re- 
mains of the polygonal walls of the ancient town. 

Sigrium {Xi-ypiov. Sigri). the W. promontory 
of the island of Lesbos. 



Sila Silva (Sila), a large forest in Bruttium on 

the Apennines, extending S. of Consentia to the 
Sicilian straits, a distance of 700 stadia. It was 
celebrated for the excellent pitch Avhich it yielded. 

Silanion (XiXaviuv)^ a distinguished Greek 
statuary in bronze, Avas an Athenian and a con- 
temporary of Lysippus, and flourished 324. The 
statues of Silanion belonged to 2 classes, ideal and 
actual portraits. Of the former the most celebrated 
Avas his dying Jocasta, in Avhich a deadly paleness 
Avas given to the face by the mixture of silver Avith 
the bronze. His statue of Sappho, Avhich stood in 
the prytaneum at Syracuse in the time of Verres, is 
alluded to by Cicero in terms of the highest praise. 

E'llanus, Junius. 1. M., Avas praetor 212. In 
210 he accompanied P. Scipio to Spain, and served 
under him Avith great distinction during the Avhole 
of the Avar in that country. He fell in battle against 
the Boii in 196, fighting under the consul M. Mar- 
cellus. ""2. D., surnamed Manlianus, son of the 
jurist T. Manlius Torquatus, but adopted by a D. 
Junius Silanus. He Avas praetor 142, and obtained 
Macedonia as his province. Being accused of extor- 
tion by the inhabitants of the province, the senate 
referred the investigation of the charges to his OAvn 
father Torquatus, Avho condemned his son, and 
banished him from his presence ; and Avhen Sila- 
nus hanged himself in grief, his father Avould not 
attend his funeral. — 3. M., consul 109, fought in 
this year against the Cimbri in Transalpine Gaul, 
and Avas defeated. He Avas accused in 104, by the 
tribune Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, in consequence 
of this defeat, but Avas acquitted. — 4. B., step- 
father of M. Brutus, the murderer of Caesar, having 
married his mother Servilia. He Avas elected consul 
in 63 for the following year ; and in consequence 
of his being consul designatus, he was first asked 
for his opinion by Cicero in the debate in the senate 
on the punishment of the Catilinarian conspirators. 
He was consul 62, Avith L. Licinius Murena, along 
with whom he proposed the Lex Licinia Julia. — 
5. M., son of No. 4 and of Servilia, served in Gaul 
as Caesar's legatus in 53. After Caesar's murder 
in 44, he accompanied M. Lepidus over the Alps ; 
and in the foUoAving year Lepidus sent him Avith a 
detachment of troops into Cisalpine Gaul, Avhere he 
fought on the side of Antony. He Avas consul in 
25. He had two sisters, one married to M. Lepidus, 
the triumvir, and the other to C. Cassius, one 
of Caesar's murderers. — 6. M., consul 19, with 
L. Norbanus Balbus. In 33 his daughter Claudia 
Avas married to C. Caesar, afterAvards the emperor 
Caligula. Silanus was governor of Africa in the 
reign of Caligula, but Avas compelled by his father- 
in-laAv to put an end to his life. Julius Graecinus, 
the father of Agricola, had been ordered by Cali- 
gula to accuse Silanus, but he declined the odious 
task. — 7. App., consul A. d. 28 with P. Silius 
Nerva. Claudius soon after his accession gave to 
Silanus in marriage Domitia Lepida, the mother of 
his wife Messalina, and treated him otherAvise Avith 
the greatest distinction. But shortly afterwards, 
having refused the embraces of Messalina, he was 
put to death by Claudius, on the accusations of 
Messalina and Narcissus. The first Avife of Silanus 
was Aerailia Lepida, the proneptis or great- 
grand-daughter of Augustus.— 8. M., son of No. 7, 
consul 46. Silanus was proconsul of Asia at the 
succession of Nero in 54, and was poisoned^ by 
command of Agrippina, who feared that he might 
avenge the death of his brother [No. 9], and that 



SILARUS. 



SILVANUS. 



707 



Lis descent from Augustus iniglit lead him to "be 
preferred to the youthful Nero. — 9. L., also a son 
of No. 7, was betrothed to Octavia, the daughter 
of ithe emperor Claudius ; but when Octavia was 
married to Nero in 48, Silanus knew that his fate 
Avas sealed, and therefore put an end to his life. 
10. D. Junius Torquatus Silanus, probably also 
a son of No. 7, was consul 53. He was compelled 
by Nero in 64 to put an end to his life, because he 
j.ad boasted of being descended from Augustus. 
— 11. L. Junius Torquatus Silanus, son of No. 
8, and consequently the atnepos, or great-great- 
great grandson of Augustus. His descent from 
Augustus rendered him an object of suspicion to 
Nero. He was accordingly accused in 65 ; was 
sentenced to banishment ; and was shortly after- 
wards put to death at Barium in Apulia. 

Silarus (Silaro), a river in lower Italy, forming 
the boundary between Lucania and Campania, 
rises in the Apennines, and, after receiving the 
Tanager (Negri) and Calor (Calore), falls into the 
Sinus Paestanus a little to the N. of Paestum. 
Its water is said to have petrified plants. 

Silenus (:$€i\7]v6s). 1. (Mythological). It is 
remarked in the article Satyri that the older Satyrs 
were generally termed Sileni ; but one of these 
Sileni is commonly tJie Silenus, who always accom- 
panies the god, and Avhom he is said to have brought 
up and instructed. Like the other Satyrs he is 
called a son of Hermes ; but others make him a 
son of Pan by a nymph, or of Gaea. Being the 
constant companion of Dionysus, he is said, like 
the god, to have been born at Nysa. Moreover, 
he took part in the contest with the Gigants, and 
slew Enceladus. He is described as a jovial old 
man, with a bald head, a puck nose, fat and round 
like his wine bag, which he always carried with 
him, and generally intoxicated. As he could not 
trust his own legs, he is generally represented 
riding on an ass, or supported by other SatjTS. In 
every other respect he is described as resembling 
his brethren in their love of sleep, wine, and music. 
He is mentioned along with Marsyas and Olympus 
as the inventor of the flute, which he is often seen 
playing ; and a special kind of dance was called 
after him Silenus, while he himself is designated 
as the dancer. But it is a peculiar feature in his 
character that he was conceived also as an inspired 
prophet, who knew all the past and the most dis- 
tant future, and as a sage who despised all the gifts 
of fortune. When he was drunk and asleep, he 
was in the power of mortals Avho might compel 
him to prophesy and sing by surrounding him with 
chains of flowers. — 2. (Literary). A native of 
Calatia, and a writer upon Roman history. — 3. 
It was probably a diff'erent writer from the last 
who is quoted several times by Athenaeus and 
others as the author of a work on foreign words. 

Silicense Flumen, a river in Hispania Baetica 
in the neighbourhood of Corduba, probably the 
Guadajoz, or a tributary of the latter. 

C. Slims Italicus, a Roman poet, was born 
about A. D. 25. The place of his birth is uncer- 
tain, as is also the import of his surname Italicus. 
From his early years he devoted himself to oratory 
and poetry, taking Cicero as his model in the former, 
and Virgil in the latter. He acquired great repu- 
tation as an advocate, and was afterwards one of 
the Centumviri. He was consul in 68, the year in 
which Nero perished ; he was admitted to familiar 
intercourse with Vitellius, and was subsequently 



proconsul of Asia. His two favourite residences 

were a mansion near Puteoli, formerly the Academy 
of Cicero, and the house in the vicinity of Naples 
once occupied by Virgil ; and here he continued to 
reside until he had completed his 75th year, when, 
in consequence of the pain caused by an incurable 
disease, he starved himself to death. The great 
work of Silius Italicus was an heroic poem in 17 
books, entitled Punica, which has descended to us 
entire. It contains a narrative of the events of the 
2nd Punic war, from the capture of Saguntum to 
the triumph of Scipio Africanus. The materials 
are derived almost entirely from Livy and Polybius. 
It is a dull heavy performance, and hardly deserves 
the name of a poem. The best editions are by 
Drakenborch, 4to. Traj. ad Rhen. 1717 and Ru- 
perti, 2 vols. 8vo. Goetting. 1795. 

Silo, Q. Pompaedius, the leader of the Marsi 
in the Social War, and the soul of the whole 
undertaking. He fell in battle against Q. Meteilus 
Pius, B. c. 88, and with his death the war came to 
an end. 

Silo (StAto, St^Aw, S7?ActfV, StAoCi' : 0. T. Shi- 
loh and Shilon : Seilun, Ru.), a city of Palestine, 
in the mountains of Ephraim, ia the district after- 
wards called Samaria ; important as the seat of the 
sacred ark and the tabernacle from the time of 
Joshua to the capture of the ark in the time of 
Eli, after which it seems to have fallen into insig- 
nificance, though it is occasionally mentioned in 
the 0. T. 

Siloah, Siloani (2iAwa, 2iAcoa/x: O.T. Shiloah : 
Siloah), a celebrated fountain in the S. E. of 
Jerusalem, just Avithout the city, at the S. entrance 
of the valley called Tyropoeon, between the hills 
of Zion and Moriah. It is remarkable for the ebb 
and flow of its waters at the diff'erent seasons. 

Silsilis (Si'Ao-iAts : Hajjar Selseleli or Jehel Sel- 
seleh, Ru.), a fortified station in Upper Egypt, on 
the W. bank of the Nile, S. of Apollinopolis the 
Great. The name signifies the Roch or Hill of a 
CJiain^ and is derived from the circumstance of the 
river flowing here in a ravine so narrow, that a 
chain can easily be stretched across it, to command 
the navigation. 

Silures, a powerful people in Britain, inhabiting 
South Wales, long offered a formidable resistance 
to the Romans, and were the only people in the 
island who at a later time maintained their inde- 
pendence against the Saxons. 

Silvanus, a Latin divinity of the fields and 
forests, to whom in the earliest times the Tyrrhe- 
nian Pelasgians are said to have dedicated a grove 
and a festival. He is also called the protector of 
the boundaries of fields. In connection Avith 
woods {sylvestris deus), he especially presided over 
plantations, and delighted in trees growing Avild ; 
Avhence he is represented as carrying the trunk of 
a cypress. Respecting his connection Avith cy- 
press, moreover, the foUoAving story is told. Sil- 
vanus, or, according to others, Apollo, once killed 
by accident a hind belonging to the youth Cypa- 
rissus, with Avhom the god Avas in love : the youth 
in consequence died of grief, and Avas metamor- 
phosed into a cypress. Silvanus is further de- 
scribed as the divinity protecting the flocks of 
cattle, Avarding off Avolves, and promoting their 
fertility. Being the god of woods and flocks, he 
is also described as fond of music ; the syrinx was 
sacred to him, and he is mentioned along Avith 
the Pans and Nymphs. Later Avriters even iden- 

zz 2 



708 



SILVIUM. 



tified Silvunus with Pan, Faunas, Inuus, and 
Aegipan. In the Latin poets, as well as in 
works of art, he always appears as an old man, 
but as cheerful and in love with Pomona. The 
sacrifices offered to liim consisted of grapes, corn- 
ears, milk, meat, wine, and pigs. 

Silvium (Silvinus), a town of the Peucetii in 
Apulia on the borders of Lucania, 20 miles S. E. 
of Venusia. 

Silvius, the son of Ascanius, is said to have 
been so called because he was born in a wood. 
All the succeeding kings of Alba bore the cog- 
nomen Silvius. The series of these mythical kings 
is given somewhat differently by Livj^ Ovid, and 
Dionysius, as the following list will show : — 
Livy. Ovid. Dionysius. 

1. Aeneas. Aeneas. Aeneas. 

2. Ascanius. Ascanius. Ascanius. 

3. Silvius. Silvius. Silvius. 

4. Aeneas Silvius. Aeneas Silvius. 

5. Latinus Silvius. Latinus. Latinus Silvius. 

6. Alba. Alba. Alba. 

7. Atys. Epytus. Capetus. 

8. Capys. Capys. Capys Silvius. 
.9. Capetus. Capetus. Calpetus. 

10. Tiberinus. Tiberinus. Tiberinus. 

11. Agrippa. Remulus. Agrippa. 

12. Romulus Silvius. Acrota. Alladius. 

13. Aventinus. Aventinus. Aventinus. 

14. Proca. Palatinus. Procas. 

15. Amulius. Amulius. Amulius. 
Simmias (Siju^tas). 1. Of Thebes, first the 

disciple of the Pythagorean philosopher Philolaiis, 
and afterwards the friend and disciple of Socrates, 
at whose death he was present, having come from 
Thebes, with his brother Cebes. The two brothers 
are the principal speakers, besides Socrates him- 
self, in the Phaedon. Simmias wrote 23 dialogues 
on philosophical subjects, all of which are lost. — 
2. Of Rhodes, a poet and grammarian of the 
Alexandrian school, flourished about b. c. 300. 
The Greek Anthology contains 6 epigrams ascribed 
to Simmias, besides 3 short poems of that fantastic 
species called griplii or carmina figurata^ that is, 
pieces in which the lines are so arranged as to 
make the whole poem resemble the form of some 
object ; those of Simmias are entitled, from their 
forms, the Wings (Trrepu^es), the Egg (wcJj'), and 
the Hatchet (ireXeKvs). 

Simois. [Troas.] As a mythological per- 
sonage, the river-god Simois is the son of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and the father of Astyochus and 
Hieromnerae. 

Sjmon (^ifiuv). 1. One of the disciples of 
Socrates, and by trade a leather-cutter. Socrates 
was accustomed to visit his shop, and converse 
with him on various subjects. These conversa- 
tions Simon afterwards committed to writing, in 
33 dialogues, all of which are lost.— 2. Of Ae- 
gina, a celebrated statuary in bronze, who flou- 
rished about B. c. 475. 

Simonides (StMwv/STjs). 1. Of Amorgos, was 
the 2nd, both in time and in reputation, of the 3 
principal iambic poets of the earlj'- period of Greek 
literature, namely, Archilochus, Simonides, and 
Hipponax. He was a native of Samos, whence 
he led a colony to the neighbouring island of 
Amorgos, where he founded 3 cities, Minoa, Aegi- 
alus, and Arcesine, in the first of which he fixed 
his own abode. He flourished about b. c. 664. 
Simonides whs most celebrated for his iambic 



SIMPLICIUS. 

poems, which were of 2 species, gnomic and sa- 
tirical. The most important of his extant frag- 
ments is a satire upon women, in which he derives 
the various, though gejierally bad, qualities of 
women from the variety of their origin ; thus the 
uncleanly woman is formed from the swine ; the 
cunning woman, from the fox; the talkative 
woman, from the dog, and so on. The best sepa- 
rate edition of the fragments of Simonides of 
Amorgos is by Welcker, Bonn, 1835.— 2. Of 
Ceos, one of the most celebrated lyric poets of 
Greece, was the perfecter of the Elegy and Epi- 
gram, and the rival of Lasus and Pindar in the 
Dithyramb and the Epinician Ode. He was born 
at lulis, in Ceos, B. c. 556, and was the son of Leo- 
prepes. He appears to have been brought up to 
music and poetry as a profession. From his native 
island he proceeded to Athens, probably on the 
invitation of Hipparchus, who attached him to his 
society by great rewards. After remaining at 
Athens some time, probably even after the ex- 
pulsion of Hippias, he went to Thessaly, where 
he lived under the patronage of the Aleuads and 
Scopads. He afterwards returned to Athens, and 
soon had the noblest opportunity of employing his 
poetic powers in the celebration of the great events 
of the Persian wars. In 489, he conquered 
Aeschylus in the contest for the prize which the 
Athenians offered for an elegy on those who fell 
at Marathon. Ten years later, he composed the 
epigrams which were inscribed upon the tomb of 
the Spartans who fell at Thermopylae, as well as 
an encomium on the same heroes ; and he also 
celebrated the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, 
and the great men who commanded in them. He 
had completed his 80th year, when his long 
poetical career at Athens was crowned by the 
victory which he gained with the dithyrambic 
chorus (477), being the 56th prize which he had 
carried off. Shortly after this he was invited to 
Syracuse by Hiero, at whose court he lived till 
his death in 467. Simonides was a great fa- 
vourite with Hiero, and was treated by the tyrant 
with the greatest munificence. He still continued, 
when at Syracuse, to employ his muse occasion- 
ally in the service of other Grecian states. Simo- 
nides is said to have been the inventor of the 
mnemonic art and of the long vowels and double 
letters in the Greek alphabet. He made literature 
a profession, and is said to have been the first 
who took money for his poems ; and the reproach 
of avarice is too often brought against him by his 
contemporary and rival, Pindar, as well as by 
subsequent writers, to be altogether discredited 
The chief characteristics of the poetry of Simo- 
nides were sweetness (whence his surname of 
Melicertes) and elaborate finish, combined with 
the truest poetic conception and perfect power of 
expression ; though in originality and fervour he 
was far inferior, not only to the early lyric poets, 
such as Sappho and Alcaeus, but also to his con- 
temporary Pindar. He was probably both the 
most prolific and the most generally popular of all 
the Grecian lyric poets. The general character of 
his dialect is the Epic, mingled with Doric and 
Aeolic forms. The best edition of his fragments 
in a separate form is by Schneidewin, Bruns. 1835. 

SimpliCiUS {^ifXTzXiKios), one of the last philo- 
sophers of the Neo-Platonic school, was a native of 
Cilicia and a disciple of Ammonius and Damascius. 
In consequence of the persecutions, to which the 



SIMYRA. 



SINOPE. 



709 



pagan pbilosophers were exposed in the reign of 
Justinian, Simplicius was one of the 7 philosophers 
who took refuge at the court of the Persian king 
Chosroes. These philosophers returned home about 
A. D. 533, in consequence of a treaty of peace con- 
cluded between Chosroes and Justinian, in which 
the former had stipulated that the philosophers 
should be allowed to return without risk, and to 
practise the rites of their paternal faith. Of the 
subsequent fortunes of the 7 philosophers we learn 
nothing ; nor do we know where Simplicius lived 
and taught. Simplicius wrote commentaries on 
several of Aristotle's works. His commentaries 
on the Categories, on the De Coelo^ on the Phydca 
Ausculfaiio, and on the De Anima are extant. In 
explaining Aristotle, Simplicius endeavours to show 
that Aristotle agrees with Plato even on those 
points which the former controverts ; but though 
he attaches himself too much to the Neo-Platonists, 
his commentaries are marked by sound sense and 
real learning. He also wrote a commentary on the 
Enchiridion of Epictetus, which is likewise extant. 

Simyra (to ^i/xvpa : Zamura or Sumore), a 
fortress on the coast of Phoenice, between Or- 
thasias and the mouth of the Eleutherus, of no 
importance except as being the point from which 
the N. part of Lebanon was usually approached. 

Sinae (STvoi), the E.-most people of Asia, of 
whorn nothing but the name was known to the 
W. nations, till about the time of Ptolemy, who 
describes their country as bounded on the N. by 
Serica, and on the S. and W. by India extra 
Gangem. It corresponded to the S. part of 
China and the E. part of the Burmese peninsula. 
The detailed description of the knowledge of the 
ancient geographers concerning it does not fall 
within the province of this work. 

Sinai or Sina (LXX. 'S.iva: Jebel-et-Tur), a 
cluster of dark, lofty, rocky mountains in the S. 
angle of the triangular peninsula enclosed between 
the 2 heads of the Red Sea, and bounded on the 
N. by the deserts on the borders of Egypt and 
Palestine. The name, which signifies a region of 
broken and chft rochs, is used in a wider sense for 
the whole peninsula, which formed a part of 
Arabia Petraea, and was peopled, at the time of 
the Exodus, by the Amalekites and Midianites, 
and afterwards by the Nabathaean Arabs. On 
the other hand, the name is applied, in a narrower 
Bense, to one particular ridge in the Sinaitic group 
of mountains running N. and S., and terminated 
by 2 summits, of which the one on the N. is called 
Horeb^ and the one on the S. Sina:i or Jebel Musa, 
i. e. Moses'' Mount. From the latter name, assigned 
by tradition, it has usually, but too hastily, been 
inferred that the S. summit was that on which 
God gave the law to Moses. The fact seems, 
however, to be that Sinai and Horeb in the 0. T. 
are both general names for the whole group, the 
former being used in the first 4 books of Moses, 
and the latter in Deuteronomy ; and that the sum- 
mit on which the law was given was probably 
that on the N., or the one usually called Horeb. 

Sinda (2iVSa: 'S.ivdevs, Sindensis). 1. A city 
of Pisidia, N. of Cibyra, near the river Caularis. 
— 2,3. [SiNDi.] 

Sindi (StrSot). 1. A people of Asiatic Sar- 
matia, on the E. coast of the Euxine, and at the 
foot of the Caucasus. They probably dwelt in 
and about the peninsula of Tainan (between the 
Sea of Azov and the Black Sea), and to the S. of 



the river Hypanis {Kouhan). They had a capital 
called Sinda {Anapa?) with a harbour (2<f5i/£bs 
Xijx^v). Their country is called SifSi/fTj. They 
are also mentioned by the names of Sindones and 
Sindiani. — 2. A people on the E. coast of India 
extra Gangem (in Cochin Chi?ia), also called 
Sindae (2iV5aj), and with a capital city, Sinda. 
Sindice. [Sindi.] 

Sindomana (Sehumn?), a city of India, on the 
lower course of the Indus, near the island of Pat- 
talene. 

Sindus (2tVSos), a town in the Macedonian 
district of Mygdonia on the Thermaic gulf, and at 
the mouth of the Echedorus. 

Singara (ra 21770^0: Si?ijar?), a strongly 
fortified city and Roman colony in the interior of 
Mesopotamia, 84 Roman miles S. of Nisibis. It 
lay in a dry plain, at the foot of M. Singaras 
(Stnjar), an E. prolongation of M. Masius. It 
was the scene of the defeat of Constantius by 
Sapor, through which the place was lost to the 
Romans. 

Singidunum (Belgrad), a town in Moesia Su- 
perior at the confluence of the Savus and the 
Danube, was a strong fortress, and the head- _ 
quarters of a legion. ^ 

Singiticus Sinus. [Sing us.] 

Singus (2t77os : 2i77aios), a town in Mace-- 
donia on the E. coast of the peninsula Sithonia,, 
which gave its name to the Sinus Singiticus. 

Sinis or Sinnis (2iV/s or 2iVj/is), son of Poly- 
pemon, Pemon or Poseidon by Sylea, the daughter 
of Corinthus. He was a robber, who frequented 
the isthmus of Corinth, and killed the travellers 
whom he captured, by fastening them to the top 
of a fir-tree, which he curbed, and then let spring 
up again. He himself was killed in this manner 
by Theseus. The name is connected with aivofiai, 

Sinon (SiVwi/), son of Aesimus, or according to 
Virgil (Aeji. ii. 79) of Sisyphus, and grandson of 
Autolycus, was a relation of Ulysses, whom he 
accompanied to Troy. After the Greeks had con- 
structed the wooden horse, Sinon mutilated his 
person, in order to make the Trojans believe that 
he had been maltreated by the Greeks, and then 
allowed himself to be taken prisoner by the Trojans. 
He informed the Trojans that the wooden horse had 
been constructed as an atonement for the Palladium 
which had been carried olf by the Greeks, and 
that if they would drag it into their own city, 
Asia Avould gain the supremacy over Greece. The 
Trojans believed the deceiver and dragged the- 
horse into the city ; whereupon Sinon in the dead 
of night let the Greeks out of the horse, who tfiu&- 
took Troy. 

Smope CZivcairt] : ^ivuirevs, Sinopensis : St- 
nope, Sijioub, Ru.), the most important of all the 
Greek colonies on the shores of the Euxine, stood 
on the N. coast of Asia Minor, on the W. head- 
land of the great bay of which the delta of the 
river Halys forms the E. headland, and a little E. 
of the N,-most promontory of Asia Minor. Thus 
placed, and built on a peninsula, the neck of which 
formed 2 fine harbours, it had every advantage for 
becoming a great maritime city. Its foundation 
was referred mythically to the Argonaut Auto- 
lycus, who was worshipped in the city as a 
hero, and had an oracle ; but it appears in history 
as a very early colony of the Milesians. Having 
been destroyed in the invasion of Asia by the 
! Cimmerians, it was restored by a new colony from 

zz 3 



710 SINTICA. 
Miletus, B.C. 632, and soon became the greatest 
commercial city on the Euxine, Several colonies 
were established by the Sinopians on the adjacent 
coasts, the chief of which were Cotyora, Trapezus, 
and Cerasus. Its territor}-, called Sinopis (2,1- 
vuims, also 2iva>7rtTt*), extended to the banks of 
the Halys. It remained an independent state 
till it was taken by Pharnaces I., king of Pontus. 
It was the birthplace and residence of Mithridates 
the Great, who enlarged and beautified it. After 
an obstinate resistance to the Romans under Lu- 
cullus, it was taken and plundered, and proclaimed 
a free city. Shortly before the murder of Julius 
Caesar, it was colonised by the name of Julia 
Caesarea Felix Sinope, and remained a flourishing 
city, though it never recovered its former import- 
ance. At the time of Constantine, it had decHned 
so much as to be ranked second to Amasia. In 
addition to its commerce, Sinope was greatly 
enriched by its fisheries. It was the native city 
of the renowned cjnic philosopher Diogenes, of 
the comic poet Diphilus, and of the historian 
Baton. 

Sintica, a district in Macedonia, inhabited by 
the Thracian people Sinti, extended E. of Cres- 
tonia and N. of Bisaltia as far as the Strymon and 
the lake Prasias. Its chief town was Heraclea 
Sintica. The Sinti were spread over other parts 
of ancient Thrace, and are identified by Strabo 
with the Sintians (SiVries) of Homer, the ancient 
inhabitants of Lemnos. 

Sinuessa (Sinuessanus : Bocca di Mandragom), 
the last city of Latium on the confines of Cam- 
pania, to which it originally belonged, was situated 
on the sea-coast and on the Via Appia, in the 
midst of a fertile country. It was colonised by 
the Romans, together with the neighbouring town 
■)£ Mintumae, B. c. 296. It possessed a good har- 
bour, and was a place of considerable commercial 
importance. In its neighbourhood were celebrated 
warm baths, called Aquae Sinuessanae. 

Sion. [Jerusalem.] 

Siplmus {2.i(pvos : 2i'<|)i'ios : Siphno), an island 
in the Aegaean sea, forming one of the Cyclades, 
S. E. of Seriphus. It is of an oblong form, and 
about 40 miles in circumference. Its original 
name was Merope ; and it was colonised by lonians 
from Atliens, In consequence of their gold and 
silver mines, of which the remains are still ^-isible, 
the Siphnians attained great prosperity, and were 
regarded in the time of Polycrates as the wealthiest 
of the islanders. Their treasiuy at Delphi, in 
which they deposited the tenth of the produce of 
their mines, was equal in wealth to that of any 
other Greek state. Their riches, however, exposed 
them to pillage ; and a party of Samian exiles in 
the time of Polycrates invaded the island, and 
compelled them to pay 100 talents. Siphnus was 
one of the few islands which refused tribute to 
Xerxes ; and one of its ships fought on the side 
of the Greeks at Salamis. At a later time the 
mines were less productive ; and Pausanias relates 
that in consequence of the Siphnians neglecting to 
send the tithe of their treasure to Delphi, the god 
destroyed their mines by an inundation of the sea. 
The moral character of the Siphnians stood low, 
and hence to act like a Siphnian (2.i(pvi6.^iiv) be- 
came a term of reproach. 

Sipontum or Sipuntum (Sipontinus : Siponto), 
called b}- the Greeks Sipus (2t7roSy, -ovvros), an 
ancient town in Apulia, in the district of Daunia, 



SIRENES. 

on the S. slope of Mt. Garganus, and on the coast. 
It is said to have been founded by Diomede, and 
was of Greek origin. It was colonised by the 
Romans, under whom it became a place of some 
commercial importance. The inhabitants were re- 
moved from the town by king Manfred in the 
1 3th century, in consequence of the unhealthy 
nature of the localit}', and were settled in the 
neighbouring to-mi of Manfredonia, founded by 
this monarch. 

Sipylus (Si'ttuXos : Sipuli-Dagh), a mountain 
of Lydia, in Asia Minor, of volcanic formation, 
and rent and splinted by frequent earthquakes. 
It is a branch of the Tmolus, from the main chain 
of which it proceeds N. W. along the course of the 
river Hermus, as far as Magnesia and Sipylura. 
It is mentioned by Homer. The ancient capital 
of Maeonia was said to have been situated in the 
heart of the mountain chain, and to have been 
called by the same name ; but it was early swal- 
lowed up by an earthquake, and its site became a 
little lake called Sale or Saloe, near which was a 
tumulus, supposed to be the grave of Tantalus. 
The mountain was rich in metals, and many 
mines were worked in it. 

Siracene (SipoKTyvTj). 1. A district of Hyr- 
cania. — 2. A district of Armenia Major. — 

3. [SiRACEXI.] 

Siraceni, Siraci, Siraces {XipaK-qvoi, Lipaxoi, 
Stpo/ces), a powerful people of Sarmatia Asiatica, 
dwelt in the district of Siracene, E. of the Palus 
Maeotis, as far as the river Rha {Volga). The 
Romans Avere engaged in a war with them in 
A. D. 50. 

Sirbonis Lacus {^ipScoviSos T^ifJ-vn, aft. 
VLS X'lixvt] and ^.ipSwu : Sabakat Bardowal), a large 
and deep lake on the coast of Lower Egypt, E. of 
M. Casius. Its circuit was 1000 stadia. It was 
strongly impregnated with asphaltus. A con- 
nection (called TO eKpeyixa) existed between the 
lake and the Mediterranean ; but this being stopped 
up, the lake grew continually smaller by evapo- 
ration, and it is now nearly dry. 

Sirenes C^eiprjues), sea-nymphs who had the 
power of charming by their songs all who heard 
them. "When Ulysses came near the island on the 
beach of which the Sirens were sitting, and en- 
deavouring to allure - him and his companions, he 
stufied the ears of his companions with wax, and 
tied himself to the mast of his vessel, until he was 
so far ofit that he could no longer hear their song. 
According to Homer, the island of the Sirens was 
situated between Aeaea and the rock of Scylla, near 
the S. W. coast of Italy ; but the Roman poets place 
them on the Campanian coast. Homer says nothing 
of their number, but later A\Titers mention both their 
names and number ; some state that they were 2, 
Aglaopheme and Thelxiepia; and others, that there 
were 3, Pisinde, Aglaope, and Thelxiepia, or Par- 
thenope, Ligia, and Leucosia. They are called 
daughters of Phorcus, of Achelous and Sterope, of 
Terpsichore, of Melpomene, of Calliope, or of Gaea. 
The Sirens are also connected with the legends of 
the Argonauts and the rape of Persephone. When 
the Argonauts sailed by the Sirens, the latter began 
to sing, but in vain, for Orpheus surpassed them ; 
and as it had been decreed that they should live 
only till some one hearing their song should pass 
by immoved, they threw themselves into the sea, 
and were metamorphosed into rocks. Later poets 
represent them as provided with wings, which they 



SIRENUSAE. 



SITHONIA. 



711 



are said to have received at their own request, in 
order to be able to search after Persephone, or as 
a punishment from Demeter for not having assisted 
Persephone, or from Aphrodite, because they 
wished to remain virgins. Once, however, tliey 
allowed themselves to be prevailed upon by Hera 
to enter into a contest with the Muses, and being 
defeated, were deprived of their wings. 

Sirenusae, called by Virgil (Aen. v. 864) Si- 
renum scopuli, 3 small uninhabited and rocky 
islands near the S. side of the Prom. Misenum, off 
the coast of Campania, which were, according to 
tradition, the abode of the Sirens. 

Siris. 1. (Sinno), a river in Lucania flowing 
into the Tarentine gulf, memorable for the victory 
which Pyrrhus gained on its banks over the Ro- 
mans. — 3. ( Torre di Senna), an ancient Greek 
town in Lucania at the mouth of the preceding 
river. Its locality was unhealthy ; and after the 
foundation of the neighbouring town of Heraclea 
by the Tarentines, the inhabitants of Siris were 
removed to the new town, of which Siris now be- 
came the harbour. 

Sirmio (Sirmione), a beautiful promontory on 
the S. shore of the Lacus Benacus (La(/o di Garda), 
on which Catullus had an estate. 

Sirmium (Miirovitz), an important city in 
Pannonia Inferior, was situated on the left bank 
of the Savus. It was founded by the Taurisci, 
and under the Romans became the capital of Pan- 
nonia, and the head-quarters of all their operations 
in their wars against the Dacians and the neigh- 
bouring barbarians. It contained a large manu- 
factory of arms, a spacious forum, an imperial 
palace, etc. It was the residence of the admiral 
of the first Flavian fleet on the Danube, and the 
birthplace of the emperor Probus. 

Sisapon (Almaden in the Sierra Morena), an 
important town in Hispania Baetica N. of Corduba, 
between the Baetis and Anas, celebrated for its 
silver mines and cinnabar. 

Siscia (Sissek), called Segesta by Appian, an 
important town in Pannonia Superior, situated 
upon an island formed by the rivers Savus, Co- 
lapis, and Odra, and on the road from Aemona to 
Sirmium. It was a strongly fortified place, and 
was conquered by Tiberius in the reign of Au- 
gustus, from which time it became the most im- 
portant town in all Pannonia. It was probably 
made a colony by Tiberius, and was colonized 
anew by Septimius Severus. At a later time its 
importance declined, and Sirmium became the chief 
town in Pannonia. 

Sisenna, L. Cornelius, a Roman annalist, was 
praetor in the year when Sulla died (b. c. 78), and 
probably obtained Sicily for his province in 77. 
From the local knowledge thus acquired he was 
enabled to render good service to Verres, whose 
cause he espoused. During the piratical war (67) 
he acted as the legate of Pompey, and having been 
despatched to Crete in command of an army, 
died in that island at the age of about 52. His 
great work, entitled Historiae, extended to at least 
14 or 19 books, which contained the history of his 
own time. Cicero pronounces Sisenna superior as 
an historian to any of his predecessors. In addition 
to his Historiae, Sisenna translated the Milesian 
fables of Aristides, and he also composed a com- 
mentary upon Plautus. 

Sisygambis (^iavyafj.§is), mother of Darius 
Codomannus, the last king of Persia, fell into the 



hands of Alexander, after the battle of Issus, b. c. 
333, together with the wife and daughters of 
Darius. Alexander treated these captives with 
the greatest generosity and kindness, and displayed 
towards Sisygambis, in particular, a reverence and 
delicacy of conduct, which is one of the brightest 
ornaments of his character. On her part, Sisy- 
gambis became so strongly attached to her con- 
queror, that she felt his death as a blow not less 
severe than that of her own son; and overcome by 
this long succession of misfortunes, put an end to 
her own life by voluntary starvation. 

Sisyphus (Si'o-u^os), son of Aeolus and Enarete, 
whence he is called Aeolides. He was married to 
Merope, a daughter of Atlas or a Pleiad, and be- 
came by her the father of Glaucus, Omytion (or 
Porphyrion), Thersander and Halmus. In later 
accounts he is also called a son of Autolycus, and 
the father of Ulysses by Anticlea [ Anticlea] ; 
whence we find Ulysses sometimes called Sisy^' 
phides. He is said to have built the town of 
Ephyra, afterwards Corinth. As king of Corinth 
he promoted navigation and commerce, but he was 
fraudulent, avaricious, and deceitful. His wicked- 
ness during life was severely punished in the lower 
world, where he had to roll up hill a huge marble 
block, which as soon as it reached the top always 
rolled down again. The special reasons for this 
punishment are not the same in all authors ; some 
relate that it was because he had betrayed the 
designs of the gods ; others because he attacked 
travellers, and killed them with a huge block of 
stone; and others again because he had betrayed 
to Asopus, that Zeus had carried off Aegina, the 
daughter of the latter. The more usual tradition 
related that Sisyphus requested his wife not to 
bury him, and that, when she complied with his 
request, Sisyphus in the lower world complained 
of this seeming neglect, and obtained from Pluto 
or Persephone, permission to return to the upper 
world to punish his wife. He then refused to 
return to the lower world, until Hermes carried 
him off by force; and this piece of treachery is said 
to have been the cause of his punishment. 

Sitace or Sittace (Sirct/cTj, 'S.nra.Ky] : EsU- 
Bagdad, Ru.), a great and populous city of Baby- 
lonia, near but not on the Tigris, and 8 parasangs 
within the Median Avail. Its probable site is 
marked by a ruin called the Tower of Nimrod. It 
gave the name of Sittacene to the district on the 
lower course of the Tigris E. of Babylonia and N. W. 
of Susiana. 

Sitalces (SixaAKTjs), king of the Thracian tribe 
of the Odrysians, was a son of Teres, whom he 
succeeded on the throne. He increased his do- 
minions by successful wars, so that they ultimately 
comprised the whole territory from Abdera to the 
mouths of the Danube, and from Byzantium to the 
sources of the StrjTuon. At the commencement of 
the Peloponnesian war he entered into an alliance 
with the Athenians, and in 429 he invaded Ma- 
cedonia with a vast army, but was obliged to retire 
through failure of provisions. 

Sithonia (^lOcovia), the central one of the 3 
peninsulas running out from Chalcidice in Mace- 
donia, between the Toronaic and Singitic gulfs. 
The Thracians originally extended over the greater 
part of Macedonia ; and the ancients deri 7ed the 
name of Sithonia from a Thracian king Sithon. 
We also find mention of a Thracian people, Sithonii, 
on the shores of the Pontus Euxinus ; and the 

£ z 4 



712 



SITIFI. 



SMYRNA. 



poets frequently use Siili07:is and Sithotiiiis in the 
general sense of Thracian. 

Sitifi (2,iTi<pa: Sett/, Ru.), an inland city of 
Mauretania Caesariensis, on the borders of Nu- 
midia, stood upon a hill, in an extensive and beau- 
tiful plain. It first became an important place 
\inder the Romans, who made it a colony ; and, 
upon the subdivision of M. Caesariensis into 2 pro- 
vinces, it was made the capital of the eastern pro- 
vince, which was called after it Mauretania Siti- 
fensis. 

Sitones, a German tribe in Scandinavia, belong- 
ing to the race of the Suevi. 

Sittace, Sittacene. [Sit ace.] 

Sittius or Sitius, P., of Nuceria in Campania, 
was connected with Catiline, and went to Spain in 
B. c. 64, from which country- he crossed over into 
Mauretania in the following year. It was said 
that P. Sulla had sent him into Spain to excite an 
insurrection against the Roman government ; and 
Cicero accordingly, when he defended Sulla, in 62, 
was obliged to deny the tmth of the charges that 
had been brought against Sittius. Sittius did not 
return to Rome. His property in Italy was sold 
to pay his debts, and he continued in Africa, where 
he fought in the wars of the kings of the country. 
He joined Caesar when the latter came to Africa, 
in 46, to prosecute the war against the Pompeian 
party. He was of great service to Caesar in this 
war, and at its conclusion was rewarded by Caesar 
with the western part of Numidia, where he settled 
down, distributing the land among his soldiers. 
After the death of Caesar, Arabio, the son of 
Masinissa, returned to Africa, and killed Sittius 
by stratagem. 

Siuph {2,iov<p), a city of Lower Egypt, in the 
Saitic nome, only mentioned bv Herodotus (ii. 
172). 

Smaragdus Mons (:S,iJ.dpa'y5os opos : Jehel Za- 
lurah\ a mountain of Upper Egypt, near the 
coast of the Red Sea, N. of Berenice. The ex- 
tensive emerald mines, from which it obtained its 
name, were worked under the ancient kings of 
Egypt, under the Ptolemies, and under the Ro- 
mans. They seem to have been exhausted, as 
only ver\' few emeralds are now and then found 
in the neighbourhood. 

Smerdis (2,u6p5iy), the son of Cyrus, was mur- 
dered by order of his brother Cambyses. The 
death of Smerdis was kept a profound secret ; and 
accordingly, when the Persians became weary of 
the tyranny of Cambyses, one of the Marians, 
named Patizithes, who had been left by Cam- 
byses in charge of his palace and treasures, availed 
himself of the likeness of his brother to the de- 
ceased Smerdis, to proclaim this brother as king, 
representing him as the younger son of Cjtus. 
Carab^'ses heard of the revolt in Syria, but he died 
of an accidental wound in the thigh, as he was 
mounting his horse to march against the usurper. 
The false Smerdis was acknowledged as king by 
the Persians, and reigned for 7 months without 
opposition. The leading Persian nobles, however, 
v/ere not quite free from suspicion ; and this sus- 
picion was increased by the king never inviting 
any of them to the palace, and never appearini: in 
public. Among the nobles avIio entertained these 
cuspicions was Otanes, whose daughter Phaedima 
had been one of the wives of Cambyses, and had 
been transferred to his successor. The new king 
had some years before been deprived of his ears 



by Cyrus for some offence ; and Otanes persuaded 
his daughter to ascertain whether her master had 
really lost his ears. Phaedima found out that 
such was the fact, and communicated the decisive 
information to her father. Otanes thereupon 
formed a conspiracy, and in conjunction with 6 
other noble Persians, succeeded in forcing his way 
into the palace, where they slew the false Smerdis and 
his brother Patizithes in the 8th month of their 
reign, 521. The usurpation of the false Smerdis 
was an attempt on the part of the Medes, to whom 
the Magians belonged, to obtain the supremacy, of 
which they had been deprived by Cyrus. The 
assassination of the false Smerdis and the accession 
of Darius Hystaspis again gave the ascendancy to 
the Persians ; and the anniversar}- of the day on 
which the Magians were massacred, was comme- 
morated among the Persians by a solemn festival, 
called Magophonia, on which no Magian was 
allowed to show himself in public. The real 
nature of the transaction is also shown by the 
revolt of the Medes which followed the accession 
of Darius. 

Smilis (2iU?A.Js), son of Euclides, of Aegina, a 
sculptor of the legendary period, whose name ap- 
pears to be derived from (tij.iK% a knife for carving 
tvood^ and afterwards a sculptor''s chisel. Smilis is 
the legendary head of the Aeginetan school of 
sculpture, just as Daedalus is the legendary head 
of the Attic and Cretan schools. 

Smintheus (S/xti/Oeus), a suni:une of Apollo, 
which is derived by some from cy-ivtios^ a mouse, 
and by others from the town of Sminthe in Troas. 
The mouse was regarded by the ancients as in- 
spired by the vapours arising from the earth, and 
as the symbol of prophetic power. In the temple 
of Apollo at Chryse there was a statue of the god 
by Scopas, with a mouse under its foot, and on 
coins Apollo is represented carrying a mouse in his 
hands. Temples of Apollo Smintheus and festivals 
(Sminthia) existed in several parts of Greece. 

Smyrna (S^uupva), or Myrrha. For details 
see Adonis. 

Smyrna and in many MSS, Zmyrna {'S.iJLvpva : 
Ion. 'S.fxvpvt) : 'Suvpvaios, Smyrnaeus : Smyrna, 
Turk. Izmir), one of the most ancient and flou- 
rishing cities of Asia Minor, and the only one of 
the great cities on its W. coast Avhich has sur- 
vived to this day, stood in a position alike remark- 
able for its beauty and for other natural advantacres. 
Lying just about the centre of the W. coast of 
Asia Minor ; on the banks of the little river 
Meles, at the bottom of a deep bay, the Sinus 
Hermaeus or SmjTnaeus (G. of Smyrna), which 
formed a safe and immense harbour for the largest 
ships up to the very walls of the city ; at the foot 
of the rich slopes of Tmolus and at the entrance to 
the great and fertile valley of the Hermus, in 
which lay the great and wealthy city of Sardis ; and 
in the midst of the Greek colonies on the E. shore 
of the Aegean ; it was marked out by nature as 
one of the greatest emporiums for the trade be- 
tween Europe and Asia, and has preserved that 
character to the present day. There are various 
accounts of its origin. The most probable is that 
which represents it as an Aeolian colony from 
Cyme. At an early period it fell, by a stratagem, 
into the hands of the lonians of Colophon, and 
remained an Ionian city from that time forth : this 
appears to have happened before 01. 2o. (b.c. 688). 
As to the time when it bf^came a member of the 



SMYRNA. 



SOCRATES. 



713 



Panionic confederacy, we have only a very un- 
trustworthy account, which refers its admission to 
the reign of Attains, king of Pergamus. Its early 
history is also very obscure. There is an account 
in Strabo, that it was destroyed by the Lydian 
king Sadyattes, and that its inhabitants were 
compelled to live in scattered villages, until after 
the Macedonian conquest, when the city was 
rebuilt, 20 stadia from its former site, by Anti- 
gonus ; but this is inconsistent with "Pindar's 
mention of Smyrna as a beautiful city. Thus 
much is clear, however, that, at some period the 
old city of Smyrna, which stood on the N. E. side 
of the Hermaean Gulf, was abandoned ; and that 
it was succeeded by a new city, on the S. E. side 
of the same gulf (the present site), which is said 
to have been built by Antigonus, and which was 
enlarged and beautified by Lysimachus. This 
new city stood partly on the sea-shore and partly 
on a hill called Mastusia. It had a magnificent 
harbour, with such a depth of water that the 
largest ships could lie alongside the quays. The 
streets were paved with stone, and crossed one 
another at right angles. The city soon became 
one of the greatest and most prosperous in the 
world. It was especially favoured by the Romans 
on account of the aid it rendered them in the 
Syrian and Mithridatic wars. It was the seat of a 
conventus juridicus. In the Civil Wars it was 
taken and partly destroyed by Dolabella, but it soon 
recovered. It occupies a distinguished place in 
the early history of Christianity, as one of the only 
two among the 7 churches of Asia which St. John 
addresses, in the Apocalypse, without any admix- 
ture of rebuke, and as the scene of the labours and 
martyrdom of Polycarp. In the years a. d. 178 
— 180, a succession of earthquakes, to which the 
city has always been much exposed, reduced it 
almost to ruins ; but it was restored b}'' the em- 
peror M. Antoninus. In the successive wars 
under the Eastern empire it was frequently much 
injured, but always recovered ; and, under the 
Turks, it has survived repeated attacks of earth- 
quake, fire, and plague, and still remains the great- 
est commercial city of the Levant. There are but 
few ruins of the ancient city. In addition to all 
her other sources of renown Smyrna stood at the 
head of the cities which claimed the birth of 
Homer. The poet was worshipped as a hero in a 
magnificent building called the Homereum {'Ofi-fi- 
peiov). Near the sea-shore there stood a magnifi- 
cent temple of Cybele, whose head appears on the 
coins of the city. The other divinities chiefly wor- 
shipped here were Nemesis and the nymph Sm)'rna, 
the heroine eponymus of the place, who had a 
shrine on the banks of the river Meles. 

Smyrna Trachea. [Ephesus.] 

Smyrnaeus Sinus (^fxvpvaicau kSkttos, "X/j-vp- 
vaiKhs KdXiros: G. of Tsmir or Smyrna), the great 
gulf on the W. coast of Asia Minor, at the bottom 
of which Smyrna stands. Its entrance lies be- 
tween Pr. Melaena (C. Kara Burnu) on the W., 
and Phocaea (Fukia) on the E. Its depth was 
reckoned at 350 stadia. It received the river 
Hermus, whence it was called Hermeus Sinus 
("Epfieios kSAttos). It is sometimes also called 
MeXrjTov koKttos, from the little river Meles, on 
which Old Smyrna stood. 

Soanes (2oai/es), a powerful people of the Cau- 
casus, governed by a king Avho could bring 200,000 
soldiers into the field. The mountain streams of 



the country contained gold, which was separated 
by collecting the water in sheep-skins, whence the 
matter-of-fact interpreters derived the legend of the 
golden fleece. According to Strabo, the habits of 
the people were such that they stood in remark- 
able need of other "washings." They are also 
called Suani and Suanocolchi {'2,ovavoi, 2,ovapo- 
k6\x^^\ and their land Suania {Sovaiia). 

Socrates (Sw/c/jcittjs). 1. The celebrated Athe- 
nian philosopher, was born in the demus Alopece, 
in the immediate neighbourhood of Athens, B.C. 
469. His father Sophroniscus was a statuary ; 
his mother Phaenarete was a midwife. In his 
youth he followed the profession of his father, and 
attained sufficient proficiency to have executed the 
group of clothed Graces which was preserved in 
the Acropolis, and was shown as his work down 
to the time of Pausanias. The personal qualities 
of Socrates were marked and striking. His phy- 
sical constitution was healthy, robust, and en- 
during to an extraordinary degree. He was capable 
of bearing fatigue or hardship, and indifferent to 
heat or cold, in a measure which astonished all his 
companions. He went barefoot in all seasons of 
the 3'ear, even during the Avinter campaign at Po- 
tidaea, under the severe frosts of Thrace ; and the 
same homely clothing sufficed for him in winter as 
well as in summer. His ugly physiognomy ex- 
cited the jests both of his friends and enemies, 
who inform us that he had a flat nose, thick lips, 
and prominent eyes like a satyr or Silenus. Of 
the circumstances of his life we are almost wholly 
ignorant: he served as an hoplite at Potidaea, De- 
lium, and Am.phipolis with great credit to himself. 
He seems never to have filled any political office 
until 406, in which year he was a member of the 
senate of Five Hundred, and one of the Prytanes, 
when he refused, on the occasion of the trial of the 
6 generals, to put an unconstitutional question to 
the vote, in spite of all personal hazard. He dis- 
played the same moral courage in refusing to obey 
the order of the Thirty Tyrants for the apprehen- 
sion of Leon the Salaminian. — At what time 
Socrates relinquished his profession as a statuary 
we do not know ; but it is certain that all the 
middle and later part of his life at least was de- 
voted exclusively to the self-imposed task of teach- 
ing ; excluding all other business, public or pri- 
vate, and to the neglect of all means of fortune. 
But he never opened a school, nor did he, like the 
sophists of his time, deliver public lectures. Every- 
where, in the market-place, in the gymnasia, and 
in the workshops, he sought and found opportuni- 
ties for awakening and guiding, in boys, youth, 
and men, moral consciousness and the impulse after 
self-knowledge respecting the end and value of our 
actions. His object, however, was only to aid them 
in developing the germs of knowledge which were 
already present in them, not to communicate to them 
ready-made knowledge ; and he therefore professed 
to practise a kind of mental midwifery, just as his 
mother Phaenarete exercised the corresponding cor- 
poreal art. Unweariedly and inexorably did he 
fight against all false appearance and conceit of 
knowledge, in order to pave the way for correct 
knowledge. Consequently to the mentally proud 
and the mentall)'^ idle he appeared an intolerable 
bore, and often experienced their bitter hatred and 
calumny. This was probably the reason why he 
was selected by Aristophanes, and the other comic 
writers, to be attacked as a general representative 



714 SOCRATES. 

of philosophical and rhetorical teaching ; the more 
so, as his marked and repulsive physiognomy ad- 
mitted so well of being imitated in the mask which 
the actor wore. The audience at the theatre 
would more readily recognise the peculiar figure 
which they were accustomed to see every day in 
the market-place, than if Prodicus or Protagoras, 
whom most of them did not know by sight, had 
been brought on the stage ; nor was it of much 
importance either to them or to Aristophanes, 
whether Socrates was represented as teaching what 
he did really teach, or something utterly different. 
Attached to none of the prevailing parties, So- 
crates found in each of them his friends and his 
enemies. Hated and persecuted by Critias, Cha- 
ricles, and others among the Thirty Tyrants, who 
had a special reference to him in the decree which 
they issued, forbidding the teaching of the art of 
oratory, he was impeached after their banishment 
and by their opponents. An orator named Lycon, 
and a poet (a friend of Thrasybulus) named Mele- 
tus, had united in the impeachment with the 
powerful demagogue Anytus, an embittered anta- 
gonist of the sophists and their system, and one of 
the leaders of the band which, setting out from 
Phyle, forced their way into the Piraeus, and 
drove out the Thirty Tyrants. The judges also 
are described as persons who had been banished, 
and who had returned with Thrasybulus. The 
chief articles of impeachment were, that Socrates 
was guilty of corrupting the youth, and of despising 
the tutelary deities of the state, putting in^ their 
place other new divinities. At the same time it 
had been made a matter of accusation against him, 
that Critias, the most ruthless of the Tyrants, had 
come forth from his school. Some expressions of 
his, in which he had found fault with the demo- 
cratical mode of electing by lot, had also been 
brought up against him ; and there can be little 
doubt that use was made of his friendly relations 
with Theramenes, one of the most influential of the 
Thirty, with Plato's uncle Charmides, who fell by 
the side of Critias in the struggle with the popu- 
lar party, and with other aristocrats, in order to 
irritate against him the party which at that time 
was dominant. The substance of the speech which 
Socrates delivered in his defence is probably pre- 
served by Plato in the piece which goes under the 
name of the " Apology of Socrates." Being con- 
demned by a majority of only 6 votes, he ex- 
presses the conviction that he deserved to be main- 
tained at the public cost in the Prytaneum, and 
refuses to acquiesce in the adjudication of impri- 
sonment, or a large fine, or banishment. He will 
assent to nothing more than a fine of 60 minae, on 
the security of Plato, Crito, and other friends. 
Condemned to death by the judges, who were in- 
censed by this speech, by a majority of 80 votes, 
he departs from them with the protestation, that 
he would rather die after such a defence than live 
after one in Avhich he should have endeavoured to 
excite their pity. The sentence of death could not 
be carried into execution until after the return of 
the vessel which had been sent to Delos on the 
periodical Theoric mission. The 30 days which 
intervened between its return and the condemna- 
tion of Socrates were devoted by him to poetic 
attempts (the first he had made in his life), and to 
his usual conversation with his friends. One of 
these conversations, on the duty of obedience to 
the laws, Plato has reported in the Onto, so called 



SOCRATES, 
after the faithful follower of Socrates, who had en- 
deavoured without success to persuade him to 
make his escape. In another, imitated or worked 
up by Plato in the Phaedo^ Socrates immediately 
before he drank the cup of hemlock developed the 
grounds of his immovable conviction of the immor- 
tality of the soul. He died with composure and 
cheerfulness in his 70th year, B. c. 399. Three 
peculiarities distinguished Socrates: — 1. His long 
life passed in contented poverty and in public dia- 
lectics, of which we have already spoken. 2. His 
persuasion of a special religious mission. He had 
been accustomed constantly to hear, even from his 
childhood, a divine voice — interfering, at mo- 
ments Avhen he was about to act, in the way of 
restraint, but never in the way of instigation. 
Such prohibitory warning was wont to come upon 
him very frequently, not merely on great, but even 
on small occasions, intercepting what he was about 
to do or to say. Though later writers speak of 
this as the Daemon or Genius of Socrates, he him- 
self does not personify it, but treats it merely as a 
" divine sign, a prophetic or supernatural voice." 
He was accustomed not only to obey it implicitly, 
but to speak of it publicly and familiarly to others, 
so that the fact was well known both to his friends 
and to his enemies. 3. His great intellectual ori- 
ginality, both of subject and of method, and his 
power of stirring and forcing the germ of inquiry 
and ratiocination in others. He was the first who 
turned his thoughts and discussions distinctly to 
the subject of ethics, and was the first to proclaim 
that " the proper study of mankind is man." With 
the philosophers who preceded him, the subject of 
examination had been Nature, or the Kosmos as 
one undistinguishable whole, blending together 
cosmogony, astronomy, geometry, physics, meta- 
physics, &c. In discussing ethical subjects So- 
crates employed the dialectic method, and thus 
laid the foundation of formal logic, which Avas 
afterwards expanded by Plato, and systematised 
by Aristotle. The originality of Socrates is shoAvn 
by the results he achieved. Out of his intellec- 
tual school sprang, not merely Plato, himself a 
host, but all the other leaders of Grecian specu- 
lation for the next half-century, and all those who 
continued the great line of speculative philosoph}' 
down to later times, Euclid and the Megaric 
school of philosophers — Aristippus and the Cy- 
renaic Antisthenes and Diogenes, the first of those 
called the Cynics — all emanated more or less 
directly from the stimulus imparted by Socrates, 
though each followed a different vein of thought. 
Ethics continued to be what Socrates had first 
made them, a distinct branch of philosophy, along- 
side of which politics, rhetoric, logic, and other 
speculations relating to man and society, gradually 
arranged themselves ; all of them more popular, as 
well as more keenly controverted, than physics, 
which at that time presented comparatively little 
charm, and still less of attainable certainty. There 
can be no doubt that the individual influence of 
Socrates permanently enlarged the horizon, im- 
proved the method, and multiplied the ascendant 
minds, of the Grecian speculative world, in a man- 
ner never since paralleled. Subsequent philoso- 
phers may have had a more elaborate doctrine, 
and a larger number of disciples who imbibed 
their ideas ; but none of them applied the same 
stimulating method with the same efiicacy, and 
none of them struck out of other minds that fire 



SODOMA. 



SOLINUS. 



715 



■which sets light to original thought. — (A great 
part of this article is taken from Mr. Grote's 
account of Socrates in his History of Greece.)'^ 
2. The ecclesiastical historian, was born at Con- 
stantinople about A. D. 379. He was a pupil of 
Ammonius and Helladius, and followed the profes- 
sion of an advocate in his native city, whence he is 
surnamed Scholasticus. The Ecclesiastical Bistort/ 
of Socrates extends from the reign of Constantine 
the Great, 306, to that of the younger Theodosius, 
439. He appears to have been a man of less 
bigotry than most of his contemporaries, and the 
very difficulty of determining from internal evi- 
dence some points of his religious belief, may be 
considered as arguing his comparative liberality. 
His history is divided into 7 books. His work is 
included in the editions of the ancient Greek eccle- 
siastical historians by Valesius, Paris, 1668 ; re- 
printed at Mentz, 1677 ; by Reading, Camb. 1720. 

Sodoma, gen. -orum and -ae, also -um, gen. -i, and 
-i, gen. -orum (ra 2<^So^a : 5o5ojUiT7jy, Sodomita), a 
very ancient city of Canaan, in the beautiful valley 
of Siddim ^oSo/mtis), closely connected with Go- 
morrha, over which and the other 3 "cities of the 
plain," the king of Sodom seems to have had a 
sort of supremacy. In the book of Genesis we 
find these cities as subject, in the time of Abra- 
ham, to the king of Elam and his allies (an indi- 
cation of the early supremacy in W. Asia of the 
masters of the Tigris and Euphrates valley), and 
their attempt to cast off the yoke was the occasion 
of the first war on record. (Gen. xiv.) Soon after- 
wards, the abominable sins of these cities called 
down the divine vengeance, and they were all de- 
stroyed by fire from heaven, except Zoar, which 
was spared at the intercession of Lot. The beau- 
tiful valley in which they stood was overwhelmed 
by the Jordan and converted into the Dead Sea, 
whose bituminous waters still bear witness to the 
existence of the springs of asphaltus ("slime- 
pits " in our version) of which the valley of Sid- 
dim was full. It used to be assumed that, before 
the destruction of the cities of the plain, the Jor- 
dan flowed on into the Red Sea ; but this has 
been shown to be, if not physically impossible, 
most improbable. There was probably always a 
lake which received the waters both of the Jordan 
and the river which still flows into the S. end of 
the Dead Sea ; and the nature of the change 
seems to have consisted in the enlargement of this 
lake by a great depression of the whole valley. 
The site of Sodom was probably near the S. ex- 
tremity of the lake. 

Soemis or Soaemias, Julia, daughter of Julia 
Maesa, and mother of Elagabalus, either by her 
husband Sextus Varius Marcellus, or, according to 
the report industriously circulated with her own 
consent, by Caracalla. After the accession of her 
son, she became his chosen counsellor, and seems 
to have encouraged and shared his follies and enor- 
mities. She took a place in the senate, which 
then, for the first time, witnessed the intrusion of 
a woman, and was herself the president of a sort of 
female parliament, which held its sittings in the 
Quirinal, and published edicts for the regulation of 
all matters connected with the morals, dress, eti- 
quette, and equipage of the matrons. She was 
slain by the praetorians, in the arms of her son, on 
the 11th of March, a. d. 222. 

Sogdiana (rj ^oydiavr] or :^ovydiavr} : Old Per- 
sian, Sughda : :S,6ydioi, 'Xoydiayol, l^ovySiavoi: parts 



of Turkestan and Bokhara, including the district still 
called Sogd), the N.E. province of the ancient 
Persian Empire, separated on the S. from Bactriana 
and Margiana by the upper course of the Oxus 
(Jihoun) ; on the E. and N. from Scythia by the 
Sogdii Comedarum and Oscii M. (Kara-Dagli, 
Alatan and Ak Tagli) and by the upper course of 
the Jaxartes {Silioun) ; and bounded on the N.W. 
by the great deserts E. of the Sea of Aral. The 
S. part of the country was fertile and populous. 
It was conquered by Cyrus, and afterwards by 
Alexander, both of whom marked the extreme 
limits of their advance by cities on the Jaxartes, 
Cyreschata and Alexandreschata. After the Ma- 
cedonian conquest, it was subject to the kings, first 
of Syria, and then of Bactria, till it was overrun 
by the barbarians. The natives of the country 
were a wild warlike people of the great Arian race, 
resembling the Bactrians in their character and 
customs. 

Sogdianus {'%,oyZiav6s\ was one of the illegiti- 
mate sons of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus. The 
latter, on his death in b. c. 425, was succeeded by 
his legitimate son Xerxes II., but this monarch, 
after a reign of only 2 months, was murdered by 
Sogdianus, who now became king. Sogdianus, 
however, was murdered in his turn, after a reign 
of 7 months, by his brother Ochus. Ochus reigned 
under tht name of Darius II. 

Sogdii Montes. [Sogdiana]. 

Sol. [Helios.] 

Soli or Soloe {1,6X01). 1. (Ethnic, SoAeus, So- 
lensis : Mezetlu, Ru.), a city on the coast of Cilicia, 
between the rivers Lamus and Cydnus, said to 
have been colonised by Argives and Lydians from 
Rhodes. It was a flourishing city in the time of 
Alexander, who fined its people 200 talents for 
their adhesion to the Persians. The city was de- 
stroyed by Tigranes, who probably transplanted 
the inhabitants to Tigranocerta. Pompey restored 
the city after his war Avith the pirates, and peopled 
it with the survivors of the defeated bands ; and 
from this time forth it was called Fompeiopolis 
(Jlo/xinjioviroAis). It was celebrated in literary 
history as the birthplace of the Stoic philosopher 
Chrysippus, of the comic poet Philemon, and of , 
the astronomer and poet Aratus. Its name has 
been curiously perpetuated in the grammatical word 
solecism (soloecismus), which is said to have been 
first applied to the corrupt dialect of Greek spoken 
by the inhabitants of this city, or, as some say, of , 
Soli in Cyprus. — 2. (Ethnic, 2<5Aios : Aligora, in 
the valley of Solea, Ru.), a considerable sea-port 
town in the W. part of the N. coast of Cyprus, on 
a little river. According to some, it was a colony 
of the Athenians; while others ascribed its erection 
to a native prince acting under the advice of Solon, 
and others to Solon himself : the last account is 
doubtless an error. It had temples of Isis and 
Aphrodite, and there were mines in its vicinity. 

Solicinmm, a town in Roman Germany (the 
Agri Decumates) on the mountain Pirus, where 
Valentinian gained a victory over the Alemanni in 
A. D. 369, probably in the neighbourhood of the 
modern Heidelberg. 

Solinus, C. Julius, the author of a geographical 
compendium, divided into 57 chapters, containing a 
brief sketch of the Avorld as known to the ancients, 
diversified by historical notices, remarks on the 
origin, habits, religious rites and social condition of 
various nations enumerated. The arrangement, 



716 



SOUS. 



SOLON. 



and frequently the very words, are derived from 
the Natural Historj* of Pliny, but little knowledge, 
care, or judgment, are displaj-ed in the selection, 
"We know nothing of Solinus himself, but he 
must have lived after the reign of ^Hexander Se- 
verus, and before that of Constantine. He may 
perhaps be placed about A. D. 238. We learn from 
the first of 2 prefatory addresses, that an edition of 
the work had already passed into circulation, in an 
imperfect state, without the consent or knowledge 
of the author, under the appellation Collectanea Re- 
rum J\re?nnrabilium, while on the 2nd, revised, cor- 
rected, and published by himself, he bestowed the 
more ambitious title of Polyhistor ; and hence we 
find the treatise designated in several MSS. as C 
Julii Solini Grammatici Polyliistor ah ipso editus et 
recognitus. The most notable edition is that of Sal- 
masius, published at Utrecht in 1689, prefixed to 
his " Plinianae Exercitationes," the whole form- 
ing 2 larse folio volumes. 

Solis Fons. [Oasis, No. 3.] 

Solis Lacus {Xi/jLurj 'HeXi'o/o), a lake in the far 
E., from which, in the old mythical system of the 
world, the sun arose to make his daily course 
through heaven. Some of the matter-of-fuct expo- 
sitors identified it with the Caspian Sea. Another 
lake of the same name was imagined by some of 
the poets in the far W., into which the sun sank 
at nieht. 

Solis Mons. [Solois.] 

Solis Promontorium {&Kpa 'HAi'ou Upa : Ras 
A?ifir), a promonton,- of Arabia Felix, near the 
middle of the Persian Gulf. 

Soloe. [Soli]. 

Solois {'^oXoeLs : C. Cantin, Arab. Ras el Hou- 
dik\ a promontory running far out into the sea, in 
the S. part of the W. coast of Mauretania. He- 
rodotus believed it to be the W.-most headland cf 
all Libya. Upon it was a Phoenician temple of 
Poseidon. The later geographers under the 
Romans mention a Mons Solis ('HAtou opos), 
which appears to be the same spot, its name being 
probably a corruption of the Greek name. 

Solon (SoAo)!/), the celebrated Athenian legis- 
lator, was born about b. c. 638. His father Exe- 
cestides was a descendant of Codrus, and his mother 
was a cousin of the mother of Pisistratus. Exe- 
cestides had seriously crippled his resources by a 
too prodigal expenditure ; and Solon consequently 
found it either necessary or convenient in his 
youth to betake himself to the life of a foreign 
trader. It is likely enough that while necessity 
compelled him to seek a livelihood in some mode 
or other, his active and inquiring spirit led him to 
select that pursuit which would furnish the amplest 
means for its gratification. Solon early distin- 
guished himself by his poetical abilities. His first 
effusions were in a somewhat light and amatory 
strain, which afterwards gave way to the more 
dignified and earnest purpose of inculcating pro- 
found reflections or sage advice. So widely indeed 
did his reputation spread, that he was ranked as 
one of the famous 7 sages, and his name appears 
in all the lists of the 7. The occasion which first 
brought Solon prominently forward as an actor on 
the political stage, was the contest between Athens 
and Megara respecting the possession of Salamis. 
The ill success of the attempts of the Athenians to 
make themselves masters of the island, had led to 
the enactment of a law forbidding the writing or 
saying anything to urge the Athenians to renew 



the contest. Solon, indignant at this dishonourable 
renunciation of their claims, hit upon the device of 
feigning to be mad ; and causing a report of hir> 
condition to be spread over the city, he rushed into 
the agora, and there recited a short elegiac poem of 
100 lines, in which he called upon the Athenians 
to retrieve their disgrace and reconquer the lovely 
island. Pisistratus (who, however, must have been 
extremely young at the time) came to the support 
of his kinsman ; the pusillanimous law was re- 
scinded ; war was declared ; and Solon himself 
appointed to conduct it. The Megarians were 
driven out of the island, but a tedious war ensued, 
which was finally settled by the arbitration of 
Sparta. Both parties appealed, in support of their 
claim, to the authority of Homer ; and it was cur- 
rently believed in antiquity that Solon had surrep- 
titiously inserted the line (//. ii. 558) which speaks 
of Ajax as ranging his ships with the Athenians. 
The Spartans decided in favour of the Athenians, 
about B. c. 596. Solon himself, probably, was 
one of those who received grants of land in Sala- 
mis, and this may account for his being termed a 
Salaminian. Soon after these events (about 595) 
Solon took a leading part in promoting hostilities 
on behalf of Delphi against Cirrha, and was the 
mover of the decree of the Amphictyons by which 
war was declared. It does not appear, however, 
what active part he took in the war. According 
to a common story, which however rests only on 
the authority of a late ^\Titer, Solon hastened th-e 
surrender of the town by causing the waters of the 
Plistus to be poisoned. It was about the time of 
the outbreak of this war, that, in consequence of 
the distracted state of Attica, which was rent by 
civil commotions, Solon was called upon by all 
parties to mediate between them, and alleviate the 
miseries that prevailed. He was chosen archon 
594, and under that legal title was invested with 
unlimited power for adopting such measures as the 
exigencies of the state demanded. In fulfilment o-f 
the task entrusted to him, Solon addressed himself 
to the relief of the existing distress. This he effected 
vnth the greatest discretion and success by his 
celebrated disburdening ordiiiaiice ((reiadxOeia), a 
measure consisting of various distinct provisions, 
calculated to relieve the debtors with as little in- 
fringement as possible on the claims of the wealthy 
creditors. The details of this measure, however, 
are involved in considerable imcertainty. We 
know that he depreciated the coinage, making the 
mina to contain 100 drachmae instead of 73 ; that 
is to say, 73 of the old drachmae produced 100 of 
the new coinage, in which obligations were to be 
discharged ; so that the debtor saved rather more 
than a fourth in every payment. The success of the 
Seisachtheia procured for Solon such confidence and 
popularity that he was further charged with the 
task of entirely remodelling the constitution. As 
a preliminary step, he repealed all the laws of 
Draco except those relating to bloodshed. Our 
limits only allow us to glance at the principal 
features of the constitution established by Solon. 
This constitution was based upon the timocratic 
principle, that is, the title of citizens to the honours 
and offices of the state was regulated by their 
wealth. All the citizens were distributed into 4 
classes. The 1st class consisted of those who had 
an annual income of at least 500 medimni of dry 
or liquid produce (equivalent to 500 drachmae, a 
medimnus being reckoned at a drachma), and were 



SOLON 



SO PATER. 



717 



called Peniacosiomedimni. The 2nd class consisted 
of those whose incomes ranged between 300 and 
500 medimni or drachmae, and were called Hippeis 
('iTTTrets, 'iTTTTTjs), ffom their being able to keep a 
horse, and bound to perform military service as 
cavalry. The 3rd class consisted of those whose 
incomes varied between 200 and 300 medimni or 
drachmae, and were termed Zettgitae {Zevylrai). 
The 4th class included all whose property fell 
short of 200 medimni or drachmae, and bore the 
name of Theles. The first 3 classes were liable to 
direct taxation, in the form of a graduated income 
tax, A direct tax, however, was an extraordinary, 
and not an annual payment. The 4th class were 
exempt from direct taxes, but of course they, as 
well as the rest, were liable to indirect taxes. To 
Solon was ascribed the institution of the Boule 
(fiovkij), or deliberative assembly of Four Hundred, 
100 members being elected from each of the 4 
tribes. He greatly enlarged the functions of the 
Ecclesia (iKKXrja'ia), which no doubt existed be- 
fore his time, though it probably possessed scarcely 
more power than the assemblies which we find de- 
scribed in the Homeric poems. He gave it the 
right of electing the archons and other magistrates, 
and, what was even more important, made the 
archons and magistrates accountable directly to it 
when their year of office was expired. He also 
gave it what was equivalent to a veto upon any 
proposed measure of the Boule, though it could 
not itself originate any measure. Besides the 
arrangement of the general political" relations of 
the people, Solon was the author of a great variety 
of special laws, which do not seem to have been 
arranged in any systematic manner. Those re- 
lating to debtors and creditors have been already 
referred to. Several had for their object the en- 
couragement of trade and manufactures. Foreign 
settlers were not to be naturalised as citizens un- 
less they carried on some industrious pursuit. If 
a father did not teach his son some trade or pro- 
fession, the son was not liable to maintain his 
father in his old age. The council of Areopagus 
had a general power to punish idleness. Solon 
forbade the exportation of all produce of the Attic 
soil except olive oil. He was the first who gave 
to those who died childless the power of disposing 
of their property by will. He enacted several 
laws relating to marriage, especially with regard to 
heiresses. The rewards which he appointed to be 
given to victors at the Olympic and Isthmian 
games are for that age unusually large (500 
drachmae to the former and 100 to the latter). 
One of the most curious of his regulations was that 
which denounced atimia against any citizen, who, on 
the outbreak of a sedition, remained neutral. The 
laws of Solon were inscribed on wooden rollers 
(amoves) and triangular tablets (KvpSeis), and were 
set up at first in the Acropolis, afterwards in the 
Prytaneum. The Athenians were also indebted 
to Solon for some rectification of the calendar. 
It is said that Solon exacted from the people a 
solemn oath, that they would observe his laws 
without alteration for a certain space — 10 years 
according to Herodotus — 1 00 years according to 
other accounts. It is related that he was himself 
aware that he had been compelled to leave many 
imperfections in his system and code. He is said 
to have spoken of his laws as being not the best, 
but the best which the Athenians would have re- 
ceived. After he had completed his task, being. 



we are told, greatly annoyed and troubled by those 
Avho came to him with all kinds of complaints, 
suggestions or criticisms about his laws, in order 
that he might not himself have to propose any 
change, he absented himself from Athens for ten 
years, after he had obtained the oath above re- 
ferred to. He first visited Egj'pt ; and from thence 
proceeded to Cyprus, where he was received with 
great distinction by Philocyprus, king of the little 
town of Aepea. Solon persuaded the king to re- 
move from the old site, and build a new town on 
the plain. The new settlement was called Soli, in 
honour of the illustrious visitor. He is further 
said to have visited Lydia ; and his interview with 
Croesus was one of the most celebrated stories in 
antiquity. [Croksus.] During the absence of 
Solon the old dissensions were renewed, and shortly 
after his arrival at Athens, the supreme power 
was seized by Pisistratus. The tyrant, after his 
usurpation, is said to have paid considerable court 
to Solon, and on various occasions to have solicited 
his advice, which Solon did not withhold. Solon 
probably died about 658, two years after the over- 
throw of the constitution at the age of 80. There 
was a story current in antiquity that, by his own 
directions, his ashes were collected and scattered 
round the island of Salamis. Of the poems of 
Solon several fragments remain. They do not 
indicate any great degree of imaginative power, 
but their style is vigorous and simple. Those that 
were called forth by special emergencies appear to 
have been marked by no small degree of energy. 
The fragments of these poems are incorporated in 
the collections of the Greek gnomic poets ; and 
there is also a separate edition of them bv Bach, 
Lugd. Bat. 1825. 

Solus (2oAoi}s, -ovvros, contr. of 'XoXoeis : 2o- 
AevTii'oy), called Soluntum (Solentinus) by the 
Romans, an ancient town on the N. coast of Sicily 
between Panormus and Thermae. 

Solyma (ra 26\vfxa). 1. {Talialu-Dagh), the 
mountain range which runs parallel to the E. coast 
of Lycia, and is a S. continuation of M. Climax. 
Sometimes the whole range is called Climax, and 
the name of Solyma is given to its highest peak.— 
2. Another name of Jerusalem. 

Solymi. [Lycia.] 

Somnus {vvvo^)^ the personification and god of 
sleep, is described as a brother of Death {bdvaros, 
mors), and as a son of Night. In works of art, 
Sleep and Death are represented alike as two 
youths, sleeping or holding inverted torches in 
their hands. [Mors.] 

Sontms (Fsonzo), a river in Venetia in the N. 
of Italy, rising in the Carnic Alps and falling into 
the Sinus Tergestinus E. of Aquileia. 

S5pater {'^.wTraTpos). 1. Of Paphos, a writer 
of parody and burlesque ((p\vapoypd<pos). who 
flourished from B.C. 323 to 283. — 2. Of Apamea, 
a distinguished sophist, the head for some time of 
the school of Plotinus, was a disciple of lambli- 
chus, after whose death (before a. d. 330) he 
went to Constantinople. Here he enjoyed the 
favour and personal friendship of Constantine, who 
afterwards, however, put him to death (between 
A. D. 330 and 337) from the motive, as was alleged, 
of giving a proof of the sincerity of his own con- 
version to Christianity. There are several gram- 
matical and rhetorical works extant under the 
name of Sopater, but the best critics ascribe these 
to a younger Sopater, mentioned below. — 3. The 



718 



SOPHENE. 



SOPHOCLES. 



younger sophist, of Apamea, or of Alexandria, is 
supposed to have lived about 200 years later than 
the foxmer. Besides his extant works already 
alluded to, Photius has preserved an extract of a 
work, entitled the Historical Extracts (iK\oyrj\ 
which contained a A-ast variety of facts and fig- 
ments, collected from a great number of authors. 
The remains of his rhetorical works are contained 
in Walz's Hfietores Graed. 

S5pliene {'^(a(pr\vr\^ later 'Xo>}(pavr]V7]) a district of 
Armenia Major, lying between the ranges of Anti- 
taurus and Masius ; separated from Melitene in 
Armenia Minor by the Euphrates, from Mesopo- 
tamia by the Antitaurus, and from the E. part of 
Armenia Major by the river Nymphius, In the 
time of the Greek kings of Syria, it formed, to- 
gether with the adjacent district of Acilisene, an 
independent W. Armenian kingdom, which was 
subdued and united to the rest of Armenia by 
Tigranes. 

Sophilus (Su^iXos), a comic poet of the middle 
comedy, was a native of Sicyon or of Thebes, and 
flourished about B. c. 348. 

Sophocles (2o0o/fA.7]s). 1. The celebrated tra- 
gic poet, was born at Colonus, a village little more 
than a mile to the N. W. of Athens, B. c. 495. 
He was 30 years younger than Aeschylus, and 15 
years older than Euripides. His father's name 
was Sophilus, or Sophillus, of Avhose condition iu 
life we know nothing for certain; but it is clear that 
Sophocles received an education not inferior to 
that of the sons of the most distinguished citizens 
of Athens. To both of the two leading branches 
of Greek education, music and gymnastics, he was 
carefully trained, and in both he gained the prize 
of a garland. Of the skill which he had attained 
in music and dancing in his 16th year, and of the 
perfection of his bodily form, we have conclusive 
evidence in the fact that, when the Athenians 
were assembled in solemn festival around the 
trophy which they had set up in Salamis to cele- 
brate their victory over the fleet of Xerxes, So- 
phocles was chosen to lead, naked and with lyre 
in hand, the chorus which danced about the trophy, 
and sang the songs of triumph, 480. His first 
appearance as a dramatist took place in 468, under 
peculiarly interesting circumstances ; not only from 
the fact that Sophocles, at the age of 27, came for- 
ward as the rival of the veteran Aeschylus, whose 
supremacy had been maintained during an entire 
generation, but also from the character of the 
judges. The solemnities of the Great Dionysia 
were rendered more imposing by the occasion of 
the return of Cimon from his expedition to Scyros, 
bringing with him the bones of Theseus. Public 
expectation was so excited respecting the approach- 
ing dramatic contest, and party feeling ran so high, 
that Apsephion, the Archon Eponymus, whose 
duty it was to appoint the judges, had not yet 
ventured to proceed to the final act of drawing the 
lots for their election, when Cimon, with his 9 
colleagues in the command, having entered the 
theatre, the Archon detained them at the altar, 
and administered to them the oath appointed for 
the judges in the dramatic contests. Their de- 
cision was in fK^vour of Sophocles, who received 
the first prize ; the second only being awarded to 
Aeschylus, who was so mortified at his defeat that 
he left Athens and retired to Sicily. From this 
epoch Sophocles held the supremacy of the Athe- 
nian stage, until a formidable rival arose in Euri- 



pides, who gained the first prize for the first time 
in 441. The year 440 is a most important era in 
the poet's life. In the spring of that year he 
brought out the earliest of his extant dramas, the 
Antigone, a play which gave the Athenians such 
satisfaction, especially on account of the political 
wisdom it displayed, that they appointed him one 
of the ten sirategi, of whom Pericles was the chief, 
in the Avar against Samos. It would seem that in 
this war Sophocles neither obtained nor sought for 
any military reputation : he is represented as good- 
humouredly repeating the judgment of Pericles 
concerning him, that he understood the making of 
poetry, but not the commanding of an army. 
The family dissensions which troubled his last 
years, are connected with a Avell-known and beau- 
tiful story. His family consisted of two sons, 
lophon, the offspring of Nicostrate, who Avas a 
free Athenian Avoman, and Ariston, his son by 
Theoris of Sicyon; and Ariston had a son named 
Sophocles, for Avhom his grandfatJier showed the 
greatest affection. lophon, who was by the laws 
of Athens his father's rightful heir, jealous of his 
love for the young Sophocles, and apprehending 
that Sophocles purposed to bestoAv upon his grand- 
son a large proportion of his property, is said to 
have summoned his father before the Phratores, 
Avho seem to have had a sort of jurisdiction in family 
affairs, on the charge that his mind was affected 
by old age. As his only repl}', Sophocles ex- 
claimed, " If I am Sophocles, I am not beside 
myself ; and if I am beside mj-self, I am not So- 
phocles;" and then he read from his Oedipus at 
Colonus, Avhich Avas lately Avritten, but not yet 
brought out, the magnificent parodos, beginning — • 

EutTTTTOu, |e^e, raade ;)^«pas, 
Avhereupon the judges at once dismissed the case, 
and rebuked lophon for his undutiful conduct, 
Sophocles forgave his son, and it is probable that 
the reconciliation was referred to in the lines of the 
Oedipus at Colonus, where Antigone pleads with 
her father to forgive Polynices, as other fathers 
had been induced to forgive their bad children 
(vv. 1192, foil.), Sophocles died soon afterAvards 
in 406, in his 90th year. All the various accounts 
of his death and funeral are of a fictitious and 
poetical complexion. According to some writers 
he Avas choked by a grape ; another writer related 
that in a public recitation of the Antigone he sus- 
tained his voice so long Avithout a pause that, 
through the Aveakness of extreme age, he lost his 
breath and his life together ; while others ascribed 
his death to excessive joy at obtaining a victory. 
By the universal consent of the best critics, both 
of ancient and of modem times, the tragedies of 
Sophocles are the perfection of the Greek drama. 
The subjects and style of Sophocles are human, 
while those of Aeschylus are essentially heroic. 
The latter excite terror, pit}', and admiration, as 
we view them at a distance ; the former bring those 
same feelings home to the heart, with the addition 
of sympathy and self-application. No individual 
human being can imagine himself in the position 
of Prometheus, or deriA'e a personal Avarning from 
the crimes and fate of Clytemnestra ; but every one 
can, in feeling, share the self-devotion of Antigone 
in giving up her life at the call of fraternal piety, 
and the calmness Avhich comes over the spirit of 
Oedipus Avhen he is reconciled to the gods. In 
Aeschylus, the sufferers are the victims of an in- 
exorable destiny ; but Sophocles brings more pro- 



SOPHONISBA. 



SORANUS. 



719 



mmently into view those faults of their own, which 
form one element of the destiny of which they are 
the victims, and is more intent upon inculcating, as 
the lesson taught by their woes, that wise calmness 
and moderation, in desires and actions, in pro- 
sperity and adversity, which the Greek poets and 
philosophers celebrate under the name of awcppo- 
cvv-q. On the other hand, he never descends to 
that level to which Euripides brought down the 
art, the exhibition of human passion and suffering 
for the mere purpose of exciting emotion in the 
spectators, apart from a moral end. The difference 
between the 2 poets is illustrated by the saying of 
Sophocles, that " he himself represented men as 
they ought to be, but Euripides exhibited them as 
they are." The number of plays ascribed to So- 
phocles was 130. He contended not only with 
Aeschylus and Euripides, but also with Choerilus, 
Aristias, Agathon, and other poets, amongst whom 
was his own son Jophon ; and he carried off the 
first prize 20 or 24 times, frequently the 2nd, and 
never the 3rd. It is remarkable, as proving his 
growing activity and success, that, of his 113 
dramas, 81 were brought out after his 54th year, 
and also that all his extant dramas, which of course 
in the judgment of the grammarians were his best, 
belong to this latter period of his life. The 7 ex- 
tant tragedies were probably brought out in the 
following chronological order : — Antigone^ Electra^ 
Tracldniae^ Oedipus Tyrannus, Jjax, Philocietes, 
Oedipus at Colonus : the last of these was brought 
out, after the death of the poet, by his grandson. 
Of the numerous editions of Sophocles, the most 
useful one for the ordinary student is that 
by Wunder, Gothae et Erfurdt, 1831—1846, 2 
vols. 8vo. — 2. Son of Ariston and grandson of 
the elder Sophocles, was also an Athenian tragic 
poet. The love of his grandfather towards him 
has been already mentioned. In 401 he brought out 
the Oedipus at Colonus of his grandfather ; but he 
did not begin to exhibit his own dramas till 396. 

Sophonisba, daughter of the Carthaginian gene- 
ral, Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco. She had been 
betrothed by her father, at a very early age, to 
the Numidian prince Masinissa, but at a subse- 
quent period Hasdrubal being desirous to gain 
over Syphax, the rival monarch of Numidia, to 
the Carthaginian alliance, offered him the hand of 
his daughter in marriage. The beauty and accom- 
plishments of Sophonisba prevailed over the in- 
fluence of Scipio : Syphax married her, and from 
that time became the zealous supporter and ally of 
Carthage. Sophonisba, on her part, was assiduous 
*n her endeavours to secure his adherence to the 
cause of hey countrymen. After the defeat of 
Syphax, and the capture of his capital city of 
Cirta by Masinissa, Sophonisba fell into the hands 
of the conqueror, upon whom, however, her beauty 
exercised so powerful an influence, that he deter- 
mined to marry her himself. Their nuptials were 
accordingly celebrated without delay, but Scipio 
(who was apprehensive lest she should exercise 
the same influence over Masinissa which she had 
previously done over Syphax) refused to ratify 
this arrangement, and upbraiding Masinissa with 
his weakness, insisted on the immediate surrender 
of the princess. Unable to resist this command, 
the Numidian king spared her the humiliation of 
captivity, by sending her a bowl of poison, which 
she drank without hesitation, and thus put an end 
to her own life. 



Sophron (2,do(ppc»v) of Syracuse, was the prin- 
cipal writer of that pecies of composition called 
the Mime {fx7fjLos), which was one of the nume- 
rous varieties of the Dorian Comedy. He flou- 
rished about B. c. 460 — 420. When Sophron is 
called the inventor of mimes, the meaning is, that 
he reduced to the form of a literary composition a 
species of amusement which the Greeks of Sicily, 
who were pre-eminent for broad humour and mer- 
riment, had practised from time immemorial at 
their public festivals, and the nature of which was 
very similar to the performances of the Spartan 
Deicelestae. Such mimetic performances prevailed 
throughout the Dorian states under various names. 
One feature of the Mimes of Sophron, which 
formed a marked distinction between them and 
comic poetry, was the nature of their rhythm. There 
is, however, some difficulty in determining whether 
they were in mere prose, or in mingled poetry and 
prose, or in prose with a peculiar rhythmical move- 
ment but no metrical arrangement. With regard to 
the substance of these compositions, their character, 
so far as it can be ascertained, appears to have 
been ethical ; that is, the scenes represented were 
those of ordinary life, and the language employed 
was intended to bring out more clearly the charac- 
ters of the persons exhibited in those scenes, not 
only for the amusement but also for the instruc- 
tion of the spectators. Plato was a great admirer 
of Sophron ; and the philosopher is said to have been 
the first Avho made the Mimes known at Athens. 
The serious purpose which was aimed at in the 
works of Sophron was always, as in the Attic 
Comedy, clothed under a sportive form ; and it can 
easily be imagined that sometimes the latter ele- 
ment prevailed, even to the extent of obscenity, as 
the extant fragments and the parallel of the Attic 
Comedy combine to prove. The best collection of 
the fragments of Sophron is by Ahrens, De Graecae 
Linguae Dialectis, 

Sophroniscus. [Socrates.] 

Sophus, P. Sempronius, tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 310, and consul 304, is mentioned as one of 
the earliest jurists, and is said to have owed his 
name of Sophus or Wise to his great merits. 

Sopianae {Funfkirchen)^ a town in Pannonia 
Inferior, on the road from Mursa to Vindobona, 
tlie birth-place of the emperor Maximinus. 

Sora. 1. (Soranus : Sora\ a town in Latium, 
on the right bank of the river Liris and N. of 
Arpinum, with a strongly fortified citadel. It was the 
most N.-ly tovm of the Volsci in Latium, and after- 
wards joined the Samnites ; but it was conquered 
by the Romans, and was twice colonised by them, 
since the inhabitants had destroyed the first body 
of colonists. There are still remains of the poly- 
gonal walls of the ancient town.— 2. A tovm in 
Paphlagonia of uncertain site. 

Soracte {Monte di S. Oreste), a celebrated 
mountain in Etruria, in the territory of the Falisci, 
near the Tiber, about 24 miles from Rome, but 
the summit of which, frequently covered with 
snow, was clearly visible from the city. ( Vides ut 
alta stet nive candiium Soracte^ Hor. Carm. i. 9.) 
The whole mountain was sacred to Apollo, and on 
its summit was a temple of this god. At the 
festival of Apollo, celebrated on this mountain, 
the worshippers passed over burning embers with- 
out receiving any injury. (Virg. Aen. xi. 785, seq.) 

Soranus, 1. A Sabine divinity, usually iden- 
tified with Apollo, worshipped on Mt. Soracte. 



720 



SORDICE. 



SOZOMENUS. 



[SoRACTE.J —2. The name of several physicians, 
of whom the most celebrated seems to have been a 
native of Ephesus, and to have practised Iiis pro- 
fession first at Alexandria, and afterwards at Rome, 
in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian, a. d. 98 — 138. 
There are several medical works still extant under 
the name of Soranus, but whether they were 
written by the native of Ephesus cannot be deter- 
mined. 

Sordice (Eiang de Leucaie), a lake in Gallia 
Narbonensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees, formed 
by the river Sordis. 

Sordones or Sordi, a small people in Gallia 
Narbonensis, at tlie foot of the Pyrenees, whose 
chief town was Ruscino. 

Sosibius (Sojo-igios), a distinguished Lacedae- 
monian grammarian, who flourished in the reign of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus (about B.C. 251), and was 
contemporary with Callimachus. 

Sosigenes {^waiyeuris), the peripatetic pliiloso- 
pher, was the astronomer employed by Julius 
Caesar to superintend the correction of the calen- 
dar (b. c. 46). He is called an Egyptian, but may 
be supposed to have been an Alexandrian Greek. 
(See Did. of Aniiq. art. Calendarmm.) 

Sosiphanes (Scjci^avTjs), the son of Sosicles, of 
Syracuse, was one of the 7 tragedians who were 
called the Tragic Pleiad. He was born at the 
end of the reign of Philip, and flourished b. c. 284. 

Sositlieus (2co(n'0eos), of Syracuse or Athens, 
or Alexandria in the Troad, was a distinguished 
tragic poet, one of the Tragic Pleiad, and the an- 
tagonist of the tragic poet Homer. He flourished 
about B. c. 284. 

Sosius. 1. C, quaestor b. c. 66, and praetor 
49. He was afterwards one of Antony's principal 
lieutenants in the East. He was appointed by 
Antony, in 38, governor of Syria and Cilicia in the 
place of Ventidius. Like his predecessor in the 
government, he carried on the military operations 
in his province with great success. In 37, he ad- 
vanced against Jerusalem along with Herod, and 
after hard fighting became master of the city, and 
placed Herod upon the throne. In return for 
these services, Antony obtained for Sosius the 
honour of a triumph in 34, and the consulship in 
S2. Sosius commanded the left wing of Antony's 
fleet at the battle of Actium. He was afterwards 
pardoned by Octavian, at the intercession of L. 
Arruntius. — 2. The name of two brothers (Sosii), 
booksellers at Rome in the time of Horace. They 
were probably freedmen, perhaps of the Sosius 
mentioned above. 

Sospita, that is, the " saving goddess," was a 
surname of Juno at Lanuvium and at Rome, in 
both of which places she had a temple. Her wor- 
ship was very ancient in Latium and was trans- 
planted from Lanuvium to Rome. 

Sosthenes (Swo-^eVrjs), a Macedonian officer of 
noble birth, who obtained the supreme direction of 
Afiairs during the period of confusion which followed 
the invasion of the Gauls. He defeated the Gauls 
in 280. He is included by the chronologers among 
the kings of Macedonia ; but it is very doubtful 
whether he ever assumed the royal title. 

Sostratus (SaJo-Tparos), the name of at least 4, 
if not 5, Grecian artists, who have been frequently 
confounded with one another. —1. A statuary in 
bronze, the sister's son of Pythagoras of Rhegium, 
and his disciple, flourished about B.C. 424.-2. 
Of Chios, the instructor of Pantias, flourislied about 



b. c. 400.— 3, A statuary in bronze, whom Pliny 
mentions as a contemporary of Lysippus, at 01. 
114, B.C. 323, the date of Alexanders death. It 
is probable, however, that he was identical with 
the following.— 4. The son of Dexiphanes, of Cni- 
dus, was one of the great architects who flourished 
during and after the .ife of Alexander the Great. 
He built for Ptolemy I., the son of Lagus, the 
celebrated Pharos of Alexandria. He also em- 
bellished his native city, Cnidus, with a work 
which was one of the wonders of ancient archi- 
tecture', namely, a portico, or colonnade, supporting 
a terrace, Avhich served as a promenade. —5. An 
engraver of precious stones, whose name appears on 
several very beautiful cameos and intaglios. 

Sosus (ScDo-os), of Pergamus, a worker in mo- 
saic, and, according to Pliny, the most celebrated 
of all who practised that art. 

Sotades (SwraSTjs). 1. An Athenian comic 
poet of the Middle Comedy, who must not be con- 
founded with the more celebrated poet of Maro- 
nea. — 2. A native of Maronea in Thrace, flourished 
at Alexandria about B. c. 280. He wrote lasci- 
vious poems (called (pKvaKes or Kifaidoi) in the 
Ionic dialect, whence they were also called 'IwvlkoI 
K6yoi. They were also called Sotadean poems 
(SwToSeta acrixaTo). It would seem that Sotades 
carried his lascivious and abusive satire to the ut- 
most lengths ; and the freedoms which he took at 
last brought him into trouble. According to Plu- 
tarch, he made a vehement and gross attack on 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, on the occasion of his mar- 
riage with his sister Arsinoe, and the king threw 
him into prison, where he remained for a long time. 
According to Athenaeus, the poet attacked both 
Lysimachus and Ptolemy, and, having fled from 
Alexandria, he was overtaken at Caunus by Pto- 
lemy's general Patroclus, who shut him up in a 
leaden chest and cast him into the sea. 

Soter (2wT7jp), i.e. "the Saviour" (Lat. Ser- 
vator or Sospes), occurs as the surname of several 
divinities, especially of Zeus. It was also a sur- 
name of Ptolemaeus I., king of Egypt, as well as 
of several of the other later Greek kings. 

Sotion (2c«JTi'wv). 1. A philosopher, and a native 
of Alexandria, who flourished at the close of the 
third century b. c. He is chiefly remarkable as the 
author of a work (entitled AtoSoxat) on the suc- 
cessive teachers in the different philosophical 
schools. — 2. A philosopher, and also a native of 
Alexandria, who lived in the age of Tiberius. He 
was the instructor of Seneca, who derived from 
him his admiration of Pythagoras. It was perhaps 
this Sotion who was the author of a treatise on 
anger, quoted by Stobaeus. — 3. A Peripatetic 
philosopher, mentioned by A. Gellius, is probably 
a different person from either of the preceding. 

Sottiates or Sotiates, a powerful and warlike 
people in Gallia Aquitanica, on the frontiers of 
Gallia Narbonensis, were subdued by P. Crassus, 
Caesar's legate, after a hard-fought battle. The 
modern Sos probably represents the ancient town 
of this people. 

Sozomenus ('2,cc(6iJ.epos), usually called Sozo- 
men in English, was a Greek ecclesiastical histo- 
rian of the 5th century. He was probably a native 
of Bethelia or Bethel, a village near Gaza in Pales- 
tine. His parents were Christians. He practised 
as an advocate at Constantinople, whence he is 
surnamei Scliolasticus ; and he was still engaged 
in his profession when he wrote his history. His 



THESEUS. 




Theseus and Minotaur. (From a painted Vase.) Page 766. 




r ^ 

The Theseum at Athens. Page 767. 




Statue of Theseus. (Prom the Pediment of the Parthenon.) Page 767. 

[Tofaccp.720_ 



SOZOPOLIS. 



SPARTA. 



721 



ecclesiastical histoi}', which is extant, is in 9 
books, and is dedicated to the emperor Theo- 
dosius II. It commences with the reign of Con- 
stantino, and comes down a little later than the 
deatli of Honorius, a. d. 423. The work is in- 
complete, and breaks off in the middle of a chapter. 
The author, we know, had proposed to bring it 
down to 439, the year in which the history of So- 
crates ends. Sozomen excels Socrates in style, 
but is inferior to the latter in soundness of judg- 
ment. The history of Sozomen is printed along 
with the other Greek ecclesiastical historians. 
[Socrates.] 

Sozopolis, aft. Susupolis {2,w(6Tro\is, 2wfoJ- 
ttoXls: Susu, Ru.), a considerable city of Pisidia, 
in a plain surrounded by mountains, N. of 
Tennessus. 

Sparta (^TrdpTr], Dor. STrapro: STra/JTtarrjs, 
Spartiates, Spartanus) also called Lacedaemon 
(AaKeSa'tjucvu : AaKeZaifj.6pios^ Lacedaemonius), the 
capital of Laconica and the chief city of Pelopon- 
nesus, was situated on the right bank of the 
Eurotas (Iri), about 20 miles from the sea. It 
stood on a p^ain which contained within it several 
rising grounds and hills. It was bounded on the 
E. by the Eurotas, on the N.W. by the small river 
Oenus (Kelesvia), and on the S.E. by the small 
river Tisia {Magula\ both of which streams fell 
into the Eurotas. The plain in which Sparta stood 
was shut in on the E. by Mt. Menelaium, and on 
the W. by Mt. Taygetus ; whence the city is 
called by Homer " the hollow Lacedaemon." It 
was of a circular form, about 6 miles in circum- 
ference, and consisted of several distinct quarters, 
which were originally separate villages, and which 
■were never united into one regular town. Its site 
is occupied by the modem villages of Magula and 
Psykhiko ; and the principal modern town in the 
neighbourhood is Mistra, which lies about 2 miles 
to the W. on the slopes of Mt. Taygetus. During 
the flourishing times of Greek independence, Sparta 
was never surrounded by walls, since the bravery 
of its citizens, and the difficulty of access to it, 
were supposed to render such defences needless. 
It was first fortified by the tyrant Nabis ; but it 
did not possess regular walls till the time of the 
Romans. Sparta, unlike most Greek cities, had 
no proper Acropolis, but this name was only given 
to one of the steepest hills of the town, on the 
summit of which stood the temple of Athena Po- 
liuchos, or Chalcioecus. Five distinct quarters of 
the city are mentioned : 1. Pitane (ITtTai/Tj : Ethnic 
niToraTTjs), which appears to have been the most 
important part of the city, and in which was 
situated the Agora, containing the council-house of 
the senate, and the offices of the public magistrates. 
It was also surrounded by various temples and 
other public buildings. Of these, the most splendid 
was the Persian Stoa or portico, originally built of 
the spoils taken in the Persian war, and enlarged 
and adorned at later times. A part of the Agora 
was called the Chorus or dancing place, in which 
the Spartan youths performed dances in honour of 
Apollo. 2. Limnae (Ai^ui'at), a suburb of the city, 
on the banks of the Eurotas, N.E. of Pitane, was 
originally a hollow spot covered with water. 3. 
Mesoa or Messoa (Mecca, Uleaaoa ; Eth. Mecr- 
coaTTjs), also by the side of the Eurotas, S.E. of the 
preceding, containing the Dromus and the Plata- 
nistas, which was a spot nearly surrounded with 
water, and so called from the plane-trees growing 



there. A.Cynosura (KvvSaovpa: Kvuo(rovp€vs),m 
the S. W. of the city, and S. of Pitane. 5. Aegldae 
(Ai'yeiSai), in the N.W. of the city, and W. of 
Pitane. — The two principal streets of Sparta ran 
from the Agora to the extreme end of the city : 
these were, 1. Aphetae ot ApJietais ('Ac^ieVat, 'A<^e- 
Tais sc. oScJs), extending in a S-E.-ly direction, 
past the temple of Dictynna, and the tombs of the 
Eurypontidae; and 2. Skias (S/cias), running nearly 
parallel to the preceding one, but further to the E., 
and which derived its name from an ancient place 
of assembly, of a circular form, called Skias. The 
most important remains of ancient Sparta are the 
ruins of the theatre, which was near the Agora.— 
Sparta is said to have been founded loj Lacedaemon, 
a son of Zeus and Taygete, who married Sparta, 
the daughter of Eurotas, and called the city after 
the name of his wife. His son Amyclas is said to 
have been the founder of Amyclae, which was for 
a long time a more important town than Sparta 
itself. In the mythical period, Argos was the 
chief city in Peloponnesus, and Sparta is repre- 
sented as subject to it. Here reigned Menelaus, 
the younger brother of Agamemnon ; and by the 
marriage of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, with 
Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus, the two 
kingdoms of Argos and Sparta became united. 
The Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus, which, ac- 
cording to tradition, took place 80 years after the 
Trojan war, made Sparta the capital of the country. 
Laconica fell to the share of the 2 sons of Aristo- 
demus, Eurysthenes and Procles, who took up their 
residence at Sparta, and ruled over the kingdom 
conjointly. The old inhabitants of the country 
maintained themselves at Amyclae, which was 
not conquered for a long time. After the com- 
plete subjugation of the country we find three 
distinct classes in the population: the Dorian 
conquerors, who resided in the capital, and who 
were called Spartiatae or Spartans; the Perioeci or 
old Achaean inhabitants, who became tributary to 
the Spartans, and possessed no political rights; and 
the Helots, who were also a portion of the old 
Achaean inhabitants, but were reduced to a state 
of slavery. From various causes the Spartans be- 
came distracted by intestine quarrels, till at length 
Lycurgus, who belonged to the royal family, was 
selected by all parties to give a new constitution to 
the state. The date of Lycurgus is uncertain ; but 
it is impossible to place it later than B. c. 825. 
The constitution of Lycurgus, which is described 
in a separate article [Lycurgus], laid the foun- 
dation of Sparta's greatness. She soon became ag- 
gressive, and gradually extended her sway over 
the greater part of Peloponnesus. In b. c. 743 the 
Spartans attacked Messenia, and after a war of 
20 years subdued this country, 723. In 685 the 
Messenians again took up arras, but at the end of 
17 years were again completely subdued; and their 
country from this time forward became an integral 
portion of Laconia. [For details see Messenia.] 
After the close of the 2nd Messenian war the 
Spartans continued their conquests in Peloponnesus. 
They defeated the Tegeans, and wrested the dis- 
trict of Thyreae from the Argives. At the time of 
the Persian invasion, they were confessedly the 
first people in Greece ; and to them was granted 
by unanimous consent the chief command in the 
war. But after the final defeat of the Persians 
the haughtiness of Pausanias disgusted most of the 
Greek states, particularly the Tonians, and led 

3 A 



722 SP ART AC US. 

them to transfer the supremacy to Athens (477). 
From this time the power of Athens steadily in- 
creased ; and Sparta possessed little influence out- 
side of the Peloponnesus. The Spartans, however, 
made several attempts to check the rising greatness 
of Athens ; and their jealousy of the latter led at 
lenjTth to the Peloponnesian war (431). This 
war ended in the overthrow of Athens, and the 
restoration of the supremacy of Sparta over the 
rest of Greece (404). But the Spartans did not 
retain this supremacy more than 30 years. Their 
decisive defeat by the Thebans under Epaminondas 
at the battle of Leuctra (371) gave the Spartan 
power a shock from which it never recovered ; and 
the restoration of the Messenians to their country 
2 years afterwards completed the humiliation of 
Sparta. Thrice was the Spartan territory invaded 
by the Thebans ; and the Spartan women saw for 
the first time the watch-fires of an enemy's camp. 
The Spartans now finally lost their supremacy over 
Greece, but no other Greek state succeeded to 
their power ; and about 30 years afterwards the 
greater part of Greece was obliged to yield to 
Philip of Macedon. The Spartans, however, kept 
haughtily aloof from the Macedonian conqueror, 
and refused to take part in the Asiatic expedition 
of his son Alexander the Great. Under the later 
Macedonian monarchs the power of Sparta still 
further declined; the institutions of Lycurgus were 
neglected, luxury crept into the state, the number 
of citizens diminished, and the landed property 
became vested in a few families. Agis endeavoured 
to restore the ancient institutions of Lycurgus; but 
he perished in the attempt (240). Cleomenes III., 
who began to reign 236, was more successful. He 
succeeded in putting the Ephors to death, and 
overthrowing the existing government (225) ; and 
he then made a redistribution of the landed pro- 
perty, and augmented the number of the Spartan 
citizens by admitting some of the Perioeci to this 
honour. His reforms infused new blood into the 
state ; and for a short time he carried on war with 
success against the Achaeans. But Aratus, the 
general of the Achaeans, called in the assistance of 
Antigonus Doson, the king of Macedonia, who de- 
feated Cleomenes at the decisive battle of Sellasia 
(221), and followed up his success by the capture 
of Sparta. Sparta now sank into insignificance, 
and was ruled by a succession of native tyrants till 
at length it was compelled to abolish its peculiar 
institutions, and to join the Achaean league. 
Shortly afterwards it fell, with the rest of Greece, 
under the Roman power. 

Spartacus, the name of several kings of the 
Cimmerian Bosporus. 1. Succeeded the dynasty 
of the Archeanactidae in b. c. 438, and reigned 
until 431. He was succeeded by his son Seleucus. 
»»"■ 2. Began to reign in 427 and reigned 20 years. 
He was succeeded in 407 by his son Satyrus. — 
3. Succeeded his father Leucon in 353, and died, 
leaving his kingdom to his son Parysades, in 348. 
■—4. Son of Eumelus, began to reign in 304, and 
reigned 20 years. 

Spartacus, by birth a Thracian, was succes- 
sively a shepherd, a soldier, and a chief of banditti. 
On one of his predatory expeditions he was taken 
prisoner, and sold to a trainer of gladiators. In 73 he 
was a member of the company of Lentulus, and was 
detained in his school at Capua, in readiness for the 
games at Rome. He persuaded his fellow-prisoners 
to make an attempt to gain their freedom. About 



SPES. 

70 of them broke out of the school of Lentulus, 
and took refuge in the crater of Vesuvius. Spartacus 
was chosen leader, and was soon joined by a number 
of runaway slaves. They were blockaded by C. Clau- 
dius Pulcher at the head of 3000 men, but Spar- 
tacus attacked the besiegers and put them to flight. 
His numbers rapidly increased, and for 2 years (b. c. 
73 — 71) he defeated one Roman army after an- 
other, and laid waste Italy, from the foot of the 
Alps to the southernmost comer of the peninsula. 
After both the consuls of 72 had been defeated by 
Spartacus, M. Licinius Crassus, the praetor, was 
appointed to the command of the war. Crassus 
carried on the contest, with vigour and success, and, 
after gaining several advantages over the enemy, at 
length defeated them on the river Silarus in a de- 
cisive battle, in which Spartacus was slain. The 
character of Spartacus has been maligned by the 
Roman writers. Cicero compares the vilest of his 
contemporaries to him : Horace speaks of him as a 
common robber ; none recognise his greatness, but 
the terror of his name survived to a late period of 
the empire. Accident made Spartacus a shepherd, 
a freebooter, and a gladiator ; nature formed him a 
hero. The excesses of his followers he could not 
always repress, and his efforts to restrain them often 
cost him his popularity. But he was in himself 
not less mild and just than he was able and 
valiant. 

Spartarius Campus. [Carthago Nova.] 
Sparti (jZirapTo'i from aTre/pw), the Sown-Men, 
is the name given to the armed men who sprang 
from the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus, and who 
were believed to be the ancestors of the 5 oldest 
families at Thebes. 

Spartianus, Aelius, one of the Scriptores His- 
toriae Augustae, lived in the time of Diocletian and 
Constantine, and wrote the biographies of, 1. Ha- 
drianus and Aelius Verus ; 2. Didius Julianus ; 
3. Severus ; 4. Pescennius Niger ; 5. Caracalla ; 
6. Geta. For the editions of Spartianus see Capi- 

TOLINUS. 

Spartolus (STraprwAos), a town in the Mace- 
donian peninsula of Chalcidice, N. of Olynthus. 

Spauta (^Traura : L. of Urmi), a large salt- 
lake in the W. of Media, whose waters were 
singularly bitter and acrid. It was also called 
Matiana (Mariapr] At^j/Tj) from the name of the 
people who dwelt around it. 

Spercheus (S-n-epxetc^s : EUadlia), a river in 
the S. of Thessaly, which rises in Mt. Tj'-mphrestus, 
runs in an E,-ly direction through the territory of 
the Aenianes and through the district Malis, and 
falls into the innermost comer of the Sinus Mali- 
acus. As a river-god. Spercheus is a son of 
Oceanus and Ge, and the father of Menesthius by 
Polydora, the daughter of Peleus. To this god 
Peleus dedicated the hair of his son Achilles, in 
order that he might return in safety from the 
Trojan war. 

Spes, the personification of Hope, was worshipped 
at Rome, where she had several temples, the most 
ancient of which had been built in B. c. 354, by 
the consul Atilius Calatinus, near the Porta Car- 
mentalis. The Greeks also worshipped the perso- 
nification of Hope, Elpis, and they relate the beau- 
tiful allegory, that when Epimetheus opened the 
vessel brought to him by Pandora, from which all 
manner of evils were scattered over the earth, 
Hope alone remained behind. Hope was repre- 
sented in works of art as a youthful figure, lightly 



SPEUSIPPUS. 



STASINUS. 



723 



walking in full attire, holding in her right hand a 
flower, and with the left lifting up her garment. 

Speusippus (27reu(rt7r7ros), the philosopher, was 
a native of Athens, and the son of Eurymedon and 
Potone, a sister of Plato. He accompanied his 
uncle Plato on his third journey to Syracuse, where 
he displayed considerable ability and prudence. 
He succeeded Plato as president of the Academy, 
but was at the head of the school for only 8 
years (b. c. 347 — 339). He died, as it appears, 
of a lingering paralytic illness. He wrote several 
works, all of which are lost, in which he developed 
the doctrines of his great master. 

Sphacteria. [Pylos, No. 3.] 

Sphaeria {^.^aipla : Poros), an island off the 
coast of Troezen in Argolis, and between it and 
the island of Calauria, with the latter of which it 
was connected by means of a sand-bank. Here 
Sphaerus, the charioteer of Pelops, is said to have 
been buried. 

Sphaerus (24>a7pos), a Stoic philosopher, studied 
first under Zeno of Citium, and afterwards under 
Cleanthes. He lived at Alexandria during the 
reigns of the first two Ptolemies. He also taught 
at Lacedaemon, and was believed to have had con- 
siderable influence in moulding the character of 
Cleomenes. He was in repute among the Stoics 
for the accuracy of his definitions. He Avas the 
author of several works, all of which are lost. 

Sphendale (2<pevMXr] : 2(^ei/5aAeus), a demus 
in Attica belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, on 
the frontiers of Boeotia between Tanagra and 
Decelea. 

Sphettus (5^7]TT(5s : '^(piiTrios), a demus in 
the S. of Attica, near the silver mines of Sunium, 
belonging to the tribe Acamantis. 

Sphinx (5^i'7|, gen, :^(piyy6s), a she-monster, 
daughter of Orthus and Chimaera, born in the 
country of tlie Arimi, or of Typhon and Echidna, 
or lastly of Typhon and Chimaera. She is said to 
have proposed a riddle to the Thebans, and to have 
murdered all who were unable to guess it. Oedi- 
pus solved it, whereupon the Sphinx slew herself. 
[For details see Oedipus.] The legend appears 
to have come from Egypt, but the figure of the 
Sphinx is represented somewhat differently in 
Greek mythology and art. The Egyptian Sphinx 
is the figure of a lion without wings in a lying atti- 
tude, the upper part of the body being that of a 
human being. The Sphinxes appear in Egypt to 
have been set up in avenues forming the approaches 
to temples. The common idea of a Greek Sphinx, 
on the other hand, is that of a winged body of a 
lion, the breast and upper part being the figure of 
a woman. Greek Sphinxes, moreover, are not 
always represented in a lying attitude, but appear 
in different positions, as it might suit the fancy of 
the sculptor or poet. Thus they appear with the 
face of a maiden, the breast, feet, and claws of a 
lion, the tail of a serpent, and the wings of a bird. 
Sphinxes were frequently introduced by Greek 
artists, as ornaments of architectural works. 

Spina. 1. (Spinazzino)^ a town in Gallia Cis- 
padana, in the territory of the Lingones, on the 
most S.-ly of the mouths of the Po, which was 
called after it Ostium Spineticum. It was a very 
■■ ancient town, said to have been founded by the 
Greeks, but in the time of Strabo had ceased to 
be a place of any importance. — 2. (Spino)^ a town 
in Gallia Transpadana on the river Addua. 
I Spintharus (JSirifeapos), of Heraclea on the 



Pontus, a tragic poet, contemporary with Aristo- 
phanes, who designates him as a barbarian and a 
Phrygian. He was also ridiculed by the other 
comic poets. 

Spolatum. [Salona]. 

Spoletium or Spoletum (Spoletinus : Spoleio), 
a town in Umbria on the Via Flaminia, colonised 
by the Romans B. c. 242. It suffered severely in 
the civil wars between Sulla and Marius. At a 
later time it was taken by Totilas ; but its walls, 
which had been destroyed by the Goths, were 
restored by Narses. 

Sporades (SiropdSes, sc. vyjaoi, from aireipui), a 
group of scattered islands in the Aegaean sea off 
the island of Crete and the W. coast of Asia 
Minor, so called in opposition to the Cyclades, 
which lay in a circle around Delos. The division, 
however, between these 2 groups of islands was 
not well defined ; and we find some of the islands 
at one time described as belonging to the Sporades, 
and at another time as belonging to the Cyclades. 

Spurinna, Vestritms, 1. The haruspex who 
warned Caesar to beware of the Ides of March. It 
is related that, as Caesar was going to the senate- 
house on the fatal day, he said to Spurinna in jest, 
" Well, the Ides of March are come,"" upon which 
the seer replied, " Yes, they are come, but they 
are not past." — - 2. A Roman general, who fought 
on the side of 0th o against the Vitellian troops in 
the N. of Italy. In the reign of Trajan he gained 
a victory over the Bructeri. Spurinna lived upon 
terms of the closest friendship with the younger 
Pliny, from whom we learn that Spurinna com- 
posed lyric poems. There are extant 4 odes, or 
rather fragments of odes, in Choriambic measure, 
ascribed to Spurinna, and which were first pub- 
lished by Barthius in 1613. Their genuineness 
however is very doubtful. 

Spurinus, Q. Petillms, praetor urbanus in b.c. 
181, in which year the books of king Numa Pom- 
pilius are said to have been discovered upon the 
estate of one L. Petillius. Spurinus obtained pos- 
session of the books, and upon his representation to 
the senate that they ought not to be read and pre- 
served, the senate ordered them to be burnt. 
[Numa.] Spurinus was consul in 176, and fell in 
battle against the Ligurians. 

Stabiae (Stabianus : Castell a Mare di Stabia)^ 
an ancient town in Campania between Pompeii 
and Surrentum, which was destroyed by Sulla in 
the Social War, but which continued to exist as a 
small place down to the great eruption of Vesuvius 
in A. D. 79, when it was overwhelmed along with 
Pompeii and Herculaneum, It was at Stabiae 
that the elder Pliny perished. 

Stagirus, subsequently Stagira (^Tayeipos, ra 
I^Tciyeipa, ^ '^rayeipa : '^TayeipiTris : Stavro)^ 
a town of Macedonia in Chalcidice, on the Stry- 
monic gulf and a little N. of the isthmus which 
unites the promontory of Athos to Chalcidice. It 
was a colony of Andros, was founded b. c. 65C. 
and was originally called Orthagoria. It is cele 
brated as the birth-place of Aristotle, and was m 
consequence restored by Philip, by whom it had 
been destroyed. 

Staphylus (Sra^u^os), son of Dionysus and 
Ariadne, or of Theseus and Ariadne, and was one 
of the Argonauts. By Chrysothemis he became the 
father of 3 daughters, Molpadia, Rhoeo, and Par- 
thenos. 

Stasinus (Srao-u'cs), of Cyprus, an epic poet, 
3 A 2 



724 STATIELLI. 

to whom some of the ancient writers attributed the 
poem of the Epic Cycle, entitled Ci/pria (Kinrpia). 
In the earliest historical period of Greek literature 
the Cypria was accepted without question as a work 
of Homer ; and it is not till we come down to the 
times of Athenaeus and the grammarians, that we 
find any mention of Stasinus. Stasinus was said 
to be the son-in-law of Homer, who, according to 
one story, composed the Cypria and gave it to 
Stasinus as his daughter's marriage portion ; mani- 
festly an attempt to reconcile the two different ac- 
counts, which ascribed it to Homer and Stasinus. 
The Cypria was the first, in the order of the events 
contained in it, of the poems of the Epic Cycle re- 
lating to the Trojan war. It embraced the period 
antecedent to the beginning of the Iliad, to which 
it was designed to form an introduction. 

Statielli, Statiellates, or Statiellenses, a 
small tribe in Liguria, S. of the Po, whose chief 
town was Statiellae Aquae (Acqui) on the road 
from Genua to Placentia. 

Statilia Messalina, [Messalina.] 

Statilius Taurus. [Taurus.] 

Statira (2TaTeipa). 1. Wife of Artaxerxes 
II., king of Persia, was poisoned by Parysatis, the 
mother of the king, who was a deadly enemy of 
Statira, — 2. Sister and wife of Darius III., cele- 
brated as the most beautiful woman of her time. 
She was taken prisoner by Alexander, together 
with her mother-in-law Sisygambis and her 
daughters, after the battle of Issus, B. c. 333. 
They were all treated with the utmost respect by 
the conqueror, but Statira died shortly before the 
battle of Arbela, 331.— 3. Also called Barsine, 
elder daughter of Darius TIL [Barsi>te.] 

Statius Murcus. [Murcus.] 

Statms, P. Papinius, was born at Neapolis, 
about A. D. Gl, and was the son of a distinguished 
grammarian. He accompanied his father to Rome, 
where the latter acted as the preceptor of Do- 
mitian, who held him in high honour. Under the 
skilful tuition of his father, the young Statius 
speedily rose to fame, and became peculiarly re- 
no^^^led for the brilliancy of his extemporaneous 
effusions, so that he gained the prize three times 
in the Alban contests ; but having, after a long 
career of popularity, been vanquished in the quin- 
quennial games, he retired to Neapolis, the place 
of his nativity, along with his wife Claudia, whose 
virtues he frequently commemorates. He died 
about A. D. 96. It has been inferred from a 
passage in Juvenal (vii. 82 ), that Statius, in his 
earlier years at least, was forced to struggle with 
poverty ; but he appears to have profited by the 
patronage of Doraitian {Sih: iv. 2), whom he ad- 
dresses in strains of the most fulsome adulation. 
The extant works of Statius are : — 1. Silvarum 
Libri V., a collection of 32 occasional poems, many 
of them of considerable length, divided into 5 
books. To each book is prefixed a dedication in 
prose, addressed to some friend. The metre chiefly 
employed is the heroic hexameter, but four of the 
pieces (i. 6, ii. 7, iv. 3, 9), are in Phalaecian hen- 
decasyllabics, one (iv. 5) in the Alcaic, and one 
(iv. 7) in the Sapphic stanza. 2. Thebaidos Li- 
hri XII., an heroic poem in 12 books, embodying 
the ancient legends with regard to the expedition 
of the Seven against Thebes. 3. Achilleidos 
Libri II., an heroic poem breaking off abruptly. 
According to the original plan, it would have 
comprised a complete history- of the exploits of 



STEPHANUS. 

Achilles, but was probably never finished. Statius 
may justly claim the praise of standing in the 
foremost rank among the heroic poets of the Silver 
Age. He is in a great measure free from extrava- 
gance and pompous pretensions ; but, on the other 
hand, in no portion of his works do we find the 
impress ef high natural talent and imposing power. 
The pieces which form the Silvae, although evi- 
dentl}' thrown off in haste, produce a much more 
pleasing effect than the ambitious poems of the 
Thebaid or the Achilleid. The best editions of 
the Silvae are by Markland, Lond. 1728, and by 
Sillig, Dresd. 1827. The best edition of the com- 
j plete works of Statins is by Lemaire, 4 vols. 
8vo., Paris. ltJ2.5— 1830. 

Statonia (Statoniensis), a town in Etruria, and 
a Roman Pi-aefectura, on the river Albinia, and on 
the Lacus Statoniensis, in the neighbourhood of 
which were stone quarries, and excellent wine 
was grown. 

St&tor, a Roman surname of Jupiter, describing 
him as staying the Romans in their flight from an 
enemy, and generally as preserving the existing 
order of things. 

Stectorium C^TeKTopiay.AJioum Kara-IIisar ?), 
a city of Great Phrygia, between Peltae and Syn- 
nadia. 

Steutor (SreVTwp), a herald of the Greeks in 
the Trojan war, whose voice was as loud as that 
of 50 other men together. His name has become 
proverbial for any one shouting with an unusually 
loud voice. 

Stentoris Lacus. [Hebrus.] 

Stenyclerus (JinvvKK-qpos, Dor. '2,re:vvK\apo$ : 
"SiTevvKXripios), a tov.-n in the N. of Messenia, 
which was the residence of the Dorian kings of 
the country'. After the time of the 3rd Messenian 
war the tOAvn is no longer mentioned ; but its 
name continued to be given to an extensive plain 
in the N. of Messenia. 

Stephane or -is (Sret/xxv/?, ^T€(pavis: Stefanio\ 
a sea-port town of Paphlagonia, on the coast of the 
!Mariandyni. 

Stephanus {'^ri^avos). 1. An Athenian comic 
poet of the New Comedy, was probably the son of 
Antiphanes, some of whose plays he is said to 
have exhibited. — 2. Of Byzantium, the author of 
the geographical lexicon, ent\t\edi Ethnica(^'E.QviK(x\ 
of which unfortunately we only possess an epitome. 
Stephanus was a grammarian at Constantinople, 
and lived after the time of Arcadius and Ho- 
norius, and before that of Justinian II. His work 
was reduced to an epitome by a certain Hermo- 
laus, who dedicated his abridgment to the em- 
peror Justinian II. According to the title, the 
chief object of the work was to specif}' the gentile 
names derived from the several names of places 
and countries in the ancient world. But, while 
this is done in every article, the amount of inform- 
ation given went far beyond this. Near!}' every 
article in the epitome contains a reference to some 
ancient writer, as an authority for the name of 
the place ; but in the original, as we see from the 
extant fragments, there were considerable quota- 
tions from the ancient authors, besides a number 
of very interesting particulars, topographical, his- 
torical, mythological, and others. Thus the work 
was not merely what it professed to be, a lexicon 
of a special branch of technical grammar, but a 
valuable dictionary of geography. How great 
would have been its value to us, if it had come 



STERCULIUS. 



STILPO. 



725 



down to us unmutilated, may be seen by any one 
who compares the extant fragments of the original 
with the corresponding articles in the epitome. 
These fragments, however, are unfortunately very 
scanty. The best editions of the Epitome of 
Stephanus are by Dindorf, Lips. 1825, &c., 4 vols. ; 
by Westermann, Lips. 1839, 8vo. ; and bv Mei- 
neke, Berlin, 1849. 

Sterciilius, Stercutius, or Sterquilinus, a 
surname of Saturnus, derived from Stercus, manure, 
because he had promoted agriculture by teaching 
the people the use of manure. This seems to have 
been the original meaning, though some Romans 
state that Sterculius was a surname of Picumnus, 
the son of Faunus, to whom likewise improve- 
ments in agriculture are ascribed. 

Sterope (Srep^TTT}), one of the Pleiads, wife of 
Oenomaus. and daughter of Hippodamia. 
Steropes. [Cyclopes.] 
Stesichorus (STTjai'xopos), of Himera in Sicily, 
a celebrated Greek poet, contemporary with Sappho, 
Alcaeus, Pittacus, and Phalaris, is said to have 
been born B. c. 632, to have flourished about 608, 
and to have died in 552 at the age of 80. Of the 
events of his life we have only a few obscure ac- 
counts. Like other great poets, his birth is fabled to 
have been attended by an omen ; a nightingale 
&slX upon the babe's lips, and sung a sweet strain. 
He is said to have been carefully educated at 
Catana, and afterwards to have enjoyed the friend- 
ship of Phalaris, the tyrant of Agrigentum. Many 
writers relate the fable of his being miraculously 
struck with blindness after writing an attack upon 
Helen, and recovering his sight when he had com- 
posed a Palinodia. He is said to have been buried 
at Catana by a gate of the city, which was called 
after him the Stesichorean gate. Stesichorus was 
one of the 9 chiefs of lyric poetry recognised by 
the ancients. He stands, with Alcman, at the 
head of one branch of the lyric art, the choral 
poetry of the Dorians. He was the first to break 
the monotony of the strophe and antistrophe by 
the introduction of the epode, and his metres were 
much more varied, and the structure of his strophes 
more elaborate, than those of Alcman. His odes 
contained all the essential elements of the perfect 
choral poetry of Pindar and the tragedians. The 
subjects of his poems were chiefly heroic ; he 
transferred the subjects of the old epic poetry to 
the lyric form, dropping, of course, the continuous 
narrative, and dwelling on isolated adventures of 
his heroes. He also composed poems on other 
subjects. His extant remains may be classified 
imder the following heads : — 1. Mythical Poems. 
2. Hymns, Encomia, Epithalamia, Paeans. 3. 
Erotic Poems, and Scholia. 4. A pastoral poem, 
entitled Daphnis. 5. Fables. 6. Elegies. The 
dialect of Stesichorus was Dorian, with an inter- 
mixture of the epic. The best edition of his frag- 
ments is by Kleine. Berol. 1828. 

Stesimbrotus {^rria'iixSpoTos)^ of Thasos, a 
rhapsodist and historian in the time of Cimon and 
Pericles, who is mentioned with praise by Plato 
and Xenophon, and who wrote a work upon Homer, 
the title of which is not known. He also wrote 
some historical works. 

Stheneboea (S^ei/e'gom), called Antea by many 
writers, was a daughter of the Lycian king lobates, 
and the wife of Proetus. Ptespecting her love for 
Bellerophon, see BifXLEROPHONTEs. 
Sthenelufl (S^eVc Aos). 1. Son of Perseus and 



Andromeda, king of Mycenae, and husband of 
Nicippe, by whom he became the father of Alcinoe, 
Medusa, and Eurystheus. The latter, as the great 
enemy of Hercules [Hercules], is called by Ovid 
Sileiiele'ius Jiostis. — 2. Son of Androgeos and 
grandson of Minos. He accompanied Hercules 
from Paros on his expedition against the Amazons, 
and together with his brother Alcaeus he was ap- 
pointed by Hercules ruler of Thasos. — 3. Son of 
Actor, likewise a companion of Hercules in his 
expedition against the Amazons ; but he died and 
was buried in Paphlagonia, where he afterwards 
appeared to the Argonauts. — 4. Son of Capaneus 
and Evadne, belonged to the family of the Anaxa- 
goridae in Argos, and was the father of Cylarabes; 
but, according to others, his son's name was Co- 
metes. He was one of the Epigoni, by whom 
Thebes v/as taken, and he commanded the Argives 
under Diomedes, in the Trojan war, being the 
faithful friend and companion of Diomedes. He 
was one of the Greeks concealed in the wooden 
horse, and at the distribution of the booty, he was 
said to have received an image of a three-eyed 
Zeus, which was in after-times shown at Argos. 
His own statue and tomb also were believed to 
exist at Argos. —-5. Father of Cycnus, who was 
metamorphosed into a swan. Hence we find the 
swan called by Ovid Stheneleis voliccris and Sihene- 
leia proles. ~ 6. A tragic poet, contemporarj'- with 
Aristophanes, who attacked him in the Wasps. 
Stheno. [Gorgones.] 

Stllicho, son of a Vandal captain under the 
emperor Valens, became one of the most distin- 
guished generals of Theodosius I. On the death 
of Theodosius, a. d. 395, Stilicho became the real 
ruler of the West under the emperor Honorius ; 
and his power was strengthened by the death of 
his rival Riifinus [Rufinus], and by the marriage 
of his daughter Maria to Honorius. His military 
abilities saved the Western empire ; and after 
gaining several victories over the barbarians, he 
defeated Alaric at the decisive battle of Pollentia, 
403, and compelled him to retire from Italy. In 
405 he gained anothe-r great victory over Rada- 
gaisus, who had invaded Italy at the head of a 
formidable host of barbarians. These victories 
raised the ambition of Stilicho to so high a pitch, 
that he aspired to make himself master of the 
Roman empire ; but he was apprehended and put 
to death at Ravenna in 408. 

Stilo, L. Aelius Praeconinus, a celebrated Ro- 
man grammarian, one of the teachers of Varro and 
Cicero. He received the surname of Praeconinus, 
because his father had been a praeco, and that of 
Stilo on account of his compositions. He belonged 
to the aristocratical party, and accompanied Q. Me- 
tellus Nuniidicus into exile in B. c. 100. He wrote 
Commentaries on the Songs of the Salii and on the 
Twelve Tables, a work De Proloquiis, &c. He and 
his son-in-law, Ser. Claudius, may be regarded as 
the founders of the study of grammar at Rome. 
Some modern writers suppose that the work on 
Rhetoric ad C. Herennium, Avhich is printed in 
the editions of Cicero, is the work of this Aelius, 
but this is mere conjecture. 

Stilpo (2Ti'A7ra)i/j, a celebrated philosopher, was 
a native of Megara, and taught philosophy in his 
native town. According to one account, he engaged 
in dialectic encounters with Diodorus Cronus at the 
court of Ptolemaeus Soter ; while, according to 
another, he did not comply with the invitation of 

3 A 3 



726 



STIMULA. 



STRABO. 



tlie king to visit Alexandria, He acquired a great 
reputation ; and so high was the esteem in which 
he was held, that Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, 
spared his house at the capture of Megara, He is 
said to have surpassed his contemporaries in in- 
yentive power and dialectic art, and to have inspired 
almost all Greece with a devotion to the Megarian 
philosophj'. He seems to have made the idea of 
virtue the especial object of his consideration. He 
maintained that the wise man ought not only to 
overcome ever}' evil, but not even to be affected 
by any. ^ 

Stimula, the name of Semele, according to the 
pronunciation of the Romans. 

Stiria (2,Teip'La : Sreipteus : Ru. on the bay 
Porio Bafti), a demus in Attica, S. E. of Brauron, 
belonging to the tribe Pandionis, to which there 
was a road from Athens called SrefpjaKr? 656s. 
It was the birth-place of Theramenes and Thra- 
sybulus. 

Stobaeus, Joannes {'Iwdvprjs 6 'S.to^olos), de- 
rived his surname apparently from being a native 
of Stobi in Macedonia. Of his personal historj- 
we know nothing. Even the age in which he 
lived camiot be fixed with accuracy ; but he must 
have been later than Hierocles of Alexandria, 
whom he quotes. Probably he did not live very 
long after him, as he quotes no writer of a later 
date. We are indebted to Stobaeus for a very 
valuable collection of extracts from earlier Greek 
writers. Stobaeus was a man of extensive reading, 
in the course of which he noted down the most 
interesting passages. The materials which he had 
collected in this way he arranged, in the order of 
subjects, for the use of his son Septimius, This 
collection of extracts has come down to us, divided 
into 2 distinct works, of which one bears the title 
of 'EKKoyal (pvcriKal BiaXeKriKoi Kol rjOiKa'i {Ec- 
logae Physicae, etc.), and the other the title of 
'KvOoKoyiov {Fiorilegium or Sermones). The Ec- 
hgae consist for the most part of extracts convey- 
ing the views of earlier poets and prose writers on 
points of physics, dialectics, and ethics. The Fio- 
rilegium, or Sermones, is devoted to subjects of a 
moral, political, and economical kind, and maxims 
of practical wisdom. Each chapter of the Eclogae 
and Sermones is headed by a title describing its 
matter. The extracts quoted in illustration begin 
usually with passages from the poets, after whom 
come historians, orators, philosophers and phy- 
sicians. To Stobaeus we are indebted for a large 
proportion of the fragments that remain of the lost 
works of poets. Euripides seems to have been an 
especial favourite with him. He has quoted above 
500 passages from him in the Sermones, 150 from 
Sophocles, and above 200 from Menander, In 
extracting from prose writers., Stobaeus sometimes 
quotes verbatim, sometimes gives only an epitome 
of the passage. The best edition of the Eclogae 
is by Heeren, Gotting. 1792—1801, 4 vols. 8vo., 
and of the Fiorilegium by Gaisford, Oxon. 1822, 
4 vols. 8vo. 

Stobi {%T6ioi'. 'XTo§a7ot), a town of Mace- 
donia, and the most important place in the district 
Paeonia, was probably situated on the river Eri- 
gon, N. of Thessalonica and N. E. of Heraclea. 
It was made a Roman colony and a municipium, 
and under the later emperors was the capital of 
the province Macedonia II. or Salutaris. It was 
destroyed at the end of the 4th centmy by the 
Goths ; but it is still mentioned by the Byzantine 



•wTiters as a fortress under the name of Stypeum 
(XrvTreiov). Its site is unknown ; for the modem 
Tstib, which is usually supposed to stand upon the 
site of Stobi, lies too far to the N. E. 

Stoechades Insiilae (/. d'Hieres), a group of 
5 small islands in the Mediterranean, oft" the coast 
of Gallia Narbonensis and E. of Massilia, on which 
the Massiliotes kept an armed force to protect 
their trade against pirates. The 3 larger islands 
were called Prote, Mese or Pomponiana, and 
Hypaea, the modern Porquerolle, Port Croz, and 
Isle de Levant or du Titan ; the two smaller ones 
are probably the modern Ratoneau and Promegne. 

Stoeni, a Ligurian people in the Maritime Alps, 
conquered by Q. Marcius Rex B.C. 118, before he 
founded the colony of Narbo Martins. 

Strabo, a cognomen in many Roman gentes, 
signified a person who squinted, and is accordingly 
classed with Paetus, though the latter word did 
not indicate such a complete distortion of vision 
as Strabo. 

Strabo, the geographer, was a native of Amasia 
in Pontus. The date of his birth is unknown, but 
may perhaps be placed about b. c. 54. He lived 
during the whole of the reign of Augustus, and 
during the early part, at least, of the reign of 
Tiberius. He is supposed to have died about 

A. D. 24. He received a careful education. He 
studied grammar under Aristodemus at Nysa in 
Caria, and philosophy under Xenarchus of Seleucia 
in Cilicia and Boethus of Sidon, He lived some 
years at Rome, and also travelled much in various 
countries. We learn from his own work that he 
was with his friend Aelius Gallus in Egypt in 

B. c. 24. He wrote an historical work ('IcrTopjica 
'tTToixvi]ixaTa) in 43 books, which is lost. It began 
where the history of Polybius ended, and was 
probably continued to the battle of Actium. He 
also wrote a work on Geography {T^taypa^iKa), in 
1 7 books, which has come doAvn to us entire, with 
the exception of the 7th, of which we have only a 
meagre epitome. Strabo's work, according to his 
own expression, was not intended for the use of all 
persons. It was designed for all who had had a 
good education, and particularly for those who 
were engaged in the higher departments of admi- 
nistration. Consistently with this view, his plan 
does not comprehend minute description, except 
when the place or the object is of great interest or 
importance ; nor is his description limited to the 
physical characteristics of each coimtry ; it com- 
prehends the important political events of which 
each country has been the theatre, a notice of the 
chief cities and the great men who have illustrated 
,them ; in short, whatever was most characteristic 
and interesting in every country. His work forms 
a striking contrast with the geography of Ptolemy, 
and the dry list of names, occasionally relieved by 
something added to them, in the geographical por- 
tion of the Natural History of Pliny, It is in 
short a book intended for reading, and it maj' be 
read ; a kind of historical geography. Strabo's 
language is generally clear, except in those pas- 
sages where the text has been corrupted ; it is 
appropriate to the matter, simple and without 
afiectation. The first 2 books of Strabo are an 
introduction to his Geography, and contain his 
views on the form and magnitude of the earth, 
and other subjects connected with mathematical 
geography. In the 3rd book he begins his de- 
scription : he devotes 8 books to Europe ; 6 to 



STRABO. 



STROPHIUS. 



727 



Asia ; and the 17th and last to Egypt and Libya. 
The best editions of Strabo are by Casaubon, 
Geneva, 1587, and Paris, 1620, fol., — reprinted 
by Almeloveen, Amsterdam, 1707, and by Fal- 
coner, Oxford, 1807, 2 vols. fol. — by Siebenkees, 
and Tzschucke, Lips. 1811, 7 vols. 8vo. ; by Koray, 
Paris, 1815, seq. 4 vols. 8vo. ; and by Kramer, 
Berlin, 1844, seq., of which only 2 vols, have yet 
appeared. This last is by far the best critical 
edition. 

Strabo, Fannius. 1. C, consul b.c 161 with 
M. Valerius Messala. In their consulship the 
rhetoricians were expelled from Rome. — 2. C, 
son of the preceding, consul 122. He. owed his 
election to the consulship chiefly to the influence 
of C. Gracchus, who was anxious to prevent his 
enemy Opimius from obtaining the ofiice. But in 
his consulship Fannius supported the aristocracy, 
and took an active part in opposing the measures 
of Gracchus. He spoke against the proposal of 
Gracchus, who wished to give the Roman fran- 
chise to the Latins, in a speech which was re- 
garded as a master-piece in the time of Cicero, 
—3. C, son-in-law of Laelius, and frequently con- 
founded with No. 2. He served in Africa, under 
Scipio Africanus, in 146, and in Spain under 
Fabius Maximus in 142. He is introduced by 
Cicero as one of the speakers both in his work 
De Repuhlica, and in his treatise De Amicitia. 
He owed his celebrity in literature to his History, 
which was written in Latsn, and of which Brutus 
made an abridgement. 

Strabo, Seius. [Sejanus.] 

Stratocles (Stpoto/cAtjs), an Athenian orator, 
and a friend of the orator Lycurgiis. He was a 
virulent opponent of Demosthenes, whom he charged 
with having accepted bribes from Harpalus. Stra- 
tocles especially distinguished himself by his ex- 
travagant flattery of Demetrius. 

Str&ton (STpoTcoj'). 1. Son of Arcesilaus, of 
Lampsacus, was a distinguished peripatetic phi- 
losopher, and the tutor of Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
He succeeded Theophrastus as head of the school 
in B. c. 288, and, after presiding over it 18 years, 
was succeeded by Lycon. He devoted him- 
self especially to the study of natural science, 
whence he obtained the appellation of Physicus. 
Cicero, while speaking highly of his talents, blames 
him for neglecting the most necessary part of phi- 
losophy, that which has respect to virtue and 
morals, and giving himself up to the investigation 
of nature. Straton appears to have held a pan- 
theistic system, the specific character of which 
caimot, however, be determined. He seems to 
have denied the existence of any god out of the 
material universe, and to have held that every par- 
ticle of matter has a plastic and seminal power, 
but without sensation or intelligence ; and that 
life, sensation, and intellect, are but forms, acci- 
dents, and afi'ections of matter. Some modern 
writers have regarded Straton as a forerunner of 
Spinoza, while others see in his system an antici- 
pation of the hypothesis of monads. — 2. Of Sardis, 
an epigrammatic poet, and the compiler of a Greek 
Anthology, devoted to licentious subjects. [Pla- 
NUDES.]—- 3. A physician of Berytus in Phoe- 
nicia, one of whose medical formulae is quoted by 
Galen. — 4. Also a physician, and a pupil of 
Erasistratus in the 3rd century B. c, who appears 
to have lived on very intimate terms with his 
tutor. 



Stratonice {%TparoviKr}). 1. Wife of Antigo- 
nus, king of Asia, by whom she became the mother 
of Demetrius Poliorcetes. — 2. Daughter of De- 
metrius Poliorcetes and Phila, the daughter of 
Antipater. In 300, at which time she could not 
have been more than 17 years of age, she was 
married to Seleucus, king of Syria. Notwithstand- 
ing the disparity of their ages, she lived in har- 
mony with the old king for some years, when it 
was discovered that her step-son Antiochus was 
deeply enamoured of her, and Seleucus, in order to 
save the life of his son, which was endangered by 
the violence of his passion, gave up Stratonice in 
marriage to the young prince. She bore 3 children 
to Antiochus : 1. Antiochus II., sumamed Theos ; 
2. Apama, married to Magas, king of Cyrene; 
and 3. Stratonice. — 3. Daughter of the preceding 
and of Antiochus I., was married to Demetrius II., 
king of Macedonia. She quitted Demetrius in 
disgust, on account of his second marriage with 
Phthia, the daughter of Olympias, and retired to 
Syria. Here she was put to death by her nephew 
Seleucus IL, against whom she had attempted to. 
raise a revolt. — 4. Daughter of Antiochus IT., 
king of Syria, married to Ariarathes III., king of 
Cappadocia. — 6. One of the favourite wives of 
Mithridates the Great. 

Stratonicea {^rparoviKeia^ '^rparoviK'q : Srpa- 
roviKevs, Stratoniceus, Stratonicensis : EsM-Hisarj 
Ru.), one of the chief inland cities of Caria, built 
by Antiochus I. Soter, who fortified it strongly, 
and named it in honour of his wife Stratonice. It 
stood E. of*Mylasa and S. of Alabanda, near the 
river Marsj'^as, a S. tributary of the Maeander, 
Under the Romans it was a free city; and it was 
improved by Hadrian. Near it stood the great 
temple of Zeus Chrysaoreus, the centre of the na- 
tional worship of the Carians. There is some 
reason to believe that Stratonicea stood on the site 
of a former city, called Idrias, and, still earlier, 
Chrysaoris. 

Stratonis Turris. [Caesarea, No. 3.] 

Strattis (STparris or SrpaTfs), an Athenian 
poet of the Old Comedy, flourished from b. c. 412 
to 380. 

Stratus (SrpaTOs), 1. (^rpdrios : nr. Lepenu 
or Lepanon Ru.), the chief town in Acarnania, 
10 stadia W. of the Achelous. Its territory was 
called Stratice. It was a strongly fortified town, 
and commanded the ford of the Achelous on the 
high road from Aetolia to Acarnania. Hence it 
was a place of military importance, and was at an 
early period taken possession of by the Aetolians, 

— 2. A town in Achaia, afterwards called Dyme. 

— 3. A town in the W. of Arcadia in the territory 
of Thelpusa, perhaps the same as the Homeric 
Stratia. 

Strongyle. [Naxos.] 

Strongylion {^rpoyyvK'Mv)^ a distinguished 
Greek statuary, flourished during the last 30 or 40 
years of the 5th century B. c. 

Strophades Insulae {'^rpo<pa8is), formerly 
called Plotae {UKcoTai : Strofadia and Strivali)^ 
2 islands in the Ionian sea, off the coast of Mes- 
senia and S. of Zacynthus. The Harpies were 
pursued to these islands by the sons of Boreas ; 
and it Avas from the circumstance of the latter 
returning from these islands after the pursuit, that 
they are supposed to have obtained the name of 
Strophades. 

Strophius (^rpocpios)^ king of Phocis, son of 
3 A 4 



728 



STRUCHATES. 



SUESSA. 



Crissus and Antiphatia, and husband of Cydragora, 
Anaxibia or Astyochia, bj' whom he became the 
father of Astydamia and Pylades. See Orestes. 

StTuchates (SrpouxaTes), a Median people, 
mentioned only by Herodotus (i. 101). 

Strymon (Stnana, by the Turks Karasu), an 
important river in Macedonia, forming the bound- 
ary between that country and Thrace down to the 
time of Philip. It rose in Mt. Scomius, flowed 
first S. and then S. E., passed through the lake 
Prasias, and, immediately S. of Amphipolis, fell 
into a bay of the Aegaean Sea, called after it 
Strymonicus Sinus. The numerous cranes on 
its banks are frequently mentioned by ancient 
writers. 

Strymonii (2,tpvij.6piol), the old name, accord- 
ing to Herodotus, of the Bithynians, who migrated 
into Asia Minor from the banks of the river Stry- 
mon. Bithynia was sometimes called Strymonis. 

Stubera, a town of Macedonia in the district 
Paeonia, probably on the river Erigon. 

Stymphalides. [Stvmphalus.J 

Stymphalis {^Tvufpakis). 1. A lake in Ar- 
cadia. [Stymphalus.] — 2. a district in Mace- 
donia, between Atintania and Elimiotis. 

Stymphalus CSTuuc^aAos, :S,tviul<Pt]\os : 2ru^- 
xpdXios). a town in the X. E. of Arcadia, the ter- 
ritory of which was bounded on the N. b}" Achaia, 
on the E. by Sicyonia and Phliasia, on the S. by 
the territory of Maniinea, and on the W. by that 
of Orchomenus and Pheneus. The district was 
one of military importance, since it commanded 
one of the chief roads from Arcadia 'to Argolis, 
Its name is said to have been derived from Styra- 
phalus, a son of Elatus and grandson of Areas. 
The town itself was situated on a mountain of the 
same name, and on the X. side of the lake Stym- 
phalis {'XTVfx(pa\'LS : Zaraka), on which dwelt, 
according to tradition, the celebrated birds, called 
Stymphalides (Sry/ic^aAi'Ses). destroyed by Her- 
cules. [For details, see p. 309, a.] From this 
lake issued the river Stymphalus, which after a 
short course disappeared under ground, and was 
supposed to appear again as the river Erasinus in 
Argolis. 

Styra (to Srupa : Srupeus : Sfiira), a to\\Ti in 
Euboea on the S. W. coast, not far from Carystus, 
and nearly opposite Marathon in Attica. The 
inhabitants were or'ainally Dryopes, though they 
subsequently denied their descent from this people. 
They took an active part in the Persian war, and 
fought at Artemisium. Salamis and Plataea. They 
afterwards became subject to the Athenians, and 
paid a yearly tribute of 1200 drachmae. The 
town was destroyed in the Lamian war by the 
Athenian general Phaedrus ; and its territory was 
annexed to Eretria. 

Styx (Sti^I), connected with the verb (XTvyew, 
to hate or abhor, is the name of the principal river 
in the nether world, around which it flows 7 times. 
Styx is described as a daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys. As a nymph she dwelt at the entrance 
of Hades, in a lofty grotto which was supported 
by silver columns. As a river Styx is described 
as a branch of Oceanus, flowing from its 10th 
source ; and the river Cocytus again is a branch 
of the Styx. By Pallas Styx became the mother 
of Zelus (zeal), Xice (victorj-), Bia (strength), and 
Cratos (power). She was the first of all the im- 
mortals who took her children to Zeus, to assist 
him against the Titans ; and, in return for this, 



her children were allowed for ever to live with 
Zeus, and Styx herself became the divinity by 
whom the most solemn oaths were sworn. When 
one of the gods had to take an oath by Styx, Iris 
fetched a cup full of water from the Styx, and the 
god, while taking the oath, poured out the water. 

Styx (2tu| : Mavra-neria), a river in the N. 
of Arcadia, near Nonacris, descending from a high 
rock, and falling into the Crathis. The ancients 
believed that the water of this river was poisonous ; 
and according to one tale Alexander the Great was 
poisoned by it. It was said also to break all vessels 
made of glass, stone, metal and any other material, 
j except of the hoof of a horse or a mule. 

Suada, the Roman personification of persuasion, 
the Greek Pltlio (Ileifla;), also called by the di- 
minutive Suadelu. 

Suagela {'2,ovdye\a), an ancient city of Caria, 
near Myndus, was the burial-place of the old kings 
of the country. 

Suasa (Suasanus : S. Lorenzo), a municipium 
in Umbria on the Sena. 

Suastus. [Choaspes, No. 2]. 

Subertum or Sudertum (Sudertanus: Sovretto), 
a towTi in the interior of Etruria. 

Sublaqueum (Sublacensis : Subiaco), a small 
town of the Aequi in Latium, on the Anio near 
its source. Near it stood the celebrated villa of 
Claudius and Nero (Villa Sublacensis); and from 
it was derived the name of the Via Sublacensis, 
which was a branch of the Via Tiburtina. 

Sublicius Pons. [Roma, p. 649, b.] 

Subur. 1. A town of the Laeetani in Hispania 
Tarraconensis E. of Tarraco, described by some as 
a town of the Cosetani, and by others again as a 
town of the Ilergetes. — 2. {Stiiu or Cubu), a 
river in Mauretania Tingitana, flowing past the 
colony Banasa into the Atlantic ocean. 

Subura or Suburra. [Roma, p. 650, a.] 

Subzupara (Zcu-vi), a town in Thrace on the 
road from Philippopolis to Hadrianopolis. 

Succabar (^ovxdSappi, Ptol. : Mazuna ?), an 
inland city of Mauretania Caesariensis, S.E. of the 
mouth of the Chinalaph. It was a colonia, and is 
mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus under the 
name of oppidum Sugar-baritanum. 

Succi or Succorum Angnstiae. [Haemus.] 

Sucro. 1. (ATwcar), a river in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, rising in a S. branch of Mt. Idubeda in 
the territory of the Celtiberi, and falling S. of 
Valentia into a gulf of the Mediterranean called 
after it Sinus Sucronensis {GvJf of Valencia). ^ 
2. {CuUera), a town of the Edetani in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, on the preceding river, and between 
the Iberus and Carthago Nova. 

Sudertum. [Subertum.] 

Sudeti Montes, a range of mountains in the 
S. E. of Germany, in which the Albis takes its rise. 

Suel {Fmngirola)., a town in Hispania Baetica 
on the road from Malaca to Gades. 

Suessa Aurunca (Suessanus : Sessa), a town 
of the Aurunci in Latium, E. of the Via Appia, 
between Minturnae and Teanum, on the W. slope 
of !Mons Massicus. It was situated in a beautifiil 
district called Vescinus ager, whence it has been 
supposed that the town itself was at one time 
called Vescia. It was made a Roman colony in 
the Samnite wars, but must have been afterwards 
colonised afresh, since we find it called in inscrip- 
tions Col. Julia Felix. It was the birthplace of 
the poet Lucilius. 



SUESSA. 



SUTDAS. 



729 



Suessa Pometia (Suessanus), also called F6- 
metia simply, an ancient and important town of 
the Volsci in Latium, S. of Forum Appii, con- 
quered by the Romans under Tarquinius Priscus, 
and taken a second time and sacked by the consul 
Servilius. It was one of the 23 cities situated in 
the plain afterwards covered by tlie Pomptine 
Marshes, which are said indeed to have derived 
their name from this town, 

Suessetani, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
mentioned in connection with the Sedetani. 

Suessiones or Suessones, a powerful people in 
Gallia Belgica, Avho were reckoned the bravest of 
all the Belgic Gauls after the Bellovaci, and who 
could bring 50,000 men into the field in Caesar's 
time. Their king Divitiacus, shortly before Cae- 
sar's arrival in the country, was reckoned the 
most powerful chief in all Gaul, and had extended 
his sovereignty even over Britain, The Suessiones 
dwelt in an extensive and fertile country E. of the 
Bellovaci, S. of the Veromandui, and W. of the 
Remi. They possessed 12 towns, of which the 
capital was Noviodunum, subsequently Augusta 
Suessonum or Suessones (Soissons). 

Suessula (Suessulanus : Torre di Sessola), a 
town jn Samnium, on the S. slope of Mt. Tifata. 

Suet5nius Paulinus. [Paulinus.] 

C, Suetonius Tranquillus, the Roman his- 
torian, was born about the beginning of the reign 
of Vespasian. His father was Suetonius Lenis, 
who Avas a tribune of the 13th legion in the battle 
of Bedriacum, in which Otho was defeated, Sue- 
tonius practised as an advocate at Rome in the 
reign of Trajan. He lived on intimate terms with 
the younger Pliny, many of whose letters are ad- 
dressed to him. At the request of Pliny Trajan 
granted to Suetonius the jus trinm liberorum, for 
though he was married he had not 3 children, 
which number was necessary to relieve him from 
various legal disabilities. Suetonius was after- 
wards appointed private secretary (MagisterEpisto- 
larum) to Hadrian, but was (?eprived of this office 
by the emperor, along with Septicius Claras, the 
Praefect of the Praetorians, on the ground of 
associating with Sabina the emperor's wife, with- 
out his permission. Suetonius wrote many works, 
of Avhich the only ones extant are : — Vitae Duo- 
decim Caesarum, or the 12 Emperors, of whom the 
first is C. Julius Caesar and the last is Domitian ; 
Liher de illustrihus G^-ammaticis ; Liber de dans 
HJietoribm ; Vitae Tereniii^ Horatii, Persii, Lu- 
cani, Juvenalis, Plinii Majoris. His chief work 
is his Lives of the Caesars. Suetonius does not 
follow the chronological order in his Lives, but he 
groups together many things of the same kind. 
His language is very brief and precise, sometimes 
obscure, without any affectation of ornament. He 
certainly tells a prodigious number of scandalous 
anecdotes about the Caesars, but there was plenty 
to tell about them ; and if he did not choose to 
suppress those anecdotes which he believed to be 
true, that is no imputation on his veracity. As a 
great collection of facts of all kinds, the work on 
the Caesars is invaluable for the historian of this 
period. His judgment and his honesty have both 
been attacked by some modern critics ; but we 
are of npinion, that on both grounds a careful study 
of his Avork will justify him. The friendship of 
the younger Pliny is evidence in favour of his in- 
tegrity. The treatise De illustribus Grammaticis 
and that De claris Rhctorilus are probably only 



parts of a larger work. They contain a few bio- 
graphical and other notices, that are occasionally 
useful. It has been conjectured that the few 
scanty lives of the Latin poets, already enumerated, 
belonged to a larger work De Poetis. If this 
conjectixre be true, the short notice of the elder 
Pliny may not be by Suetonius. A work entitled 
De Viris Ilhisiribus, which has been attributed 
both to Suetonius and the younger Plinius, is now 
unanimously assigned to Aurelius Victor. The 
best editions of Suetonius are by P. Burmann, 
Amsterdam, 1736, 2 vols. 4to., and by Baum- 
garten-Crusius, Lips. 1816, 3 vols. 8vo. 

Suevi, one of the greatest and most powerful 
peoples of Germany, or, more properly speaking, 
the collective name of a great number of German 
tribes, who were grouped together on account of 
their migratory mode of life, and spoken of in oppo- 
sition to the more settled tribes, who went under 
the general name of Ingaevones. The Suevi are 
described by all the ancient writers as occupying 
the greater half of all Germany ; but the accounts 
vary respecting the part of the country Avhich they 
inhabited. Caesar represents them as dwelling 
E. of the IJbii and Sygambri, and W. of the Che- 
rusci, and their country as divided into 100 
cantons, Strabo makes them extend in an E.-ly 
direction beyond the Albis, and in a S.-ly as far 
as the sources of the Danube. Tacitus giver, tho 
name of Suevia to the whole of the E. of Geimany 
from the Danube to the Baltic. At a later time 
the collective name of the Suevi gradually disap- 
peared ; and the different tribes of the Sue vie 
race were each called by their distinctive names. 
In the 2nd half of the 3rd centurj% however, we 
again find a people called Suevi, dwelling between 
the mouth of the Main and the Black Forest, 
whose name is still preserved in the modern 
Suabia; but this people was only a body of bold 
adventurers from various German tribes, who as- 
sumed the celebrated name of the Suevi in conse- 
quence of their not possessing any distinguishing 
appellation. 

Sufenas, M. Nonius, tribune of the plebs in 
B.C. 56, fought on Pompey's side at the battle of 
Pharsalia. 

Sufes (Sbiba), a city of N. Africa, in the Car- 
thaginian territory (Byzacena). 

Sufetula (Sfaitla), a city of Byzacena, S. of 
Sufes, of which its name is a diminutive. It be- 
came, however, a much more important place, as a 
chief centre of the roads in the interior of the 
province of Africa. Its ruins are magnificent. 

Suidas (2om5as), a Greek lexicographer, of 
whom nothing is known. No certain conclusions 
as to the age of the compiler can be derived from 
passages in the work, since it may have received 
numerous interpolations and additions. Eustathius, 
who lived about the end of the 12th century of 
the Christian era, quotes the Lexicon of Suidas ; 
and there are passages in the Lexicon referring to 
Michael Psellus, who lived at the close of the 11th 
century. The Lexicon of Suidas is a dictionary ot 
words arranged in alphabetical order, with some 
few peculiarities of arrangement; but it contains 
both words which are found in dictionaries of lan- 
guages, and also names of persons and places, with 
extracts from ancient Greek writers, grammarians, 
scholiasts, and lexicographers, and some extracts 
from later Greek writers. The names of persons 
comprehend both persons who are mentioned in 



730 



SUIONES. 



SULLA. 



sacred and in profane history, which shows that if 
the work is by one hand, it is by a Christian. No 
well conceived plan has been the basis of this work : 
it is incomplete as to the number of articles, and 
exceedingly irregular and unequal in the exe- 
cution. Some articles are pretty complete, others 
contain no information at all. As to the bio- 
graphical notices it has been conjectured that 
Suidas or the compiler got them all from one source, 
which, it is further supposed, may be the Onoma- 
tologos or Pinax of Hesychius of Miletus. The 
Lexicon, though without merit as to its execution, 
is valuable both for the literary history of an- 
tiquity, for the explanation of words, and for the 
citations from many ancient Avriters. The best 
editions of the Lexicon are by Kiister, Cambridge, 
1705, 3 vols, fo.; by Gaisford," Oxford, 1834, 
3 vols. fo. ; and by Bernhardy, 4to. Halle, 1834. 

Suiones, the general name of all the German 
tribes inhabiting Scandinavia. 

Suismontium, a mountain in Liguria. 

Sulci (Sulcitanus : Sulci), an ancient town in 
Sardinia, founded by the Carthaginians, and a 
place of considerable maritime and commercial 
importance. It was situated on a promontory on 
the S.W. corner of the island. 

Sulgas {Sorgm), a river in Gaul, descending 
from the Alps, and flowing into the Rhone near 
Vindalum. 

Sulla, Cornelius, the name of a patrician family. 
This family was originally called Rufinus [Rufi- 
Nus], and the first member of it who obtained the 
name of Sulla was P. Cornelius Sulla, mentioned 
below [No. 1.] The origin of the name is un- 
certain. Most modem writers suppose that it is 
a word of the same signification as Rufus or Ru- 
finus, and refers simply to the red colour of the 
hair or the complexion; but it has been conjectured 
with greater probability that it is a diminutive 
of Sura, which was a cognomen in several Roman 
gentes. It would be formed fi'om Sura on the 
same analogy as pmlla from puera, and ienellus 
from tener. There is no authority for Avriting the 
word Sylla, as is done by many modem writers. 
On coins and inscriptions we always find Sula or 
Sulla, never Sylla. 1. P., great grandfather of the 
dictator Sulla, and grandson of P. Cornelius Rufi- 
nus, who was twice consul in the Samnite wars. 
[Rufinus, Cornelius.] His father is not men- 
tioned. He was flamen dialis, and likewise praetor 
urbanus and peregrinus in B.C. 212, when he pre- 
sided over the first celebration of the Ludi Apol- 
linares. —2. P., son of No. 1, and grandfather of 
the dictator Sulla, was praetor in 186.— 3. L., son 
of No. 2, and father of the dictator Sulla, lived in 
obscurity, and left his son only a slender fortune. 
4. L. surnamed Felix, the dictator, was born in 
138. Although his father left him only a small 
property, his means were sufficient to secure for 
him a good education. He studied the Greek and 
Roman literature with diligence and success, and 
appears early to have imbibed that love for litera- 
ture and art by which he was distinguished 
throughout life. At the same time he prosecuted 
pleasure with equal ardour, and his youth, as well 
as his manhood, was disgraced by the most sensual 
vices. Still his love of pleasure did not absorb all 
his time, nor did it emasculate his mind ; for no 
Roman during the latter days of the republic, with 
the exception of Julius Caesar, had a clearer judg- 
ment, a keener discrimination of character, or a 



firmer will. The slender property of Sulla was 
increased by the liberality of his step-mother and 
of a courtezan named Nicopolis, both of whom left 
him all their fortune. His means, though stiU 
scanty for a Roman noble, now enabled him to 
aspire to the honours of the state. He was quaestor 
in 107, when he served under Marius in Africa. 
Hitherto he had only been known for his profligacy; 
but he displayed both zeal and ability in the dis- 
charge of his duties, and soon gained the appro- 
bation of his commander, and the affections of the 
soldiers. It was to Sulla that Jugurtha was deli- 
vered by Bocchus ; and the quaestor thus shared 
with the consul the glory of bringing this war to a 
conclusion. Sulla himself was so proud of his 
share in the success, that he had a seal ring en- 
graved, representing the surrender of Jugurtha, 
which he continued to wear till the day of his 
death. Sulla continued to serve under Marius 
with great distinction in the campaigns against the 
Cimbri and Teutones; but Marius becoming jealous 
of the rising fame of his officer, Sulla left Marius 
in 102, and took a command under the colleague 
of Marius, Q. Catulus, who entrasted the chief 
management of the war to Sulla. Sulla now re- 
turned to Rome, where he appears to have lived 
quietly for some years. He was praetor in 93, and 
in the following year (92) was sent as propraetor 
into Cilicia, with special orders from the senate to 
restore Ariobarzanes to his kingdom of Cappadocia, 
from which he had been expelled by Mithridates. 
Sulla met with complete success. He defeated 
Gordius, the general of Mithridates, in Cappadocia, 
and placed Ariobarzanes on the throne. The 
enmity between Marius and Sulla now assumed a 
more deadly form. Sulla's ability and increasing 
reputation had akeady led the aristocratical party 
to look up to him as one of their leaders ; and thus 
political animosity was added to private hatred. 
In addition to this Marius and Sulla were both 
anxious to obtain the command of the impending 
war against Mithridates ; and the success which 
attended Sulla's recent operations in the East had 
increased his popularity, and pointed him out as 
the most suitable person for this important com- 
mand. About this time Bocchus erected in the 
Capitol gilded figures, representing the surrender 
of Jugurtha to Sulla, at which Marius was so en- 
raged that he could scarcely be prevented from 
removing them by force. The exasperation of both 
parties became so violent that they nearly had 
recourse to arms against each other ; but the 
breaking out of the Social War hushed all private 
quarrels for the time. Marius and Sulla both took 
an active part in the war against the common foe. 
But Marius was now advanced in years ; and he 
had the deep mortification of finding that his 
achievements were thrown into the shade by the 
superior energy of his rival. Sulla gained some 
brilliant victories over the enemy, and took Bovi- 
anum, the chief town of the Samnites. He was 
elected consul for 88, and received from the senate 
the command of the Mithridatic war. The events 
which followed, — his expulsion from Rome by 
Marius, his return to the city at the head of his 
legions, and the proscription of Marius and his 
leading adherents — are related in the life of 
Marius. Sulla remained at Rome till the end of 
the year, and set out for Greece at the beginning 
of 87, in order to carry on the war against Mithri- 
dates. He landed at Dyrrhachium, and forthwith 



SULLA. 



SULLA. 



731 



marched against Athens, which had become the 
head-quarters of the Mithridatic cause in Greece. 
After a long and obstinate siege, Athens was taken 
by storm on the 1 st of March in 86, and was given 
up to rapine and plunder. Sulla then marched 
against Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, 
whom he defeated in the neighbourhood of Chae- 
ronea in Boeotia; and in the following year he 
again gained a decisive victory over the same ge- 
neral near Orchomenus. But while Sulla was 
carrying on the war with such success in Greece, 
his enemies had obtained the upper hand in Italy. 
The consul Cinna, who had been driven out of 
Rome by his colleague Octavius, soon after Sulla's 
departure from Italy, had entered it again with 
Marius at the close of the year. Both Cinna and 
Marius were appointed consuls 86, and all the regu- 
lations of Sulla were swept away. Sulla however 
would not return to Italy till he had brought the 
war against Mithridates to a conclusion. After 
driving the generals of Mithridates out of Greece, 
Sulla crossed the Hellespont, and early in 84 con- 
cluded a peace with the king of Pontus. He now 
turned his arms against Fimbria, who had been 
appointed by the Marian party as his successor in 
the command. But the troops of Fimbria deserted 
their general, who put an end to his own life. 
SuUa now prepared to return to Italy. After 
leaving his legate, L. Licinius Murena, in command 
of the province of Asia, with two legions, he set 
sail with his own army to Athens. While pre- 
paring for his deadly struggle in Italy, he did not 
lose his interest in literature. He carried with 
him from Athens to Rome the valuable library of 
Apellicon of Teos, which contained most of the 
works of Aristotle and Theophrastus. [Apellicon]. 
He landed at Brundusium in the spring of 83. 
The Marian party far outnumbered him in troops, 
and had every prospect of victory. By bribery 
and promises however Sulla gained over a large 
number of the Marian soldiers, and he persuaded 
many of the Italian towns to espouse his cause. 
In the field his efforts were crowned by equal 
success; and he was ably supported by several of 
the Roman nobles, who espoused his cause in 
different parts of Italy. Of these one of the most 
distinguished was the young Cn. Pompey, who 
was at the time only 23 years of age. [Pompeius, 
No. 10.] In the following year (82) the struggle 
was brought to a close by the decisive battle 
gained by Sulla over the Samnites and Lucanians 
under Pontius Telesinus before the CoUine gate of 
Rome. This victory was followed by the surrender 
of Praeneste and the death of the younger Marius, 
who had taken refuge in this town. Sulla was 
now master of Rome and Italy ; and he resolved 
to take the most ample vengeance upon his ene- 
mies, and to extirpate the popular party. One of 
his first acts was to draw up a list of his enemies 
who were to be put to death, called a Proscriptio. 
It was the first instance of the kind in Roman 
history. All persons in this list Avere outlaws who 
might be killed by any one with impunity, even 
by slaves ; their property was confiscated to the 
state, and was to be sold by public auction ; their 
children and grandchildren lost their votes in the 
comitia, and were excluded from all public offices. 
Further, all who killed a proscribed person, received 
two talents as a reward, and whoever sheltered 
such a person was punished with death. Terror 
now reigned, not only at Rome, but throughout 



Ital}'. Fresh lists of the proscribed constantly ap- 
peared. No one was safe ; for Sulla gratified his 
friends by placing in the fatal lists their personal 
enemies, or persons whose property was coveted by 
his adherents. The confiscated property, it is true, 
belonged to the state, and had to be sold by public 
auction, but the friends and dependents of Sulla 
purchased it at a nominal price, as no one dared to 
bid against them. The number of persons who 
perished by the proscriptions is stated differently, 
but it appears to have amounted to many thousands. 
At the commencement of these horrors Sulla had 
been appointed dictator for as long a time as he 
judged to be necessary. This was towards the 
close of 81. Sulla's chief object in being invested 
with the dictatorship was to carry into execution 
in a legal manner the great reforms which he me- 
ditated in the constitution and the administration 
of justice. He liad no intention of abolishing the 
republic, and consequently he caused consuls to be 
elected for the following year, and was elected to 
the office himself in 80, while he continued to hold 
the dictatorship. The general object of Sulla's 
reforms was to restore, as far as possible, the 
ancient Roman constitution, and to give back to 
the senate and the aristocracy the power which 
they had lost. Thus he deprived the tribunes of 
the plebs of all real power, and abolished altogether 
the legislative and judicial functions of the comitia 
tributa. At the beginning of 81, he celebrated a 
splendid triumph on account of his victory over 
Mithridates. In a speech which he delivered to 
the people at the close of the ceremony, he claimed 
for himself the surname of Fdix, as he attributed 
his success in life to the favour of the gods. In 
order to strengthen his power, Sulla established 
military colonies throughout Italy. The inhabitants 
of the Italian towns, which had fought against 
Sulla, were deprived of the full Roman franchise, 
and were only allowed to retain the commercium : 
their land was confiscated and given to the soldiers 
who had fought under him. 23 legions, or, ac- 
cording to another statement, 47 legions received 
grants of land in various parts of Italy. A great 
number of these colonies was settled in Etruria, 
the population of which was thus almost entirely 
changed. These colonies had the strongest interest 
in upholding the institutions of Sulla, since any 
attempt to invalidate the latter would have endan- 
gered their newly-acquired possessions. Sulla like- 
wise created at Rome a kind of body-guard for his 
protection by giving the citizenship to a great 
number of slaves, who had belonged to persons 
proscribed by him. The slaves thus rewarded are 
said to have been as many as 1 0,000, and were 
called Cornelii after him as their patron. After 
holding the dictatorship till the beginning of 79, 
Sulla resigned this office, to the surprise of all 
classes. He retired to his estate at Puteoli, and 
there surrounded by the beauties of nature and art 
he passed the remainder of his life in those literary 
and sensual enjoyments in which he had always 
taken so much pleasure. His dissolute mode of 
life hastened his death. The immediate cause of 
his death was the rupture of a blood-vessel, but 
some time before he had been suffering from the 
disgusting disease, which is knoAvn in modern times 
by the name of Morbus Pediculosus or Phthiriasis. 
He died in 78 in the 60th j^ear of his age. He 
was honoured with a public funeral, and a monu- 
ment was erected to him in the Campus Martius 



732 



SULLA. 



SULPICIUS. 



the inscription on wliich had been composed by 
himself. It stated that none of his friends ever 
did him a kindness, and none of his enemies a 
wrong, without being fully repaid. — Sulla was 
married 5 times : — 1. To Ilia or Julia, who bore 
him a daughter, married to Q. Pompeius Rufus, 
the son of Sulla's colleague in the consulship in 88. 
2. To Aelia. 3. To Coelia. 4. To Caecilia Me- 
tella, who bore him a son, who died before Sulla, 
and likewise twins, a son and a daughter. 5. 
Valeria, Avho bore him a daughter after his death. 
Sulla wrote a history' of his own life and times, 
called Memoirs {'TTvojj.vrjfxaTa). It was dedicated 
to L. Lucullus, and extended to 22 books, the last 
jof which was finished by Sulla a few days before 
his death. He also wrote Fabulae Atellanae, and 
the Greek Anthology contains a short epigram 
which is ascribed to him. — 5. Faustus, son of 
the dictator by his fourth wife Caecilia Metella, 
and a twin brother of Fausta, was born not long 
before 88, the year in which his father obtained 
his first consulship. He and his sister received 
the names of Faustus and Fausta respectively on 
account of the good fortune of their father. At 
the death of his father in 78, Faustus and his sister 
were left under the guardianship of L. Lucullus. 
Faustus accompanied Pompey into Asia, and was 
the first who mounted the walls of the temple of 
Jerusalem in 63. In 60 he exhibited the gladia- 
torial games Avhich his father in his last will had 
enjoined upon him. In 54 he was quaestor. In 
52 he received from the senate the commission to 
rebuild the Curia Hostilia, which had been burnt 
down in the tumults following the murder of 
Clodius, and which was henceforward to be called 
■the Curia Cornelia, in honour of Faustus and his 
father. He married Pompey''s daughter, and sided 
with his father-in-law in the civil war. He was 
present at the battle of Pharsalia, and subsequently 
joined the leaders of his party in Africa. After 
the battle ofThapsus in 46, he attempted to escape 
into Mauretania, but was taken prisoner by P. 
Sittius, and carried to Caesar. Upon his arrival 
in Caesar's camp he was murdered by the soldiers 
in a tumult. Faustus seems only to have resembled 
his father in his extravagance. We know from 
Cicero that he was overwhelmed with debt at the 
hreaking out of the civil war. -—6. P., nephew of 
the dictator, was elected consul along with P. Au- 
tronius Paetus for the year 65, but neither he nor 
his colleague entered upon the office, as they were 
accused of bribery by L. Torquatus the younger, 
and were condemned. It was currently believed 
that Sulla was privy to both of Catiline's con- 
spiracies, and he was accordingly accused of this 
crime by his former accuser, L. Torquatus, and by 
C. Cornelius. He was defended by Hortensius 
and Cicero, and the speech of the latter on his be- 
half is still extant. He was acquitted ; but, inde- 
pendent of the testimony of Sallust (Cat. 17), his 
guilt may almost be inferred from the embarrass- 
ment of his advocate. In the civil war Sulla es- 
poused Caesar's cause. He served under him as 
legate in Greece, and commanded along with Caesar 
himself the right wing at the battle of Pharsalia 
(48). He died in 45.-7. Serv., brother of No. 6, 
took part in both of Catiline's conspiracies. His 
guilt was so evident, that no one was willing to 
defend him ; but we do not read that he was put 
to death along with the other conspirators. 

Sulmo (Sulmonensis). 1. {Sulmona), a town 



of the Peligni in the country of the Sabines, 7 
miles S. of Corfinium on the road to Capua, and 
situated on 2 small mountain streams, the water of 
which was exceedingly cold : hence we find the ' 
town called by the poets gelidus Sulmo. It is cele- 
brated as the birthplace of Ovid. It was destroyed i 
by Sulla, but was afterwards restored, and is men- 
tioned as a Roman colony. — 2. (Sermoneia)^ an 
ancient town of the Volsci in Latium on the 
Ufens, which had disappeared in Pliny's time. 

Sulpicia, a Roman poetess who flourished 
towards the close of the 1 st century, celebrated for 
sundry amatory effusions, addressed to her husband 
Calenus. Their general character may be gathered 
from the expressions of Martial, Ausonius, and 
Sidonius Apollinaris, by all of whom they are 
noticed. There is extant a satirical poem, in 70 
hexameters, on the edict of Domitian, by which ■, 
philosophers were banished from Rome and from 
Italy, which is ascribed to Sulpicia by many modem i 
critics. It is generally appended to the editions of 
Juvenal and Persius. 

Sulpicia Gens, was one of the most ancient 
Roman gentes, and produced a succession of dis- 
tinguished men, from the foundation of the republic 
to the imperial period. The chief families of the 
Sulpicii during the republican period bore the 
names of: — Camerinus, Galea, Gallus, Ru- 
fus (given below), Saverrio. 

Sulpicius Apollinaris, a contemporary of A. 
Gellius, was a learned grammarian. There are 9, 
poems in the Latin Anthology, purporting to be 
written by Sulpicius of Carthage, whom some 
identify with the above-named Sulpicius Apolli- 
naris. One of these poems consists of 72 lines, 
giving the argument of the 12 books of Virgil's 
Aeneid, 6 lines being devoted to each book. 

Sulpicius Eufus. 1. P., one of the most dis- 
tinguished orators of his time, was born b. c. 
124. He commenced public life as a supporter 
of the aristocratical party, and acquired great in- 
fluence in the state by his splendid talents, while 
he was still young. In 93 he was quaestor, and 
in 89 he served as legate of the consul Cn. Pom- 
peius Strabo in the Marsic war. In 88, he was 
elected to the tribunate ; but he deserted the 
aristocratical party, and joined Marius. The 
causes of this sudden change are not expressly 
stated ; but we are told that he was overwhelmed 
with debt ; and there can be little doubt that he 
was bought by Marius. Sulpicius brought forward 
a law in favour of Marius and his party, of which 
an accovmt is given under Marius. When Sulla 
marched upon Rome at the head of his army, 
Marius and Sulpicius took to flight. Marius suc- 
ceeded in making his escape to Africa, but Sul- 
picius was discovered in a villa, and put to death. 
— 2. P., probably son or grandson of the last, was 
one of Caesar's legates in Gaul and in the civil 
war. He was praetor in 48. Cicero addresses 
him in 45 as imperator. It appears that he was 
at that time in Illyricum, along with Vatinius.— 
3. Serv., with the surname Lemonia, indicating the 
tribe to which he belonged, was a contemporary 
and friend of Cicero, and of about the same age. 
He first devoted himself to oratory, and he studied 
this art with Cicero in his youth. He afterwards 
studied law ; and he became one of the best jurists 
as well as most eloquent orators of his age. He 
was quaestor of the district of Ostia, in 74 ; curule 
aedile 69 ; praetor 65 ; and consul 51 with M. 



SUMMANUS. 



SUSIANA. 



Claudius Marcellus. He appears to have espoused 
Caesar's side in tlie civil war, and was appointed 
by Caesar proconsul of Acliaia (46 or 45). He 
died in 43 in the camp of M. Antony, having been 
sent by the senate on a mission to Antony, who 
was besieging Dec. Brutus in Mutina. Sulpicius 
wrote a great number of legal works. He is often 
cited by the jurists whose writings are excerpted 
in the Digest; btit there is no excerpt directly 
from him in the Digest. He had numerous pupils, 
the most distinguished of whom were A. Ofilius 
and Alfenus Varus, There are extant in the col- 
lection of Cicero's Epistles {ad Fam. iv.) two 
letters from Sulpicius to Cicero, one of which is 
the well-known letter of consolation on the death 
of Tullia, the daughter of the orator. The same 
book contains several letters from Cicero to Sul- 
picius. He is also said to have written some erotic 
poetry. — Sulpicius left a son Servius, who is fre- 
quently mentioned in Caesar's correspondence. 

Sununanus, a derivative form from summus, the 
highest, an ancient Roman or Etruscan divinity, 
who was equal or even of higher rank than Jupiter, 
In fact he may be regarded as the Jupiter of the 
night ; for as Jupiter was the god of heaven in the 
bright day, so Summanus was the god of the noc- 
turnal heaven, and hurled his thunderbolts during 
the night. Summanus had a temple at Rome near 
the Circus Maximus, and there was a representa- 
tion of him in the pediment of the Capitoline 
temple. 

Sunium {liovviov : 'Zovvi^vs : C. Colonni), a 
celebrated promontory forming the S. extremity of 
Attica, with a town of the same name upon it. 
Here was a splendid temple of Athena, elevated 
300 feet above the sea, the columns of which are 
still extant, and have given the modern name to 
the promontory. It was fortified by the Athe- 
nians in the Peloponnesian war, and remains of the 
ancient walls, with the temple of Athena, are still 
extant. 

Sunonensis Lacus (Z. Sabanjah\ a lake in 
Bithynia, between the Ascania Palus and the river 
Sangarius, near Nicomedia. 
Superbus, Tarquimus. [Tarquinius.] 
Sura, Lentulus. [Lentulus, No. 9.] 
Sura, L. Licinius, an intimate friend of Trajan, 
and 3 times consul in a.d. 98, 102 and 107. On 
the death of Sura, Trajan honoured him with a 
public funeral, and erected baths to perpetuate his 
memory. Two of Pliny's letters are addressed to 
him. 

Sura (2ou/3o : Surie), a town of Syria, in the 
district Chalybonitis, on the Euphrates, a little W. 
of Thapsacus. 

Surani or Suarni CXovpavo'i), a people of Sar- 
matia Asiatica, near the Portae Caucasiae and the 
river Rha. Their country contained many gold 
mines. 

Surenas, the general of the Parthians, who de- 
feated Crassus in B. c. 54. [Crassus.] 

Surius C^ovpLos), a tributary of the Phasis in 
Colchis, the water of which had the power of 
forming petrifactions. At its confluence with the 
Phasis stood a town named Surium (^ovpiov). 
The plain through which it flows is still called 
Suram, 

Surrentini CoUes. [Surrentum,] 
SuiTeutum (Surrentinus : Sorrento), an ancient 
town of Campania opposite Capreae, and situated 
on tlie promontory {Prom. Minervae) separating 



the Sinus Paestanus from the Sinus Puteolanus, 
It was subsequently a Roman colony ; and on the 
hills {Surrentini Colles) in its neighbourhood was 
grown one of the best wines in Italy, which was 
strongly recommended to convalescents, on account 
of its thinness and wholesomeness. 

Susa, gen. -orum (to 2oG(ra : 0. T, Shushan : 
'Zovaios, Susianus : Shus^ Ru.), the winter resi- 
dence of the Persian kings, stood in the district 
Cissia of the province Susiana, on the E. bank of 
the river Choaspes. Its name in old Persian sig- 
nifies Lily, and that flower is said to abound in 
the plain in which the city stood. It was of a 
quadrangular form, 120 (or, according to others, 
200) stadia in circuit, and without fortifications ; 
but it had a strongly fortified citadel, containing 
the palace and treasury of the Persian kings. 
The Greek name of this citadel, Memnonice or 
Memnonium, is perhaps a corruption of the 
Aramaic Maaniiion, a fortress ; and this eas}' 
confusion of terms gave rise to the fable that 
the city was founded by Tithonus, the father of 
Memnon. An historical tradition ascribes its 
erection to Darius the son of Hystaspes, but it 
existed already in the time of Daniel. (Dan. 
viii. 2.) (There is, however, a difficulty as to 
the identification of the Shushan of Daniel with 
the Susa of the Greeks, and as to the true position 
of the river Ulai or Eulaeus, which cannot be 
discussed within the limits of this article.) The 
climate of Susa was very hot, and hence the choice 
of it for the winter palace. It was here that 
Alexander and his generals celebrated their 
nuptials with the Persian princesses, B. c. 325. 
The site of Susa is now marked by extensive 
mounds, on which are found fragments of bricks 
and broken pottery, with cuneiform inscriptions. 

Susarion {'S.ovaapiuiv), to whom the origin of 
the Attic Comedy is ascribed, was a native of 
Megara, whence he removed into Attica, to the 
village of Icaria, a place celebrated as a seat of the 
worship of Dionysus. This account agrees with 
the claim which the Megarians asserted to the 
invention of comedj', and which was generally 
admitted. Before the time of Susarion there was, 
no doubt, practised, at Icaria and the other Attic 
villages, that extempore jesting and buffoonery 
which formed a marked feature of the festivals of 
Dionysus ; but Susarion was the first who so regu- 
lated this species of amusement, as to lay the 
foundation of Comedy, properly so called. The 
Megaric comedy appears to have flourished, in its 
full development, about B. c. 600 and onwards ; 
and it was introduced by Susarion into Attica 
between 580 — 564. 

Susiana, -e, or Siisis (rj '^ovaiapr], rj 'Soveris : 
nearly corresponding to Khuzistcm), one of the 
chief provinces of the ancient Persian empire, lay 
between Babylonia and Persis, and between M. 
Parachoatras and the head of the Persian Gulf. 
In this last direction, its coast extended from the 
junction of the Euphrates with the Tigris, to about 
the mouth of the river Oroatis {Tab). It was 
divided from Persis on the S. E. and E. by a moun- 
tainous tract, inhabited by independent tribes, 
who made even the kings o . Persia pay them foi 
a safe passage. The chief pass through these 
mountains was called Susides or Persides Portae 
(Soucri'Ses ivvXai, at irvKai ai IlepcrtSes-, 2oi;cria5es 
TTeVpai) : its position is uncertain ; perhaps it was 
the pass of Kelahi Sejid, in the upper valley of the 



734 SUTRIUM. 
Tab. On the N. it was separated from Great 
Media by M. Charbanus, an E. branch of M. Za- 
gros ; which contained the sources of the chief 
rivers of Susiana, the Choaspes, the Coprates, 
and the Eulaeus (the Pasitigris came from the 
mountains on the E.). On the W. it was divided 
from Assyria by an imaginary line drawn S. from 
near the Median pass in M. Zagros to the Tigris ; 
and from Babylonia by the Tigris itself. The country 
was mountainous and cool in the N., and low and 
very hot in the S. ; and the coast along the Persian 
Gulf was marshy. The mountains were inhabited 
by various wild and independent tribes ; and the 
plains by a quiet agricultural people, of the Semitic 
race, called Susii or Susiani. 

Sutrium (Sutrinus : Sutri), an ancient tovm of 
Etruria on the E. side of the Saltus Ciminius, and 
on the road from Vulsinii to Rome. It was taken 
by the Romans at an early period ; and in b. c. 
383, or 7 years after the capture of Rome by the 
Gauls, it was made a Roman colony. It Avas 
celebrated for its fidelity to Rome, and was in 
consequence besieged several times by the Etrus- 
cans. On one occasion it was obliged to surrender 
to the Etruscans, but was retaken by Camillus in 
the same day, Avhence arose the proverb ire Su- 
irium. There are still remains of the walls and 
tombs of the ancient town. 

Syager (^vaypos)^ one of the alleged ante- 
Homeric poets, is said to have flourished after Or- 
pheus and Musaeus, and to have been the first 
who sang the Trojan War. 

Syagrus {1,i>aypos 'uKpa), the greatest pro- 
montory of Arabia, is described differently by 
different ancient writers, but is most probably to 
be identified with the E,-most headland of the 
whole peninsula, Ras-el-Had. 

Sybaris (^vSapis). 1. (Coscile or Sibari)^ a 
fiver in Lucania, flowing by the city of the same 
name, and falling into the Crathis. It derived its 
name from the fountain Sybaris, near Bura, in 
Achaia. — 2. (SuSapiTTjs, Sybarita), a celebrated 
Greek town in Lucania, was situated between the 
rivers Sybaris and Crathis at a short distance from 
the Tarentine gulf, and near the confines of Brut- 
tium. It was founded b. c. 720 by Achaeans and 
Troezenians, and soon attained an extraordinary 
degree of prosperity and wealth. It carried on 
an extensive commerce with Asia Minor and other 
countries on the Mediterranean, and its inhabitants 
became so notorious for their love of luxury and 
pleasure, that their name was employed to indicate 
any voluptuarj^ At the time of their highest 
prosperitj'- their city was 50 stadia, or upwards of 
6 miles in circumference, and they exercised do- 
minion over 25 towns, so that we are told they 
were able to bring into the field 300,000 men, a 
number however Avhich appears incredible. But 
their prosperity was of short duration. The 
Achaeans having expelled the Troezenian part of 
the population, the latter took refuge at the neigh- 
bouring city of Croton, the inhabitants of which 
espoused their cause. In the war which ensued 
between the 2 states, the Sybarites were com- 
pletely conquered by the Crotoniates, who followed 
up their victory by the captui'e of Sybaris, which 
they destroyed by turning the Avaters of the river 
Crathis against the town, B, c. 510. The greater 
number of the surviving Sybarites took refuge in 
other Greek cities in Italy ; but a few remained 
near their ancient town, and their descendants 



SYLVIUS. 

formed part of the population of Thurii, which was 
founded in 443 near Sybaris, [Thurii.] 

Sybota (ra Sugo-^a : 'S.vSdrios : Syvota\ a 
number of small islands oflf the coast of Epirus, 
and opposite the promontory Leucimne in Corcyra, 
with a harbour of the same name on the main 
land. It was here that a naval battle was fought 
between the Corcyraeans and Corinthians, B. c. 
432, just before the commencement of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. 

Sychaeus or Sichaeus, also called Acerbas. 
[Acerb as.] 

Sychar, Sychem. [Neapolis, No. 5.] 

Syene {'2,vi]v'f] : '2,vr\virr]s and ':^vT}u'f}T7]s, Sy- 
enites : Assouan^ Ru.), a city of Upper Egypt, 
on the E. bank of the Nile, just below the First 
Cataract. It has been in all ages the S. frontier 
city of Egypt towards Aethiopia, and under the 
Romans it was kept by a garrison of 3 cohorts. 
From its neighbourhood was obtained the fine red 
granite called Syenites lapis. It was also an 
important point in the astronomy and geography 
of the ancients, as it lay just under the tropic of 
Cancer, and was therefore chosen as the place 
through which they drew their chief parallel of 
latitude. Of course the sun was vertical to Syene 
at the time of the summer solstice, and a well was 
shoAvn in which the reflection of the sun was then 
seen at noon ; or, as the rhetorician Aristides 
expresses it, the disc of the sun covered the well 
as a vessel is covered by its lid. 

Syennesis (SveVveo-ts), a common name of the 
kings of Cilicia. Of these the most important 
are: — 1. A king of Cilicia, who joined with 
Labynetus (Nebuchadnezzar) in mediating be- 
tween Cyaxares and Alyattes, the kings respect- 
ively of Media and Lydia, probably in B.C. 610. 
— 2. Contemporary with Darius Hystaspis, to 
whom he was tributary. His daughter was married 
to Pixodarus. — 3. Contemporary with Arta- 
xerxes II. (Mnemon), ruled over Cilicia, when 
the younger Cyrus marched through his country 
in his expedition against his brother Artaxerxes. 

Sygambri, Sugambri, Sigambri, Sycambri, 
or Sicambri, one of the most powerful peoples 
of Germany at an early time, belonged to the 
Istaevones, and dwelt originally N. of the Ubii 
on the Rhine, from whence they spread towards 
the N. as far as the Lippe. The Sygambri are 
mentioned by Caesar, who invaded their territory, 
They were conquered by Tiberius in the reign oi 
Augustus, and a large number of them were trans- 
planted to Gaul, where they received settlements 
between the Maas and the Rhine as Roman sub- 
jects. The portion of the Sygambri who remained 
in Germany withdrew further S., probably to the 
mountainous country in the neighbourhood of the 
Taunus. Shortly afterwards they disappear from 
history, and are not mentioned again till the time of 
Ptolemy, who places them much further N. close to 
the Bructeri and the Langobardi, somewhere be- 
tween the Vecht and the Yssel. At a still later 
period we find them forming an important part of 
the confederacy known under the name of Franci. 

Sylla. [Sulla.] 

Syllmm (XvXXiov : prob. Ru. near Bolkassku, 
N. of Legelahkoi), a strongly fortified toAvn of 
Pamphylia, on a mountain, 40 stadia (4 geog. 
miles) from the coast, between Side and Aspendus. 

Sylvanus. [Silvanus.] 

Sylvius. [Silvius.] 



SYMAETHUS. 



SYRACUSAE. 



735 



Symaethus (2vfj.ai9os : Giaretta), a river on 
the E. coast of Sicily and at the foot of Mt. Aetna, 
forming the boundary between Leontini and Ca- 
tana, on which stood the town of Centuripae. 

Syme (SrifJ.ri : ^v/xa7os, Sulcus : Symi\ a small 
island olF the S.W. coast of Caria, lay in the mouth 
of the Sinus Doridis to the W. of the promontory 
of Cynossema. It was one of the early Dorian 
states, that existed in the S.W. of Asia Minor be- 
fore the time of Homer. Its connection both with 
Cnidus and with Rhodes, between which it lay, is 
indicated by the tradition, that it was peopled by 
a colony from Cnidus led by Cthonius, the son of 
Poseidon and of Syme, the daughter of lalysus. 
Some time after the Trojan war, the Carians are 
said to have obtained possession of the island, but 
to liave deserted it again in consequence of a severe 
drought. Its final settlement by the Dorians is 
ascribed to the time of their great migration. The 
island was reckoned at 35 miles in circuit. It had 
8 harbours and a town, which was also called 
Syme. 

Symmaclius, Q. Aurelius, a distinguished scho- 
lar, statesman, and orator in the latter half of the 4th 
century of the Christian aera. By his example and 
authority, he inspired for a time new life and vigour 
into the literature of his country. He was educated 
in Gaul ; and having discharged the functions of 
quaestor and praetor, he was afterwards appointed 
(a. d. 365) Corrector of Lucania and the Bruttii ; 
and in 373 he was proconsul of Africa. His zeal 
for the ancient religion of Rome checked for a 
while the prosperous current of his fortunes, and 
involved him in danger and disgrace. Having 
been chosen by the senate to remonstrate with 
Gratian on the removal of the altar of victory 
(382) from their council hall, and on the curtail- 
ment of the sums annually allowed for the main- 
tenance of the Vestal Virgins, and for the public 
celebration of sacred rites, he was ordered by the 
indignant emperor to quit his presence, and to 
withdraw himself to a distance of 100 miles from 
Rome. Nothing daunted by this repulse, when 
appointed praefect of the city (384) after the death 
of his persecutor, he addressed an elaborate epistle 
to Valentinianus, again urging the restoration of 
the pagan deities to their former honours. This 
application was resisted by St. Ambrose, and 
was again unsuccessful. S5nQimachus afterwards 
espoused the cause of the usurper Maximus (387) ; 
but he was pardoned by Theodosius and raised to 
the consulship in 391. His personal character 
seems to have been unimpeachable, as he per- 
formed the duties of the high offices which he filled 
in succession with a degree of mildness, firmness, 
and integrity, seldom found among statesmen in 
that corrupt age. The extant works of Symma- 
chus are: — 1. Epistolarum Libri X., published 
after his death by his son. The last book con- 
tains his official correspondence, and is chiefly 
composed of the letters presented by him when 
praefect of the city to the emperors under whom 
he served. The remaining books comprise a mul- 
titude of epistles, addressed to a wide circle of 
relations, friends, and acquaintances. 2. Novem 
Orationum Fragmenta, published for the first time 
by Mai from a palimpsest in the Ambrosian li- 
brarj'-, Mediolan. 1815. The best editions of the 
epistles are by Juretus, Paris, 1604, and by Sci- 
oppius, Mogunt. 1608. 

Synesius {J£,vv€<nos), one of the most elegant 



of the ancient Christian writers, was a native of 
Cyrene, and devoted himself to the study of Greek 
literature, first in his own city, and afterwards at 
Alexandria, where he heard Hypatia. He became 
celebrated for his skill in eloquence and poetry, as 
well as in philosophy, in which he was a follower 
of Plato. About A. D. 397, he was sent by his 
fellow-citizens of Cyrene on an embassy to Con- 
stantinople, to present the emperor Arcadius with 
a crown of gold ; on which occasion he delivered 
an oration on the government of a kingdom {irepl 
^a(TiXeias)^ which is still extant. Soon after this 
he embraced Christianity, and in 410 was or- 
dained bishop of Ptolemais, the chief city of the 
Libyan Pentapolis. He presided over his diocese 
with energy and success for about 20 years, and 
died about 430. His writings have been objects 
of admiration both to ancient and modem scholars, 
and have obtained for him the surname of Phi- 
losopher. The best edition of his works is by 
Morel, Paris, 1612; much improved and enlarged, 
Paris, 1633,; reprinted, 1640. 

Sjmnada, also Synnas (ra 'Zvvva'Ba : "Sivvva^evs^ 
Synnadensis: prob. Afiour-Kara-Hisar, Ru.), a 
city in the N. of Phrygia Salutaris, at first incon- 
siderable, but afterwards a place of much import- 
ance, and, from the time of Constantine, the capital 
of Phrygia Salutaris. It stood in a fruitful plain, 
planted with olives, near a mountain from which 
was quarried the very celebrated Synnadic marble, 
which was of a beautiful white, Avith red veins 
and spots {^^vvvahiKbs XiQos, Synnadicus lapis, 
called also Docimiticus, from a still nearer place, 
Docimia). 

Syphax {^vcpa^)^ king of the Massaesylians, 
the westernmost tribe of the Numidians. His 
history is related in the life of his contemporary 
and rival, Masinissa. Syphax was taken pri- 
soner by Masinissa, b. c. 203, and was sent by 
Scipio, under the charge of Laelius, to Rome. 
Polybius states that he was one of the captives 
who adorned the triumph of Scipio, and that he 
died in confinement shortly after. Livy, on the 
contrary, asserts that he was saved from that 
ignominy by a timely death at Tibur, whither he 
had been transferred from Alba. 

Syraco. [Syracusae.] 

Syracusae (^vpaKovaai or 'S.vpa.Kocrffai, Ion. 
'2,vpi]Kov(jai, also 'SvpaKOvaai, 'Zvpa.Kovcrii] : ^upa- 
KovcTLos, 'SupaKdcTLOs, Syracusanus ; Siracusa in 
Italian, Syracuse in English), the wealthiest and 
most populous town in Sicily, was situated on the 
S. part of the E. coast, 400 stadia N. of the pro- 
montory Plemmyrium, and 10 stadia N. E. of the 
mouth of the river Anapus, near the lake or marsh, 
called Syraco (^vpaKui), from which it derived its 
name. It was founded B. c. 734, one year after 
the foundation of Naxos, by a colony of Corinthians 
and other Dorians, led by Archias the Corinthian. 
The town was originally confined to the island Or- 
tygia lying immediately off the coast ; but it after- 
wards spread over the neighbouring mainland, and 
at the time of its greatest extension under the 
elder Dionysius it consisted of 5 distinct towns, 
each surrounded by separate walls. Some writers 
indeed describe Syracuse as consisting of 4 towns, 
but this simply arises from the fact that Epipolae 
was frequently not reckoned a portion of the city. 
These 5 towns were, 1. Ortygia ('OpTuyta), fre- 
quently called simply the Island (Natros or N^cros), 
an island of an oblong shape, about 2 miles in cir- 



736 SYRACUSAE. 
cumference, lying 'between the Great Harbour on 
the W. and the Little Harbour on the E. It was, 
as has been already remarked, the portion of the 
city first built, and it contained the citadel or Acro- 
polis, surrounded by double walls, which Timoleon 
caused to be destroyed. In this island also was 
the celebrated fountain of Arethusa. It was ori- 
ginally separated from the mainland by a narrow 
channel, which was subsequently filled up by a 
causeway ; but this causeway must at a still later 
time have been swept away, since we find in the 
Roman period that the island was connected with 
the mainland by means of a bridge. — 2 Achra- 
dina CAxpoZivr]), occupied originally the high 
ground of the peninsula N. of Ortygia, and was 
surrounded on the N. and E. by the sea. The 
lowerground between Achradina and Ortygia was at 
first not included in the fortifications of either, but 
was employed partly for religious processions and 
partly for the burial of the dead. At the time of 
the siege of Syracuse by the Athenians in the Pe- 
ioponnesian war (415), the city consisted only of 
the 2 parts already mentioned, Ortygia forming 
the inner and Achradina the outer city, but sepa- 
rated, as explained above, by the low ground be- 
tween the two. — 3. Tyche (Tux^?), named after 
the temple of Tyche or Fortune, was situated 
N."W. of Achradina, in the direction of the port 
called Trogilus. At the time of the Athenian 
siege of Syracuse it was only an unfortified suburb, 
but it afterwards became the most populous part of 
the city. In this quarter stood the gymnasium. — 
4. Neapolis (Ne'a -rroMs). nearly S. "VV. of Achra- 
dina, was also, at the time of the Athenian siege of 
Syracuse, merely a suburb and called Temenites, 
from having within it the statue and consecrated 
ground of Apollo Temenites. Neapolis contained 
the chief theatre of Syracuse, which was the largest 
in all Sicily, and many temples. — 5. Epipolae {al 
'ETTiTToXai), a space of ground rising above the 3 
quarters of Achradina, Tyche, and Neapolis, which 
gradually diminished in breadth as it rose higher, 
until it ended in a small conical mound. This 
rising ground was surrounded with strong walls by 
the elder Dionysius, and was thus included in Sy- 
racuse, which now became one of the most strongly 
fortified cities of the ancient world. The highest 
point of Epipolae was called Eurytlus {EvpvrjAos), 
on which stood the fort Lahdalum (AdSdaXov). 
After Epipolae had been added to the city, the 
circumference of Syracuse was 180 stadia or up- 
wards of 22 English miles ; and the entire popula- 
tion of the city is supposed to have amounted to 
500,000 souls, at the time of its greatest prosperity. 
— Syracuse had 2 harbours. The Great Harbour, 
still called Porio Maggiore, is a splendid bay 
about 5 miles in circumference formed by the 
island Ortygia and the promontory Plemmyrium. 
The Small Harbour, also called Laccius (AoK/ctos), 
lying between Ortygia and Achradina, was capa- 
cious enough to receive a large fleet of ships of 
war. — There were several stone quarries {lautu- 
miae) in Syracuse, which are frequently mentioned 
by ancient writers, and in which the unfortunate 
Athenian prisoners were confined. These quarries 
were partly in Achradina on the descent from the 
higher ground to the lower level towards Ortygia, 
and partly in Neapolis under the S. cliff of 'Epi- 
polae. From them was taken the stone of which 
the city was built. On one side of these quarries 
\s the remarkable excavation, called the Ear of 



SYRIA. 

Dionysius, in which it is said that this tyrant cou 
fined the persons whom he suspected, and that he 
was able from a little apartment above to overhear 
the conversation of his captives. This tale how- 
ever is clearly an invention. — The city was sup- 
plied with water from an aqueduct, which was con- 
structed by Gelon and improved by Hieron. It 
was brought through Epipolae and Neapolis to 
Achradina and Ortygia. — The modem city of Sy- 
racuse is confined to the island. The remaining 
quarters of the ancient city are now uninhabited, 
and their position marked only by a few ruins. 
Of these the most important are the remains of the 
great theatre, and of an amphitheatre of the Roman 
period. — The government of Syracuse was origi- 
nally an aristocracy ; and the political power was 
in the hands of the landed proprietors called Geo- 
mori or Gamori. In course of time the people, 
having increased in numbers and wealth, expelled 
the Geomori and established a democracy. But 
this form of government did not last long. Gelon 
espoused the cause of the aristocratical party, and 
proceeded to restore them by force of arms ; but 
on his approach the people opened the gates to him, 
and he was acknowledged without opposition 
tyrant or sovereign of Syracuse, B. c. 485. Under 
his rule and that of his brother Hieron, Syracuse 
was raised to an unexampled degree of wealth and 
prosperity. Hieron died in 467, and was succeeded 
by his brother Thrasybulus : but the rapacity and 
cruelty of tlie latter soon provoked a revolt among 
his subjects, which led to his deposition and the 
establishment of a democratical form of government. 
The next most important event in the history of 
Syracuse was the siege of the city by the Athe- 
nians, which ended in the total destruction of the 
great Athenian armament in 413. The democracy 
continued to exist in Syracuse till 405, when the 
elder Dionysius made himself tyrant of the city. 
After a long and prosperous reign he was succeeded 
in 367 by his sou, the younger Dionysius, who was 
finally expelled by Timoleon in 343. A republican 
form of government was again established ; but it 
did not last long ; and in 317 Syracuse fell under 
the sway of Agathocles. This tyrant died in 289 ; 
and the city being distracted by factions, the Syra- 
cusans voluntarily conferred the supreme power 
upon Hieron II., with the title of king, in 270. 
Hieron cultivated friendly relations with the Ro- 
mans ; but on his death in 216, at the advanced 
age of 92, his grandson Hieronymus, who succeeded 
him, espo\ised the side of the Carthaginians. A 
Roman army under !Marcellus was sent against 
Syracuse ; and after a siege of 2 years, during 
which Archimedes assisted his fellow-citizens by 
the construction of various engines of war [.A.RCHI- 
MEDEs], the city was taken by Marcellus in 212. 
From this time Syracuse became a town of the 
Roman province of Sicily. 

Syrgis (2up7£s), according to Herodotus, a 
great river of European Sarmatia, rising in the 
country of the Thyssagetae, and flo-^-ing through 
the land of the Maeotae into the Palus Maeotis. 
It has not been identified with certainty. 

Syria Dea {^vpi-q ^eo'y), the S\Tian god- 
dess," a name by which the Syrian Astarte or 
Aphi'odite is sometimes designated. This Astarte 
was a Syrian divinity, resembling in many points 
the Greek Aphrodite, It is not improbable that 
the latter was originally the Syrian Astarte ; for 
there can be no doubt that the worship of Aphro 



SYRIA. 

dite came from the East to Cyprus, and thence 
was carried into the south of Greece. 

Syria (77 S^pta, in Aramaean Siirja : ^vpos, 
Syrus, and sometimes ^vfjios, Syrius : Soristan, 
Arab. Esh-Sham, i. e. the land on the left, Si/ria), 
a country of W. Asia, lying along the E. end of 
the Mediterranean Sea, between Asia Minor and 
Egypt. In a wider sense the word was used for 
the whole tract of country bounded by the Tigris 
on the E., the mountains of Armenia and Cilicia 
on the N., the Mediterranean on the W., and the 
Arabian Desert on the S. ; the whole of which was 
peopled by the Aramaean branch of the great Se- 
mitic (or Syro-Arabian) race, and is included in 
the 0. T. under the name of Aram. This region 
may be well described physically as the great tri- 
angular depression of W. Asia encircled on the N. 
and N.E. by the Taurus and its prolongation to 
the S.E., or, in other words, by the highlands of 
Cilicia, Cappadocia, Armenia, and Aria; and sub- 
siding on the S. and W. into the Mediterranean 
and the Great Desert of Arabia. Even a wider 
extent than this is often given to Syria, so as to 
include the E. part of Asia Minor, as far as the 
river Halys and the Euxine. The people were of 
the same races, and those of the N. of the Taurus 
in Cappadocia and Pontus are called White Syrians 
[Leucosyri] in contradistinction to the people of 
darker complexion in Syria Proper, who are some- 
times even called Black Syrians (Su'poi fxeXaves). 
Even when the name of Syria is used in its ordi- 
nary narrower sense, it is often confounded with 
Assyria, which only differs from Syria by having 
the definite article prefixed. Again, in the nar- 
rower sense of the name, Syria still includes 2 dis- 
tricts which are often considered as not belonging 
to it, namely, Phoenice and Palestine, and a 3rd 
which is likewise often considered separate, namely, 
Coelesyru. ; but this last is generally reckoned a 
part of Syria. In this narrower sense, then, Syria 
was bounded on the W. (beginning from the S.) 
by M. Hermon, at the S. end of Antilibanus, 
which separated it from Palestine, by the range of 
Libanus, dividing it from Phoenice, by the Medi- 
terranean, and by M. Amanus, which divided it 
from Cilicia; on the N. (where it bordered on 
Cappadocia) by the main chain of M. Taurus, 
almost exactly along the parallel of 38^-^ N, lat., 
and striking the Euphrates just below Juliopolis, 
and considerably above Samosata : hence the Eu- 
phrates forms the E. boundary, dividing Syria, first 
from a very small portion of Armenia, and then 
from Mesopotamia, to about or beyond the 36th 
parallel of N. lat., whence the S.E. and S. boun- 
daries, towards Babylonia and Arabia, in the 
Great Desert, are exceedingly indefinite. [Comp. 
Arabia.] The W. part of the S. boundary ran 
just below Damascus, being formed by the high- 
lands of Trachonitis. The W. part of the country 
was intersected by a series of mountains, running 
S. from the Taurus, under the names of Amanus, 
PiERiA, Casius, Bargylus, and Libanus, and 
Antilibanus ; and the N. part, between the 
Amanus and the Euphrates, was also mountainous. 
The chief river of Syria Avas the Orontes, and 
the smaller rivers Chalus and Chrysorrhoas 
were also of importance. The valleys among the 
mountains were fertile, especially in the N. part : 
even the E., which is now merged in the great 
desert of Arabia, appears to have had more nume- 
rous and more extensive spaces capable of culti- 



SYRIA. 737 

vation, and supported great cities, the ruins of 
which now stand in the midst of sandy wastes. — 
In the earliest historical period, Syria contained a 
number of independent kingdoms, of which Da- 
mascus was the most powerful. These were sub- 
dued by David, but became again independent at 
the end of Solomon's reign ; from Avhich time we 
find the kings of Damascus sometimes at war 
with the kings of Israel, and sometimes in alliance 
with them against the kings of Judah, till the 
reign of Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, who, 
having been invited by Ahaz, king of Judah, to 
assist him against the united forces of Rezin, king 
of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, took Damascus 
and probably conquered all Syria, about b. c. 740. 
Having been a part successively of the Assyrian, 
Babylonian, Persian, and Macedonian empires, it 
fell, after the battle of Ipsus (b. c. 301), to the 
share of Seleucus Nicator, and formed a part of the 
great kingdom of the Seleucidae, whose history 
is given in the articles Seleucus, Antiochus, 
Demetrius, &c. In this partition, however, 
Coelesyria and Palestine went, not to Syria, but to 
Egypt, and the possession of those provinces became 
the great source of contention between the Pto- 
lemies and the Seleucids. By the irruptions of 
the Parthians on the E., and the unsuccessful war 
of Antiochus the Great with the Romans on the 
W., the Greek Syrian kingdom was reduced to the 
limits of Syria itself, and became weaker and 
weaker, until it was overthrown by Tigranes, 
king of Armenia, b. c. 79. Soon afterwards, when 
the Romans had conquered Tigranes as well as 
Mithridates, Syria was quietly added by Porapey 
to the empire of the republic and was constituted a 
province, B. c. 64; but its N. district, Commagene, 
was not included in this arrangement. As the E. 
province of the Roman empire, and with its great 
desert frontier, Syria was constantly exposed to the 
irruptions of the Parthians, and, after them, of the 
Persians ; but it long remained one of the most 
flourishing of the provinces. The attempt of Ze- 
nobia to make it the seat of empire is noticed 
under Palmyra and Zenobia. While the Roman 
emperors defended this precious possession against 
the attacks of the Persian kings with various suc- 
cess, a new danger arose, as early as the 4th century, 
from the Arabians of the Desert, who began to be 
known under the name of Saracens; and, when the 
rise of Mohammed had given to the Arabs that 
great religious impulse which revolutionised the 
E. World, Syria was the first great conquest that 
they made from the E. empire, a. d. 632 — 638. 
— In the time immediately succeeding the Mace- 
donian conquest, Syria was regarded as consisting 
of 2 parts; the N., including the whole country 
down to the beginning of the Lebanon range, and 
the S., consisting of Coelesyria in its more ex- 
tended sense. The former, which was called Syria 
Proper, or Upper Syria (17 &vw Supi'a, Syria Su- 
perior), was divided into 4 districts or tetrarchies, 
which were named after their respective capitals, 
Seleucis, Antiochene, Laodicene, and Apamene. 
Under the Romans it was divided into 10 districts, 
named (mostly after their capital cities) Commagene, 
Cyrrhestice, Pieria, Seleucis, Chalcidice, Chalybo- 
nitis, Palmyrene, Apamene, Cassiotis, and Laodi- 
cene ; but the last is sometimes included under 
Cassiotis. (See the several articles.) Constantine 
the Great separated from Syria the 2 N. districts, 
namely, Commagene and Cyrrhestice, and erected 

32 



738 SYRIAE PORTAE. 



SYRTICA. 



them into a distinct province, called Euphratensis 
or Euphratesia ; and the rest of Syria was after- 
wards divided by Theodosius II. into the 2 pro- 
vinces of Syria Prima, including the sea-coast and 
the country N. of Antioch, and having that city 
for its capital ; and Syria Secunda, the district 
along the Orontes, with Apamea for its capital : 
the E. districts no longer formed a part of Syria, 
but had fallen under the power of the Persians. 

Syriae Portae {at Supi'at TruAat : Pass ofBeilan), 
a most important pass between Cilicia and Syria, 
lying between the shore of the Gulf of Issus on the 
W., and M. Amanus on the E. Xenophon, who 
called the pass (or rather its fortifications) the 
Gates of Cilicia and of Syria, describes it as 3 stadia 
in length and very narrow, with walls built from 
the mountains to the sea at both ends (the Cilician 
and the Syrian), and gates in the walls (Anab.i. 4.). 
These walls and gates are not mentioned by the 
historians of Alexander. 

Syrianus {'^vpiavos), a Greek philosopher of 
the Neo-Platonic school, was a native of Alex- 
andria, and studied at Athens under Plutarchus, 
whom he succeeded as head of the Neo-Platonic 
school in the early part of the 5th century. The 
most distinguished of his disciples was Proclus, 
who regarded him with the greatest veneration, 
and gave directions that at his death he should be 
buried in the same tomb with Syrianus. Syria- 
nus wrote several works, some of which are ex- 
tant. Of these the most valuable are the commen- 
taries on the Metaphysics of Aristotle. 

Syrinx, an Arcadian njTnph, who being pur- 
sued by Pan, fled into the river Ladon, and at her 
own request was metamorphosed into a reed, of 
which Pan then made his flute. 

Syrinx (2up£7|), a great and strongly fortified 
city of Hyrcania, and the capital of the province 
under the Greek kings of Syria. Perhaps it is 
only the Greek name of the city called, in the 
native language, Zadrakarta. 

Syros, or S^us (2upos, called SuptTj by Homer, 
and 2upa by a few writers: ^^vpios: Syra), an 
island in the Aegaean sea, and one of the Cyclades, 
lying between Rhenea and Cythnus. It is described 
by the ancients as 20 Roman miles in circumference, 
and as rich in pastures, wine, and corn. It con- 
tained 2 towns, one on the E. side, and one on 
the W. side of the island ; of the latter there are 
still remains near the modern harbour of Maria 
della Grazia. The philosopher Pherecydes was a 
native of Syros. 

Syrtes, gen. -idos {%vpris, gen. -iSos and -ecos. 
Ion. -los), the Greek name for each of the 2 great 
gulfs in the E. half of the N. coast of Africa, is 
derived by ancient writers from crupct', to draw, 
with reference to the quicksands by which, in the 
Greater Syrtis at least, ships were liable to be 
swallowed up ; but modern scholars generally pre- 
fer the derivation from the Arabic seH—a sandy 
desert, which is at the present day applied to the 
country along this coast, the Regio Syrtica of 
the ancients. Both were proverbially dangerous, 
the Greater Syrtis from its sandbanks and quick- 
sands, and its unbroken exposure to the N. winds, 
the Lesser from its shelving rocky shores, its ex- 
posiare to the N. E. winds, and the consequent 
variableness of the tides in it. 1. Syrtis Major 
(?) ue-)aA7j SvpT's: GvlfofSidra), the E. of the 
2, is a wide and deep gulf on the shores of Tri- 
polita and Cyrenaica, exactly opposite to the Ionic 



sea, or mouth of the Adriatic, between Sicily and 
Peloponnesus. Its greatest depth, from N. to S., 
is about 110 geographical miles; its width is 
about 230 geographical miles, between Cephalae 
Prom. {Ras Kharra) on the W., and Boreum 
Prom. {Ras Teyonas) on the E. (Strabo gives its 
width as 1500 stadia, its depth 1500 to 1800, 
and its circuit 4000 to 5000). The Great Desert 
comes down close to its shores, forming a sandy 
coast [Syrtica Regio]. The terror of being 
driven on shore in it is referred to in the narrative 
of St. Paul's voyage to Italy (Acts, xxvii. 17. 
"fearing lest they should fall into the Syrtis''''); 
and the dangers of a march through the loose 
sand on its shores, sometimes of a burning heat, 
and sometimes saturated with sea-water, were 
scarcely less formidable. — Syrtis Minor (77 fxiKpa 
Sv'prts : Gidf of KJiabs), lies in the S. W. angle 
of the great bend formed by the N. coast of Africa 
as it drops down to the S. from the neighbour- 
hood of Carthage, and then bears again to the E. : 
in other words, in the angle between the E. coast 
of Zeugitana and Byzacena {Tunis) and the N. 
coast of Tripolitana {Tripoli). Its mouth faces 
the E,, between Caput Vada or Brachodes Prom. 
(Ras Kapoudiah) on the N., and the island called 
Meninx or Lotophagitis {Jerhah) on the S. In 
its mouth, near the N. extremitj-, lie the islands 
of Cercina and Cercinitis, which were often re- 
garded as its N. extremitj'. Its dimensions are 
difi"erently given, partly perhaps on account of the 
different points from which they were reckoned. 
The Greek geographers give the width as 600 
stadia (60 geog. miles), and the circuit 1600 
stadia: the Romans give 100 Roman miles for 
the width, and 300 for the circuit. The true 
width (between Ras Kapovdiah and the E. point 
oi Jerlah) is about 80 geog. miles, and the great- 
est depth, measured W.-ward from the line joining 
those points, is about 65 geog. miles. In Herodo- 
tus, the word Syrtis occurs in a few passages, 
without any distinction between the Greater and 
the Less. It seems most probable that he 
means to denote by this term the Greater Syrtis, 
and that he included the Lesser in the lake Tri- 

TOXIvS. 

Syrtica Regie (77 ^vpriK-f] : W. part of Tripoli), 
the special name of that part of the N. coast of 
Africa which lay between the 2 Syrtes, from the 
river Triton, at the bottom of the Syrtis Minor, 
on the W., to the Philaenorum Arae, at the bottom 
of the Syrtis Major, on the E. It was for the 
most part a very narrow strip of sand, interspersed 
with salt marshes, between the sea and a range 
of m.ountains forming the edge of the Great Desert 
{Sahara), with only here and there a few spots 
capable of cultivation, especially about the river 
Cinyps. It Avas peopled by Libyan tribes, the 
chief of whom were the Lotophagi, Macae, Psylli, 
and Nasamones ; and several Egyptian and Phoe- 
nician colonies were settled on the coast at an 
early period. The Greeks of Cyrene disputed 
with the Carthaginians the possession of this dis- 
trict until it was secured to Carthage by the self- 
devotion of the Philaeni. Under the Romans 
it formed a part of the province of Africa. It was 
often called Tripolitana, from its 3 chief cities, 
Abrotonum, Oea, and Leptis Magna; and 
this became its usual name under the later empire, 
and has been handed down to our own time in 
the modern name of the Regency of Tripoli. 



SYRUS. 

. S^'US, a slave brought to Rome some years 
before the downfal of the republic, and designated, 
according to the usual practice, from the country of 
his birth. He attracted attention while yet a 
youth, by his accomplishment and wit, was manu- 
mitted by his master, Avho probably belonged to 
the Clodia gens, assumed the name of Pullius, 
from his patron, and soon became highly cele- 
brated as a mimographer. He may be said to 
have flourished B. c. 45. His mimes were com- 
mitted to writing, and extensively circulated at 
an early period ; and a collection of pithy moral 
sayings extracted from his works appears to have 
been used as a school-book in the boyhood of 
St. Jerome. A compilation of this description, 
extending to upwards of 1000 lines in iambic and 
trochaic measures, every apophthegm being com- 
prised in a single line, and the whole ranged alpha- 
betically, according to the initial letter of the first 
word in each, is now extant under the title Piiblu 
Syri Sententiae. These proverbs have been drawn 
from various sources, and are evidently the work 
of many different hands ; but a considerable 
number may be ascribed to Syrus and his con- 
temporaries. The best editions of the Sententiae 
are by Havercamp, Lug. Bat. 1708, 1727 ; by 
Orelli, Lips. 1 822 ; and by Bothe, in his Poetarum 
Latin. Scenicorum Fragmenia, Lips. 1834. 

Sythas (2y0as), a river on the frontiers of 
Achaia and Sicyonia. 

T. 

Tabae (jdSai : Tag7]v6s). 1. (Tavi), a small 
inland town of Sicily.— 2. (Daicas), a city of 
Caria, on the borders of Phrygia. — - 3. A city of 
Persis, in the district of Paraetacene, on the road 
from Ecbatana to Persepolis. 

Tabemae. [Tres Tabernae.] 

Taburnus (Taburno), a mountain belonging 
half to Campania and half to Saranium. Its S. 
side was very fertile, and was celebrated for its 
olive grounds. It shut in the Caudine pass on its 
S. side. 

Tacape (TaKairr] : Kliabs, large Ru.), a city of 
N. Africa, in the Regio Syrtica, at the innermost 
angle of the Syrtis Minor, to which the modern 
tovm gives its name. Under the Romans, it at 
first belonged to Byzacena, but it was afterwards 
raised to a colony and made the W. town of 
Tripolitana. It had an indifferent harbour. A 
little to the W. was the bathing place, called, 
from its warm mineral springs, Aquae Tacipitanae 
(El Hammat-el-Khahs). 

Tacfarinas, a Numidian in the reign of Ti- 
berius, had originalh^ served among the auxiliary 
troops in the Roman army, but he deserted ; and, 
having collected a body of freebooters, he became at 
length the acknowledged leader of the Musulamii, 
a powerftd people in the interior of Numidia, bor- 
dering on Mauretania. For some years he defied 
the Roman arms, but was at length defeated and 
slain in battle by Dolabella, a. d. 24. 

Tachompso (Taxo/Uif/oS, also Tacompsos, Plin., 
and M6TOKO]u;//«, Ptol.), aft. Contrapselcis, a city 
in the Dodecaschoenus, that is, the part of Aethi- 
opia immediately above Egypt, built on an island 
(Derar?) near the E. bank of the river, a little 
above Pselcis, which stood on the opposite bank. 

[PSELCIS.] 



TACITUS. 7'^ 

Tachos (Tox<^s), king of Egypt, succeeded 
Acoris, and maintained the independence of his 
country for a short time during the latter end of 
the reign of Artaxerxes II. He invited Chabrias, 
the Athenian, to take the command of his fleet, 
and Agesilausto undertake the supreme command 
of all his forces. Both Chabrias and Agesilaus 
came to Egypt ; but the latter was much aggrieved 
in having only the command of the mercenaries 
entrusted to him. Accordingly, when Nectanabis 
laid claim to the Egyptian crown, Agesilaus deserted 
Tachos, and espoused the cause of Nectanabis, who 
thus became king of Egypt, B. c. 361. 

Tacitus. 1. C. Cornelius, the historian. The 
time and place of his birth are unknown. He was a 
little older than the younger Pliny, Avho was born 
A. D. 61 . His father was probably Cornelius Tacitus, 
a Roman eques, who is mentioned as a procurator in 
Gallia Be]gica,and who died in 79. Tacitus was first 
promoted by the emperor Vespasian, and he re- 
ceived other favours from his sons Titus and Domi- 
tian. In 78 he married the daughter of C. Julius 
Agricola, to whom he had been betrothed in the 
preceding year, while Agricola was consul. In the 
reign of Domitian, and in 88, Tacitus was praetor, 
and he assisted as one of the quindecemviri at the 
solemnity of the Ludi Seciilares which were cele- 
brated in that year. Agricola died at Rome in 
93, but neither Tacitus nor the daughter of Agri- 
cola was then with him. It is not known where 
Tacitus was during the last illness of Agricola. In 
the reign of Nerva, 97, Tacitus was appointed con- 
sul suffectus, in the place of T. Virginius Rufug, 
who had died in that year, and Avhose funeral 
oration he delivered. We know that Tacitus had 
attained oratorical distinction when the younger 
Pliny was commencing his career. He and Tacitus 
were appointed in the reign of Nerva (99) to con- 
duct the prosecution of Marius, proconsul of Africa. 
Tacitus and Pliny were most intimate friends. 
In the collection of the letters of Pliny, there are 
1 1 letters addressed to Tacitus, The time of the 
death of Tacitus is unknown, but he appears to 
have survived Trajan, who died 117. Nothing is 
recorded of any children of his, though the emperor 
Tacitus claimed a descent from the historian, and 
ordered his works to be placed in all (public) li- 
braries. The following are the extant works of 
Tacitus : 1 . Vita Agricolae, the life of Agricola, 
which was written after the death of Domitian, 96, 
as we may probably conclude from the introduction, 
which was certainly written after Trajan's acces- 
sion. This life is justly admired as a specimen of 
biography. It is a monument to the memory of a 
good man and an able commander and adminis- 
trator, by an afi^ectionate son-in-law, who has por- 
trayed in his peculiar manner and with many 
masterly touches, the virtues of one of the most 
illustrious of the Romans. 2. Historiae^ which 
were written after the death of Nerva, 98, and 
before the Annales. They comprehended the pe- 
riod from the second consulship of Galba, 68, to 
the death of Domitian, 96, and the author designed 
to add the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. The first 4 
books alone are extant in a complete form, and they 
comprehend only the events of about one year. 
The 5th book is imperfect, and goes no further than 
the commencement of the siege of Jerusalem by 
Titus, and the war of Civilis in Germany. It is 
not known how many books of the Histories there 
were, but it must have been a large work, if it v<ra.s 

3 E 2 



740 



TACITUS. 



TAGASTE. 



all written on the same scale as the first 5 books. 

— 3. Atmales, which commence with the death of 
Augustus, 14, and comprise the period to the death 
of Nero, 68, a space of 54 years. The greater 
part of the 5th book is lost ; and also the 7th, 8th, 
9th, 10th, the beginning of the 11th, and the end 
of the 16th, which is the last book. These lost 
parts comprised the whole of Caligula's reign, the 
first 5 years of Claudius, and the 2 last of Nero. 

— 4. De Moribus et Populis Germaniae, a treatise 
describing the Germanic nations. It is of no value, 
as a geographical description; the first few chap- 
ters contain as much of the geography of Germany 
as Tacitus knew. The main matter is the descrip- 
tion of the political institutions, the religion, and 
the habits, of the various tribes included under the 
denomination of Germani. The value of the in- 
formation contained in this treatise has often been 
discussed, and its credibility attacked ; but we may 
estimate its true character by observing the pre- 
cision of the writer as to those Germans who were 
best known to the Romans from being near the 
xihine. That the hearsay accounts of more remote 
tribes must partake of the defects of all such evi- 
dence, is obvious ; and we cannot easily tell whether 
Tacitus embellished that which he heard obscurely 
told. But to consider the Germany- as a fiction, 
is one of those absurdities which need only be re- 
corded, not refuted. — 5. Dialogus de Oratoribus. 
If this dialogue is the work of Tacitus, and it pro- 
bably is, it must be his earliest work, for it was 
written in the 6th year of Vespasian (c, 17). The 
style is more easy than that of the Annals, more 
diffuse, less condensed ; but there is no obvious 
difference between the style of this Dialogue 
and the Histories, nothing so striking as to make 
us contend for a different authorship. Besides 
this, it is nothing unusual for works of the same 
author which are written at different times to vary 
greatly in stj-le, especially if they treat of different 
matters. The old MSS. attribute this Dialogue to 
Tacitus. — The Annals of Tacitus, the work of a 
mature age, contain the chief events of the period 
which they embrace, arranged under their several 
j'ears. There seems no peculiar propriety in gi^■ing 
the name of Amiahs to this work, simply because 
the events are arranged in the order of time. The 
work of Livy may just as well be called Annals. 
In the Annals of Tacitus the Prmceps or Emperor 
is the centre about which events are grouped. Yet 
the most important public events, both in Italy and 
the provinces, are not omitted, though every thing 
is treated as subordinate to the exhibition of im- 
perial power. The Histories, which were written 
before the Annals, are in a more diffuse style, and 
the treatment of the extant part is different from 
that of the Annals. Tacitus wrote the Histories 
as a contemporary ; the Annals as not a contem- 
porary. They are two distinct works, not parts of 
one ; which is clearly shown by the very different 
proportions of the two works : the first 4 books of 
the Histories comprise about a year, and the first 
4 books of the Annals comprise 1 4 years. The 
moral dignitj^ of Tacitus is impressed upon his 
works ; the consciousness of a love of truth, of the 
integrity of his purpose. His great power is in the 
knowledge of the human mind, his insight into the 
motives of human conduct ; and he found materials 
for this study in the history of the emperors, and 
particularly Tiberius, the arch-hypocrite, and perhaps 
half madman. His Annals are filled with drama- 



tic scenes and striking catastrophes. He laboured- 
to produce effect by the exhibition of great per- 
sonages on the stage ; but as to tlie mass of the 
people we learn little from Tacitus. — The style of 
Tacitus is peculiar, though it bears some resem- 
blance to Sallust. In the Annals it is concise, 
vigorous, and pregnant with meaning ; laboured, 
but elaborated with art, and stripped of every 
superfluitj'. A single word sometimes gives effect 
to a sentence, and if the meaning of the word is 
missed, the sense of the writer is not reached. 
Such a work is probably the result of many tran- 
scriptions by the author. In the Annals Tacitus 
is generally brief and rapid in his sketches ; but he 
is sometimes minute, and almost tedious, when he 
comes to work out a dramatic scene. Nor does he 
altogether neglect his rhetorical art when he has 
an opportunity for displaying it. The condensed 
style of Tacitus sometimes makes him obscure, but 
it is a kind of obscurity that is dispelled by careful 
reading. Yet a man must read carefully and 
often, in order to understand him ; and we cannot 
suppose that Tacitus was ever a popular writer. 
His real admirers will perhaps always be few ; his 
readers fewer still. The best editions of the com- 
plete works of Tacitus are by Oberlin, Lips. 1801, 
2 vols. 8vo. ; bv Bekker, Lips. 1831, 2 vols. 
8vo.; and by Orelli, Zurich, 1846 and 1848, 
2 vols. 8vo.— 2. M. Claudius, Roman emperor from 
the 25th September, a. d. 275, imtil April, a. d. 
276. He was elected emperor by the senate after 
the death of Aurelian, the army having requested 
the senate to nominate a successor to the imperial 
throne. Tacitus was at the time 70 years of age, 
and was with difficulty persuaded to accept the pur- 
ple. The high character which he had borne before 
his elevation to the throne, he amply sustained 
during his brief reign. He endeavoured to repress 
the luxurj' and licentiousness of the age by various 
sumptuary laws, and he himself set an example to 
all around, by the abstemiousness, simplicity, and 
frugality of his own habits. The only military 
achievement of this reign was the defeat and 
expulsion from Asia Minor of a party of Goths, who 
had carried their devastation across the peninsula 
to the confines of Cilicia. He died either at Tarsus 
or at Tj-ana, about the 9th of April, 276. 

Taenarum {Talvapov : C. Muta_pa?i), a promon- 
tory in Laconica, forming the S.-ly point of the 
Peloponnesus, on which stood a celebrated temple 
of Poseidon, possessing an inviolable asylum. A 
little to the N. of the temple and the harbour of 
Achilleus was a town also called Taenarum or 
Taenarus, and at a later time Caenepolis. It was 
situated 40 stadia from the extreme point of the 
promontor\% and was said to have been built by 
Taenarus, a son of Zeus, or Icarius or Elatus. On 
this promontory was a cave, through which Her- 
cules is said to have dragged Cerberus to the 
upper world. Here also was a statue of Arion 
seated on a dolphin, since he is said to have landed 
at this spot after his miraculous preservation by a 
dolphin. In the time of the Romans there were 
celebrated marble quarries on the promontory. 

Tagae (Tayal: Dameghan?), a. dtr mentioned. 
by Polybius as in Parthia, on the border towards 
Hyrcania, apparently the same place which Strabo 
calls Tape (TaTr?]) and reckons to HjTrcania. 

Tagaste {Tagili, Ru.), an inland town of Nu- 
midia, on a tributary of the Bagradas, remarkable 
as the birthplace of St. Augustine. 



TAGES. 



TANAGRA. 



741 



Tagei, a mysterious Etruscan being, who is 
described as a boy with the wisdom of an old man. 
Once when an Etruscan, of the name of Tarchon, 
was ploughing in the neighbourhood of Tarquinii, 
there suddenly rose out of the ground Tages, the 
son of a Genius Jovialis, and grandson of Jupiter. 
When Tages addressed Tarchon, the latter shrieked 
with fear, whereupon other Etruscans hastened to 
him, and in a short time all the people of Etruria 
were assembled around him. Tages now instructed 
them in the art of the haruspices, and died imme- 
diately after. The Etruscans, who had listened 
attentively to his instructions, afterwards wrote 
down all he had said, and thus arose the books of 
Tages, which, according to some, were 12 in number. 

Tagus (Spanish Ta/o, Portuguese Tejo^ English 
Tagus), one of the chief rivers in Spain, rising in 
the land of the Celtiberians, between the moun- 
tains Orospeda and Idubeda, and, after flowing in 
a W.-ly direction, falling into the Atlantic. The 
whole course of the Tagus exceeds 550 English 
miles. At its mouth stood Olisippo (Lisbon). 
The ancient writers relate that much gold sand 
and precious stone were found in the Tagus. 

Talabriga. a town in Lusitania, between Ae- 
rainijim and Lagobriga. 

Talassius or Talasses. [Thalassius.] 

Talaura (ra Td\avpa: TnrkhaL?-), a fortress 
in Pontus, used by Mithridates the Great as a 
residence, and supposed by some to be identical 
with Gaziura. 

TalSus (TaAaos), son of Bias and Pero, and 
king of Argos, He was married to Lysimache 
(Eurynome, or Lysianassa), and was father of 
Adrastiis, Parthenopaeus, Pronax, Mecisteus, Aris- 
tomachus, and Eriphyle. He occurs among the 
Argonauts, and his tomb was shown at Argos. The 
patronymic Tala'ionides {TaXaioviZris) is given to 
his sons, Adrastus and Mecisteus. 

Talmis (El-Kalabsheh, Ru.), a city of the Dode- 
caschoenus, that is, the district of Aethiopia imme- 
diately above Egypt, stood on the W. bank of the 
Nik, S. of Taphis, and N. of Tutzis. Its ruins 
consist of an ancient rock-hewn temple, with 
splendid sculptures, and of a later temple of the 
Roman period, in the midst of which stands the 
modern village. There was a place on the oppo- 
site bank called Contra Talmis. 

Talna, Juventius. [Thalna.] 

Talos (TaA.«9 ). 1. Son of Perdix, the sister of 
Daedalus. For details see Perdix. 2. A man 
of brass, the work of Hephaestus. This wonderful 
being was given to Minos by Zeus or Hephaestus, 
and watched the island of Crete by walking round 
the island thrice every day. Whenever he saw 
strangers approaching, he made himself red hot i:i 
fire, and then embraced tlie strangers when they 
landed. 

Talthybius {TaXev§ios), the herald of Aga- 
memnon at Troy. Pie was worshipped as a hero 
at Sparta and Argos, where sacrifices also were 
ofi'ered to him. 

_ Tamara, 1. Or Tamaris {Tamhre), a small 
river in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the coast of 
Gallaecia, falling into the Atlantic between the 
Minius and the Prom. Nerium. — 2. {Tamerton 
near Plymouth), a town of the Damnonii in the 
S. of Britain, at the mouth of the Taraarus. 

Tamaricl, a people in Gallaecia, on the river 
Tamara. 

Tamaris. [Tamara.J 



Tamarus {Tamar\ a river in the S. of Britain. 

Tamassus or Tamasus (Tajuao-atJ?, Tciuarros : 
Ta/ia(rtT77s, Ta/^acrios), probably the same as the 
Homeric Temese (TeMeV?]), a town in the middle 
of Cyprus, N. W. of Olympus, and 29 miles S. E. 
of Soloe, on the road from the latter place to Tre- 
mithus, was situated in a fertile country and in 
the neighbourhood of extensive copper mines. 
Near it was a celebrated plain {ager Tainastus\ 
sacred to Venus. (Ov. Met. x. 644.) 

Tambrax (Ta^§pa|), a great city of Hyrcania, 
on the N. side of Mt. Coronus, mentioned by Po- 
lybius. It is perhaps the same place which Strabo 
calls TaXaSpoKr). 

Tamesis or Tamesa ( Thames), a river in Britain 
flowing into the sea on the E. coast, on which 
stood Londiniuni. Caesar crossed the Thames at 
the distance of 80 Roman miles from the sea, 
probably at Cowey Stakes, near Oatlands and the 
confluence of the Wey. There have been found 
in modern times in the ford of the river at this 
spot large stakes, which are supposed to have been 
the same as were fixed in the water by Cassi- 
vellaunus, when he attempted to prevent Caesar 
from crossing the river. 

Tamna (Tajuj/a), a very great city in the S.W. 
of Arabia Felix, the capital of the Catabani. It 
maintained a caravan traffic, in spices and othej: 
products of Arabia, with Gaza, from which its 
distance was reckoned 1436 Roman miles. 

Tamos (Ta/i«s), a native of Memphis in Egypt,, 
was lieutenant-governor of Ionia under Tissa- 
phernes. He afterwards attached himself to the 
service of the younger Cyrus ; upon whose death, 
he sailed to Egypt, where he hoped to find refuge 
with Psammetichus, on whom he had conferred an 
obligation. Psammetichus, however, put him to 
death, in order to possess him.self of his money 
and ships. 

TampMlus or Tampilus, Eaebius. 1. Cn., 

tribune of the plebs, b. c. 204 ; praetor 199, when 
he was defeated by the Insubrians ; and consul 
182, when he fought against the Ligurians with 
success. — 2. M., brother of the last, was praetor 
1 92, and served in Greece both in this year and the 
following, in the war against Antiochus. In 181 
he was consul, when he defeated the Ligurians. 

Tamynae (Ta^uj/az), a town in Euboea, on Mt, 
Cotylaeum, in the territory of Eretria, with a 
temple of Apollo, said to have been built by Ad- 
nietus. Here the Athenians under Phocion gained 
a celebrated victory over Callias of Chalcis, B. c 
354. 

Tamyraca, a town and promontory of European 
Sarmatia at the innermost corner of the Sinus 
Carcinites, which was also called from this tov.n 
Sinus Tamyraces. 

Tamyras or Damiiras {Taixvpas, Aa/xoOpa^: 
Damur, or Nukr-el-Kadi), a little river of Phoe-- 
nicia, rising on Mt. Libanus, and falling into the" 
Mediterranean about half way between Sidon an<i. 
Berytus. 

Tanager (Negro), a river of Lucania, rising in; 
the Apennines, which, after flowing in a N.E.-l\r 
direction, loses itself under the earth near Polla 
for a space of about 2 miles, and finally falls into 
the Silarus near Forum Popilii. 

Tanagra (Tdvaypa : Tava-ypalos : Grimadha or 
Grimula), a celebrated town of Boeotia, situated 
on a steep ascent on the left bank of the Asopus, 
1 3 stadia from Oropus, and 200 stadia from Pla- 

3 B 3 



742 



TANAIS. 



TAPHIS. 



taeae, in the district Tanagraea, which, was also 
called Poemandris. Tanagra Avas supposed to be 
the same town as the Homeric Graea. The most 
ancient inhabitants are said to have been tlie 
Gephyraei, who came with Cadmus from Phoe- 
nicia ; but it Avas afterwards taken possession of 
by the Aeolian Boeotians. It was a place of con- 
siderable commercial importance, and was cele- 
brated, among other things, for its breed of fighting 
cocks. At a later time it belonged to the Boeotian 
confederacy. Being near the frontiers of Attica, 
it was frequently exposed to the attacks of the 
Athenians ; and near it the Athenians sustained a 
celebrated defeat, B. c. 457. 

Tanai's (Tdva'is). 1. (Dow, i. e. Water), a great 
river, which rises in the N. of Sarmatia Europaea 
(about the centre of Russia), and flows to the S.E. 
till it comes near the Volga, when it turns to tlie 
S.W., and falls into the N. E. angle of the Palus 
Ma '^otis (Sea of Azov) by 2 principal mouths and 
several ■^mailer ones. It was usually considered 
the boundary between Europe and Asia. Its 
chief tributary was the Hyrgis or Syrgis (prob. 
Donets).- — 2. (Ru. near Kassaichei), a city of 
Sarmatia Asiatica, on the N. side of the S. mouth 
of the Tanai's, at a little distance from the sea. It 
was founded by a colony from Miletus, and be- 
came a very flourishing emporium. It reduced to 
subjection several of the neighbouring tribes, but 
in its turn it became subject to the kings of Bos- 
porus. It was destroyed by Polemon on account 
of an attempted revolt, and, though afterwards 
restored, it never regained its former prosperity. 

Tanaquil. [Tarquinius.] 

Tanetum (Tanetanus : Taneio), a town of the 
Boii in Gallia Cispadana, between Mutina and 
Parma. 

Tanis (Tdvis : 0. T. Zoan : Tau'iTtjs : San, 
Ru.), a very ancient city of Lower Egypt, in the 
E. part of the Delta, on the right bank of the arm 
of the Nile, which was called after it the Tanitic, 
and on the S. W. side of the great lake between 
this and the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, which 
was also called, after the city, Tanis (Lake of 
Menzaleh). It was one of the capitals of Lower 
Egypt under the early kings, and was said by 
tradition to have been the residence of the court 
in the time of Moses. It was the chief city of 
the Tanites Nomos. 

Tantalus (Taz'raAos). L Son of Zeus and 
Pluto. His wife is called by some Euryanassa, 
by others Taygete or Dione, and by others Clytia 
or Eupryto. He was the father of Pelops, Broteas, 
and Niobe. All traditions agree in stating that 
he was a wealthy king, but while some call him 
king of Lydia, others describe him as king of 
Argos or Corinth. Tantalus is particularly cele- 
brated in ancient story for the terrible punishment 
inflicted upon him after his death in the lower 
world, the causes of which are differently stated 
by the ancient authors. According to the common 
account Zeus invited him to his table, and com- 
municated his divine counsels to him. Tantalus 
divulged the secrets thus intrusted to him ; and 
he was punished in the lower world by being 
afflicted with a raging thirst, and at the same time 
placed in the midst of a lake, the waters of 
which always receded from him as soon as he at- 
tempted to drink them. Over his head, moreover, 
hung branches of fruit, which receded in like 
manner when he stretched out his hand to reach 



them. In addition to all this there was suspended 
over his head a huge rock ever threatening to 
crush him. Another tradition relates that, wishing 
to test the gods, he cut his son Pelops in pieces, 
boiled them and set them before the gods at a 
repast. A third account states that Tantalus 
stole nectar and ambrosia from the table of the 
gods and gave them to his friends ; and a fourth 
lastly relates the following story. Rhea caused 
the infant Zeus and his nurse to be guarded in 
Crete by a golden dog, whom Zeus afterwards 
appointed guardian of his temple in Crete. Pan- 
dareus stole this dog, and, carrying him to Mount 
Sipylus in Lydia, gave him to Tantalus to take 
care of. But when Pandareus demanded the dog 
back, Tantalus took an oath that he had never 
received it. Zeus thereupon changed Pandareus 
into a stone, and threw Tantalus down from 
Mount Sipylus. Others again relate that Hermes 
demanded the dog of Tantalus, and that the 
perjury was committed before Hermes. Zeus 
buried Tantalus under Mount Sipylus as a punish- 
ment ; and there his tomb was shown in later 
times. The punishment of Tantalus was proverbial 
in ancient times, and from it the English language 
has borrowed the verb " to tantalize," that is, to 
hold out hopes or prospects which cannot be 
realised. — The patronymic Tantalides is fre- 
quently given to the descendants of Tantalus. 
Hence we find not only his son Pelops, but also 
Atreus, Thyestes, Agamemnon, Menelaus, and 
Orestes called by this name. — 2. Son of Thy- 
estes, who was killed by Atreus. Others call 
him a son of Broteas. He Avas married to Cly- 
taemnestra before Agamemnon, and is said by 
some to have been killed by Agamemnon.— 3. Son 
of Amphion and Niobe. 

Taaus or Tanaus (Jdvos or Tava6s : Kani), a 
river in the district of Thyreatis, on tlie E. coast 
of Peloponnesus, rising in Mt. Parnon, and falling 
into the Thyreatic gulf, after forming the boundary 
between Argolis and Cynuria. 

Taoce (TaoKT? : Bunder-ReigM), a city on the 
coast of Persis, near the mouth of the river Granis, 
used occasionally as a royal residence. The sur- 
rounding district was called TaoKrjvi}. 

Taochi (Taoxoi), a people of Pontus, on the 
borders of Armenia, frequently mentioned by 
Xenophon in the Anabasis. 

Tape. [Tagae.] 

Taphiae Insulae, a number of small islands in 
the Ionian sea, lying between the coasts of Leu- 
cadia and Acarnania. They were also called the 
islands of the Teleboae, and their inhabitants were 
in like manner named Taphii (To^iot) or Tele- 
boae (TTjAegoai). The largest of these islands is 
called Taphus (Tdcpos) by Homer, but Taphius 
(Tacpiovs) or Taphiusa {Tacpiova-a) by later writers. 
They are mentioned in Homer as the haunts of 
notorious pirates, and are celebrated in mythology 
on account of the war carried on between them 
and Electryon, king of Mycenae. 

Taphiassus (Ta(j>iaaa6s : Macrivoro and Ri- 
gani), a mountain in Aetolia and Locris, properly 
only a S. W. continuation of Mts. Oeta and Corax. 

TapMs ( Tapa, Ru, ), a city of the Dodecaschoenus, 
that is, the district of Aethiopia immediately 
above Egypt, stood on the W. bank of the Nile, 
S. of Tzitzis, and N. of Talmis. It is also called 
Tadis and UaTris. There was a town on the oppo- 
site bank, called Contra Taphis. 



TAPHRAE. 

TSphrae or TSphros (Td(ppat or Tdcppos : 
Toicppios), a town on the isthmus of the Cherso- 
nesus Taurica, so called because a trench or ditch 
was cut across the isthmus at this point. 

Taphus. [Taphiae,] 

TapOSiris {TaTrScreipis, Ta-n-Sa-ipLS, Ta(j)6(TipLS, 
i. e. the tomb of Osiris : Abousir, Ru.), a city of 
Lower Egypt, on the N.W. frontier, in the Libya 
Nomos, near the base of the long tongue of land 
on which Alexandria stood, celebrated for its claim 
to be considered the burial-place of Osiris. Men- 
tion is also made of a Lesser Taposiris (t? fxiKpa 
TaTTocreipis) near it. 

Taprobane {Tairpo§cwr] : Ceylon), a great island 
of the Indian Ocean, opposite to the S. extremity 
of India intra Gangem. The Greeks first became 
acquainted with it through the researches of Onesi- 
critus in the time of Alexander, and through in- 
formation obtained by residents in India ; and the 
Roman geographers acquired additional knowledge 
respecting the island through an embassy which 
was sent from it to Rome in the reign of Clau- 
dius. Of the accounts given of it by the ancients, 
it is only necessary here to state that Ptolemy 
makes it very much too lai«ge, while, on the other 
hand, he gives much too small a S.-ward extension 
to the geninsula of India. 

Tapnri (TdirovpOL or TaTrovpo'i), a powerful 
people, apparently of Scythian origin, who dwelt 
in Media, on the borders of Parthia, S. of M. 
Coronus. They also extended into Margiana, 

: and probably further N. on the E. side of the 
Caspian, where their original abodes seem to have 
been in the mountains called by their name. The 
men wore black clothes and long hair, and the 
women white clothes and hair cut close. They 
were much addicted to drunkenness. 

Tapuri Montes (ra Tdirovpa opr)), a range of 
mountains on the E. of the Caspian sea, inhabited 

j by the Tapuri. 

j Taras, [Tarentum.] 

Tarbelli, one of the most important people in 
Gallia Aquitanica, between the Ocean (hence called 
Tarhellicum aequor and Tarbellus Oceanus) and the 
Pyrenees (hence called Tarbella Pyrene). Their 
country was sandy and unproductive, but con- 
tained gold and mineral springs. Their chief 
town was Aquae Tarbellicae or Augustae, on 
the Aturus (Dacqs on the Adour). 

Tarchon, son of Tyrrhenus, who is said to have 
built the town of Tarquinii. [Tarquinii.] Virgil 
represents him as coming to the assistance of Ae- 
neas against Turnus. 

Tarentinus Sinus (TapevrTvos kSattos: G. of 
Tarentum), a great gulf in the S. of Italy, between 
Bruttium, Lucania, and Calabria, beginning W. 
near the Prom. Lacinium, and ending E. near the 
Prom. lapygium, and named after the town of 

! Tarentum. According to Strabo, it is 1920 stadia 
in circuit, and the entrance to it is 700 stadia 
wide. 

Tarentum, called Taras by the Greeks (Tdpas, 
-avTos : Tap€VTivos, Tarentinus : Taranto\ an im- 
portant Greek city in Italy, situated on the W. 
coast of the peninsula of Calabria, and on a bay of 
j the sea, about 100 stadia in circuit, formingan excel- 
lent harbour, and being a portion of the great Gulf of 
Tarentum. The city stood in the midst of a beauti- 
ful and fertile countr}^, S. of Mt. Aulon and W. of 
the mouth of the Galaesus. It was originally built 
by the lapygians, who are said to have been joined 



TARENTUM. 743 

by some Cretan colonists from the neighbouring 
town of Uria, and it derived its name from the 
mythical Taras, a son of Poseidon. The greatness 
of Tarentum, however, dates from B. c. 708, when 
the original inhabitants were expelled, and the 
town was taken possession of by a strong body of 
Lacedaemonian Partheniae under the guidance of 
Phalanthus [Phalanthus]. It soon became the 
most powerful and flourishing city in the whole of 
Magna Graecia, and exercised a kind of supremacy 
over the other Greek cities in Italy. It carried on 
an extensive commerce, possessed a considerable 
fleet of ships of war, and was able to bring into the 
field, with the assistance of its allies, an army of 
30,000 foot and 3,000 horse. The city itself in 
its most flourishing period contained 22,000 men 
capable of bearing arms. The government of 
Tarentum was different at various periods. In the 
time of Darius Hystaspis, Herodotus speaks of a 
king (i, e. a tyrant) of Tarentum ; but at a later 
period the government was a democracy. Archytas, 
who was born at Tarentum, and who lived about 
B. c. 400, drew up a code of laws for his native 
city. With the increase of wealth the citizens 
became luxurious and elFeminate, and being hard 
pressed by the Lucanians and other barbarians in 
the neighbourhood, they were obliged to apply for 
aid to the mother-country. Archidamus, son of 
Agesilaus, was the first who came to their assist- 
ance in B. c. 338 ; and he fell in battle fighting on 
their behalf. The next prince whom they invited 
to succour them, was Alexander, king of Epirus, 
and uncle to Alexander the Great. At first he 
met with considerable success, but was eventually 
defeated and slain by the Bruttii in 326 near 
Pandosia on the banks of the Acheron. Shortly 
afterwards the Tarentines had to encounter a still 
more formidable enemy. Having attacked some 
Roman ships, and then grossly insulted the Roman 
ambassadors Avho had been sent to demand repara- 
tion, war was declared against the city by the 
powerful republic. The Tarentines were saved for 
a time by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who came to 
their help in 281 ; but two years after the defeat 
of this monarch and his withdraAval from Italy, 
the city was taken by the Romans (272). In the 
second Punic war Tarentum revolted from Rome 
to Hannibal (212); but it was retaken by the 
Romans in 207, and was treated by them with 
great severity. From this time Tarentum declined 
in prosperity and wealth. It was subsequently 
made a Roman colony, and it still continued to be 
a place of considerable importance in the time of 
Augustus. Its inhabitants retained their love of 
luxury and ease ; and it is described by Horace as 
molle Tarentum and imbelle Tarentum. Even after 
the downfall of the Western Empire the Greek 
language was still spoken at Tarentum ; and it was 
long one of the chief strongholds of the Byzantine 
empire in the S. of Italy. The town of Tarentum 
consisted of 2 parts, viz., of a peninsula or island 
at the entrance of the harbour, and of a town 
on the main land, which was connected Avith the 
island by means of a bridge. On the N.W. corner 
of the island, close to the entrance of the harbour, 
was the citadel : the principal part of the town was 
situated S. W. of the isthmus. The modern town 
is confined to the island or peninsula on which the 
citadel stood. The neighbourhood of Tarentum 
produced the best avooI in all Italy, and was also 
celebrated for its excellent wine, figs, pears, and 

3 B 4 



744 



TARICHEA. 



other fruits. Its purple die was also much valued 
in antiquity. 

Tarichea or -eae (Tapi'xeia, -e'ai, a7ai : El- 
Kereli, Ru.), a town of Galilee, at the S. end of 
the lake of Tiberias, strongly fortified, and with a 
turbulent population, who gave the Romans much 
trouble during the Jewish "War. It obtained its 
name from the quantities of the fish of the neigh- 
bouring lakes which were salted here. 

Tame (TapvT]), a city of Lydia, on M. Tmolus, 
mentioned by Homer. Pliny mentions simply a 
fountain of the name. 

Tarpa, Sp. Maecins, was engaged by Pompeius 
to select the plays that were acted at his games 
exhibited in b. c. 55. Tarpa was likewise em- 
ployed by Augustus as a dramatic censor. 

Tarpcia, daughter of Sp. Tarpeius, the go- 
vernor of the Roman citadel on the Saturnian hill, 
afterwards called the Capitoline, was tempted by 
the gold on the Sabine bracelets and collars to 
open a gate of the fortress to T. Tatius and his 
Sabines. As they entered, they threw upon her 
their shields, and thus crushed her to death. She 
was buried on the hill, and her memory was pre- 
served by the name of the Tarpeian rock, which 
was given to a part of the Capitoline. A legend 
still exists at Rome which relates that the fair 
Tarpeia ever sits in the heart of the hill, covered 
with gold and jewels, and bound by a spell. 

Tarphe (Tap^??), a town in Locris on Mt. Oeta, 
mentioned by Homer, and subsequently called 
Pharygae. 

Tarqninia. [Tarquinius.] 

Tarquinii (Tarquiniensis : TurcJnna nv.Ckirneto), 
a city of Etruria, situated on a hill and on the 
river Marta, S. E. of Cosa and on a road leading 
from the latter town to Rome. It was one of the 
12 Etruscan cities, and was probably regarded as 
the metropolis of the Confederation. It is said to 
have been founded by Tarchon, the son or brother 
of Tyrrhenus, who was the leader of the Lydian 
colony from Asia to Italy. It was in the neigh- 
bourhood of Tarquinii that the seer Tages appeared, 
from whom the Etruscans learnt their civil and 
religious polity. [Tages.] According to one 
account Tarquinii was founded by Thessalians, 
that is, Pelasgians ; but there can be no doubt that 
it was an original Etruscan city, and that Tarchon 
is merely a personification of the race of the Tyr- 
rhenians. It was at Tarquinii that Demaratus, the 
father of Tarquinius Priscus, settled ; and it was 
from this city that the Tarquinian family came to 
Rome. After the expulsion of Tarquinius Super- 
bus from Rome, the Tarcuinienses, in conjunction 
with the Veientes, espoused his cause, but they 
were defeated by the Romans, From this time the 
Tarquinienses were frequently- engaged in war with 
the Romans ; but they were at length obliged to 
submit to Rome about B.C. 310. Tarquinii was 
subsequently made a Roman colony and a rauni- 
cipium ; but it gradually declined in importance ; 
and in the 8th or 9th century of the Christian era 
ii was deserted by its inhabitants, who founded 
Corneto on the opposite hill. There are few re- 
mains of the ancient city itself ; but the cemetery 
of Tarquinii, consisting of a vast number of sub- 
terraneous caves in the hill on v/hich Corneto 
stands, is still in a state of excellent preservation 
and contains numerous Etruscan paintings : here 
some of the most interesting remains of Etruscan 
art have been discovered in modem times. 



TARQUINIUS. 

Tarquinius, the name of a family in early 
Roman history, to which the 5th and 7th kings of 
Rome belonged. The legend of the Tarquins ran 
as follows. Demaratus, their ancestor, belonged 
to the noble family of the Bacchiadae at Corinth, 
and fled from his native city whea the power of 
his order was overthrown by Cypselus. He settled 
at Tarquinii in Etruria, where he had mercantile 
connections. He married an Etruscan wife, by 
whom he had two sons, Lucumo and Aruns. The 
latter died in the lifetime of his father, leaving his 
wife pregnant ; but as Demaratus was ignorant of 
this circumstance, he bequeathed all his property 
to Lucumo, and died himself shortly afterwards. 
But, although Lucumo was thus one of the most 
wealthy persons at Tarquinii, and had married 
j Tanaquil, who belonged to a family of the highest 
i rank, he was excluded, as a stranger, from all 
I power and influence in the state. Discontented 
I with this inferior position, and urged on by his 
I wife, he resolved to leave Tarquinii, and remove 
to Rome. He accordingly set out for Rome, riding 
in a chariot with his wife ; and accompanied by a 
large train of followers. When they had reached 
the Janiculus, an eagle seized his cap, and after 
carrying it away to a great height placed it again 
upon his head. Tanaquil, who was skilled in the 
Etruscan science of augury, bade her husband 
hope for the highest honour from this omen. Her 
predictions were soon verified. The stranger was 
received with welcome, and he and his followers 
were admitted to the rights of Roman citizens. 
He took the name of L. Tarquinius, to which 
Livy adds Priscus. His wealth, his courage, and 
his wisdom, gained him the love both of Ancus 
Marcius and of the people. The former appointed 
him guardian of his children ; and, when he died, 
the senate and the people unanimously elected 
Tarquinius to the vacant throne. The reign ol 
Tarquinius was distinguished by great exploits in 
war, and by great works in peace. He defeated 
the Latins and Sabines ; and the latter people 
ceded to him the iovra. of CoUatia, where he placed 
a garrison under the command of Egerius, the 
son of his deceased brother Aruns, who took the 
surname of Collatinus. Some traditions relate 
that Tarquinius defeated the Etruscans likewise. 
Among the important works which Tarquinius 
executed in peace, the most celebrated are the 
vast sewers by which the lower parts of the city 
were drained, and which still remain, with not a 
stone displaced, to bear witness to his power and 
wealth. He is also said in some traditions to have 
laid out the Circus Maximus in the valley which 
had been redeemed from water by the sewers, and 
also to have instituted the Great or Roman Games, 
which were henceforth performed in the Circus. 
The Forum, with its porticoes and rows of shops, 
was also his work, and he likewise began to sur- 
round the city with a stone wall, a work which 
was finished h\ his successor Servius TuUiiis, 
The building of the Capitoline temple is moreover 
attributed to the elder Tarquinius, though most 
traditions ascribe this work to his son, and only 
the vow to the father. Tarquinius also made 
some changes in the constitution of the state. He 
added 100 new members to the senate, who were 
called patres minorum gentium, to distinguish them 
from the old senators, who were now called paires 
majorum gentium. He wished to add to the 3 
centuries of equites established by Romulus 3 new 



TARQUINIUS. 

centuries, and to call thera after himself and two 
of his friends. His plan was opposed by the augur 
Attus Navius, who gave a convincing proof that 
the gods were opposed to his purpose. [Navius.] 
Accordingly, he gave up his design of establishing 
new centuries, but to each of the former centuries 
he associated another under the same name, so that 
henceforth there were the first and second Ramnes, 
Titles, and Luceres. He increased the number of 
Vestal Virgins from 4 to 6. Tarquinius was 
murdered after a reign of 38 years at the insti- 
gation of the sons of Ancus Marcius. But the 
latter did not secure the reward of their crime, 
for Servius Tullius, with the assistance of Tanaquil, 
succeeded to the vacant throne. Tarquinius left 
two sons and two daughters. His two sons, 
L. Tarquinius and Aruns, were subsequently mar- 
ried to the two daughters of Servius Tullius. One 
of his daughters was married to Servius Tullius, 
and the other to M. Brutus, by whom she became 
the mother of the celebrated L. Brutus, the first 
consul at Rome. Servius Tullius, whose life is 
given under Tullius, was murdered after a reign 
of 44 years, by his son-in-law, L. Tarquinius, who 
ascended the vacant throne.— L. Tarquinius 
Superbus commenced his reign without any of the 
forms of election. One of the first acts of his reign 
was to abolish the rights which had been conferred 
upon the plebeians by Servius ; and at the same 
time all the senators and patricians whom he mis- 
trusted, or whose wealth he coveted, were put to 
death or driven into exile. He surrounded himself 
by a body-guard, by means of which he was 
enabled to do what he liked. His cruelty and 
tyranny obtained for him the surname of Superbus. 
But, although a tyrant at home, he raised Rome 
to great influence and power among the surround- 
ing nations. He gave his daughter in marriage to 
Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum, the most powerful 
of the Latin chiefs ; and under his sway Rome 
became the head of the Latin confederacy. He 
defeated the Volscians, and took the wealthy town 
of Suessa Pometia, with the spoils of which he 
commenced the erection of the Capitol which his 
father had vowed. In the vaults of this temple 
he deposited the Sibylline books, which the king 
purchased from a sibyl or prophetess. She had 
offered to sell him 9 books for 300 pieces of gold. 
The king refused the offer with scorn. There- 
upon she went away, and burned 3, and then 
demanded the same price for the 6. The king 
still refused. She again went away and burnt 3 
more, and still demanded the same price for the 
remaining 3. The king now purchased the 3 books, 
and the sibyl disappeared. He next engaged in 
war with Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which 
refused to enter into the league. Unable to take 
the city by force of arms. Tarquinius had recourse 
to stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending to be 
ill-treated by his father, and covered with the 
bloody marks of stripes, fled to Gabii. The infa- 
tuated inhabitants intrusted him with the com- 
mand of their troops ; whereupon he sent a mes- 
senger to his father to inquire how he should 
deliver the city into his hands. The king, 
who was walking in his garden when the mes- 
senger arrived, made no replj^, but kept striking 
off the heads of the tallest poppies with his stick. 
Sextus took the hint. He put to death or banished 
all the leading men of the place, and then had no 
difficulty in compelling it to submit to his father. 



TARQUINIUS. 746 

In the midst of his prosperity, Tarquinius fell 
through a shameful outrage committed by one of 
his sons. Tarquinius and his sons were engaged 
in besieging Ardea, a city of the Rutulians. Here, 
as the king's sons, and their cousin, Tarquinius 
Collatinus, the son of Egerius, were feasting to- 
gether, a dispute arose about the virtue of their 
wives. As nothing was doing in the field, they 
mounted their horses to visit their homes by sur- 
prize. They first went to Rome, where they sur- 
prized the king's daughters at a splendid banquet. 
They then hastened to Collatia, and there, tho_ugh 
it was late in the night, they found Lucretia, the 
wife of Collatinus, spinning amid her handmaids. 
The beauty and virtue of Lucretia had fired the 
evil passions of Sextus. A few days afterwards he 
returned to Collatia, where he was hospitably re- 
ceived by Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. In 
the dead of night he entered the chamber with a 
drawn sword : by threatening to lay a slave with 
his throat cut beside her, whom he would pretend 
to have killed in order to avenge her husband's 
honour, he forced her to yield to his wishes. As 
soon as Sextus had departed, Lucretia sent for her 
husband and father. Collatinus came, accompanied 
by L. Brutus ; Lucretius, with P. Valerius, who 
afterwards gained the surname of Publicola. They 
found her in an agony of sorrow. She told them 
what had happened, enjoined them to avenge her 
dishonour, and then stabbed herself to death. 
They all swore to avenge her. Brutus threw of? 
his assumed stupidity, and placed himself at their 
head. They carried the corpse to Rome. Brutus, 
who v/as Tribunus Celerum, summoned the people, 
and related the deed of shame. All classes were 
inflamed with the same indignation. A decree 
was passed deposing the king, and banishing him 
and his family i'rom the city. The army, encamped 
before Ardea, likewise renounced their allegiance 
to the tyrant. Tarquinius, with his two sons, 
Titus and Aruns, took refuge at Caere in Etruria. 
Sextus repaired to Gabii, his own principalit)% 
where he was shortly after murdered by the 
friends of those whom he had put to death. Tar- 
quinius reigned 24 years. He was banished B. c. 
510. The people of Tarquinii and Veii espoused 
the cause of the exiled tyrant, and marched 
against Rome. The two consuls advanced to 
meet them. A bloody battle was fought, in which 
Brutus and Aruns, the son of Tarquinius, slew 
each other. Tarquinius next repaired to Lars- 
Porsena, the powerful king of Clusium, who 
marched against Rome at the head of a vast army. 
The history of this memorable expedition is re- 
lated under Porsena. After Porsena quitted 
Rome, Tarquinius took refuge with his son-in- 
law, Mamilius Octavius of Tusculum. Under the 
guidance of the latter, the Latin states espoused 
the cause of the exiled king, and declared war 
against Rome. The contest was decided by the 
celebrated battle of the lake Regillus, in which the 
Romans gained the victory by the help of Castor 
and Pollux. Tarquinius himself was wounded, 
but escaped with his life ; his son Sextus is said 
to have fallen in this battle, though, according to 
another tradition, as we have already seen, he was 
slain by the inhabitants of Gabii. Tarquinius 
Superbus had now no other state to whom he 
could apply for assistance. He had already sur- 
vived all his family ; and he now fled to Aris- 
tobulus at Cumae, where he died a wretched and 



746 



TARRACINA. 



TARTARUS. 



childless old man. Such is the siory of the 
Tarquins according to the ancient writers ; but 
this story must not be received as a real history. 
The narrative contains numerous inconsistencies 
and impossibilities. The following is only one 
instance out of many. We are told that the 
younger Tarquinius who was expelled from Rome 
in mature age, was the son of the king who 
ascended the throne 107 years previously in the 
vigour of life ; and Servius TuUius, who mar- 
ried the daughter of Tarquinius Priscus, shortly 
before he ascended the throne, is represented im- 
mediately after his accession as the father of two 
daughters whom he marries to the brothers of his 
own wife ! 

Tarracina (Tarracinensis : Terracina), more 
anciently called Anxur (Anxurates PI.), an ancient 
town of Latium situated 58 miles S.E. of Rome on 
the Via Appia and upon the coast, with a strongly 
fortified citadel upon a higli hill, on which stood 
the temple of Jupiter Anxurus. It was probably 
a Pelasgian town originally ; but it afterwards be- 
longed to the Volsci, by whom it was called Anxur. 
It was conquered by the Romans, who gave it the 
name of Tarracina, and it was made a Roman 
colony, B. c. 329. Three miles W. of the town 
stood the grove of Feronia, with a temple of this 
goddess. The ancient walls of the citadel of Tar- 
racina are still visible on the slope of Montecchio. 

Tarraco (Tarraconensis : Tarragona), an ancient 
town on the E. coast of Spain situated on a rock 
760 ft. high, between the river Iberus and the 
PjTenees on the river Tulcis. It was founded by 
the Massilians, and was made the head quarters 
of the 2 brothers P. and Cn. Scipio, in their cam- 
paigns against the Carthaginians in the 2nd Punic 
war. It subsequently became a populous and 
flourishing town; and Augustus, who wintered 
here (b. c. 26) after his Cantabrian campaign, made 
it the capital of one of the 3 Spanish provinces 
{Hispania Tarraconensis) and also a Roman colony. 
Hence Ave find it called Colonia Tarraconensis, also 
Col. Victrix Togata and Col. Julia Victrix Tarra- 
conensis. The modern town of Tarragona is built 
to a great extent with the remains of the ancient 
city ; and Roman inscriptions may frequently be 
seen embedded in the walls of the modern houses. 
The ancient Roman aqueduct, having been repaired 
in modern times, still supplies the modern city 
with water ; and at a short distance to the N. W. 
of Tarragona, along the sea coast, is a Roman se- 
pulchre called the tower of the Scipios, although 
the real place of the burial of the Scipios is quite 
unknoAvn. 

Tarruntenus Paternus. [Paternus.] 
Tarsia (Tapair) : JRas Jird or C. Certes), a 
promontory of Carraania, on the coast of the Per- 
sian Gulf, near the frontier of Persis. The neigh- 
bouring part of the coast of Carmania was called 
Tarsiana. 

Tarsms (o TdpffLos: Tarza or Balikesri), a 
river of Mysia, rising in M. Temnus, and flowing 
N. E., through the Miletopolites Lacus, into the 
Macestus. 

Tarsus, Tarsos (TapaSs, Tapaol, TepaSs, ®ap- 
<r6s: Tapaevs, Tarsensis : Tersus, Ru.), the chief 
city of Cilicia, stood near the centre of Cilicia 
Campestris, on the river Cydnus, about 12 miles 
above its mouth, in a very large and fertile plain 
at the foot of M. Taurus, the chief pass through 
which (Pylae Ciliciae) led down to Tarsus. Its 



position gave it the full benefit of the natural ad« 
vantages of a fertile country, and the command of 
an important highway of commerce. It had also an 
excellent harbour, 12 miles from the city, which is 
filled up with sand. The city was ol unknown 
antiquity. Some ascribed its foundation to the 
Assyrian king Sardanapalus ; others to Perseus, 
in connection with Avhose legend the name of the 
city is fancifully derived from a hoof (rapaos) 
which the winged horse Pegasus lost here ; and 
others to the Argive chieftain Triptolemus, whose 
effigy appears on the coins of the city. All that 
can be determined with certainty seems to be that 
it Avas a very ancient city of the Syrians, who 
were the earliest known inhabitants of this part of 
Asia Minor, and that it received Greek settlers at 
an early period. In the time of Xenophon, who 
gives us the first historical notice of Tarsus, it was 
the capital of the Cilician prince Syennesis, and 
was taken by Cyrus. [Comp. Cilicia.] At the 
time of the Macedonian invasion, it was held by 
the Persian troops, who were about to bum it, 
when they Avere prevented by Alexander's arrival. 
After playing an important part as a military post 
in the Avars of the successors of Alexander, and 
under the Syrian kings, it became, by the peace 
betAveen the Romans and Antiochus the Great, the 
frontier city of the Syrian kingdom on the N. W. 
As the power of the Seleucidae declined, it suffered 
much from the oppression of its governors, and 
from the Avars betAveen the members of the royal 
family. At the time of the Mithridatic War, it 
suffered, on the one hand, from Tigranes, Avho 
overran Cilicia, and, on the other, from the pirates, 
who had their strongholds in the mountains of 
Cilicia Aspera, and made frequent incursions into 
the level country. From both these enemies it 
Avas rescued by Pompey, Avho made it the capital 
of the new Roman province of Cilicia, b. c. 66. In 
the Civil War, it took part with Caesar, and as- 
si;med, in his honour, the name of Juliopolis. 
For this the inhabitants were severely punished by 
Cassius, but Avere recompensed by Antony, who 
made Tarsus a free city. Under Augustus, the 
city obtained immunity from taxes, through the 
influence of the emperor's tutor, the Stoic Atheno- 
dorus, Avho Avas a native of the place. It enjoyed 
the favour, and was called by the names, of several 
of the later emperors. It was the scene of im- 
portant CA-ents in the Avars with the Persians, the 
Arabs, and the Turks, and also in the Crusades. 
The people of Tarsus Avere celebrated for their 
mental power, their readiness in repartee, and 
their fondness for the study of philosophy. Among 
the most distinguished natives of the place were : 
-the Stoics, Antipater, Archedemus, Heraclides, 
Nestor, Zeno, and the 2 Athenodori ; the Aca- 
demic, Nestor; the Epicureans, Diogenes, cele- 
brated for his powers of improvising, Lysias, Avho 
Avas for a time tyrant of the city, and Plutiades ; 
the tragic poets, Dionysides and Bion ; the satiric 
poets, Demetrius, and Boethes, Avho was also a 
troublesome demagogue ; the grammarians, Ar- 
temidorus, Diodorus, and Hermogenes ; the his- 
torian Hermogenes ; the physicians, Herodotus 
and Philo ; and, above all, the apostle Paul, Avho 
belonged to one of several families of Jcavs, Avho 
had settled at Tarsus in considerable numbers, 
under the Persian and Syrian kings. 

Tartarus (Tdprapos), son of Aether and Ge, 
and by his mother Ge the father of the Gigantes, 



J 



TARTESSUS. 

Typhoeus and Echidna. In the Iliad Tartarus is 
a place beneath the earth, as far below Hades as 
Heaven is above the earth, and closed by iron gates. 
Later poets describe Tartarus as the place in the 
lower world in which the spirits of wicked men are 
punished for their crimes ; and sometimes the}-- use 
the name as synonymous with Hades or the lower 
world in general. 

Tartessus {TaprrjaaSs : Taprrjcro-ios), an an- 
cient town in Spain, and one of the chief settle- 
ments of the Phoenicians, probably the same as 
the Tarshish of Scripture. The position of this 
town has occasioned much dispute. Most of the 
ancient writers place it at the mouth of the river 
Baetis, which, they say, was originally called 
Tartessus. Others identify it, with more proba- 
bility, witli the city of Carteia on Mt. Calpe, the 
rock of Gibraltar. The whole country W. of 
Gibraltar was also called Tartessis. 

Taruscon or Tarascon (Tarusconienses : Taras- 
con), a town of the Salyes in Gaul, on the E. bank 
of the Rhone, N. of Arelate, and E. of Nemausus. 

Tarvisium (Tarvisanus: Tr&viso)^ a town of 
Venetia in the N. of Italy, on the river Silis, 
which became the seat of a bishopric, and a place 
of importance in the middle ages. 

Tatianus (Tar lavos), a Christian writer of the 
2nd century, was born in Assyria, and was origi- 
nally a teacher of rhetoric. He was afterwards 
converted to Christianity, according to some ac- 
counts, by Justin Martyr, with whom at any rate 
he was very intimate. After Justin's death Tatian 
quitted Rome, where he had resided for some time, 
and returned into the East. There he imbibed and 
promulgated views of a Gnostic character, and gave 
rise to a new sect, called after him Tatiani. Tatian 
wrote numerous works, of which there is still ex- 
tant an Address to the Greeks (Ilphs "EWrjvas), in 
which he points out the superiority of Christianity 
to the heathen religion. The best edition of this 
work i? by Worth, Oxford, 1700. 

T. Tatius, king of the Sabines. [Romulus.] 

Tatta (vTarra: Tuz-Gol), a great salt lake 
in the centre of Asia Minor, on the Phrygian 
table-land, on the confines of Phrygia, Galatia, 
Cappadocia, and Lycaonia. It supplies the whole 
surrounding country with salt, as it doubtless did 
in ancient times. 

Tauchira or TeucMra (Taiix^ipa, Tevx^ipa: 
Taukra^ Ru.), a colony of Cyrene, on the N. W. 
coast of Cyrenai'ca, in N. Africa. Under the Pto- 
lemies, it was called Arsinoe, and was one of the 
5 cities of the Libyan Pentapolis. It became a 
Roman colony, and was fortified by Justinian. It 
was a chief seat of the worship of Cybele, who had 
here a great temple and an annual festival. 

Taulantii (TawAaJ/riot), a people of Illyria, in 
the neighbourhood of Epidamnus, frequently men- 
tioned by the Greek and Roman writers. One of 
their most powerful kings was Glaucias, a contem- 
porary of Alexander the Great, who fought against 
the latter monarch, and at a later period afforded 
an asylum to the infant Pyrrhus, and refused to 
surrender him to Cassander. 

Taunus {Taunus),, a range of mountains in 
Germany, at no great distance from the confluence 
of the Moenus (Main) and the Rhine. 

TaurasJa. [Taurxni.] 

Taurentum and Taurois (Tavpoevriov, Tav- 
poets, -evTos), a fortress belonging to Massilia, and 
near the latter city, on the S. coast of Gaul. 



TAURUS. 747 

Tauri, a wild and savage people in European 
Sarmatia, who sacrificed all strangers to a goddess 
whom the Greeks identified with Artemis. An 
account of tliis goddess is given elsewhere (p. 94, 
a). The Tauri dwelt in the peninsula which was 
called after them Chersonesus Taurica. [Cherso- 
NESUS, No. 2.] 

Tanrianum (Tauretto), a town of Bruttium on 
the Via Popilia, 23 miles S. E. of Vibo. 

Taurini, a people of Liguria dwelling on the 
upper course of the Po, at the foot of the Alps. 
Their chief town was Taurasia, afterwards colo- 
nised by Augustus, and called Augusta Tauri- 
norum (Turin). 

Tauris (Torcola), a small island off the coast of 
Illyria, between Pharus and Corcyra. 

Taurisci, a Celtic people in Noricum, and pro- 
bably the old Celtic name of the entire population 
of the country. They were subsequently called 
Norici by the Romans after their capital Noreia. 

Taurois. [Taurentum.] 

Tauromenium (Tavpofxiviov : Tavpofxevirris, 
Tauromenitanus : Taormina), a city on the E. 
coast of Sicily, situated on Mt. Taurus, from which 
it derived its name, and founded B. c. 358 by 
Andromachus with the remains of the inhabitants 
of Naxos, whose town' had been destroyed by 
Dionysius nearly 50 years before, [Naxos, 
No. 2,] Tauromenium soon became a large and 
flourishing city ; but in consequence of its espousing 
the side of Sex. Pompey against Augustus, most 
of its inhabitants were expelled from the city, and 
their place supplied by a colony of Roman vete- 
rans : hence we find the town called Col. Augusta 
Tauromenitana. From this time Tauromenium 
became a place of secondary importance. The 
hills in the neighbourhood produced excellent 
Avine. There are still remains of the ancient town, 
of which the most important is a splendid theatre 
cut out of the rock, and capable of holding from 
30,000 to 40,000 spectators, from which we may 
form some idea of the populousness of Tauro- 
menium. 

Tauroscytliae [Scythotauri]. 

Taurunum (Semlin), a strongly fortified town 
in Pannonia at the confluence of the Savus and 
the Danube, 

Taurus, Statilius, a distinguished general of 
Octavian. At the battle of Actium, b. c. 31, he 
commanded the land-forces of Octavian, which 
were drawn up on the shore. In 29 he defeated 
the Cantabri, Vaccaei, and Astures, He was consul 
in 26; and in 16, when the emperor went to Gaul, 
the government of the city and of Italy was left to 
Taurus, Avith the title of praefectus urbi. In the 
fourth consulship of Augustus, 30, Taurus built an 
amphitheatre of stone at his own expense. [Roma, 
p. 652.] 

Taurus (o Taupos, from the Aramaean Tur, a 
Idgh mountain : Taurus^ Ala-Dagh., and other spe- 
cial names), a great mountain chain of Asia. In 
its widest extent, the name was applied, by the 
later geographers, to the whole of the great chain, 
which runs through Asia from W. to E., forming 
the S. margin of the great table-land of Central 
Asia, Avhich it divides from the Mediterranean 
coast of Asia Minor, from Syria and the Tigris 
and Euphrates valley, from the low lands on the 
N. shore of the Indian Ocean, and from the 2 
great peninsulas of India. But this is not a common 
use of the name. In its usual signification, it de- 



748 TAVIUM. 

notes the mountain-chain in the S. of Asia Minor, 
which begins at the Sacrum or Chelidonium Prom, 
at the S. E. angle of Lycia, surrounds the gulf of 
Pamphylia, passing throug?i the middle of Pisidia ; 
then along the S. frontier of Lycaonia and Cappa- 
docia, which it divides from Cilicia and Com- 
magene ; thence, after being broken through by 
the Euphrates, it proceeds almost due E. through 
the S. of Armenia, forming the water-shed between 
the sources of the Tigris on the S., and the streams 
which feed the upper Euphrates and the Araxes 
on the N. ; thus it continues as far as the S. mar- 
gin of the lake Arsissa, where it ceases to bear the 
name of Taurus, and is continued in the chain 
which, under the names of Niphates, Zagros, &c., 
forms the N. E. margin of the Tigris and Euphrates 
valley. This main chain sends off branches which 
are nearly as important as itself. In the middle of 
the frontier between Cilicia and Cappadocia, E. of 
the Cilician Gates, the Antitaurus branches off 
to the N. E. In the E. of Cilicia, the Amanus 
goes off to the S. W. and S. Immediately E. of 
the Euphrates, a branch proceeds to the S. E., 
forming, under the name of Masius, the frontier 
between Armenia and Mesopotamia, and dividing 
the valley of the Upper Tigris from the waters 
which flow through Mesopotamia into the Eu- 
phrates. The Taurus is of moderate height, for 
the most part steep, and wooded to the summit. 
Its general character greatly resembles the moun- 
tains of central Germany. 

Tavium (Taoui'oj', Taviov : prob. Boghaz Kieni, 
Ru.), the capital of the Trocmi, in Galatia, stood 
on the E. side of the Halys, but at some distance 
from the river, and formed the centre of meeting 
for roads leading to all parts of Asia Minor. It 
was therefore a place of considerable commercial 
importance. It had a temple and bronze colossus 
of Zeus. 

Taxila or Taxiala (ra Td'^iXa, Ta^iaXa). an im- 
portant city of India intra Gangem, stood in a 
large and fertile plain between the Indus and the 
Hydaspes, and was the capital of the Indian king 
Taxiles, in the time of Alexander. Its position 
has not been identified. It is not, as Major 
Rennell supposed. Attack; and there is no large 
city remaining Avhich exactly answers to its po- 
sition. 

Taxiles (Ta^iXrjs). 1. An Indian prince or 
king, who reigned over the tract between the Indus 
and the Hj^daspes, at the period of the expedition 
of Alexander, B.C. 327. His real name wasMophis, 
or Omphis, and the Greeks appear to have called 
him Taxiles or Taxilas, from the name of his ca- 
pital city of Taxila, near the modern Attock. On 
the approach of Alexander he hastened to meet 
him with valuable presents, and was in consequence 
confirmed in his kingdom by the Macedonian mo- 
narch.— 2. A general in the service of Mithridates 
the Great, and one of those in whom he reposed 
the highest confidence. 

Taygete (Tai>76'T7j), daughter of Atlas and I'le- 
ione, one of the Pleiades, from whom Mt. Taygetus 
in Laconia is said to have derived its name. By 
Zeus she became the mother of Lacedaemon and 
of Eiirotas. 

Taygetus orTaygetum or Taygeta {Tauyeros, 
TavjETOp, ra Tavyera pi.), a lofty range of moun- 
tains of a wild and savage character, separating 
Laconica and Messenia, and extending from the 
frontiers of Arcadia down to the Prom. Taenarura. 



TEGEA. 

Its highest points were called Taletus and Evoras, 
about 3 miles S. of Sparta. Taygetus is said to 
have derived its name from the nymph Taygete. 

Teanum (Teanensis). 1. Apulum (nr. Ponte 
Rotto\ a town of Apulia on the river Frento and 
the confines of the Frentani, 18 miles from Lari- 
num. — 2. Sidicinum ( Teano), an important town 
of Campania, and the capital of the Sidicini, situ- 
ated on the N. slope of Mt. Massicus and on the 
Via Praenestina, G miles W. of Cales. It was 
made a Roman colony by Augustus ; and in its 
neighbourhood were some celebrated medicinal 
springs. 

Tearus (Teapos: Teara^ Deara or Dere\ a 
river of Thrace, the waters of which were useful 
in curing cutaneous diseases. Herodotus relates 
that it rises from 38 fountains, all flowing from the 
same rock, some warm and others cold. It falls 
into the Contadesdus ; this into the Agrianes ; and 
the latter again into the Hebrus. 

Teate (Teatinus: CJiieti), the capital of the 
Marrucini, situated on a steep hill on the river 
Atemus, and on the road from Atemum to Cor- 
finium. 

Tecmessa (TeK/xTjo-aa), the daughter of the 
Phrygian king Teleutas, whose territory was ra- 
vaged hy the Greeks during a predatory excursion 
from Troy. Tecmessa was taken prisoner, and was 
given to Ajax, the son of Telamon, by whom she 
had a son, Eurysaces. 

Tecmon (TeKjuwf), a town of the Molossi in 
Epirus. 

Tectaeus and Angelion (Te/craTos koL ^Ayye- 
Kiwv), early Greek statuaries, who are always 
mentioned together. They were pupils of Dipoenus 
and Scyllis, and instructors of Callon of Aegina ; 
and therefore they must have flourished about B.C. 
548. 

Tectosages (Te/cTo'(ra7es). 1. In Gallia. [Vol- 
CAE.] — 2. In Asia Minor. [Galatia.] 

Tecum or Ticis ( Tedi\ a river in Gallia Narbo- 
neiisis in the territory of the Sardones, called 
lUiberis by the Greeks from a town of this name 
upon the river. 

Tedanius, a river in Illyricura, separating 
lapydia and Liburnia. 

Tegea (T^yia). 1. (T€76aTT7J : Piali), an im- 
portant city of Arcadia, and the capital of the 
district Tegeatis (TeyearLs), which was bounded 
on the E. by Argolis and Laconica, on the S. by 
Laconica, on the W. by Maenalia, and on the N. 
by the territory of Mantinea. It was one of the 
most ancient towns of Arcadia, and is said to have 
been founded by Tegeates, the son of Lycaon. 
It was formed out of 9 small townships, which 
were united into one city by Aleus, who was thus 
regarded as the real founder of the city. At a 
later time we find Tegea divided into 4 tribes, 
each of which possessed a statue of Apollo Agyieus, 
who Avas especially honoured in Tegea. The 
Tegeatae long resisted the supremacy of Sparta ; 
and it was not till the Spartans discovered the 
bones of Orestes that they were enabled to con- 
quer this people. The Tegeatae sent IWOO men 
to the battle of Plataea, in which they were dis- 
tinguished for their bravery. They remained 
faithful to Sparta in the Peloponnesian war ; but 
after the battle of Leuctra they joined the rest of 
the Arcadians in establishing their independence. 
During the wars of the Achaean league Tegea 
was taken both by Cleomenes, king of Sparta, and 



TELAMON. 



TELEMACHUS. 



749 



Antigoijus Doson, king of Macedonia, and the 
ally of the Achaeans. It continued to be a place 
of importance in the time both of Strabo and 
Paiisanias. Its most splendid public building was 
the temple of Athena, which was the largest and 
most magnificent building in the Peloponnesus. 
It was erected soon after B. c. 394, in place of a 
more ancient temple of this goddess, which was 
burnt down in this year. The architect was 
Scopas, and the sculpture in the pediments were 
probably by the hand of Scopas himself. — 2. A 
town in Crete, said to have been founded by Aga- 
memnon. 

Telamon (TeAa/j-wv), son of Aeacus and Endei's, 
and brother of Peleus. Having assisted Peleus in 
slaying their half-brother Phocus [Peleus], Te- 
lamon was expelled from Aegina, and came to Sala- 
mis. Here he was first married to Glance, daughter 
of Cychreus, king of the island, on whose death Te- 
lamon became king of Salamis. He afterwards 
married Periboea or Eriboea, daughter of Alcathous, 
by whom he became the father of Ajax, who is 
hence frequently called Telamoniades, and Telamo- 
nius heros. Telamon himself was one of the 
Calydonian hunters and one of the Argonauts. 
He was also a great friend of Hercules, whom 
he joined in his expedition against Laomedon 
of Troy, which city he was the first to enter. 
He there erected an altar to Hercules Calliniciis or 
Alexicacus. Hercules, in return, gave to him 
Theanira or Hesione, a daughter of Laomedon, 
by whom he became the father of Teucer and 
Trambelus. On this expedition Telamon and Her- 
cules also fought against the Meropes in Cos, on 
account of Chalciope, the beautiful daughter of 
Eurypylus, the king of the Meropes, and against the 
giant Alcioneus, on the isthmus of Corinth. Tela- 
mon likewise accompanied Hercules on his expe- 
dition against the Amazons, and slew Melanippe. 

Telamon {Telamone), a town and harbour of 
Etruria, a few miles S. of the river Umbro, said to 
have been founded by Telamon on his return from 
the Argonautic expedition. In its neighbourhood 
a great victory was gained over the Gauls in B c. 
225. It was here that Marius landed on his 
return from Africa in 87. Telamon was un- 
doubtedly the port of the great Etruscan city 
recently discovered in its neighbourhood, which is 
supposed to be the ancient Vetulonia. 

Telchines (J^Kxives), a family or a tribe, said 
to have been descended from Thalassa or Poseidon. 
They are represented in 3 different aspects : — 1. 
As cultivators of the soil and ministers of the gods. 
As such they came from Crete to Cyprus and from 
thence to Rhodes, where they founded Camirus, 
lalysus, and Lindus. Rhodes, which was named 
after them Telchiuis, was abandoned by them, be- 
cause they foresaw that the island would be inun- 
dated. They then spread in different directions. 
Lycus went to Lycia, where he built the temple of 
the Lycian Apollo. This god had been worshipped 
by them at Lindus, and Hera at lalysus and 
Camirus. Nymphs also are called after them 
Telchiniae. Poseidon was intrusted to them by 
Rhea, and they brought him up in conjunction 
Avith Caphira, a daughter of Oceanus. Rhea, 
Apollo and Zeus, however, are also described as 
hostile to the Telchines. Apollo is said to have 
assumed the shape of a wolf, and_to have thus 
destroyed the Telchines, and Zeus to have over- 
whelmed them by an inundation. 2. As sorcerers 



and envious daemons. Their very eyes and aspect 
are said to have been destructive. They had it in 
their power to bring on hail, rain, and snow, and 
to assume any form they pleased ; they further 
mixed Stygian water with sulphur, in order thereby 
to destroy animals and plants. '6. As artists, for 
they are said to have invented useful arts and in- 
stitutions, and to have made images of the gods. 
They worked in brass and iron, made the sickle of 
Cronos and the trident of Poseidon. This last 
feature in the character of the Telchines seems to 
have been the reason of their being classed with the 
Idaean Dactyls ; and Strabo even states that those 
of the 9 Rhodian Telchines who accompanied Rhea 
to Crete, and there brought up the infant Zeus, 
were called Curetes. 
Teleboae. [Taphiae.] 

Teleboas {Tr]Ae§6as), a river of Armenia Major, 
falling into the Euphrates ; probably identical 
with the Arsanias. 

Teleclides (TrjAeKAetSTjs), a distinguished Athe- 
nian comic poet of the Old Comedy, flourished 
about the same time as Crates and Cratinus, and a 
little earlier than Aristophanes. He was an earnest 
advocate of peace, and a great admirer of the an- 
cient manners of the age of Themistocles. 

Teleclus (TTjAe/cAos), king of Sparta, 8th of the 
Agids, and son of Archelaus. He was slain by 
the Messenians, in a temple of Artemis Limnatis, 
on the borders. His death was the immediate oc- 
casion of the 1st Messenian war, B. c. 743. 

Telegonus (Tr]\4yovos), son of Ulysses and 
Circe. After Ulysses had returned to Ithaca, 
Circe sent out Telegonus in search of his father. 
A storm cast his ship on the coast of Ithaca, and 
being pressed by hunger, he began to plunder the 
fields. Ulysses and Telemachus being informed of 
the ravages caused by the stranger,' went out to 
fight against him ; but Telegonus ran Ulysses 
through with a spear which he had received from 
his mother. At the command of Athena, Telego- 
nus, accompanied by Telemachus and Penelope, 
went to Circe in Aeaea, there buried the body of 
Ulysses, and married Penelope, by whom he be- 
came the father of Italus. In Italy Telegonus was 
believed to have been the founder of the towns of 
Tusculura and Praeneste. He left a daughter Ma- 
milia, from whom the family of the Mamilii traced 
their descent. 

Telemachus (Tr]\eixaxos)y son of Ulysses and 
Penelope. He was still an infant when his father 
went to Troy ; and when the latter had been absent 
from home nearly 20 years, Telemachus went to 
Pylos and Sparta, to gather information concerning 
him. He was hospitably received by Nestor, who 
sent his own son to conduct Telemachus to Sparta. 
Menelaus also received him kindly, and communi- 
cated to him the prophecy of Proteus concerning 
Ulysses. From Sparta Telemachus returned home ; 
and on his arrival there he found his father, whom 
he assisted in slaying the suitors. According to 
some accounts, Telemachus became the father of 
Perseptolis either by Polycaste, the daughter of 
Nestor, or by Nausicaa, the daughter of Alcinous. 
Others relate that he was induced by Athena to 
marry Circe, and became by her the father of La- 
tinus ; or that he married Cassiphone, a daughter 
of Circe, but in a quarrel with his mother-in-law 
slew her, for which he was in his turn killed by 
Cassiphone. One account makes Telemachus the 
founder of Clusium in Etruria. 



TELEMUS. 



TEMPE. 



Telemus (Tr)\e/j.os), son of Eurymus, and a cele- 
brated soothsayer. 

Telephassa (T-qA^cpacrcra), wife of Agenor, and 
mother of Europa, Cadmus, Phoenix, and Cilix. 
She, with her sons, went out in search of Europa, 
who had been carried off by Zeus ; but she died 
on the expedition, and was buried by Cadmus. 

Telephus (TTjAe^os), son of Hercules and Auge, 
the daughter of king Aleus of Tegea. As soon as 
be was born he was exposed by his grandfather, 
but was reared by a hind (eAa^os), and educated 
by king Corythus in Arcadia. On reaching man- 
hood, he consulted the Delphic oracle to learn his 
parentage, and was ordered to go to king Teuthras 
in Mysia. He there found his mother, and suc- 
ceeded Teuthras on the throne of Mysia. He 
married Laodice or Astyoche, a daughter of Priam ; 
and he attempted to prevent the Greeks from land- 
ing on the coast of Mysia. Dionysus, however, 
caused him to stumble over a vine, v/hereupon he 
Avas wounded by Achilles. Being informed by an 
oracle that the wound could only be cured by him 
who had inflicted it, Telephus repaired to the Gre- 
cian camp ; and as the Greeks had likewise learnt 
from an oracle that without the aid of Telephus 
they could not reach Troy, Achilles cured Telephus 
by means of the rust of the spear by which he 
had been wounded. Telephus, in return, pointed 
out to the Greeks the road which they had to take. 

Telepte. [Thala.] 

Telesia (Telesinus: Telese), a town in Sam- 
nium, on the road from Allifae to Beneventum, 
taken by .Hannibal in the 2nd Punic war, and 
afterwards retaken by the Romans. It was colo- 
nised by Augustus with a body of veterans. It 
was the birthplace of Pontius, who fought against- 
Sulla, and who was hence surnamed Telesinus. 

TelesiUa (TeAeViAAa), of Argos, a celebrated lyric 
poetess and heroine, flourished about B.C. 510. In 
the war of Argos against Sparta, she not only en- 
couraged her coimtrymen by her lyre and song, but 
she took up arms at the head of a band of her 
countrywomen, and greatly contributed to the vic- 
tory which they gained over the Spartans. In 
memory of this exploit, her statue was erected in 
the temple of Aphrodite at Argos, with the em- 
blems of a poetess and a heroine ; Ares was wor- 
shipped in that city as a patron deity of women ; 
and the prowess of her female associates was com- 
memorated by the annual festival called Hyhristica. 
Only 2 complete verses of her poetry are extant. 

Telesinus, Pontius. [Pontius ] 

Telestas or Telestes (TeAeo-ras, TeAeVrTjs), of 
Selinus, a distinguished poet of the later Athenian 
dithyramb, flourished B. c. 398. A few lines of 
his poetry are preserved by Athenaeus. 

Telethrius (TeAeSpios), a mountain in the N. of 
Euboea near Histiaea. 

Tellenae, a town in Latium between the later 
Via Ostiensis and the Via Appia, destroyed by 
Ancus Martins. 

TeUus. [Gaea.] 

Telmessus or Telmissus (TeXfirjaaos^ TeA- 
ui(ra6s : TcAfxricra-evs, TeAiUicrcewy). 1. (Mei, the 
port of Maori, Ru.), a city of Lycia, near the 
borders of Caria, on a gulf called Telmissicus 
Sinus, and close to the promontory Telmissis. — 2. 
A town of Caria, 60 stadia (6 geog. miles) from 
Halicarnassus, celebrated for the skill of its in- 
habitants in divination. It is often identified 
with the former place. 



Telo Martius (Toulon), a port-town of Gallia 
Narbonensis on the Mediterranean, is rarely men- 
tioned by the ancient writers, and did not become 
a place of importance till the downfal of the Roman 
empire. 

Telos (TrjAoy: TtjAjos : Telos or Fiskopi), a 
small island of the Carpathian sea, one of the 
Sporades, lay off the coast of Caria S.W. of the 
mouth of the Sinus Doridis, between Rhodes and 
Nisyrus. It was also called Agathussa. 

Telphussa. [Thelpusa.] 

Temenidae. [Temenus.] 

Temenites (TefxeviTris), a surname of Apollo, 
derived from his sacred temenus in the neighbour- 
hood of Syracuse. 

Temenus (TTj^ez/os), son of Aristomachus, was 
one of the Heraclidae who invaded Peloponnesus. 
After the conquest of the peninsula, he received 
Argos as his share. His descendants, the Teme- 
nidae, being expelled from Argos, are said to have 
founded the kingdom of Macedonia, whence the 
kings of Macedonia called themselves Temenidae. 

T^mesa or Tempsa (Temesaeus or Tempsanus : 
Torre del Lupi), a town in Bruttium on the Sinus 
Terinaeus, was one of the most ancient Ausonian 
towns in the S. of Italy, and is said to have been 
afterwards colonised by a body of Aetolians under 
Thoas. At a still later time it was successively in 
the possession of the Locrians, of the Bruttians, 
and finally of the Romans, who colonised it in b. c. 
196. Some of the ancients identified this town 
with Temese mentioned by Homer as celebrated 
for its copper mines ; but the Homeric town was 
probably in Cyprus. 

Temnus. 1. {rh T^fivou opos: Morad or Ak 
Dagli), a mountain of Mysia, extending E.-ward 
from Ida to the borders of Phrygia, and dividing 
Mysia into 2 parts. It contains the sources of the 
Macestus, Mysius, Caicus, and Evenus. — 2. 
{Menimen ? or Guzal-Hisarf), a city of Aeolis in 
the N.W. of Lydia (some say in Mysia), on the 
W. bank of the Hermus, 30 miles S. of Cj-me. 
It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in the 
reign of Tiberius, and in that of Titus (Phny's 
time) it no longer existed. 

Tempe (Te^TTTj contr. of Te^Trea), a beautiful 
and romantic valley in the N. of Thessaly between 
Mts. Olympus and Ossa, through which the Peneus 
escapes into the sea. The lovely scenery of this 
glen is frequently described by the ancient poets 
and declaimers ; and it was also celebrated as one 
of the favourite haunts of Apollo, who had trans- 
planted his laurel from this spot to Delphi. The 
whole valley is rather less than 5 miles in length, 
and opens gradually to the E. into a spacious plain. 
Tempe is also of great importance in history, as it 
is the only pass through which an army can invade 
Thessaly from the N. In some parts the rocks on 
each side of the Peneus approach so close to each 
other as only to leave room between them for the 
stream ; and the road is obliged to be cut out of 
the rock in the narrowest point. Tempe is the only 
channel through which the waters of the Thessa- 
lian plain descend into the sea ; and it was the 
common opinion in antiquity that these waters had 
once covered the countr|^:with a vast lake, till an 
outlet was formed for them by some great convul- 
sion in nature, which rent the rocks of Tempe 
asunder. So celebrated was the scenery of Tempe 
that its name was given to any beautiful valley. 
Thus we find a Tempe in the land of the Sabines 



TEMPYRA. 



TERENTIANUS. 751 



nearReate, through which the river Velinus flowed ; 
and also a Tempe in Sicily, through which the 
river Helorus flowed, hence called by Ovid Tempe 
Heloria. 

Tempyra, a town in Thrace at the foot of a 
narrow mountain pass between Mt. Rhodope and 
the coast. 

Tencteri or Tencliteri, a people of Germany 
dwelling on the Rhine between the Ruhr and the 
Sieg, S. of the Usipetes, in conjunction with whom 
their name usually occurs. They crossed the Rhine 
together with the Usipetes, with the intention of 
settling in Gaul ; but they were defeated by Caesar 
with great slaughter, and those who escaped took 
refuge in the territories of their S. neighbours, the 
Sygambri. The Tencteri afterwards belonged to 
the league of the Cherusci, and at a still later 
period they are mentioned as a portion of the con- 
federacy of the Franks. 

Tenedos or Tenedus (TeVeSos : TeveSios), a 
small island of the Aegean sea, off the coast of 
Troas, of an importance very disproportionate to 
its size, on account of its position near the mouth 
of the Hellespont, from which it is about 12 miles 
distant. Its distance from the coast of the Troad 
was 40 stadia (4 geog. miles), and from Lesbos 
56 stadia : its circuit was 80 stadia. It was 
called, in early times, by the names of Calydna, 
Leucophrys, Phoenice, and Lyrnessus. The 
mythical derivation of its usual name is from 
Tenes, son of Cycnus. It had an Aeolian city of 
the same name, with 2 harbours. Its name ap- 
pears in several proverbs, such as Tei/e5ios vreAeKus, 
T. 'dv9pcono9, T. av\7]Tr]s, T. kukok It appears in 
the legend of the Trojan War as the station to 
which the Greeks withdrew their fleet, in order to 
induce the Trojans to think that they had departed, 
and to receive the wooden horse. In the Persian 
War it was used by Xerxes as a naval station. 
It afterwards became a tributary ally of Athens, 
and adhered to her during the whole of the Pelo- 
ponnesian War, and down to the peace of An- 
talcidas, by which it was surrendered to the 
Persians. At the Macedonian conquest the Te- 
nedians regained their liberty. In the war against 
Philip III., Attains and the Romans used Tenedos 
as a naval station, and in the Mithridatic War 
Lucullus gained a naval victory over Mithridates 
off the island. About this time the Tenedians 
placed themselves under the protection of Alex- 
andria Troas. The island was celebrated for the 
beauty of its women. 

Tenes or Tennes {Tr]vvns), son of Cycnus and 
Proclea, and brother of Hemithea. Cycnus was 
king of Colonae in Troas. His 2nd wife was Phi- 
lonome, who fell in love with her stepson ; but as 
he repulsed her advances, she accused him to his 
father, who threw both his son and daughter in a 
chest into the sea. But the chest was driven on ! 
the coast of the island of Leucophrys, of which the 
inhabitants elected him king, and which he called 
Tenedos, after his own name. Cycnus at length 
heard of the innocence of his son, killed Philonome, 
and went to his children in Tenedos. Here both 
Cycnus and Tenes were slain by Achilles. Tenes 
was afterwards worshipped as a hero in Tenedos. 

Tenos (Trivos : Trjiyios : Tino), a small island 
in the Aegaean sea, S. E. of Andros and N. of 
Delos. It is about 15 miles in length. It was 
originally called Hydmssa (Tdpovaaa) because it 
was well watered, and Ophmssa (jOcpiovara-a) be- 



cause it abounded in snakes. It possessed a town 
of the same name on the site of the modern .S*. Ni- 
coh. It had also a celebrated temple of Poseidon, 
which is mentioned in the time of the emperor 
Tiberius. The wine of Tenos was celebrated in 
antiquity and is still valued at the present day. 

Tentyra (ra Teurvpa : T€VTvpLT7]s, Tentyrites : 
Denderali^ Ru.), a city of Upper Egypt, on the 
W. bank of the Nile, between Abydos and Coptos, 
with celebrated temples of Athor (the Egyptian 
Venus), Isis, and Typhon. Its people were dis- 
tinguished for their hatred of the crocodile ; and 
upon this and the contrary propensities of the 
people of Ombi, Juvenal founds his loth satire. 
[Ombi.] There are still magnificent remains of 
the temples of Athor and of Isis : in the latter 
was found the celebrated Zodiac, which is now 
preserved at Paris. 

Teos Tews : TTjioy, Teius : Sigliajik), one of 
the Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor, re- 
nowned as the birthplace of the lyric poet Ana- 
creon. It stood on the S. side of the isthmus 
which connects the peninsula of M. Mimas with 
the mainland of Lydia, at the bottom of the bay 
between the promontories of Coryceum and Myon- 
nesus. It was a flourishing seaport, until, to free 
themselves from the Persian yoke, most of its in- 
habitants retired to Abdera. It was still, how- 
ever, a place of importance in the time of the 
Roman emperors. It had 2 harbours, and a cele- 
brated temple of Dionysus. 

Teredon (TeprjScoj/: prob. Dorah\ a city of 
Babylonia, on the W. side of the Tigris, below its 
junction with the Euphrates, and not far from its 
mouth. It was a great emporium for the traffic 
with Arabia. It is no doubt the Biridotis {Aip'i- 
ScoTis^ of Arrian. 

Terentia. 1. Wife of M. Cicero, the orator, to 
whom she bore 2 children, a son and daughter. 
She was a woman of sound sense and great reso- 
lu@53ii ; and her firmness of character was of no 
small service to her weak and vacillating husband in 
some important periods of his life. On his banish- 
ment in B. c. 58, Tullia by her letters endeavoured 
to keep up Cicero's fainting spirits, and she vigo- 
rously exerted herself on his behalf among his 
friends in Italy. During the civil war however 
Cicero was offended with her conduct, and divorced 
her in 46. Shortly afterwards he married Publilia, 
a young girl of whose property he had the manage- 
ment. Terentia could not have been less than 50 
at the time of her divorce, and therefore it is not 
probable that she married again. It is related, 
indeed, by Jerome, that she married Sallust the 
historian, and subsequently Messala Corvinus ; but 
these marriages are not mentioned by any other 
writer, and may therefore be rejected. Terentia is 
said to have attained the age of 103. — 2. Also 
called Terentilla, the wife of Maecenas, and also 
one of the favourite mistresses of Augustus. The 
intrigue between Augustus and Terentia is said to 
have disturbed the good understanding which sub- 
sisted between the emperor and his minister, and 
finally to have occasioned the disgrace of the 
latter. 

Terentianus Maurus, a Roman poet, probably 
lived at the end of the first or the beginning of the 
second century under Nerva and Trajan, and was 
a native of Africa, as his surname, Maurus, indi- 
cates. There is still extant a poem of Terentianus, 
intitled De Literis, Syllabis, Pedihus, Metris, which 



752 



TERENTIUS. 



TERGESTE. 



ti'eats of prosody and the different kinds of metre 
with much elegance and skill. The work is printed 
by Santen and Van Lennep, Traj. ad Rhen. 1825, 
and by Lachniann, Berol. 1836. 

P. Terentius Mer, usually called Terence, the 
celebrated comic poet, was born at Carthage, b. c. 
1 95. By birth or purchase he became the slave of 
p. Terentius Lucanus, a Roman senator. A hand- 
some person and promising talents recommended 
Terence to his master, who afforded him the best 
education of the age and finally manumitted him. 
On his manumission, according to the usual prac- 
tice, Terence assumed his patron's nomen, Te- 
rentius, having been previously' called Publius 
or Publipor. The Andria was the first play 
offered by Terence for representation. The curule 
aediles referred the piece to Caecilius, then one of 
the most popular play-writers at Rome. Unknown 
and meanly clad, Terence began to read from a low 
stool his opening scene. A few verses showed the 
elder poet that no ordinary writer was before him, 
and the young aspirant, then in his 27th year, was 
invited to share the couch and supper of his judge. 
This reading of the Andria, however, must have 
preceded its performance nearly two years, for 
Caecilius died in 168, and it was not acted till 
166. Meanwhile, copies were in circulation, envy 
was awakened, and Luscius Lavinius, a veteran, 
and not very successful play-writer, began his un- 
wearied attacks on the dramatic and personal cha- 
racter of the author. The Andria was successful, 
and, aided by the accomplishments and good ad- 
dress of Terence himself, was the means of intro- 
ducing him to the most refined and intellectual 
circles of Rome. His chief patrons were Laelius 
and the younger Scipio, both of whom treated him 
as an equal, and are said even to have assisted him 
in the composition of his plays. After residing 
some years at Rome, Terence went to Greece, and 
while there he translated 108 of Menander's come- 
dies. He never returned to Itah', and we have 
various accounts of his death. According to one 
story, after embarking at Brundusium, he was 
never heard of more ; according to others, he died 
at Styraphalus in Arcadia, in Leucadia, or at 
Patrae in Achaia, One of his biographers said 
he was drowned, with all the fruits of his sojourn 
in Greece, on his home-passage. But the pre- 
vailing report was, that his translations of Me- 
nander were lost at sea, and that grief for their 
loss caused his death. He died in the 36th year 
of his age, in 159, or in the year following. He 
left a daughter, but nothing is known of his fa- 
mily. Six comedies are all that remain to us ; and 
thej- are probably all that Terence produced. His 
later versions of Menander were, in all likelihood, 
from their number and the short time in which 
they were made, merely studies for future dramas 
of his own. They were brought forward at the 
following seasons. \. Andria, ''the "Woman of 
Andros," so called from the birth-place of Gly- 
cerium, its heroine, was first represented at the 
Megalesian Games, on the 4th of April, 166. 
2. Hecyra, " the Step-Mother," produced at the 
Megalesian Games, in 165. 3. Heaidoji-timorou- 
menos, " the Self-Tormentor," performed at the 
Megalesian Games, 163. 4. Eunuchus, "the Eu- 
nuch," played at the Megalesian Games, 162. 
It w^as at the time the most popular of Terence's 
comedies. 5. PJiormio, was performed in the 
same year with the preceding, at the Roman 



Games on the 1st of October. 6. Adelptii, "the" 
Brothers," was acted for the first time at the 
funeral games of L. Aemilius PauUus, 160. The 
comedies of Terence have been translated into 
most of the languages of modern Europe, and in 
conjunction with Plautus were, on the revival of 
the drama, the models of the most refined play- 
writers. The ancient critics are unanimous in 
ascribing to Terence immaculate purity and ele- 
gance of language, and nearly so in denying him 
vis comica. But it should be recollected that 4 of 
Terence's 6 plays are more or less sentimental 
comedies — in which vis comica is not a primary 
element. Moreover, Terence is generally contrasted 
with Plautus, with whom he had very little in 
common. Granting to the elder poet the highest 
genius for exciting laughter, and a natural force 
which his rival wanted, there will remain to 
Terence greater consistency of plot and character, 
closer observation of generic and individual dis- 
tinctions, deeper pathos, subtler wit, more skill 
and variety in metre and in rhythm, and a wider 
command of the middle region between sport and 
earnest. It may be objected that Terence's supe- 
riority in these points arises from his copying his 
Greek originals more servilely. But no servile 
copy is an animated copy, and we have correspond- 
ing fragments enough of Menander to prove that 
Terence retouched and sometimes improved his 
model. In summing up his merits we ought not 
to omit the praise which has been universally 
accorded him — that, although a foreigner and a 
freedraan, he divides with Cicero and Caesar the 
palm of pure Latinity. The best editions of 
Terence are by Bentley. Cantab. 1726, 4to., 
Amstel. 1727, 4to., Lips. 1791, 8vo. ; by "VVester- 
hovius, Hagae Com. 1727, 2 vols. 4to. ; and by 
Stallbaum, Lips. 1830, 8vo. 

Terentius Culleo. [Culleo.] 

Terentius Varro. [ Varro.] 

Teres (Jvpv^). 1. King of the Odrj-sae and 
father of Sitalces, was the founder of the great 
Odrysian monarchy. — 2. King of a portion of 
Thrace in the time of Philip of Macedon. 

Tereus (Trjpevs), son of Ares, king of the Thra- 
cians in Daulis, afterwards Phocis. Pandion, king 
of Attica, who had 2 daughters, Philomela and 
Prccne, called in the assistance of Tereus against 
some enemy, and gave him his daughter Procne 
in marriage. Tereus became by her the father of 
Itys, and then concealed her in the country, that 
he might thus marry her sister Philomela whom he 
deceived by saying that Procne was dead. At the 
same time he deprived Philomela of her tongue. 
Ovid {^^et. vi. 565) reverses the story by stating 
that Tereus told Procne that her sister Philomela 
was dead. Philomela, however, soon learned the 
truth, and made it known to her sister by a few 
words which she wove into apeplus. Procne there- 
upon killed her own son Itys, and served up the 
flesh of the child in a dish before Tereus. She 
then fled with her sister. Tereus pursued them with 
an axe, and when the sisters were overtaken they 
prayed to the gods to change them into birds. 
Procne, accordingly, became a nightingale, Philo- 
mela a swallow, and Tereus a hoopoo. According 
to some, Procne became a swallow, Philomela a 
nightingale^ and Tereus a hawk. 

Tergeste (Tergestinus : Trieste), a town of 
Istria, on a bay in the N. E. of the Adriatic gulf, 
called after it Tergestinus Sinus. It was at iirst 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. TARENTUM — THASOS, 




COIXS OF CITIES AXD COUXTRIES. THEBES — THYATIR A. 




Tralles. Page 788. 




TroT, or Ilium. Page 79^. 




To face p. 753.] 



TERIA. 



TETRICUS. 



an insignificant place, with wliich the Romans be- 
came acquainted in their wars with the lapydes ; 
but under the Roman dominion it became a town 
of considerable commercial importance. It was 
made a Roman colony by Vespasian. 

Teria {T-npeirjs opos alirv, Hom.), a mountain 
of Mysia, probably in the neighbourhood of Cyzi- 
cus. Some identified it with a hill near Lanip- 
sacus, on which was a temple of Cybele. 

Terias {Guaralunga), a river in Sicily near 
Leontini. 

Teridates. [Tiridates.] 

Terina (Terinaeus : St. Eufemia)^ a town on 
the W. coast of Bruttium, from which the Sinus 
Terinaeus derived its name. It was a Greek city 
founded by Croton, and was originally a place of 
some importance ; but it was destroyed by Han- 
nibal in the 2nd Punic war. 

Teriolis or Teriola Castra, a fortress in Rhae- 
tia, which has given its name to the country of the 
Tyrol. Its site is still occupied by the Castle of 
Tyrol, lying above Meran, to the N. of the road. 

Termantia, Termes, or Termesus (Termesti- 
nus or Termesius : Ermita de nuestra Senora de 
Tiermes), a town of the Arevaci in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, originally situated on a steep hill, the 
inhabitants of which frequently resisted the Ro- 
mans, who compelled them in consequence to aban- 
don the town, and build a new one on the plain, 
B. c. 98. ^ 

Termera (ra Tep^epa), a Dorian city in Caria, 
on the promontory Termerium (Tep/^epioi'). the 
N. W. headland of the Sinus Ceramicus. Under 
the Romans, it was a free city. 

Termessus {Tepfx-naaSs, and other forms : prob. 
Shenet, Ru.), a city of Pisidia, high up on the 
Taurus, in the pass through which the river 
Catarrhactes flowed. It was almost impregnable 
by nature and art, so that even Alexander did not 
attempt to take it. 

Terminus, a Roman divinity presiding over 
boundaries and frontiers. His worship is said to 
have been instituted by Numa, who ordered that 
every one should mark the boundaries of his landed 
property by stones consecrated to Jupiter, and at 
these boundary-stones every year sacrifices should 
be offered at the festival of the Terminalia. The 
Terminus of the Roman state originally stood be- 
tween the 5th and 6th milestone on the road 
towards Laurentum, near a place called Festi. 
Another public Terminus stood in the temple of 
Jupiter in the Capitol. It is said that when this 
temple was to be founded, all the gods gave way 
to Jupiter and Juno, with the exception of Ter- 
minus and Juventas, whose sanctuaries the au- 
guries would not allow to be removed. This was 
taken as an omen that the Roman state would 
remain ever undiminished and young, and the 
chapels of the two divinities were inclosed within 
the walls of the new temple. It is however 
probable that the god Terminus is no other than 
Jupiter himself, in the capacity of protector of 
boundaries. 

Terpander (T!epi:avhpos), the father of Greek 
music, and through it of lyric poetry. He was a 
; native of Antissa in Lesbos, and flourished between 
( B. c. 700 and 650. He removed from Lesbos to 
Sparta, and there introduced his new system of 
music, and established the first musical school or 
system that existed in Greece. He added 3 strings 
to the lyre, which before his time had only 4 



strings, thus making it seven-stringed. His music 
produced a powerful effect upon the Spartans, and 
he was held in high honour by them, during his 
life and after his death. He was the first who 
obtained a victory in the musical contests at the 
festival of the Carnea (676). We have only 3 or 
4 fragments of the remains of his poetry. 

Terpsichore (Tepi|/ixopa), one of the 9 Muses, 
presided over the choral song and dancing. [Mu- 

SAE.] 

Terra. [Gaea.] 

Terracina, more usually written Tarracina. 
[Tarracina.] 

Tertullianus, Q. Septimius Florens. usually 
called Terttlllian, the most ancient of the Latin 
fathers now extant. Notwithstanding the celebrity 
which he has always enjoyed, our knowledge of 
his personal history is extremely limited, and is 
derived almost exclusively from a succinct notice 
by St. Jerome. From this we learn that Ter- 
tuUian was a native of Carthage, the son of a pro- 
consular centurion (an officer who appears to have 
acted as a sort of aide-de-camp to provincial 
governors) ; that he flourished chiefly during the 
reigns of Septimius Severus and of Caracalla ; that 
he became a presbj'ter, and remained orthodox 
until he had reached the term of middle life, when, 
in consequence of the envy and ill-treatment which 
he experienced on the part of the Roman clergy, 
he went over to the Montanists, and wrote several 
books in defence of those heretics ; that he lived to a 
great age, and was the author of many works. His 
birth may be placed about a. d. 160, and his death 
about 240. The most interesting of his numerous 
works is his Apologia, or defence of Christianitj'. 
It was written at Carthage, probably during the 
reign of Severus. The writings of TertuUian show 
that he was a man of varied learning ; but his 
style is rough, abrupt, and obscure, abounding in 
far-fetched metaphors and extravagant hyperboles. 
The best editions of the complete works of Ter- 
tuUian are the one printed at Venice, 1744, fo., 
and the one edited by Semler and by Schutz, 
6 vols. 8vo. Hal. 1770. There is a good edition 
of the Apologeticus, by Havercamp, 8vo. Lug. Bat. 
1710. 

Testa, C. Trebatius, a Roman jurist, and a 
contemporary and friend of Cicero. He was 
recommended by Cicero to Julius Caesar during 
his proconsulship of Gaul, and he followed Caesar's 
party after the civil war broke out. Cicero dedi- 
cated to Trebatius h's book of Topiea, which he 
wTote to explain to him this book of Aristotle. 
Trebatius enjoyed considerable reputation under 
Augustus as a lawyer. Horace addressed to him 
the 1st Satire of the 2nd Book. Trebatius was a 
pupil of Q. Cornelius Maximus, and master of 
Labeo. He wrote some books De Jure Civili, and 
De Religionibus. He is often cited in the Digest, 
but there is no direct excerpt from his writings. 

Tethys (T7]0T^s), daughter of Uranus and Gaea, 
and wife of Oceanus, by whom she became the 
mother of the Oceanides and of the numerous 
river-gods. She also educated Hera, who was 
brought to her by Rhea. 

Tetrica, a mountain on the frontiers of Pisenum 
and the land of the Sabines, belonging to tlie great 
chain of the Apennines. 

Tetricus, C. Pesuvius, one of the Thirty Ty- 
rants, and the last of the pretenders who ruled Gaul 
during its separation from the empire under Gallienus 

8o 



754 



TEUCER 



THALES. 



and his successor. He reigned in Gaul from a, d. 
2 G7 to 274, and -was defeated by Aurelian in 274, 
at the battle of Chalons, on Avhich occasion he ivas 
believed to have betrayed his army to the emperor. 
It is certain that although Tetricus, along v:ith. his 
son, graced the triumph of the conqueror, he was 
immediately afterwards treated -with, the greatest 
distinction by Aurelia]). 

Teucer (TevKpos). 1. Son of the river-god Sca- 
mander by the Njniph Idaea, was the first kmg 
of Troy, whence the Trojans are sometimes called 
Tezicri. Dardanus of Samothrace came to Teucer, 
received his daughter Batea or Arisbe in marriage, 
and became his successor in the kingdom. Accord- 
ing to others, Dardanus was a native prince of 
Troy, and Scamander and Teucer immigrated into 
Troas from Crete, bringiiig Avith them the worship 
of Apollo Smintheus. — 2. Son of Telamon and 
Hesione, was a step-brother of Ajax, and the best 
archer among the Greeks at Troy. On his return 
from the Trojan war, Telamon refused to receive 
him in Salamis, because he had not avenged the 
death of his brother Ajax. Teucer thereupon 
Bailed away in search of a new home, which he 
found in the island of Cyprus, which was given to 
him by Belus, king of Sidon. He there founded 
the town of Salamis, and married Eune, the daugh- 
ter of Cyprus, by whom he became the father of 
Asteria. 

Tencri. [Mysia; Troas.] 

Teumessus (Tey^Tjtj-cros), a mountain in Boeotia, 
near Hypatus, and close to Thebes, on the road 
from the latter place to Chalcis. It was from this 
mountain that Dionysus, enraged with the Thebans, 
sent the fox which committed such devastations in 
their territory, 

Tenta (TeCra), wife of Agron, king of the Illy- 
rians, assumed the sovereign power on the death 
of her husband, B. c. 231. In consequence of the 
injuries inflicted by the piratical expeditions of her 
subjects upon the Italian merchants, the Romans 
sent tv.-o ambassadors to demand satisfaction, but 
she not only refused to comply v,-ith their demands, 
but caused the younger of the two brothers to be 
assassinated on his way home. "War was now de- 
clared against her by the Romans. The greater 
part of her territory was soon conquered, and she 
was obliged to sue for peace, which was granted to 
her (B.C. 228), on condition of her giving up the 
greater part 'of her dominions. 

Teutlirania. [Mysia.] 

Tentliras (T^vdpas), an ancient king of Mysia, 
who married, or, according to other accounts, 
adopted as his daughter Auge, the daughter of 
Aleus. He also received with hospitality her son 
Telephus, when the latter came to Asia in search 
of his mother. He was succeeded in the kingdom 
of Mysia by Telephus, [Telephus.] The 30 
daughters of Teuthras. given as a reward to Her- 
cules, are called by Ovid Teutlirantia turha. 

Tenthras (Teufipas : prob, Demirji-Dagh), a 
mountain in the Mysian district of Teuthrania, a 
S.W, branch of Temnus. It contains a celebrated 
pass, called the Iron Gates {Demir Kapa)^ through 
which all caravans between Smyrna and Brusa 
(the ancient Prusias) must needs pass. 

Tentohurgiensis Saltus, a range of hills in 
Germany covered with wood, extending N. of the 
Lippe, from Osnabriick to Paderborn, and known 
in the present day by the name of the Teutohurger 
Wald or Lippisdie Wald. It is celebrated on ac- 



count of the defeat and destruction of Varus and 
'6 Roman legions by the Germans under Arminius, 

A. D. 9. 

Teutones or Teutoni, a powerful people in Ger- 
man}-, who invaded Gaul and the Roman dominions 
along with the Cimbri, at the latter end of the 2nd 
centmy b, c. The history of their invasion is 
given under Cimbri. The name Teutones is not 
a collective name of the whole people of Germany, 
as some writers have supposed, but only of one 
particular tribe, who probably dwelt on the coast 
of the Baltic, near the Cimbri, 

Thabor, Tabor, or Atabyrium (KraSvpiov 
LXX, : "IraSvpiov^ Joseph. : Jehel Tur), an isolated 
mountain at the E. end of the plain of Esdraelon in 
Galilee, between 1700 and 1800 feet high. Its 
summit was occupied by a fortified town, under 
the Maccabees and the Romans. This is quite 
enough to prove that it cannot be, as a local tm- 
dition asserts, the lonely mountain on which our 
Saviour was transfigured ; although the tradition 
has been bolstered up by a variation of the modern 
name of the mountain, which makes it Jebel jVur, 
i. e. the ?,Iountain of Light. 

Thabraca or Tabraca (QaSpaKa, TdSaOpa : To- 
barca). a city of Numidia, at the mouth of the 
river Tusca, and on tlie frontier towards Zeugi- 
tana. 

Thais (0ais), a celebrated Athenian courtezan, 
who accompanied Alexander the Great on his ex- 
pedition into Asia, Her name is best known from 
tlie story of her having stimulated the conqueror 
during a great festival at Persepolis, to set fire to 
the palace of the Persian kings : but this anecdote, 
immortalized as it has been by Dryden's famous 
ode, is in all probability a mere fable. After the 
death of Alexander, Thais attached herself to 
Ptolemy Lagi, by Avhom she became the mother of 
two sons, Leontiscus and Lagus, and of a daughter 
Irene, 

Thala (0aAa), a great city of Numidia, men- 
tioned by Sallust and other writers, and probably 
identical with Telepte (TeAeTrri^) or Thelepte, a 
city in the S. of Numidia, 71 Roman miles N.W. 
of Capsa. It was the S. W. frontier town towards 
the desert, and was connected by a road with 
Tacape on the Syrtis Minor. It is probably to 
be identified with Ferianah, or with the large 
ruins near it, called Medinah el Kadima. 

Thalamae {QaXdixai). 1. A fortified town in 
Elis, situated in the mountains above Pylos.— 2. 
A towTi in Messenia, probably a little to the E. of 
the river Pamisus. 

Thalassius, Talassius, or Talassio, a Roman 
senator of the time of Romulus. At the time of 
the rape of the Sabine women, when a maiden of 
surpassing beaut}" was carried oft' for Thalassius, 
the persons conducting her, in order to protect her 
against any assaults from others, exclaimed " for 
Thalassius." Hence, it is said, arose the wedding 
shout with which a bride at Rome was conducted 
to the house of her bridegroom. 

Thales (QaAT??), the Ionic philosopher, and one 
of the Seven Sages, was born at Miletus about 

B. c. 636, and died about 546, at the age of 90, 
though the exact date neither of his birth nor of 
his death is known. He is said to have predicted 
the eclipse of the sun, which happened in the reign 
of the Lydian king Alyattes ; to have diverted the 
course of the Halys in the time of Croesus ; and 
later, in order to unite the lonians when threatened. 



THALES. 



THEAGENES. 



76b 



by the Persians, to have instituted a federal council 
in Teos. In the lists of the Seven Sages his name 
seems to have stood at the head ; and he displayed 
his Avisdom both by political sagacity, and by 
prudence in acquiring wealth. He was also one 
of the founders in Greece of the study of philo- 
sophy and mathematics. In the latter science 
however we find attributed to him only proofs of 
propositions which belong to the first elements of 
geometry, and which could not possibly have enabled 
him to calculate the eclipses of the sun, and the 
course of the heavenly bodies. He may however 
have obtained his knowledge of the higher branches 
of mathematics from Egypt, which country he is 
said to have visited. Thales maintained that water 
is the origin of things, meaning thereby, that it is 
water, out of which every thing arises, and into 
which every thing resolves itself. Thales left no 
works behind him. 

Thales or Thaletas (QaXrjs, ©aX-fjTas), the 
celebrated musician and lyric poet, was a native of 
Gortyna in Crete. On the invitation of the Spar- 
tans he removed to Sparta, where, by the influence 
of his music, he appeased the wrath of Apollo, who 
had visited the city with a plague, and composed 
the factions of the citizens, who were at enmity 
with each other. He founded the 2nd of the 
musical schools, which flourished at Sparta, the 1st 
having been established by Terpander. The date 
of Thaletas is uncertain, but he may probably be 
placed shortly after Terpander. [Terpander.] 

Thalia (OaAeici, ®aKia). 1. One of the 9 Muses 
and, at least in later times, the Muse of Comedy. 
[MusAE.]— =2. One of the Nereides. — 3. One 
of the Charites or Graces. 

Thallo. [Horak] 

Thalna or Talna, M'. Juventius, was tribune of 
the plebs b. c. 170 ; praetor 167 ; and consul 163, 
when he subdued the Corsicans. The senate voted 
him the honour of a thanksgiving ; and he was so 
overcome with joy at the intelligence, which he 
received as he was offering a sacrifice, that he 
dropt down dead on the spot. 

Tliambes (Qd/xS-ns, &d,uiJLr]s, Qdn-qs), a moun- 
tain in the E. of Numidia, containing the source of 
the river Rubricatus. 

Thamydeni or Thamyditae {&afxvSr]vo'L^ 0a/xu- 
Strai), a people of Arabia Felix, on the coast of 
the Sinus Arabicus, in the neighbourhood of IVie- 
mond. 

Thamyris or Thamyras (©a^i/pis), an ancient 
Thracian bard, was a son of Philammon and the 
nymph Argiope. In his presumption he chal- 
lenged the Muses to a trial of skill, and being 
overcome in the contest, was deprived by them of 
his sight and of the power of singing. He was 
represented Avith a broken lyre in. his hand. 

Thanatos. [Mors.] 

Thapsa, a city of N. Africa, probably identical 

with RUSICADA. 

Thapsacus {&d\^aKos : 0. T. Thiphsach : an 
Aramean Avord signified a ford : QarpaKr^vos : Ru. 
at the ford of El-Hamman, near RahJcah), a city 
of Syria, in the province of Chalybonitis, on the 
left bank of the Euphrates, 2000 stadia S. of 
Zeugma, and 15 parasangs from the mouth of the 
river Chaboras (the Araxes of Xenophon). At 
this place was the usual, and for a long time the 
only ford of the Euphrates, by which a passage 
was made between Upper and Lower Asia. 

Tiiapsus (@d\]ios : S(b\i:os\ 1. A citj on the 



E. coast of Sicily on a peninsula of the same name 
{Isola degli Magnisi), founded by Dorian colonists 
from Megara, Avho soon abandoned it in order to 
found Megara Hybla. ■— 2. {Demas^ Ru.), a city 
on the E. coast of Byzacena, in Africa Propria, 
Avhere Caesar finally defeated the Pompeian army, 
and finished the civil war, b. c. 46. 

ThSsos or Thasus {©daos : Qdaios : Thaso or 
Tasso), an island in the N. of the Aegaean sea, 
olF the coast of Thrace and opposite the mouth of 
the river Nestus. It was at a very early period 
taken possession of by the Phoenicians, on account 
of its valuable gold mines. According to tradition 
the Phoenicians were led by Thasus, son of Posei- 
don, or Agenor, who came from the East in search 
of Europa, and from Avhom the island derived its 
name. Thasos was afterwards colonised by the 
Parians, e. c. 708, and among the colonists was the 
poet Archilochus. Besides the gold mines in Tha- 
sos itself, the Thasians possessed still more valuable 
gold mines at Scapte Hyle on the opposite coast of 
Thrace. The mines in the island had been most 
extensively vi^orked by the Phoenicians, but even 
in the time of Herodotus they Avere still productive. 
The clear surplus revenue of the Thasians before 
the Persian conquest amounted to 200, and some- 
times even to 300 talents (46,000^., 66,000^.), of 
Avhich sum the mines in Scapte Hyle produced 80 
talents, and those in the island someAvhat less. 
They possessed at this time a considerable terri- 
tory on the coast of Thrace, and Avere one of the 
richest and most poAverful peoples in the N. of the 
Aegaean. They Avere subdued by the Persians 
under Mardonius, and subsequently became part of 
the Athenian maritime empire. They revolted, 
however, from Athens in B. c. 465, and after sus- 
taining a siege of 3 years, were subdued by Ci- 
mon in 463. They Avere obliged to surrender to 
the Athenians all their possessions in Thrace, to 
destroy their fortifications, to give up their ships, 
and to pay a large tribute for the future. They 
again revolted from Athens in 411, and called in 
the Spartans, but the island AA'as again restored to 
the Athenians by Thrasybulus in 407. In addition 
to its gold mines, Thasos Avas celebrated for its 
marble and its Avine. The soil, however, is other- 
Avise barren, and merits even at the present day 
the description applied to it by the poet Archilo- 
chus, — " an ass's back-bone, overspread Avith Avild 
Avood." The principal town in the island, also 
called Thasos, Avas situated on the N. coast upon 
3 eminences. There are still a feAV remains of 
the ancient town. 

Thaumas (Qav/jLas), son of Pontus and Ge, and 
by the Oceanid Electra, the father of Iris and the 
Harpies. Hence Iris is called Thaumantias, Thau- 
mantis^ and Tltaumaniea virgo. 

Theaetetus (OeatTTjros), an Athenian, the son 
of Euphronius of Sunium, is introduced as one of 
the speakers in Plato's Theaetetus and SopMstes, in 
Avhich dialogues he is spoken of as a noble and 
Avell-disposed youth ; and ardent in the pursuit of 
knowledge, especially in the study of geometry. 

Theagenes (Qeayhrjs). 1. Tyrant of Megara. 
obtained his power about B. c. 630, having espoused 
the part of the commonalty against the nobles. 
He was driven out before his death. He gave his 
daughter in marriage to Cylon. [CvLON.] — -2. A 
Thasian, the son of Timosthenes, renowned for his 
extraordinary strength and swiftness. He gained 
numerous victories at the Olympian, P3^thian, 

8c 2 



756 



TIIEANO. 



THEBAE. 



Nemean, find Isthmian games, and is said to have 
won 1300 crowns. He floniished b c. 480. 

Theano (Qeaud)^ daughter of Cisseus, wife of 
Antenor, and priestess of Athena at Ilion. 

Tbeano (©eavw), the most celebrated of the 
female philosophers of the Pythagorean school, 
appears to have been the wife of Pythagoras, and 
the mother by him of Telauges, Mnesarchus, Myia, 
and Arignote ; but the accounts respecting her 
were various. Several letters are extant under her 
name ; and, though they are not genuine, they are 
valuable remains of a period of considerable anti- 
quity. 

Thebae (0f;§ai), in the poets sometimes Thebe 
(€fri€v. Dor. 07]§a), aft. Diospolis Magna (Aioa-no- 
Xls jue7aA77, i. e. Great City of Jove), in Scripture 
No or No Ammon, was the capital of Tliebais, or 
Upper Egypt, and, for a long time, of the whole 
countrj'. It was reputed the oldest city of the 
world. It stood in about the centre of the The- 
baid, on both banks of the Nile, above Coptos, and 
in the Nomos Coptites. It is said to have been 
founded by Aetliiopians ; but this is of course only 
a form of the tradition which represents the civili- 
sation of Upper Egypt as having come down the 
Nile. Others ascribed its foundation to Osiris, 
who named it after his mother, and others to Bu- 
siris. It appears to have been at the height of its 
splendour, as the capital of Egypt, and as a chief 
seat of the worship of Ammon, about b. c. 1600. 
The fame of its grandeur had reached the Greeks 
as early as the time of Homer, who describes it, 
with poetical exaggeration, as having a hundred 
gates, from each of Avhich it could send out 200 
war chariots fully armed. Homer's epithet of 
"Hundred-Gated" {eKaTo/xirvKoi) is repeatedly 
applied to the city by later wTiters. Its real extent 
was calculated by the Greek writers at 140 stadia 
(14 geog. miles) in circuit ; and in Strabo's time, 
when the long transference of the seat of power to 
Lower Egypt had caused it to decline greatly, it 
still had a circuit of 80 stadia. That these compu- 
tations are not exaggerated, is proved by the exist- 
ing ruins, which extend from side to side of the 
valley of the Nile, here about 6 miles wide; while 
the rocks which bound the valley are perforated 
with tombs. These ruins, which are perhaps the 
most magnificent in the world, enclose within their 
site the 4 modern villages of Carnac, Liixor, Me- 
dinet Ahou, and Gournou ; the 2 former on the 
E., and the 2 latter on the W. side of the river. 
They consist of temples, colossi, sphinxes, and obe- 
lisks, and, on the W. side, of tombs, many of 
which are cut in the rock and adorned with paint- 
ings, which are still as fresh as if just finished. 
These ruins are remarkable alike for their great 
antiquity, and for the purity of their style. It is 
most probable that the great buildings were all 
erected before the Persian invasion, when Thebes 
wa£ taken by Cambyses, and the wooden habita- 
tions burnt ; after Avhich time it never regained the 
rank of a capital city; and thus its architectural 
monuments escaped that Greek influence which is 
so marked in the edifices of Lower Egypt. Among 
its chief buildings, the ancient writers mention the 
Memnonium, with the 2 colossi in front of it. the 
temple of Ammon, in which one of the 3 chief 
colleges of priests was established, and the tombs 
of the kings. To describe the ruins and discuss 
their identification, would far exceed the limits of 
this article. 



Thebae, in Europe. 1. (0^§aj, in Poetry 
0T^§77, Dor. 077ga : ©rjgaTos, fem. 0T7§ats, Theba- 
nus, fem. Thebais: Theha^ Turkish Siiva)^ the 
chief city in Boeotia, was situated in a plain S. E. 
of the lake Hylice and N. E. of Plataeae. Its 
acropolis, which was an oval eminence of no great 
height, was called Cadmea (KaS/xei'a), because it 
was said to have been founded by Cadmus, the 
leader of a Phoenician colony. On each side of 
this acropolis is a small valle)', running up from the 
Theban plain into the low ridge of hills by which 
it is separated from that of Plataeae. Of these 
valleys, the one to the W. is watered by the Dirce ; 
and the one to the E. by the Ismenus ; both of 
which however are insignificant streamlets, though 
so celebrated in ancient story. The greater part 
of the city stood in these valleys, and was built 
some time after the acropolis. It is said that the 
fortifications of the city were constructed by Am- 
phion and his brother Zethus ; and that, when 
Amphion played his lyre, the stones moved of their 
own accord and formed the wall. The territory of 
Thebes was called Thebais (0r]§ats), and extended 
E. -wards as far as the Euboean sea. No city is 
more celebrated in the mythical ages of Greece 
than Thebes. It was here that the use of letters 
was first introduced from Phoenicia into W. Eu- 
rope. It was the reputed birthplace of the 2 great 
divinities, Dionysus and Hercules. It was also the 
native city of the great seer Tiresias, as well as 
of the great musician Amphion. It was the scene 
of the tragic fate of Oedipus, and of one of the 
most celebrated wars in the mythical annals of 
Greece. Polynices, who had been expelled from 
Thebes by his brother Eteocles, induced 6 other 
heroes to espouse his cause, and marched against 
the city ; but they were all defeated and slain by 
the Thebans, with the exception of Adrastus, Po- 
lynices and Eteocles falling by each other's liands. 
This is usually called the war of the " Seven 
against Thebes." A few years afterwards " The 
Epigoni," or descendants of the seven heroes, 
marched against Thebes to revenge their fathers' 
death ; they took the city and rased it to the 
ground. Thebes is not mentioned by Homer in 
the catalogue of the Greek cities which fought 
against Troy, as it was probably supposed not yet 
to have recovered from its devastation by the Epi- 
goni. It appears however at the earliest historica. 
period as a large and flourishing city ; and it is 
represented as possessing 7 gates, the number as- 
signed to it in the ancient legends. Its govern- 
ment, after the abolition of monarchy, was an 
aristocracy, or rather an oligarchy, which conti- 
nued to be the prevailing form of government for a 
long time, although occasionally exchanged for 
that of a democracy. Towards the end of the Pe- 
loponnesian war, however, the oligarchy finally 
disappears ; and Thebes appears under a democra- 
tical form of government from this time, till it De- 
came with the rest of Greece subject to the Romans. 
The Thebans were from an early period invete- 
rate enemies of their neighbours, the Athenians. 
Their hatred of the latter people was probably one 
of the reasons which induced them to desert the 
cause of Grecian liberty in the great struggle against 
the Persian power. In the Peloponnesian war the 
Thebans naturally espoused the Spartan side, and 
contributed not a little to the downfal of Athens. 
But, in common with the other Greek states, they 
soon becauie disgusted with the Spartan supremacy. 



THEBAIS. 

and joined the confederacy formed against Sparta 
in B. c. 394. The peace of Antalcidas in 387 put 
an end to hostilities in Greece ; but the treacherous 
seizure of the Cadmea by the Lacedaemonian ge- 
neral Phoebidas in 382, and its recovery by the 
The ban exiles in 379, led to a war between Thebes 
and Sparta, in which the former not only recovered 
its independence, but for ever destroyed the Lace- 
daemonian supremacy. This was the most glorious 
period in the Theban annals ; and the decisive 
defeat of the Spartans at the battle of Leuctra in 
371, made Thebes the first power in Greece. Her 
greatness however was mainly due to the pre- 
eminent abilities of her citizens, Epaminondas and 
Pelopidas ; and with the death of the former at the 
battle of Mantinea in 362, she lost the supremacy 
which she had so recently gained. Soon after- 
wards Philip of Macedon began to exercise a para- 
mount influence over the greater part of Greece. 
The Thebans were induced, by the eloquence of 
Demosthenes, to forget their old animosities against 
the Athenians, and to join the latter in protecting 
the liberties of Greece ; but their united forces 
were defeated by Philip, at the battle of Chaero- 
nea, in 338. Soon after the death of Philip and 
the accession of Alexander, the Thebans made a 
last attempt to recover their liberty, but were 
cruelly punished by tlie young king. The city 
was taken by Alexander in 336, and was entirely 
destroyed, with the exception of the temples, and 
the house of the poet Pindar ; 6000 inhabitants 
were slain, and 30,000 sold as slaves. In 316 the 
city was rebuilt by Cassander, with the assistance 
of the Athenians. In 290 it was taken by Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes, and again suffered greatly. Di- 
caearchus, who flourished about this time, has left 
us an interesting account of the city. He describes 
it as about 70 stadia (nearly 9 miles) in circum- 
ference, in form nearly circular, and in appearance 
somewhat gloomy. He says that it is plentifully 
provided with water, and contains better gardens 
than any other city in Greece ; that it is most 
agreeable in summer, on account of its plentiful 
supply of cool and fresh water, and its large gar- 
dens ; but that in winter it is very unpleasant, 
being destitute of fuel, exposed to floods and cold 
winds, and frequently visited by heav}- falls of 
snow. He further represents the people as proud 
and insolent, and always ready to settle disputes 
by fighting, rather than by the ordinary course of 
justice. It is supposed that the population of the 
city at this time may have been between 50,000 
and 60,000 souls. After the Macedonian period 
Thebes rapidly declined in importance ; and it re- 
ceived its last blow from Sulla, Avho gave half of 
its territory to the Delphians. Strabo describes 
it as only a village in his time ; and Pausanias, 
who visited it in the 2nd century of the Christian 
era, says that the Cadmea alone was then in- 
liabited. The modern town is also confined to 
this spot, and the surrounding country is covered 
with a confused heap of ruins — 2. Surnamed 
Phthioticae {Q7i€ai at ^didoTiSes), an important 
city of Thessaly in the district Phthiotis, at a short 
distance from the coast, and with a good harbour. 
— 3. A town in Lucania, rarely mentioned. 
Thebais. [Aegyptus.] 

Thebe (0rj§r? 'TTroTrAa/ctTj), a city of Mysia, on 
the wooded slope of M. Placus, destroyed by 
Achilles. It was said to have been the birthplace 
of Andromache and Chrysei's. It existed in the 



THEMISTiaS. 767 

historical period, but by the time of Strabo it had 
fallen into ruin, and by that of Pliny it had va- 
nished. Its site was near the head of the Gulf of 
Adramyttium, Avliere a beautiful tract of country 
was named, after it, Thebanus campus (rh ©rjgrjj 
ired'iou). 

Thecoa or Tekoa(0eK:Ja, Joseph.: ©eWLXX.: 
Tekua, Ru.), a city of Judaea, on the edge of the 
desert, 6 miles S. of Bethlehem, and 12 S. of Je- 
rusalem, was the birthplace of the prophet Amos. 
(See also 2 Chron. xi.) In the time of Jerome, it 
was a mere village. 

Thelpiisa orTelphussa (QeXirova-a^TeXcpovo-a-a: 
TeXcpovmos : nr. Vanena Ru.), a town in Arcadia 
on the river Ladon. 

Thenian, a city of the Edomites, in Arabia Pe- 
traea, whose people were celebrated for their 
wisdom. 

Themis (©exit's), daughter of Uranus and Ge, 
was married to Zeus, by whom she became the 
mother of the Horae, Eunomia, Dice (Astraea), 
Irene, and of the Moerae. In the Homeric poems, 
Themis is the personification of the order of things 
established by law, custom, and equity, whence 
she is described as reigning in the assemblies of 
men, and as convening, by the command of Zeus, 
the assembly of the gods. She dwells in Olympus, 
and is on friendly terms with Hera. She is also 
described as a prophetic divinity, and is said to 
have been in possession of the Delphic oracle as 
the successor of Ge, and previous to Apollo. 
Nymphs believed to be daughters of Zeus and 
Themis lived in a cave on the river Eridanus, and 
the Hesperides also are called daughters of Zeus 
and Themis. She is often represented on coins 
resembling the figure of Athena with a cornucopia 
and a pair of scales. 

Themiscyra {Qi'/ia-Kvpa)^ a plain on the coast 
of Pontus, extending E. of the river Iris bej^ond the 
Thermodon, celebrated from very ancient times as 
the country of the Amazons. It was well watered, 
and rich in pasture. At the mouth of the Ther- 
modon was a city of the same name, which had 
been destroyed by the time of Augustus. It is 
doubtful whether the present Thermeh occupies its 
site. [Thermodon.] 

Themison {Qefxicwv), a celebrated Greek phy- 
sician, and the founder of the medical sect of the 
Methodici, was a native of Laodicea in Syria, and 
lived in the first century B.C. He wrote several 
medical works, but of these only the titles and a 
few fragments remain. The physician mentioned 
by Juvenal was probably a contemporary of the 
poet, and consequently a different person from the 
founder of the Methodici. 

ThemistlUS (0e/xicrTiOs), a distinguished phi- 
losopher and rhetorician, was a Paphlagonian, and 
flourished, first at Constantinople and afterwards 
at Rome, in the reigns of Constantius, Julian, 
Jovian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius. He 
enjoyed the favour of all those emperors, and was 
promoted by them to the highest honours of the 
state. After holding various public oflices, and 
being employed on many important embassies, he 
was made prefect of Constantinople by Theodosius, 
A. D. 384. So great was the confidence reposed in 
him by Theodosius, that, though Themistius was 
a heathen, the emperor entrusted his son Arcadius 
to the tutorship of the philosopher, 387. The life 
of Themistius probably did not extend beyond 
390. Besides the emperors, he numbered among 

8c 3 



758 



THEMISTOCLES. 



THEMISTOCLES. 



his friends the chief orators and philosophers of 
the age, Christian as well as heathen. Not only 
Libanius, but Gregory of Nazianzus also was his 
friend and correspondent, and the latter, in an 
epistle still extant, calls hira the " king of argu- 
ments." The orations (ttoXltikoI Kdyoi) of The- 
mistius, extant in the time of Photius, were 36 in 
number, of which 33 have come down to us in the 
original Greek, and one in a Latin version. The 
other two were supposed to be lost, until one of 
them was discovered by Cardinal Maio, in the 
Ambrosian Library at Milan, in 1816. The best 
edition of the Orations is by Dindorf, Lips. 1 832, 8 vo. 

Themistocles (Oe^io-rofcATjs), the celebrated 
Athenian, was the son of Neocles and Abrotonon, 
a Thracian woman, and was born about b. c. 514. 
In his youth he had an impetuous character ; he 
displayed great intellectual power combined with 
a lofty ambition and desire of political distinction. 
He began his career by setting himself in opposi- 
tion to those who had most power, among whom 
Aristides was the chief. The fame which Mil- 
tiades acquired by his generalship at Marathon 
made a deep impression on Themistocles ; and he 
said that the trophy of Miltiades would not let him 
sleep. His rival Aristides was ostracized in 483, 
to which event Themistocles contributed ; and 
from this time he was the political leader in 
Athens. In 481 he was Archon Eponymus. It 
was about this time that he persuaded the 
Athenians to employ tlie produce of the silver 
mines of Laurium in building ships, instead of 
distributing it among the Athenian citizens. His 
great object was to draw the Athenians to the sea, 
as he was convinced that it was only by their fleet 
that Athens could repel the Persians and obtain 
the supremacy in Greece. Upon the invasion of 
Greece by Xerxes, Themistocles Avas appointed to 
the command of the Athenian fleet ; and to his 
energy, prudence, foresight, and courage the Greeks 
mainly owed their salvation from the Persian 
dominion. Upon the approach of Xerxes, the 
Athenians, on the advice of Themistocles, deserted 
their city, and removed their women, children, and 
infirm persons to Salamis, Aegina, and Troezen ; 
but as soon as the Persians took possession of 
Athens, the Peloponnesians were anxious to retire 
to the Corinthian isthmus. Themistocles used all 
his influence in inducing the Greeks to remain 
and fight Avith the Persians at Salamis, and Avith 
the greatest difficulty persuaded the Spartan com- 
mander Eurybiades to stay at Salamis. But as 
soon as the fleet of Xerxes made its appearance, the 
Peloponnesians were again anxious to sail away ; 
and when Themistocles saw that he should be un- 
able to persuade them to remain, he sent a faithful 
slave to the Persian commanders, informing them 
that the Greeks intended to make their escape, 
and that the Persians had noAv the opportunity of 
accomplishing a noble enterprise, if they would 
only cut off the retreat of the Greeks. The Per- 
sians believed what they were told, and in the 
night their fleet occupied the whole of the channel 
between Salamis and the mainland. The Greeks 
were thus compelled to fight ; and the result Avas 
the great and glorious victorj', in Avhich the greater 
part of the fleet of Xerxes AA-as destroj^ed. This 
victory, Avhich Avas due to Themistocles, established 
his reputation among the Greeks. On his visiting 
Sparta, he was received Avith extraordinary honours 
hy the Spartans, Avho gave Eurybiades the palm 



of braA-erj', and to Themistocles the palm of wisdom 
and skill, with a crown of olive, and the best 
chariot that Sparta possessed. The Athenians 
began to restore their ruined city after the bar- 
barians had left the country, and Themistocles 
advised them to rebuild the' Avails, and to make 
them stronger than before. The Spartans sent 
an embassy to Athens to dissuade them from forti- 
fying their city, for which aa^c can assign no motive 
except a miserable jealousy. Themistocles, hoAv- 
ever, went on an embassy to Sparta, Avhere he 
amused the Spartans Avith lies, till the Avails Avere 
far enough advanced to be in a state of defence. It 
Avas upon his advice also that the Athenians forti- 
fied the port of Piraeus. The influence of The- 
mistocles does not appear to have surA'ived the 
expulsion of the Persians from Greece and the 
fortification of the ports. He was probably justly 
accused of enriching himself by unfair means, for 
he had no scruples about the Avay of accomplishing 
an end. A story is told, that after the retreat of 
the fleet of Xerxes, AA'hen the Greek fleet Avas 
Avmtering at Pagasae, Themistocles told the Athe- 
nians in the public assembly that he had a scheme 
to propose AA^hich was beneficial to the state, but 
could not be expounded to the many. Aristides 
Avas named to receive the secret, and to report 
upon it. His report Avas that nothing could be 
more profitable than the scheme of Themistocles, 
but nothing more unjust ; and the Athenians 
abided by the report of Aristides. In 471 The- 
mistocles AA^as ostracised from Athens, and retired 
to Argos. After the discover}- of the treasonable 
correspondence of Pausanias with the Persian 
king, the Lacedaemonians sent to Athens to ac- 
cuse Themistocles of being privy to the design of 
Pausanias. Thereupon the Athenians sent off 
persons Avith the Lacedaemonians with instruc- 
tions to arrest Themistocles (466). Themistocles, 
hearing of Avhat AA'as designed against him, first 
fled from Argos to Corcyra, and then to Epirus, 
Avhere he took refuge in the house of Admetus, 
king of the Molossi, A\'ho happened to be from 
home. Admetus Avas no friend to Themistocles, 
but his wife told the fugitive that he Avould be 
protected if he AA^ould take their child in his arms, 
and sit on the hearth. The king soon came in, 
and respecting his suppliant attitude, raised him 
up, and refused to surrender him to the Lace- 
daemonian and Athenian agents. Themistocles 
finally reached the coast of Asia in safety-. Xerxes 
Avas noAv dead (465), and Artaxerxes Avas on the 
throne. Themistocles AA'ent up to visit the king 
at his royal residence ; and on his arrival he sent 
the king a letter, in AA^hich he promised to do the 
k'ng a good service, and praj-ed that he might be 
allowed to A\-ait a j^ear, and then to explain per- 
sonally what brought him there. In a year he 
made himself master of the Persian language and 
the Persian usages, and, being presented to the 
king, he obtained the greatest influence OA-er him, 
and such as no Greek ever before enjoyed; partly 
OAving to his high reputation and the hopes that 
he gave to the king of subjecting the Greeks to 
the Persians. The king gave hira a handsome 
allowance, after the Persian fashion ; Magnesia 
supplied him Avith bread nominally, but paid hira 
annually fifty talents. Lampsacus supplied Avine, 
and M}-us the other provisions. Before he could 
accomplish any thing he died ; some say that he 
poisoned himself, finding that he could not perform 



TEEMISTOGENES. 



THEODORETUS. 



759 



his promise to the king. A monument was erected 
to his memory in the Agora of Magnesia, which 
place was within his government. It is said that 
his bones were secretly taken to Attica by his re- 
lations, and privately interred there. Themistocles 
died in 449, at the age of 65. Themistocles un- 
doubtedly possessed great talents as a statesman, 
great political sagacity, a ready wit, and excellent 
judgment : but he was not an honest man ; and, 
like many other clever men with little morality, 
he ended his career unhappily and ingloriously, an 
exile and a traitor too. 21 letters attributed to 
Themistocles are spurious. 

Themistogenes (Qe/xia-royhrji), of Syracuse, is 
said by Xenophon (Hell. iii. 1. § 2) to have written 
a work on the Anabasis of Cyrus ; but most mo- 
dern writers, following the statement of Plutarch, 
suppose that Xenophon really refers to his own 
work, to which he prefixed the name of Themis- 
togenes. 

Theocles {QeoKhrjs), son of Hegylus, was a 
Lacedaemonian statuary, and one of the disciples 
of Dipoenus and Scyllis. He therefore flourished 
about B. c. 550. 

Theoclymenus (Q€OKXvjj.evos), son of Polj-- 
phides of Hyperasia, and a descendant of Me- 
lampus, was a soothsayer, and in consequence of a 
murder, was obliged to take to flight, and came to 
Telemachus when the latter quitted Sparta to 
return to Ithaca. 

Theocosmus (©et^Koo-^uos), of Megara, a statu- 
ary, flourished about b. c. 435 — 430. 

Theocritus {QeSKpLTos). 1. Of Chios, an orator, 
sophist, and perhaps an historian, in the time of 
Alexander the Great. He was contemporary with 
Ephorus and Theopompus ; and the latter was his 
fellow-citizen and political opponent, Theopompus 
belonging to the aristocratic and Macedonian, and 
Theocritus to the democratic and patriotic party. 
Theocritus is said to have also given deep otfence 
to Alexander by the sarcastic wit, Avhich appears 
to have been the chief cause of his celebrity, and 
which at last cost him his life. He was put to 
death by Antigonus, in revenge for a jest upon 
the king's single eye. None of his works are 
extant with the exception of 2 or 3 epigrams, 
among which is a very bitter one upon Aristotle. 
— 2. The celebrated bucolic poet, was a native of 
Syracuse, and the son of Praxagoras and Philinna. 
He visited Alexandria during the latter end of the 
reign of Ptolemy Soter, where he received the in- 
struction of Philetas and Asclepiades, and began 
to distinguish himself as a poet. His first efforts 
obtained for him the patronage of Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, who was associated in the kingdom with 
his father, Ptolemy Soter, in B. c. 285, and in 
whose praise, therefore, the poet Avrote the 14th, 
15th, and 17th Idyls. At Alexandria he became 
acquainted with the poet Aratus, to whom he 
addressed his 6th Idyl. Theocritus afterwards 
returned to Syracuse, and lived there under 
Hiero II. It appears from the 16th Idyl that 
Theocritus was dissatisfied, both with the want of 
liberality on the part of Hiero in rewarding him 
for his poems, and with the political state of his 
native country. It may therefore be supposed 
that he devoted the latter part of his life almost 
entirely to the contemplation of those scenes of 
nature and of country life, on his representations 
of which his fame chiefly rests, Theocritus was 
the creator of bucolic poetry as a branch of Greek, 



f and, through imitators, such as Virgil, of Roman 
literature. The bucolic idyls of Theocritus are of 
a dramatic and mimetic clinracter. They are pic- 
tures of the ordinary life of the common people of 
Sicily ; whence their name, ei'077, dSvWia. The 
pastoral poems and romances of later times are a 
totally different sort of composition from the bu- 
colics of Theocritus, who knows nothing of the 
affected sentiment, the pure innocence, and the 
primeval simplicity, v,-hich have been ascribed to ' 
the imaginary shepherds of a fictitious Arcadia. 
He merely exhibits simple and faithful pictures of 
the common life of the Sicilian people, in a tho- 
roughly objective, although truly poetical spirit. 
Dramatic simplicity and truth are impressed upon 
the pictures exhibited in his poems, into the colour- 
ing of which he has thrown much of the natural 
comedy which is always seen in the common life 
of a free people. The collection, which has come- 
down to us under the name of Theocritus, consists 
of 30 poems, called by the general title of Idi/Is^ a 
fragment of a few lines from a poem entitled 
Berenice, and 22 epigrams in the Greek Anthology, 
But these Idyls are not all bucolic, and were not 
all written by Theocritus. Those idyls, of which 
the genuineness is the most doubtful, are the 
r2th, 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th, 2Gth, 27th, 29th, 
and 30th. The dialect of Theocritus is a mixed 
or eclectic dialect, in which the new or softened 
Doric predominates. The best editions of Theo- 
critus are by Kiessling, Lips. 1819, and by Wuste- 
mann, Gothae, 1830. 

Theodectes (.0eo5eKT?]s), of Phaselis, in Pam- 
phylia, was a highly distinguished rhetorician and 
tragic poet in the time of Philip of Macedon. 
was the son of Aristander, and a pupil of IsocrateS 
and Aristotle. The greater part of his life was 
spent at Athens, where he died at the age of 41. 
The people of his native city honoured the memory 
of Theodectes with a statue in their agora, which 
Alexander, when he stopped at Phaselis on his 
march towards Persia, crowned with garlands, to 
show his respect for the memory of a man who 
had been associated with himself by means of 
Aristotle and philosophy. The passages of Aris- 
totle, in which Theodectes is mentioned, show the 
strong regard and high esteem in which he was 
held by the philosopher. Theodectes devoted 
himself, during the first part of his life, entirely to 
rhetoric, and afterwards he turned his attention to 
tragic poetry. He was a professional teacher of 
rhetoric and composer of orations for others, and 
was in part dependent on this profession for his - 
subsistence. None of the vrorks of Theodectes 
have come down to us. He Avrote 50 tragedies, 
which were very popular among his contemporaries!- 
His treatise on rhetoric is repeatedly referred to- 
by the ancient writers, 

Theodoretus (GeoSwpTjros), an eminent ecclesi- 
astic of the 5th century, was born at Antioch 
about A. D. 393, and was made bishop of Cj-rus, 
or Cyrrhus, a small city near the Euphrates, in 
420 or 423. He was accused of being a Nes- 
torian, and was in consequence deposed at the 
second council of Ephesus in 449; but he was 
restored to his diocese at the council of Chalcedon, 
in 451, upon his anathematizing Nestorius and 
his doctrines. He appears to have died in 457 '-r 
458. Theodoret was a man of learning and of 
sound judgment. The most important of his works 
are : 1. Commentaries on various books of the Old 

3 c 4 



760 



THEODORIAS. 



THEODORUS. 



and Ne\^" Testaments, in which he adopts the 
method, not of a continuous commentary, but of 
proposing and solving those difficulties which he 
thinks likely to occur to a thoughtful reader. 2. 
An Ecclesiastical History, in 5 books, intended as 
a continuation of the History of Eusebius. It 
begins with the history of Arianism, under Con- 
stantine the Great, and ends in 429. 3. An 
apologetic treatise, intended to exhibit the con- 
firmations of the truth of Christianity contained in 
the Gentile philosophy. 4. Ten Orations on Provi- 
dence. The complete editions of Theodoret are 
by Sirmond and Garnier, 5 vols, fo., Paris, 1642 
— 1 684, and by Scliulze and Noesselt, Halae Sax. 
1769 — 1774, 5 vols, in 10 parts 8vo. 

Theodorias. [Vacca.] 

Theodoricus or Theodericus. 1. I. King of 
the Visigoths from a. d. 418 to 451, was the suc- 
cessor of Wallia, but appears to have been the son 
of the great Alaric. He fell fighting on the side 
of Aetius and the Romans at the great battle of 
Chalons, in which Attila was defeated 451. — 2. 
II. King of the Visigoths a. d. 452 — 466, 2nd 
son of Theodoric I. He succeeded to the throne 
by the murder of his brother Thorismond. He 
ruled over the greater part of Gaul and Spain. 
He was assassinated in 466 b}' his brother Euric, 
who succeeded him on the throne. Theodoric II. 
was a patron of letters and learned men. The 
poet Sidonius ApoUinaris resided for some time at 
his court. — 3. Surnamed the Great, king of the 
Ostrogoths, succeeded his father Theodemir, in 
475. He was at first an ally of Zeno, the em- 
peror of Constantinople, but was afterwards in- 
volved in hostilities with the emperor. In order 
to get rid of Theodoric, Zeno gave him permission 
to invade Italy, and expel the usurper Odoacer 
from the country. Theodoric entered Italy in 
489, and after defeating Odoacer in 3 great battles, 
laid siege to Ravenna, in which Odoacer took 
refuge. After a siege of 3 years Odoacer capitu- 
lated on condition that he and Theodoric should 
rule jointly over Italy ; but Odoacer was soon 
after ivards murdered by his more fortunate rival 
(493). Theodoric thus became master of Italy, 
which he ruled for 33 years, till his death in 526. 
His long reign was prosperous and beneficent, and 
under his sway Italy recovered from the ravages 
to which it had been exposed for so many years. 
Theodoric was also a patron of literature ; and 
among his ministers were Cassiodorus and Boe- 
thius, the two last writers who can claim a place 
in the literature of ancient Rome. But prosperous 
as had been the reign of Theodoric, his last days 
were darkened by disputes with the Catholics, and 
bv the condemnation and execution of Boethius 
and SjTnmachus, whom he accused of a conspiracy 
to overthrov/ the Gothic dominion in Italy. His 
death iiJ 6uid to have been hastened by remorse. 
It is related that one evening, when a large fish 
was served on the table, he fancied that he beheld 
the head of Symmachus, and was so terrified that 
he took to his bed, and died three days afterwards. 
Theodoric was buried at Ravenna, and a monu- 
ment was erected to his memory by his daughter 
Amalasuntha. His ashes were deposited in a por- 
phyry vase, which is still to be seen at Ravenna. 

Tieodoridas (06o5a'pt5os), of Syracuse, a lyric 
and epigrammatic poet, who lived about B. c. 235. 
He had a place in the Garland of Meleager. There 
are 18 of his epigrams in the Greek Anthology. 



Theodorus (OedSwpos), 1. Of Byzantium, a 

rhetorician, and a contemporary of Plato, who 
speaks of him somewhat contemptuously. Cicero 
describes him as excelling rather in the theory 
than the practice of his art. — 2. A philosopher of 
the Cyrenaic school, to one branch of which he 
gave the name of " Theodorians," eeoScopeToz. He 
is usually designated by ancient writers the Atheist. 
He was a disciple of the younger Aristippus, and 
was banished from Cyrene, but on what occasion is 
not stated. He then went to Athens, and onl_v 
escaped being cited before the Areopagus, by the 
influence of Demetrius Phalereus. He was after- 
wards banished from Athens, probably with Deme- 
trius (307), and went to Alexandria, where he 
was employed in the service of Ptolemy son of 
Lagus, king of the Macedonian dynasty in Egypt; 
it is not unlikely that he shared the overthrow 
and exile of Demetrius. While in the service of 
Ptolemy, Theodorus was sent on an embassy to 
Lysimachus, whom he offended by the freedom of 
his remarks. One answer which he made to a 
threat of crucifixion which Lysimachus had used, 
has been celebrated by many ancient writers, 
" Employ such threats to those courtiers of yours ; 
for it matters not to Theodore whether he rots on 
the ground or in the air." He returned at length 
to Cyrene, where he appears to have ended his 
days. — 3. An eminent rhetorician of the age of 
Augustus, was a native of Gadara, in the country 
east of the Jordan. He settled at Rhodes, where 
Tiberius, afterwards emperor, during his retirement 
(b. c. 6 — A. D. 2) to that island, was one of his 
hearers. He also taught at Rome ; but whether 
liis settlement at Rome preceded that at Rhodes is 
uiicertain. Theodorus was the founder of a school 
of rhetoricians, called "Theodorei," as distinguished 
from the Apollodorei," or followers of ApoUodorus 
of Pergamus, who had been the tutor of Augustus 
Caesar at Apollonia. Theodorus wrote many 
works, all of which are lost. —4. A Greek monk, 
surnamed Prodromus, who lived in the first half of 
the 12th century. He was held in great repute 
by his contemporaries as a scholar and philosopher, 
and wrote upon a great variety of subjects. Several 
of his works have come down to us, of which the 
following may be mentioned : 1. A metrical romance 
in 9 books, on the loves of Rhodanthe and Dosicles, 
written in iambic metre, and exhibiting very little 
ability. 2. A poem entitled Gakomyomachia, in 
iambic verse, on " the battle of the mice and cat," 
in imitation of the Homeric Batrachomyomachia. 
This piece is often appended to the editions of 
Aesop and Babrius. — 5. The name of 2 ancient 
Samian artists. (1.) The son of Rhoecus, and 
brother of Telecles, flourished about B. c. 600, and 
was an architect, a statuary in bronze, and a sculp- 
tor in wood. He •v\Tote a work on the Heraeum 
at Samos, in the erection of Avhich it may therefore 
be supposed that he was engaged as well as his 
father. Or, considering the time which such a 
building would occupy, the treatise may perhaps be 
ascribed to the younger Theodorus. He was also 
engaged with his father in the erection of the laby- 
rinth of Lemuos ; and he prepared the foundation 
of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. In conjunc- 
tion with his brother Telecles, he made the wooden 
statue of Apollo Pythius for the Samians, according 
to the fixed rules of the hieratic style. (2.) The 
son of Telecles, nephew of the elder Theodorus, 
and grandson of Rhoecus, flourished about 560, in 



THEODOSIOPOLIS. 



THEODOSIUS. 761 



the times of Croesus and Polycrates, and obtained 
such renown as a statuar}' in bronze, that the in- 
vention of that art was ascribed to him, in con- 
junction with his grandfather. He also practised 
the arts of engraving metals (TopevriKri^ caelatura), 
and of gem-engraving ; his works in those depart- 
ments being celebrated gold and silver craters, and 
the ring of Polycrates. 

Theodosiopolis (Qeodoa-toviroXis : prob. Erze- 
routyi), a city of Armenia Major, S. of the Araxes, 
and 42 stadia S. of the mountain which contains 
the sources of the Euphrates : built by Theo- 
dosius II. as a mountain fortress : enlarged and 
strengthened by Anastasius and Justinian, Its 
position made it a place of commercial importance. 
There were other cities of the name, but none of 
any great consequence. 

Theodosius. I. Suniamed the Great, Roman 
emperor of the East, a. d. 378 — ?>9o, was the son 
of the general Theodosius who restored Britain to 
the empire, and was beheaded at Carthage in the 
reign of Valens, 376. The future emperor was 
born in Spain about 346. He received a good 
education ; and he learned the art of war under 
his own father, whom he accompanied in his British 
campaigns. During his father's life-time he was 
raised to the rank of Duke (dux) of Moesia, where 
he defeated the Sarmatians (374), and saved the 
province. On the death of his father he retired 
before court intrigues to his native country. He 
acquired a considerable military reputation in the 
lifetime of his father; and after the death of Valens, 
who fell in battle against the Goths, he was pro- 
claimed emperor of the East by Gratian, who felt 
himself unable to sustain the burden of the empire. 
The Roman empire in the East was then in a 
critical position ; for the Romans were disheart- 
ened by the bloody defeat which they had sus- 
tained, and the Goths were insolent in their victory. 
Theodosius, however, showed himself equal to the 
difficult position in which he was placed ; he gained 
two signal victories over the Goths, and concluded 
a peace with the barbarians in 382. In the follow- 
ing year (383) Maximus assumed the imperial 
purple in Britain, and invaded Gaul with a power- 
ful army. In the war which followed Gratian was 
slain; and Theodosius, who did not consider it 
prudent to enter into a contest with Maximus, 
acknowledged the latter emperor of the countries 
of Spain, Gaul, and Britain, but he secured to 
Valentinian, the brother of Gratian, Italy, Africa, 
and western Illyricum. But when Maximus ex- 
pelled Valentinian from Italy in 387, Theodosius 
espoused the cause of the latter, and marched into 
the West at the head of a powerful army. After 
defeating Maximus in Pannonia, Theodosius pur- 
sued him across the Alps to Aquileia. Here Maxi- 
mus was surrendered by his own soldiers to Theo- 
dosius and was put to death. Theodosius spent 
the winter at Milan, and in the following year 
(389) he entered Rome in triumph, accompanied 
hy Valentinian and his own son Honorius. Two 
events in the life of Theodosius about this time 
may be mentioned as evidence of his uncertain 
character and his savage temper. In 387 a riot 
took place at Antioch, in which the statues of the 
emperor, of his father, and of his wife were thrown 
down ; but these idle demonstrations were quickly 
suppressed by an armed force. When Theodosius 
heard of these riots, he degraded Antioch from the 
rank of a city^ stripped it of its possessions and | 



privileges, and reduced it to the condition of a 
village dependent on Laodicea. But in conse- 
quence of the intercession of Antioch and the senate 
of Constantinople, he pardoned the city, and all 
who had taken part in the riot. The other event 
is an eternal brand of infamy on the name of Theo- 
dosius. In 390, while the emperor was at Milan, 
a serious riot broke out at Thessalonica, in which 
the imperial officer and several of his troops were 
murdered. Theodosius resolved to take the most 
signal vengeance upon the whole city. An army 
of barbarians was sent to Thessalonica ; the people 
were invited to the games of the Circus ; and as 
soon as the place was full, the soldiers received the 
signal for a massacre. For 3 hours the spectators 
were indiscriminately exposed to the fury of the 
soldiers, and 7000 of them, or, as some accounts 
say, more than twice that number, paid the penalty 
of the insurrection. St. Ambrose, the archbishop 
of Milan, represented to Theodosius his crime in a 
letter, and told him that penitence alone could 
efface his guilt. Accordingly, when the emperor 
proceeded to perform his devotions in the usual 
manner in the great church of Milan, the archbishop 
stopped him at the door, and demanded an acknow- 
ledgment of his guilt. The conscience-struck 
Theodosius humbled himself before the church, 
which has recorded his penance as one of its great- 
est victories. He laid aside the insignia of impe- 
rial power, and in the posture of a suppliant in the 
church of Milan entreated pardon for his great sin 
before all the congregation. After 8 months, the 
emperor was restored to communion with the 
church. Theodosius spent 3 years in Italy, during 
which he established Valentinian II. on the throne 
of the West. He returned to Constantinople to- 
wards the latter end of 391. Valentinian was slain 
in 392 by Arbogastes, who raised Eugenius to the 
empire of the West. This involved Theodosius in 
a new war; but it ended in the defeat and death 
both of Eugenius and Arbogastes in 394. Theo- 
dosius died at Milan 4 months after the defeat of 
Eugenius, on the l7th of January 395. His 2 
sons, Arcadius and Honorius, had already been 
elevated to the rank of Augusti, and it was ar- 
ranged that the empire should be divided between 
them, Arcadius having the East, and Honorius the 
West. Theodosius was a firm Catholic, and a 
fierce opponent and persecutor of the Arians and 
all heretics. It was in his reign also that the 
formal destruction of paganism took place ; and we 
still possess a large number of the Icfws of Theo- 
dosius, prohibiting the exercise of the pr.gan reli- 
gion, and forbidding the heathen worship under 
severe penalties, in some cases extending to death. 
— II. Roman emperor of the East, a. D. 408 — 
450, was born in 401, and was only 7 years of age 
at the death of his father Arcadius, whom he suc- 
ceeded. Theodosius was a weak prince ; and his 
sister Pulcheria, who became his guardian in 414, 
possessed the virtual government of the empire 
during the remainder of his long reign. The prin- 
cipal external events in the reign of Theodosius 
were the war with the Persians, which only lasted 
a short time (421 — 422), and was terminated by 
a peace for 100 years, and the war with the Huns, 
who repeatedh^ defeated the armies of the em- 
peror, and compelled him at length to conclude a 
disgraceful peace with them in 447 or 448. Theo- 
dosius died in 450, and was succeeded by his sister 
Pulcheria, who prudently took for her colleague in 



762 



THEODOTA. 



THEOPHANES, 



the empire the senator ISIarcian, and made him 
her husband. Theodosius had been married in 
421 to the accomplished Athenais, the daughter 
of the sophist Leontius, who received at her bap- 
tism the name of Eudocia. Their daughter Eu- 
doxia was married to Valentinian III., the emperor 
of the West. In the reign of Theodosius, and 
that of Valentinian III., was made the compilation 
called the Codex Theodosianus. It was published 
in 438. It consists of 16 books, which are divided 
into titles, with appropriate rubricae or headings ; 
and the constitutions belonging to each title are 
arranged under it in chronological order. The 
first 5 books comprise the greater part of the 
constitution which relates to Jus Privatum; the 
6th, 7th, and 8th books contain the law that re- 
lates to the constitution and administration ; the 
9th book treats of criminal law; the 10th and 
11th treat of the public revenue and some matters 
relatmg to procedure; the 12th, 13th, 14th and 
15th books treat of the constitution and the ad- 
ministration of towns and other corporations ; and 
the 16th contains the law relating to ecclesiastical 
matters. The best edition of this Code with a 
commentary is that of J, Gothofredus, which was 
edited after his death by A. Marville, Lyon, 1665, 
6 vols. fo. ; and afterwards by Hitter, Leipzig, 
1736 — 1745, fol. The best edition of the text 
alone is that by Hanel in the Corpus Juris Anie- 
justinianeum, Bonn. 1837. —III. Literary. L Of 
Bithynia, a mathematician, mentioned by Strabo 
and by Vitruvius, the latter of whom speaks of 
him as the inventor of an universal sun-dial. — 
2. Of Tripolis, a mathematician and astronomer of 
some distinction, who appears to have flourished 
later than the reign of Trajan. He wrote several 
works, of which the 3 following are extant, and 
have been published. 1. S^atptKO, a treatise on 
the properties of the sphere, and of the circles 
described on its surface. 2. Ilepi riixepuu koi 
vvKTU)v. 3. riepl olKr}creuv. 

Theodota (©eoSoxTj), an Athenian courtezan, 
and one of the most celebrated persons of that 
class in Greece, is introduced as a speaker in 
Xenophon's Memorabilia (iii. 11.) She at last 
attached herself to Alcibiades, and, after his 
murder, she performed his funeral rites. 

Theognis (Qioyvis). 1. Of Megara, an an- 
cient elegiac and gnomic poet, is said to have flou- 
rished B. c. 548 or 544. He may have been bom 
about 570, and would therefore have been 80 at the 
commencement of the Persian wars, 490, at which 
time we know from his ovrn writings that he was 
alive. Theognis belonged to the oligarchical party 
in his native city, and in its fates he shared. He 
was a noble by birth ; and all his sympathies 
were with the nobles. They are, in his poems, 
the ayabo'i and iaOXoi, and the commons the kuko'i 
and SetAoi, terms which, in fact, at that period, 
were regularly used in this political signification, 
and not in their later ethical meaning. He was 
banished with the leaders of the oligarchical party, 
having previously been deprived of all his pro- 
perty ; and most of his poems were composed 
while he was an exile. Most of his political 
verses are addressed to a certain Cymus, the son 
of Polypas. The other fragments of his poetry 
are of a social, most of them of a festive character. 
They place us in the midst of a circle of friends, 
who formed a kind of convivial society ; all the 
members of this society belonged to the class whom 



the poet calls " the good,'" The collection of gnomic 
poetry, which has come down to us under the 
name of Theognis, contains, however, many addi- 
tions from later poets. The genuine fragments of 
Theognis contain much that is highly poetical in 
thought, and elegant as well as forcible in expres- 
sion. The best editions are by Bekker, Lips. 
1815, and •2d ed. 1827, 8vo. ; bv Welcker, Fran- 
cof. 1826, 8vo. ; and by Orellius^ Turic. 1840, 4to. 
— 2. A tragic poet, contemporary with Aristo- 
phanes, by whom he is satirized. 

Theon (Qeuv). 1. The name of 2 mathema- 
ticians who are often confounded together. The 
first is Theon the elder, of Smyrna, best known 
as an arithmetician, who lived in the time of 
Hadrian. The second is Theon the younger, of 
Alexandria, the father of Hypatia, best known as 
an astronomer and geometer, who lived in the 
time of Theodosius the elder. Both . were hea- 
thens, a fact which the date of the second makes it 
desirable to state ; and each held the Platonism 
of his period. Of Theon of Smyrna all that we 
have left is a portion of a work entitled, Twv Kara 
lj.a6riiJ.aTiK7)v xpTjcriTiwi/ ets rrju rov HXdrwvos 
avdyvwaiv. The portion which now exists is in 
2 books, one on arithmetic, and one on music : 
there was a third on astronomy, and a fourth IlepI 
T71S iu K6(Tjj.(f apuouias. The best edition is by 
Gelder, Leyden, 1827. Of Theon of Alexandria 
the following works have come down to us : — 
1. Scholia on Aratus. 2. Edition of Euclid. 3. 
Commentary on the Almagest of Ptolemy, ad- 
dressed to his son Epiphanius. 4. Commentaiy on 
the tables of Ptolemy. — 2. Aelius Theon', of 
Alexandria, a sophist and rhetorician of uncertain 
date, wrote several works, of which one entitled 
Progymnasmata {JlpoyvixvaafxaTa) is still extant. 
It is a useful treatise on the proper system of pre- 
paration for the profession of an orator, according 
to the rules laid down by Hermogenes and Aph- 
thonius. One of the best editions is by Finckh, 
Stuttgard, 1834. — 3. Of Samos, a painter who 
flourished from the time of Philip onwards to that 
of the successors of Alexander. The peculiar merit 
of Theon was his prolific fancy. 

Tieonoe (©eovoT?), daughter of Proteus and 
Psammathe, also called Idothea. [Idothea.] 

Th.eoph.anes (Oeo^ovTjs). 1. Cn. Pompeius 
Theophanes, of Mytilene in Lesbos, a learned 
Greek, and one of the most intimate friends of 
Pompey. Pompey appears to have made his ac- 
quaintance during the Mithridatic war, and soon 
became so much attached to him that he presented 
to him the Roman franchise in the presence of his 
army, after a speech in which he eulogised his 
merits. This occurred about B. c. 62 ; and in the 
course of the same year Theophanes obtained from 
Pompey the privileges of a free state for his native 
city, although it had espoused the cause of IMithri- 
dates. Theophanes came to Rome with Pompey ; 
and on the breaking out of the civil war he accom- 
panied his patron to Greece. Pompey appointed 
him commander of the Fabri, and chiefly consulted 
him and Lucceius on all important matters in the 
vv-ar, much to the indignation of the Roman nobles. 
After the battle of Pharsalia Theophanes fled with 
Pompey from Greece, and it was omng to his ad- 
vice that Pompey went to Eg^-pt. After the death 
of his patron, Theophanes took refuge in Italy, 
and was pardoned by Caesar. After his death 
the Lesbians paid divine honours to his memory. 



THEOPHILUS. 



THEOPHYLACTUS. 



763 



Theophanes wrote the history of Pompey's cam- 
paigns, in which he represented the exploits of his 
patron in the most favourable light. — 2. M. 
Pompeius Theophanes, son of the preceding, was 
sent to Asia by Augustus, in the capacity of pro- 
curator, and was at the time that Strabo wrote 
one of the friends of Tiberius. The latter emperor, 
however, put his descendants to death towards the 
end of his reign, A. D. 33, because their ancestor 
had been one of Pompey's friends, and had received 
after his death divine honours from the Lesbians. 
— 3. A Byzantine historian, flourished most pro- 
bably in the latter part of the 6th century of our 
era. He wrote, in 10 books, the history of the 
Eastern Empire during the Persian war under 
Justin II., from A. d. 567 to 581. The work it- 
self is lost, but some extracts from it are preserved 
by Photius. — 4. Also a Byzantine historian, lived 
during the second half of the 8th century, and the 
early part of the 9th. In consequence of his sup- 
porting the cause of image worship, he was 
banished by Leo the Armenian to the island of 
Samothrace, where he died, in 818. Theophanes 
wrote a Chronicon, which is still extant, beginning 
at the accession of Diocletian, in 277, and coming 
down to 811. It consists, like the Chronica of 
Eusebius and of Syncellus, of two parts, a history 
arranged according to years, and a chronological 
table, of which the former is very superior to the 
latter. It is published in the Collections of the 
Byzantine writers, Paris, 1655, fol., Venet. 1729, 
fol. 

Theophilus (@^6(piXos). 1. An Athenian comic 
poet, most probably of the Middle Comedy. — 2. 
An historian and geographer, quoted by Josephus, 
Plutarch, and Ptolemy. — 3. Bishop of Antioch, 
in the latter part of the 2nd century of our era, 
and the author of one of the early apologies for 
Christianity which have come down to us. This 
work is in the form of a letter to a friend, named 
Autolycus, who was still a heathen, but a man of 
extensive reading and great learning. It was com- 
posed A. D. 180 ; a year or two before the death 
of Theophilus. The best edition is that by Wolf, 
Hamb. 1724, 8vo. — 4. Bishop of Alexandria, in 
the latter part of the 4th and the lleginning of the 5th 
centuries of our era, and distinguished for his per- 
secutions of the Origenists and for his hostility to 
Chrysostom. He died a. d. 412. A few remains 
of his works have come down to us.— 5. One of 
the. lawyers of Constantinople who were employed 
by Justinian on his first Code, on the Digest, and 
on the composition of the Institutes. [Justini- 
ANUS.] Theophilus is the author of the Greek 
translation or paraphrase of the Institutes of Justi- 
nian, which has come down to us. It is intitled ^Iv- 
arirovTa QeocpiKov 'AvriKcvawpos, Instituta Tlieo- 
phili Antecensoris. It became the text for the In- 
stitutes in the East, where the Latin language was 
little known, and entirely displaced the Latin text. 
The best edition is by Reitz, Haag. 1751, 2 vols. 
4to.— 6. Theophilus Protospatharius, the author 
of several Greek medical works, which are still 
extant. Protospatharius was originally a military 
title given to the colonel of the body-guards of the 
emperor of Constantinople (Spatharii), but after- 
wards became also a high civil dignity. Theophi- 
lus probably lived in the 7th century after Christ. 
Of his works the 2 most important are: 1. Uepl 
T7)s rod 'KvQpaTTOv KaracTKevris, De Corporis Hu- 
mani Fabrica, an anatomical and physiological 



treatise in 5 books. The best edition is by 
Greenhill, Oxon. 1842, 8vo. 2. Uepl Oupccu, De 
Urinis, of which the best edition is by Guidot, 
Lugd. Bat. 1703 (and 1731) 8vo. 

Theophrastus (©eo^pao-Tos), the Greek philo- 
sopher, was a native of Eresus in Lesbos, and 
studied philosophy at Athens, first under Plato, 
and afterwards under Aristotle. He became the 
favourite pupil of Aristotle, Avho is said to have 
changed his original name of Tyrtamus to Theo- 
phrastus (or the Divine Speaker), to indicate 
the fluent and graceful address of his pupil ; but 
this tale is scarcely credible. Aristotle named 
Theophrastus his successor in the presidency of 
the Lyceum, and in his will bequeathed to him 
his library and the originals of his own writings. 
Theophrastus was a worthy successor of his great 
master, and nobly sustained the character of the 
school. He is said to have had 2000 disciples, 
and among them such men as the comic poet 
Menander. He was highly esteemed by the 
kings Philippus, Cassander, and Ptolemy, and was 
not the less the object of the regard of the Athe- 
nian people, as was decisively shown when he 
was impeached of impiety; for he was not only 
acquitted, but his accuser would have fallen a 
victim to his calumny, had not Theophrastus 
generously interfered to save him. Nevertheless, 
when the philosophers were banished from Athens, 
in B. c. 305, according to the law of Sophocles, 
Theophrastus also left the city, until Philo, a 
disciple of Aristotle, in the very next year, brought 
Sophocles to punishment, and procured the repeal of 
the law. From this time Theophrastus continued 
to teach at Athens without any further molestation 
till his death. He died in 287, having presided over 
the Academy about 35 years. His age is diflerently 
stated. According to some accounts he lived 85 
years, according to others 107 years. He is said 
to have closed his life with the complaint respect- 
ing the short duration of human existence, that it 
ended just when the insight into its problems was 
beginning. The whole population of Athens took 
part in his funeral obsequies. He bequeathed his 
library to Neleus of Scepsis. Theophrastus exerted 
himself to carry out the philosophical system of 
Aristotle, to throw light upon the difficulties con- 
tained in his books, and to fill up the gaps in 
them. With this view he Avrote a great number 
of works, the great object of which was the de- 
velopment of the Aristotelian philosophy. Un- 
fortunately most of these works have perished. 
The following are alone extant : 1. Charaderes. 
(jjdLKoi x^P'^'^'^VP^^)^ in 30 chapters, containing 
descriptions of vicious characters. 2. A treatise 
on sensuous perception and its objects (Trepl aladri- 
aetas [koI alaOrjT&u']). 3. A fragment of a work 
on metaphysics {ru>u fisTo, to, (pva-iKo). 4. On the 
History of Plants (vrepi (pvrwv iVropias), in 10 
books, one of the earliest works on botany which 
have come down to us. 5. On the Causes of Plants 
(irepi ^vTCtiu atTicDv), originally in 8 books, of which 
6 are still extant. 6. Of Stones {irepl Xidup). The 
best editions of the complete works of Theo- 
phrastus are by Schneider, Lips. 1818 — 21, 5 
vols., and by Wimnier, Vratislaviae, 1842, of 
which, however, the first volume has only yet 
appeared. The best separate edition of the Charac- 
teres is by Ast, Lips. 1816. 

Theophylactus'(06o</)uAaft:Tos). 1. Surnamed 
Simocatta, a Byzantine historian, lived at Con- 



7C4 



TIIEOPOMPUS. 



THERA. 



stantinople, where he held some public offices 
under Heraclius, about a. d. 610 — 629. His chief 
work is a history of the reian of the emperor 
Maurice, in 8 books, from the death of Tiberius II. 
and the accession of Maurice, in o82, down to the 
murder of Maurice and his children by Phocas in 
602. The best edition of this work is by Bekker, 
Bonn, 1834, 8vo. There is also extant another 
work of Theophylactus, entitled Quaestiones Phy- 
sicae, of which the best edition is by Boissonade, 
Paris, 1835, 8vo. — 2. Archbishop of Bulgaria, 
flourished about a. d. 1070 and onwards, is cele- 
brated for his commentaries on the Scriptures, 
which are founded on the commentaries of Chry- 
sostora, and are of considerable va ue. 

Theopompus {Q^qitouttos). 1. King of Sparta, 
reigned about B.C. 770 — 72u He is said to have 
established the ephoralty, and to have been mainly 
instrumental in bringing the 1st Messenian war 
to a successful issue. — 2. Of Chios, a celebrated 
•Greek historian, was the son of Damasistratus and 
the brother of Caucalus, the rhetorician. He was 
bom about b. c. 378. He accompanied his father 
into banishment, when the latter was exiled on 
account of his espousing the interests of the Lace- 
daemonians, but he was restored to his native 
■country in the 45th year of his age (333), in con- 
sequence of the letters of Alexander the Great, in 
which he exhorted the Chians to recal their exiles. 
In what year Theopompus quitted Chios with his 
father is uncertain ; but we know that before he 
left his native country, he attended the school of 
rhetoric v/hich Isocrates opened at Chios, and that 
he profited so much by the lessons of his great 
master as to be regarded by the ancients as the 
most distinguished of all his scholars. Ephorus 
the historian was a fellow-student with him, but 
was of a very different character ; and Isocrates 
used to say of them, that Theopompus needed the 
bit and Ephorus the spur. In consequence of the 
advice of Isocrates, Theopompus did not devote 
his oratorical powers to the pleading of causes, but 
gave his chief attention to the study and composi- 
tion of history. Like his master Isocrates, how- 
ever, he composed many orations of the kind, called 
Ejndeitic by the Greeks, that is, speeches on set 
subjects delivered for display, such as eulogiums 
tipon states and individuals. Thus in 352 he 
contended at Halicarnassus with Naucrates and 
his master Isocrates for the prize of oratory, given by 
Artemisia in honour of her husband, and gained the 
victor}'. On his return to Chics in 333, Theo- 
pompus, who was a man of great wealth as well 
as learning, naturally took an important position 
in the state ; but his vehement temper, and his 
support of the aristocratical party, soon raised 
against him a host of enemies. Of these one of 
the most formidable was the sophist Theocritus. 
As long as Alexander lived, his enemies dared not 
take any open proceedings against Theopompus ; 
and even after the death of the 2sIar.edonian mo- 
narch, he appears to have enjoyed for some years 
the protection of the royal house. Theopompus 
•was supported by Alexander, and after his death 
by the royal house ; but he was eventual!}' ex- 
pelled from Chios as a disturber of the public 
peace, and fled to Egypt to Ptolemy, about 305, 
being at the time 75 years of age. "We are in- 
foiTued that Ptolemy not onh' refused to receive 
Theopompus, but would even have put him to 
death as a dangerous busybodj-, had not some of 



his friends interceded for his life. Of his farther 
fate we have no particulars. None of tlie works 
of Theopompus have come down to us, but tlie 
following were his chief works : 1. 'E\\7]viKai laro- 
p'.ai or ^uvra^Ls 'EWiqviKcbi; A History of Greece, 
in 12 books, which was a continuation of the his- 
tory of Thucydides. It commenced in B. c. 411, 
at the point where the liistory of Thucydides 
breaks oif, and embraced a period of 17 years 
down to the battle of Cnidus in 394. 2. ^iKiinnica, 
also called 'laropiai (kut e^oxv^). The History of 
Philip^ father of Alexander the Great, in 58 books, 
from the commencement of his reign 360, to his 
death 336. This work contained numerous di- 
gressions, which in fact formed the greater part 
of the whole work ; so that Philip V., king of 
Macedonia, was able, by omitting them and re- 
taining only what belonged to the proper subject, 
to reduce the work from 58 books to 16. 53 of 
the 58 books of the original work were extant in 
the 9th centur}' of the Christian aera, and were 
read by Photius, who has preserved an abstract of 
the 12th book. 3. Oraiiones, which were chiefly 
Panegyrics, and what the Greeks called 'XufxSov- 
\evTiKol Xoyoi. Of the latter kind one of the 
most celebrated was addressed to Alexander on 
the state of Chios. Theopompus is praised by 
ancient writers for his diligence and accuracy ; 
but is at the same time said to have taken more 
pleasure in blaming than in commending ; and 
many of his judgments respecting events and cha- 
racters were expressed with such acrimony and 
severity that several of the ancient writers speak 
of his malignity, and call him a reviler. The 
style of Theopompus was formed on the model of 
Isocrates, and possessed the characteristic merits 
and defects of his master. It v,-as pure, clear, and 
elegant, but deficient in vigour, loaded with orna- 
ment, and in general too artificial. The best col- 
lections of the fragments of Theopompus are by 
Wichers, Lugd. Bat. 1829, and by C. and Theod. 
^luller in the Fragmenta Historicorum Graecomm, 
Paris, 1841. — 3. An Athenian comic poet, of the 
Old, and also of the Middle Comedy, was the son 
of Theodectes or Theodorus, or Tisamenus. He 
wrote as late as b. c. 380. His extant fragments 
contain examples of the declining purity of the 
Attic dialect. 

Theoxenius (0eo|eVios), a surname of Apollo 
and Hermes. Respecting the festival of the 
Theoxenia, see Did. of Antiq. s.v. 

Thera {Qvpa: Q7]pa7os : Santorin)^ an island 
in the Aegaean sea, and the chief of the Sporades, 
distant from Crete 700 stadia, and 25 Roman 
miles S. of the island of los. It is described by 
Strabo as 200 stadia in circumference, but by 
modern travellers as 36 miles, and in figure exactly 
like a horse-shoe. Thera is clearly of volcanic 
origin. It is covered at the present day with 
pumice-stone ; and the rocks are burnt and 
scorched. It is said to have been formed by a 
clod of earth thrown from the ship Argo, and to 
have received the name of Calliste, when it first 
emerged from the sea. Therasia, a small island 
to the W., and called at the present day by the 
same name, was torn away from Thera b}' some 
volcanic convulsion. Thera is said to have been 
originally inhabited by Phoenicians, but was 
afterwards colonised by Lacedaemonians and Mi- 
nyans of Lemnos under the guidance of tlie Spartan 
Theras, who gave his name to the island. In 



THERAMBO. 



THERMOPYLAE. 



765 



ac 631 Battus conducted a colony from Thera to 
Africa, where he founded the celebrated city of 
Cyrene. Thera remained faithful to the Spartans, 
and was one of the few islands which espoused 
the Spartan cause at the commencement of the 
PelopoT;ne3ian war. 

Therambo {Qepdfj.§u, also QpdfxSos), a town of 
Macedonia on the peninsula Pallene. 

Theramenes {Qripaniv-qs), an Athenian, son of 
Hagnon, was a leading member of the oligarchical 
government of the 400 at Athens in b. c. 411. In 
this, however, he does not appear to have occupied 
as eminent a station as he had hoped to fill, while 
at the same time the declaration of Alcibiades and 
of the army at Samos against the oligarchy made 
it evident to him that its days were numbered. 
Accordingly he withdrew from the more violent 
aristocrats and began to cabal against them ; and 
he subsequently took not only a prominent part in 
the deposition of the 400, but came forward as the 
accuser of Antiphon and Archeptolemus, who had 
been his intimate friends, but whose death he was 
now the mean and cowardly instrument in pro- 
curing. At the battle of Arginusae, in 406, The- 
ramenes held a subordinate command in the Athe- 
nian fleet, and he Avas one of those who, after the 
victory, were commissioned by the generals to 
repair to the scene of action and save as many as 
possible of the disabled galleys and their crews. 
A storm, it is said, rendered the execution of the 
order impracticable; yet, instead of trusting to this 
as his ground of defence, Theramenes thought it 
safer to divert the popular anger from himself to 
others; and it appears to have been chiefly through 
his machinations that the 6 generals who had re- 
turned to Athens, were condemned to death. After 
the capture of Athens by Lysander, Theramenes 
was chosen one of the Thirty Tyrants (404). He 
endeavoured to check the tyrannical proceedings of 
his colleagues, foreseeing that their violence would 
be fatal to the permanence of their power. His 
opposition, however, had no effect in restraining 
them, but only induced the desire to rid themselves 
of so troublesome an associate, whose former con- 
duct moreover had shown that no political party 
could depend on him, and who had earned, by his 
trimming, the nickname of KoOopvos, — a boot 
which might be worn on either foot. He was 
therefore accused by Critias before the council as a 
traitor, and when his nominal judges, favourably 
impressed by his able defence, exhibited an evident 
disposition to acquit him, Critias introduced into 
the chamber a number of men armed with daggers, 
and declared that, as all who were not included in 
the privileged Three Thousand might be put to 
death by the sole authority of the Thirty, he struck 
the name of Theramenes out of that list, and con- 
demned him with the consent of all his colleagues. 
Theramenes then rushed to the altar, which stood 
in the council-chamber, but was dragged from it 
and carried off to execution. When he had drunk 
the hemlock, he dashed out the last drops from the 
cup, exclaiming, " This to the health of the lovely 
' Critias ! " Both Xenophon and Cicero express 
their admiration of the equanimity which he dis- 
played in his last hour ; but surely such a feeling 
is sadly out of place when directed to such a man, 

Therapnae {©^pairvai, also ©epdirvT], Dor. ©e- 
poLTTva : ©spoKvaios). 1. A town in Laconica, on 
the left bank of the Eurotas, and a little above 
Sparta. It received its name from Therapne, 



daughter of Lelex, and is celebrated in mythology 
as the birth-place of Castor and Pollux, and con- 
tained temples of these divinities as well as temples 
of Menelaus and Helen, both of v/hom were said 
to be buried here. -—2. A town in Boeotia, on the 
road from Thebes to the Asopus. 

Theras. [Thera.] 

Therasia. [Thera.] 

Thericles (©Typi/cAT^s), a Corinthian potter, whose 
works obtained such celebrity that they became 
known throughout Greece by the name of Qripl- 
KKiia (sc. TTOTtipLo) ov KvKiKes Q-qpiKK^iai (or -ai), 
and these names w^re applied not only to cups of 
earthenware, but also to those of wood, glass, gold, 
and silver. Some scholars make Thericles a con- 
temporary of Aristophanes ; but others deny the 
existence of Thericles altogether, and contend that 
the name of these vases is a descriptive one, derived 
from the figures of animals {pi]pia) with which 
they were adorned. 

Therma (0ep,urj : ©ep^aTos), a town in Macc:- 
donia, afterwards called Thessalomca [Thessa- 
lonica], situated at the N. E. extremity of a 
great gulf of the Aegaean sea, lying between 
Thessaly and the peninsula Chalcidice, and called 
Tlierniaicus or Thermaeus Sinus (©ep/^ato^ 
koAttos), from the town at its head. This gulf 
was also called Macedonicus Sinus : its modem 
name is Gulf of Saloniki. 

Thermae {©epixai), a to\vn in Sicily, built by 
the inhabitants of Himera, after the destruction 
of the latter city by the Carthaginians. For details 
see Himera. 

Thermaicus Sinus. [Therma.] 

Thermodon (©ep^uwSwi/ : Thermeh)^ a river of 
Pontus, in the district of Themiscyra, the reputed 
countrs'- of the Amazons, rises in a mountain called 
Amazonius M. (and still Mason Dagli\ near 
Phanaroea, and falls into the sea about 30 miles 
E. of the mouth of the Iris, after a short course, 
but with so large a body of water, that its breadth, 
according to Xenophon, was 3 plethra (above 300 
feet), and it was navigable. At its mouth was 
the city of Themiscyra ; and there is still, on the 
W. side of the mouth of the Thermeh, a place of 
the same name, Thermeh. 

Thermopylae, often called simply Pylae (©e/?- 
fionvXai, UvXai), that is, the Hot Gates or the 
Gates, a celebrated pass leading from Thessaly 
into Locris. It lay between Mt. Oeta and an 
inaccessible morass, forming the edge of the Malic 
Gulf. At one end of the pass, close to Anthela, 
the mountain approached so close to the morass as 
to leave room for only a single carriage between ; 
this narrow entrance formed the W. gate of Ther- 
mopylae. About a mile to the E. the mountain 
again approached close to the sea, near the Locrian 
town of Alpeni, thus forming the E. gate of Ther- 
mopylae. The space between these 2 gates was 
wider and more open, and Avas distinguished by 
its abundant flow of hot springs, which were sacred 
to Hercules : hence the name of the place. Ther- 
mopylae was the only pass by which an enemy 
can penetrate from northern into southern Greece ; 
whence its great importance in Grecian history. 
It is especially celebrated on account of the heroic 
defence of Leonidas and the 800 Spartans against 
the mighty host of Xerxes ; and they only fell 
through the Persians having discovered a path 
over the mountains, and thus being enabled to 
attack the Greeks in the rear. This mountain 



766 



THERM UM. 



THESEUS. 



path commenced from the neighbourhood of 
Trachis, ascended the gorge of the river Asopus 
and the iiill called Anopaea, then crossed the crest 
of Oeia, and descended in the rear of Thermopylae 
near the town of Alpeni. 

Therinum or Therma {Qep/xou or rh Qepfxa), 
a town of the Aetolians near Stratus, with warm 
mineral springs, was regarded for some time as 
the capital of the coimtry, since it was the place 
of meeting of the Aetolian confederacy. 

Thermus, Minucius. 1. Q., served under Scipio 
as tribunus militum in the war against Hannibal 
in Africa in b. c. 202 ; was tribune of the plebs 
201; curule aedile 197; and praetor 196, when he 
carried on war wdth great success in nearer Spain. 
He was consul in 193, and carried on war against 
the Ligurians in this and the 2 following years. 
On his return to Rome in 190, a triumph was re- 
fused him, through the influence of M. Cato, who 
delivered on the occasion his two orations intitled 
De decern Hominibus and De falsis PiLgnis. Thermus 
was killed in 188, while fighting under Cn. Manlius 
Vulso against the Thracians. — 2. M., propraetor 
in 81, accompanied L. Murena, Sulla's legate, into 
Asia. Thermus was engaged in the siege of My- 
tilene, and it was under him that Julius Caesar 
served his first campaign, and gained his first 
laurels. — ■ 3. Q., propraetor 51 and 50 in Asia, 
where he received many letters from Cicero, who 
praises his administration of the province. On the 
breaking out of the civil Avar he espoused the side 
of Pompey. 

Theron (O^^pwi'), tyrant of Agrigentum in Sicily, 
was the son of Aenesidemus, and descended from 
one of the most illustrious families in his native city. 
He obtained the supreme power about b. c. 488, 
and retained it till his death in 472. He conquered 
Himera in 482, and imited this powerful city to 
his own dominions. He was in close alliance with 
Gelon, ruler of Syracuse and Gela, to Avhom he 
had given his daughter Demarete in marriage ; 
and he shared vrith Gelon in the great victory 
gained over the Carthaginians in 480. On the 
death of Gelon in 478, Theron espoused the cause 
of Polyzelus, who had been driven into exile by 
his brother Hieron. Theron raised an army for 
the purpose of reinstating him, but hostilities were 
prevented, and a peace concluded between the two 
sovereigns. 

Thersander (Qk^aavlpos)^ son of Polj-nices and 
Argia, and one of the Epigoni, was married to 
Demonassa, by whom he became the father of 
Tisamenus. He went with Agamemnon to Troy, 
and was slain in that expedition by Telephus. 
His tomb was shown at Elaea in Mysia, where 
sacrifices were offered to him. Virgil (^era. ii. 261) 
enumerates Thersander among the Greeks concealed 
in the wooden horse. Homer does not mention 
him. 

Thersites (OepcrtTTjs), son of Agrius, the most 
deformed and impudent talker among the Greeks 
at Troy. According to the later poets he was killed 
by Achilles, because he had ridiculed him for la- 
menting the death of Penthesilea, queen of the 
Amazons. 

Theseus (©Tjo-ews), the great legendary hero of 
Attica, was the son of Aegeus, kinsf of Athens, 
and of Aethra, the daughter of Pittheus, king of 
Troezen. He was brought up at Troezen; and 
when he reached maturity, he took, by his mother's 
directions, tiie sword and sandals^ the t!>kens 



which had been left by Aegeus, and proceeded to 
Athens. Eager to emulate Hercules, he went by- 
land, displaying his prowess by destroying the 
robbers and monsters that infested the country. 
Periphetes, Sinis, Phaea the Crommyonian sow, 
Sciron, Cercyon, and Procrustes fell before him. 
At Athens he was immediately recognised by 
Medea, who laid a plot for poisoning him at a 
banquet to which he was invited. By means of 
the sword which he carried, Theseus was recog- 
nised by Aegeus, acknowledged as his son, and 
declared his successor. The sons of Pallas, thus 
disappointed in their hopes of succeeding to the 
throne, attempted to secure the succession by vio- 
lence, and declared war ; but, being betrayed by 
the herald Leos, were destroyed. The capture of 
the Marathonian bull, which had long laid waste 
the surrounding country, %vas the next exploit of 
Theseus. After this Theseus went of his o-wo. 
accord as one of the 7 youths, whom the Athenians 
were obliged to send every year, Avith 7 maidens, 
to Crete, in order to be devoured by the Minotaur. 
When they arrived at Crete, Ariadne, the daughter 
of Minos, became enamoured of Theseus, and pro- 
vided him Avith a SAvord Avith AA^hich he slew the 
Minotaur, and a clue of thread by which he found 
his AA'ay out of the labyrinth. HaA'ing effected his 
object, Theseus sailed away, carrying off Ariadne. 
There Avere various accounts about Ariadne ; but 
according to the general account Theseus abandoned 
her in the island of Naxos on his way home. 
[Ariadne,] He A\-as generally believed to have 
had by her two sons, Oenopion and Staphylus. As 
the vessel in Avhich Theseus sailed approached 
Attica, he neglected to hoist the white sail, which 
Avas to have been the signal of the success of the 
expedition ; Avhereupon Aegeus, thinking that his 
son had perished, threAv himself into the sea. 
[Aegeus.] Theseus thus became king of Athens. 
One of the most celebrated of the adventures of 
Theseus Avas his expedition against the Amazons. 
He is said to have assailed them before they had 
recovered from the attack of Hercules, and to haA-e 
carried off their queen Antiope. The Amazons in 
their turn invaded Attica, and penetrated into 
Athens itself; and the final battle in which Theseus 
overcame them was fought in the very midst of 
the city. By Antiope Theseus Avas said to have 
had a son named Hippolytus or Demophoon, and 
after her death to have married Phaedra [Hippo- 
lytus, Phaedra]. Theseus figures in almost all 
the great heroic expeditions. He was one of the 
Argonauts (the anachronism of the attempt of 
Medea to poison him does not seem to have been 
noticed); he joined in the Calydonian hunt, and 
aided Adrastus in recovering the bodies of those 
slain before Thebes. He contracted a close friend- 
ship with Pirithous, and aided him and the La- 
pithae against the Centaurs. With the assistance 
of Pirithous he carried off Helen from Sparta AA-hile 
she Avas quite a girl, and placed her at Aphidnae, 
under the care of Aethra. In return he assisted 
Pirithous in his attempt to carry off Persephone 
from the loAver world. Pirithous perished in the 
enterprise, and Theseus was kept in hard durance 
until he was delivered by Hercules. Meantime 
Castor and Pollux invaded Attica, and carried off 
Helen and Aethra, Academus having informed the 
brothers where they were to be found [Acade- 
mus]. Menestheus also endeavoured to incite the 
people against Theseus, wJio on his retitm found 



THESMIA. 



THESSALIA. 



7G7 



himself unable to re-establish liis authority, and 
retired to Scyros, where he met with a treacherous 
death at the hands of Lycomedes. The departed 
hero was believed to have appeared to aid the 
Athenians at the battle of Marathon. In 469 the 
bones of Theseus were discovered by Cimon in 
Scyros, and brought to Athens, where they were 
deposited in a temple (the Theseum) erected in 
honour of the hero. A considerable part of this 
temple still remains, forming one of the most inter- 
esting monuments of Athens. A festival in honour 
of Theseus was celebrated on the 8th day of each 
month, especially on the 8th of Pyanepsion. — 
There can be no doubt that Theseus is a purely 
legendary personage. Nevertheless, in later times 
the Athenians came to regard him as the author of 
a very important political revolution in Attica. 
Before his time Attica had been broken up into 12 
petty independent states or townships, acknow- 
ledging no head, and connected only by a federal 
union. Theseus abolished the separate govern- 
ments, and erected Athens into the capital of a 
single commonwealth. The festival of the Pana- 
thenaea was instituted to commemorate this im- 
portant revolution. Theseus is said to have esta- 
blished a constitutional government, retaining in 
his own hands only certain definite powers and 
functions. He is further said to have distributed 
the Athenian citizens into the 3 classes of Eupa- 
tridae, Geomori, and Demiurgi. It would be a 
vain task to attempt to decide whether there is 
any historical basis for the legends about Theseus, 
and still more so to endeavour to separate the his- 
torical from the legendary in what has been pre- 
served. The Theseus of the Athenians was a hero 
Avho fought the Amazons, and slew the Minotaur, 
and carried off Helen. A personage who should be 
nothing more than a wise king, consolidating the 
Athenian commonwealth, however possible his ex- 
istence might be, would have no historical reality. 
The connection of Theseus with Poseidon, the na- 
tional deity of the Ionic tribes, his coming from 
the Ionic town Troezen, forcing his way through the 
Isthmus into Attica, and establishing the Isthmia 
as an Ionic Panegyris, rather suggest that Theseus 
is, at least in part, the mythological representative 
of an Ionian immigration into Attica, which, 
adding perhaps to the strength and importance of 
Ionian settlers already in the country, might easily 
have led to that political aggregation of the dis- 
jointed elements of the state which is assigned to 
Theseus. 

Tliesmia or Thesmophoros (©eo-^uia, ©etr/xo^o'- 
pos), that is, " the law-giver," a surname of De- 
meter and Persephone, in honour of whom the 
ThesmopTioria were celebrated at Athens in the 
month of Pyanepsion. 

Thespiae or Thespia (©eo-Tretai, QeaTriai, ©ecr- 
7re:a, ©ecTTTia : ©eCTTievs, ©e(r7ria57]s, Thespiensis : 
Eremo or Rimohxsiro), an ancient town in Boeotia 
on the S. E. slope of Mt. Helicon, at no great 
distance from the Crissaean Gulf. Its inhabitants 
did not follow the example of the other Boeotian 
towns in submitting to Xerxes, and a number of 
them bravely fought under Leonidas at Ther- 
mopylae, and perished with the Spartans. Their 
city was burnt to the ground by the Persians, but 
was subsequently rebuilt. In the Peloponnesian 
war the Thebans made themselves masters of the 
town. At Thespiae was preserved the celebrated 
marble statue of Eros by Praxiteles, who had 



given it to Phryne, by whom it was presented to 
her native town. [Praxiteles.] From the 
vicinity of the town to Mt. Helicon the Muses are 
called Thespiades, and Helicon itself is named the 
Thespia rupes. 

Thespis (©eo-Tr/s), the celebrated father of Greek 
tragedy, was a contemporary of Pisistratus, and a 
native of Icarus, one of the demi in Attica, where 
the worship of Dionysus had long prevailed. The 
alteration made by Thespis, and which gave to the 
old tragedy a new and dramatic character, was 
very simple but very important. He introduced 
an actor, for the sake of giving rest to the chonis, 
and independent of it, in which capacity he pro- 
bably appeared himself, taking various parts in the 
same piece, under various disguises, which he was 
enabled to assume by means of the linen masks, 
the invention of which is ascribed to him. The 
first representation of Thespis was in B. c. 535. 
For further details see Did. of Antiq. avt.Tragoedia. 

Thespius (©ea-jTjos), son of Erechtheus, who, 
according to some, founded the town of Thespiae 
in Boeotia. His descendants are called Thes- 
piadae. 

Thesproti (©ea-Trpcoroi'), a people of Epirus, 
inhabiting the district called after them Th.es- 
protia (©6o-7rpwTi'a) or Thesprotis (©ecrTrpwrfs), 
which extended along the coast from the Am- 
bracian gulf N.-wards as far as the river Thyamis, 
and inland as far as the territory of the Molossi. 
The S. E. part of the country on the coast, from 
the river Acheron to the Ambracian gulf, was 
called Cassopaea from the town Cassope, and is 
sometimes reckoned a distinct district. The Thes- 
proti were the most ancient inhabitants of Epirus, 
and are said to have derived their name from 
Thesprotus, the son of Lycaon. They were Pe- 
lasgians, and their country was one of the chief 
seats of the Pelasgic nation. Here Avas the oracle 
of Dodona, the great centre of the Pelasgic wor- 
ship. From Thesprotia issued the Thessalians, 
who took possession of the country afterwards 
called Thessaly. In the historical period the 
Thesprotians were a people of small importance, 
having become subject to the kings of the Mo- 
lossians. 

Thessalia (©ecraaAta or ©erraAia : QeaaaXos 
or ©erraAo's), the largest division of Greece, was 
bounded on the N. by the Cambunian mountains, 
which separated it from Macedonia ; on the W. 
by Mt. Pindus, which separated it from Epirus ; 
on the E. by the Aegaean sea ; and on the S. by 
the Maliac gulf and Mt. Oeta, which separated it 
from Locris, Phocis and Aetolia. Thessaly Proper 
is a vast plain lying between the Cambunian 
mountains on the N. and Mt. Othrys on the S., 
Mt. Pindus on the W., and Mts. Ossa and Pelion 
on the E. It is thus shut in on every side by 
mountain barriers, broken only at the N. E, corner 
by the valley and defile of Tempe, which separates 
Ossa from Olympus, and is the only road through 
which an invader can enter Thessaly from the N. 
This plain is drained by the river Peneus and its 
affluents, and is said to have been originally a vast 
lake, the waters of which were afterwards carried 
off through the vale of Tempe by some sudden 
convulsion, which rent the rocks of this valley 
asunder. The lake of Nessonis at the foot of Mt. 
Ossa, and that of Boebeis at the foot of Mt. Pelion, 
are supposed to have been remains of this vast 
lake. In addition to the plain already described 



768 THESSALIA. 

there were 2 other districts included under the j 
general name of Thessalj- : one called Magnesia, 
being a long narrow strip of country, extending 
along the coast of the Aegaean sea from Tempe to 
the Pagasaean gulf, and bounded on the W. by 
Mts. Ossa and Olympus ; and the other being a 
long narrow vale at the extreme S. of the coun- 
try, lying between Mts. Othrys and Oeta, and 
drained by the river Spercheus, Thessaly is said 
to have been originally known by the names of 
Pyrrha, Aemonia and Aeolis. The two former 
appellations belong to mythology ; the latter refers 
to the period when the country was inhabited by 
Aeolians, who were afterwards expelled from the 
country by the Thessalians about 60 years after 
the Trojan war. The Thessalians are said to have 
come from Thesprotia ; but at what period their 
name became the name of the country cannot be 
determined. It does not occur iu Homer, who 
only mentions the several principalities of which it 
was composed, and does not give any general ap- 
pellation to the country. Thessaly was divided 
in very earh" times into 4 districts or tetrarchies, 
a division which we still find subs sting in the 
Peloponnesian war. These districts were Hesti- 
aeotis, Felasgiofis, ThessaLiotis and Fhihiods. They 
comprised, however, only the great Thessalian 
plain ; and besides them, we find mention of 4 
other districts, viz. Magnesia, Dolopia, Oetaea, and 
Malis. Thus there were 8 districts altogether. 
Perrhaehia was, properly speaking, not a district, 
since Perrhaebi was the name of a Pelasgic people 
settled in Hestiaeotis and Pelasgiotis. [Per- 
rhaebi.] 1. Hestiaeotis ('Ea-TiatwTis or "E^ari- 
coTis), inhabited by the Hestiaeotae {'Ea-TiaiwTai 
or 'Eo-TifiTci), the N. W. part of Thessaly, bounded 
on the N. by Macedonia, on the W. by Epirus, 
on the E. by Pelasgiotis and on the S. by Thes- 
saliotis : the Peneus may be said in general to 
have formed its S. limit. — 2. Pelasgiotis (He- 
XaayiuTis) inhabited by the Pelasgidtae {Tl^Kacr- 
yiwrai), the E. part of the Thessalian plain, was 
bounded on the N. by Macedonia, on the W. by 
Hestiaeotis, on the E. by Magnesia and on the 
S. by the Sinus Pagasaeus and Phthiotis. The 
name shows that it was originally inhabited by 
Pelasgians ; and one of the chief towns in the 
district was Larissa, which was of Pelasgic origin. 
— 3. Thessalidtis (Qecra-aMuiTis), the S. W. part 
of the Thessalian plain, so called because it was 
first occupied by the Thessalians who came from 
Thesprotia. It was bounded on the N. by 
Hestiaeotis, on the W. by Epirus, on the E. 
by Pelasgiotis, and on the S. by Dolopia and 
Phthiotis. — 4. Phthiotis {^Bimtls), inhabited by 
the Pktkiotae {^diarai), the S. E. of Thessaly, 
bounded on the N. by Thessaliotis, on the W. by 
Dolopia, on the S. by the Sinus Maliacus, and on 
the E. by the Pagasaean gulf. Its inhabitants 
were Achaeans, and are frequently called the 
Achaean Phthiotae. It is in this district that 
Homer places Phthia and Hellas Proper, and the 
dominions of Achilles. — 5. Magnesia [Mag- 
nesia]. — 6. Dolopia (AoAoTTta), inhabited by 
the Dolopes (AoXoires), a small district bounded 
on the E. by Phthiotis, on the N. by Thessaliotis, 
on the W. by Athamania, and on the S. by 
Oetaea. They were an ancient people, for they 
are not only mentioned b}^ Homer as fighting 
before Troy, but they also sent deputies to the 
Amphictyonic assembly. — 7. Oetaea (OtVota), 



THESSALIA. 

inhabited by the Oetaei (Olraloi) and Aeniane* 
(AjVjai/ey), a district in the upper valley of the 
Spercheus, lying between Mts. Othrj-s and Oeta, 
and bounded on the N. by Dolopia, on the S. by 
Phocis, and on the E.' by Malis. — 8. Malis 
\_Ma-lis'\.— History of Thessaly. The Thessalians, 
as we have already seen, were a Thesprotian tribe. 
Under the guidance of leaders, who are said to 
have been descendants of Hercules, they^ invaded 
the W. part of the coimtry, afterwards called 
Thessaliotis, and drove out or reduced to the 
condition of Penestae or bondsmen the ancient 
Aeolian inhabitants. The Thessalians afterwards 
spread over the other parts of the countrj'-, com- 
pelling the Perrhaebi, Magnetes, Achaean Phthi- 
otae, etc., to submit to their authority and pay 
them tribute. The population of Thessaly, there- 
fore, consisted, like that of Laconica, of 3 distinct 
classes. 1 . The Penestae, whose condition was nearly 
the same as that of the Helots. 2. The subject 
people, corresponding to the Perioeci of Laconica. 
3. The Thessalian conquerors, who alone had any 
share in the public administration, and whose 
lands were cultivated by the Penestae. For some 
time after the conquest, Thessaly was governed by 
kings of the race of Hercules ; but the kingly 
power seems to have been abolished in early times, 
and the government in the separate cities became 
oligarchical, the power being chiefly in the hands 
of a few great families descended from the ancient 
kings. Of these two of the most powerful were 
the Aleuadae and the Scopadae, the former of 
whom ruled at Larissa, and the latter at Cranon 
or Crannon. These nobles had vast estates cul- 
tivated by the Penestae ; they were celebrated 
for their hospitality and princely mode of life ; 
and they attracted to their courts many of the 
poets and artists of southern Greece. At an early 
period the Thessalians were united into a con- 
federate body. Each of the 4 districts into which 
the country was divided probably regulated its 
affairs by some kind of provincial council ; and 
when occasion required, a chief magistrate was 
elected under the name of Tagus {Tayos). whose 
commands were obeyed by all the 4 districts. 
His command was of a military rather than of a 
civil nature, and he seems to have been appointed 
only in case of war. We do not know the extent 
of his constitutional power nor the time for which 
he held his office ; probably neither was precisely 
fixed, and depended on the circumstances of the 
time and the character of the individual. This 
confederacy, however, was not of much practical 
benefit to the Thessalian people, and appears to 
have been only used by the Thessalian nobles as a 
means of cementing and maintaining their power. 
The Thessalians never became of much importance 
in Grecian history. They submitted to the Per- 
sians on their invasion of Greece, and they exer- 
cised no important influence on Grecian affairs 
till after the end of the Peloponnesian war. 
About this time the power of the aristocratical 
families began to decline, and Lycophron, who had 
established himself as tyrant at Pherae, offered 
a formidable opposition to the great aristocratical 
families, and endeavoured to extend his power 
over all Thessaly. His ambitious schemes were 
realized by Jason the successor, and probably 
the son of Lycophron, who caused himself to be 
elected Tagus about B. c. 374. While he lived 
the whole of Thessaly was imited as one political 



TTTESSALONICA. 



THETIS. 



769 



power, and he began to aim at making himself 
master of all Greece, when he was assassinated in 
370. The office of Tagus became a tyranny under 
his successors, Polydorus, Polyphron, Alexander, 
Tisiphon and Lycophron ; but at length the old 
aristocratical families called in the assistance of 
Philip of Macedonia, who deprived Lycophron of 
his power in 353, and restored the ancient govern- 
ment in the different towns. The country, how- 
ever, only changed masters ; for a few years later 
(344) Philip made it completely subject to Mace- 
donia, by placing at the head of the 4 divisions of 
the country governors devoted to his interests, aud 
probably members of the ancient noble families, 
who had now become little better than his vassals. 
From this time Thessaly remained in a state of 
dependence upon the Macedonian kings, till the 
victory of T. Flamininus at Cynoscephalae in 197 
again gave them a semblance of independence 
under the protection of the Romans 

Thess&lonica {Qea-aaKoj/iKr]), daughter of 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, by his 
wife or concubine, Nicesipolis of Pherae. She was 
taken prisoner by Cassander along with Olyrapias 
on the capture of Pydna in B.C. 317; and Cas- 
sander embraced the opportunity to connect him- 
self with the ancient royal house of Macedonia by 
marrying her. By Cassander she became the 
mother of 3 sons, Philip, Antipater, and Alex- 
ander ; and her husband paid her the honour of 
conferring her name upon the city of Thessalonica, 
which he founded on the site of the ancient 
Therma, [See below.] After the death of Cas- 
sander, Thessalonica was put to death by her son 
Antipater, 295. 

Thessalonica {QeaaaKou'iKri, also QecraaXovi- 
K€ia : @^(T<ra\oviKevs : Saloniki), more anciently 
Therma {Qepix-q : 0ep/xaTos), an ancient city in 
Macedonia, situated at the N. E. extremity of the 
Sinus Thermaicus. Under the name of Therma 
it was not a place of much importance. It was 
taken and occupied by the Athenians a short time 
before the commencement of the Peloponnesian 
war (B.C. 432), but was soon after restored by 
them to Perdiccas. It was made an important 
city by Cassander, who collected in this place the 
inhabitants of several adjacent towns (about B. c. 
315), and who gave it the name of Thessalonica, 
in honour of his wife, the daughter of Philip and 
sister of Alexander the Great. From this time it 
became a large and flourishing city. Its harbour 
was well situated for commercial intercourse with 
the Hellespont and the Aegaean ; and under the 
Romans it had the additional advantage of lying 
on the Via Egnatia, which led from the W. shores 
of Greece to Byzantium and the East. It was 
Ansited by the Apostle Paul about A. d. 53 ; and 
about 2 years afterwards he addressed from Corinth 
2 epistles to his converts in the city. Thessalonica 
continued to be, under the empire, one of the most 
important cities of Macedonia ; and at a later time 
it became the residence of the prefect, and the ca- 
pital, of the Illyrian provinces. It is celebrated at 
this period on account of the fearful massacre of its 
inhabitants by order of Theodosius, in consequence 
of a riot in which some of the Roman officers had 
been assassinated by the populace. [Theodosius.] 

Thessalus (©ecraaAos). 1. A Greek physician, 
son of Hippocrates, passed some of his time at the 
court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, who reigned 
B. c. 413 — 399. He was one of the founders of 



the sect of the Dogmatici, and is several times 
highly praised by Galen, who calls him the most 
eminent of the sons of Hippocrates. He was sup- 
posed by some of the ancient writers to be the 
author of several of the works that form part of 
the Hippocratic Collection, which he might have 
compiled from notes left by his father. — 2. Also 
a Greek physician, was a native of Tralles in 
Lydia, and one of the founders of the medical sect 
of the Methodici. He lived at Rome in the reign 
of the emperor Nero, a. d. 54 — 68, to whom he 
addressed one of his works ; and here he died and 
was buried, and his tomb was to be seen in Pliny's 
time on the Via Appia. He considered himself 
superior to all his predecessors ; he asserted that 
none of them had contributed any thing to the 
advance of medical science ; and boasted that he 
could himself teach the art of healing in 6 months. 
He is frequently mentioned by Galen, but always 
in terms of contempt and ridicule. None of his 
works are extant. 

Thestius (©eo-Tios), son of Ares and Deraonice 
or Androdice, and, according to others, son of 
Agenor and grandson of Pleuron, the king of 
Aetolia. He was the father of Iphiclus, Euippus, 
Plexippus, Eurypylus, Leda, Althaea, and Hy- 
permnestra. His wife is not the same in all tra- 
ditions, some calling her Lycippe or Laophonte, 
a daughter of Pleuron, and others Deidamla. The 
patronymic Thestiades is given to his grandson 
Meleager, as well as to his sons, and the female 
patronymic Thestias, to his daughter Althaea, the 
mother of Meleager. 

Thestor (©eo-rwp), son of Idmon and Laothoe, 
and father of Calchas, Theoclymenus, Leucippe, 
and Theonoe. The patronymic Thestorides is 
frequently given to his son Calchas. 

Thetis (©eVis), one of the daughters of Nereus 
and Doris, was the wife of Peleus, by whom she 
became the mother of Achilles. As a marine 
divinity, she dwelt like her sisters, the Nereids, 
in the depth of the sea, with her father Nereus. 
She there received Dionysus on his flight from 
Lycurgus, and the god, in his gratitude, presented 
her with a golden urn. When Hephaestus was 
thrown down from heaven, he was likewise re- 
ceived by Thetis. She had been brought up by 
Hera, and when she reached the age of maturity, 
Zeus and Hera gave her, against her will, in 
marriage to Peleus. Poseidon and Zeus himself 
are said by some to have sued for her hand ; but 
when Themis declared that the son of Thetis 
would be more illustrious than his father, both gods 
desisted from their suit. Others state that Thetis 
rejected the offers of Zelis, because she had been 
brought up by Hera ; and the god, to revenge 
himself, decreed that she should marry a mortal. 
Chiron then informed his friend Peleus how he 
niight gain possession of her, even if she should 
metamorphose herself ; for Thetis, like Proteus, 
had the power of assuming any form she pleased ; 
and she had recourse to this means of escaping 
from Peleus, but the latter instructed by Chiron 
held the goddess fast till she again assumed her 
proper form, and promised to marry him. The 
wedding of Peleus was honoured with the presence 
of all the gods, with the exception of Eris or Dis- 
cord, who was not invited, and who avenged her 
self by throwing among the assembled gods the 
apple, which was the source of so much misery. 
[Paris.] After Thetis had become the mother ot 

3 D 



770 



THEUPOLIS. 



TPIRACIA. 



Achilles, she bestowed upon him the tenderest 
care and love. [Achilles.] 

Theiipolis {QeovnoXis) , a later name given to 
the city of Antioch in Syria, on account of its emi- 
nence in the early history of Christianity. 

Theuprosopon (0eoG -n-poaunrou, i. e, the face 
of a god : Ras-esh-Shukeh ; Arab. WejeJt-el-KMar, 
i. e. a face of stone), a lofty rugged promontor}'' on 
the coast of Phoenice, between Tripolis and Byb- 
lus, formed by a spur of Lebanon, and rxmning far 
out to sea. Some travellers have fancied that they 
can trace in its side-view that resemblance to a 
human profile which its name implies. 

Theveste (©eovearv : Tebessa, Ru.), a con- 
siderable city of N. Africa, on the frontier of Nu- 
midia and Byzacena, at the centre of several roads. 
It was of comparatively late origin, and a Roman 
colony. Among its recently discovered ruins are 
a fine triumphal arch, and the old walls of the city, 
the circuit of which was large enough to have con- 
tained 40,000 inhabitants. 

Thia (0ei'a), daughter of Uranus and Ge, one 
of the female Titans, became by H}^erion the 
mother of Helios, Eos, and Selene, that is, she was 
regarded as the deity from whom all light pro- 
ceeded. 

Thilsapliata (prob. Tell Afad, between Mosul 
and Sinjar), a town of Mesopotamia, near the 
Tigris. 

Thilutha, a fort in the S. of Mesopotamia, on 
an island in the Euphrates. Some identify it with 
Olabus, and that with the fort now called Zobia or 
Juba in about .84° N. lat. 

Thinae or TMna (&7uai, Q7va), a chief city of 
the SiNJiE, and a great emporium for the silk and 
wool trade of the extreme E. Some seek it on 
the E. coast of China, others on the S. E. coast of 
Cochin- CJiina, 

Thiodamas (QeioBd/xas), father of Hylas, and 
king of the Dryopes. 

This {Qis : Qlvlttis), a great city of Upper 
EgA^pt, capital of the Thinites Nomos, and the 
seat of some of the ancient dynasties. It was 
either the same place as Abypus (No. 2.), or was 
so near it as to be entirely supplanted by Abydus. 

TMsbe (0i'(r§7j), a beautiful Babylonian maiden, 
beloved by Pyramus. The lovers living in adjoin- 
ing houses, often secretly conversed with each 
other through an opening in the wall, as their 
parents would not sanction their marriage. Once 
they agreed upon a rendezvous at the tomb of 
Ninus. Thisbe arrived first, and while she was 
waiting for Pyramus, she perceived a lioness which 
had just torn to pieces an ox, and took to flight. 
While running she lost her garment, which the 
lioness soiled with blood. In the mean time Py- 
ramus arrived, and finding her garment covered 
with blood, he imagined that she had been mur- 
dered, and made away with himself imder a mul- 
berry tree, the fruit of which henceforth was as 
red as blood. Thisbe, who afterwards found the 
body of her lover, likewise killed herself. 

TMsbe, afterwards TMsbae (©iVg??, ©iVgai : 
©taSaios, @i<T§6vs : Kakosia), a town of Boeotia, 
on the borders of Phocis, and between Mt. Helicon 
and the Corinthian gulf. It was famed for its 
number of wild pigeons, which are still found in 
abundance in the neighbourhood of Kakosia. 

Thisoa (©eicro'a : ©ejcroixTTj?), a town in Arcadia 
on. Mt. Lycaeus, called after a nymph of the same 
name. 



Thmiiis (Q/jlovls: Tmaie,!^}!., near Mansourak), 
a city of Lower Egypt, on a canal on the E. side 
of the Mendesian mouth of the Nile. It was a 
chief seat of the worship of the god Mendes 
(the Egyptian Pan), under the symbol of a goat ; 
and, according to Jerome, the word Thmuis signi- 
fies goat. It was the chief city of the Nomos 
Thmultes, which was afterwards united with the 
Mendesian Nomos. 

Thoantea, a surname of the Taurian Artemis, 
derived from Thoas, king of Tauris. 

Thoas {@6as). 1. Son of Andraemon and Gorge, 
was king of Calydon and Pleuron, in Aetolia, and 
sailed with 40 ships against Troy. — 2. Son of 
Dionysus and Ariadne, was king of Lemnos, and 
married to Myrina, by whom he became the father 
of Hypsipyle and Sicinus. When the Lemnian 
women killed all the men in the island, Hypsipyle 
saved her father Thoas, and concealed him. After- 
wards, however, he was discovered by the other 
women, and killed ; or, according to other ac- 
counts, he escaped to Taurus, or to the island of 
Oenoe near Euboea, which was henceforth called 
Sicinus. The patronymic Thoantias is given to 
Hypsipyle, as the daughter of Thoas. — ■ 3. Son of 
Borysthenes, and king of Tauris, into whose do- 
minions Iphigenia was carried by Artemis, when 
she was to have been sacrificed. 

Thomas Magister, a rhetorician and gram- 
marian, who flourished about A. D. 1310. He was 
a native of Thessalonica, and lived at the court of 
the emperor Andronicus Palaeologus I., where he 
held the offices of marshal {Magister Offidorum) 
and keeper of the archives {Chartophylax) ; but he 
afterwards retired to a monastery, where he as- 
sumed the name of Theodulus, and devoted him- 
self to the study of the ancient Greek authors. 
His chief work, which has come down to us, is a 
Leodcon of Attic Words (Kara 'A\(pd€r]Toi/ ovoixd- 
Tuv 'Attikwv 'EKAoyai), compiled from the works 
of the elder grammarians, such as Phrynichus, 
Ammonius, Herodian, and Moeris. The work has 
some value on account of its containing much from 
the elder grammarians, which would otherwise 
have been lost ; but, when Thomas deserts his 
guides, he often falls into the most serious errors. 
The best edition is by Ritschl, Halis Sax. 1831, 
1832, 8vo. 

Thoricus (Q6piKo<! ov GopiKos: Qop'iKios, &opi- 
K€vs: Theriko) one of the 12 ancient towns in 
Attica, and subsequently a demus belonging to the 
tribe Acamantis, was situated on the S. E. coast a 
little above Sunium, and was fortified by the 
Athenians towards the close of the Peloponnesian 
war. There are still extensive remains of the 
ancient town. 

Thornax {@6pval: Pavla/iha), a mountain in 
Laconica N. E. of Sparta, on which stood a cele- 
brated temple of Apollo. 

Thospites Lacus {©aairiTis xijjLvt] : Goljik9\ 
a lake in Armenia Major, through which the Ti- 
gris flows. The lake, and the surrounding district, 
also called Thospitis, were both named from a city 
Thospia (©wtrTria) at the N. end of the lake. 

Tkracia (&pdic7}. Ion. Gpi^Kr]^ QprfiKT], QprjiKir] : 
©pa|, pi. &paKes, Ion. ©pr?! and ©p7ji|, pi. QprjKes, 
QpifiKes : Thrax, pi, Thraces), was in earlier times 
the name of the vast space of countrj^ bounded on 
the N. by the Danube, on the S. by the Propontis 
and the Aegaean, on the E. by the Pontus Euxinus, 
and on the W. by the river StrjTnon and the 



THRACIA. 



THRASEA. 



771 



E.-most of the lUyrian tribes. It was divided into 
2 parts by Mt. Haemus (the Balkan), running 
from W. to E., and separating the plain of the 
lower Danube from the rivers which fall into the 
Aegaean, Two extensive mountain ranges branch 
off from the S. side of Mt. Haemus ; one running 
S. E. towards Constantinople ; and the other called 
Rhodope, E. of the preceding one, and also running 
in a S. E.-ly direction near the river Nestus. Be- 
tween these two ranges there are many plains, 
which are drained by the Hebrus, the largest river 
in Thrace. At a later time the name Thrace was 
applied to a more limited extent of country. The 
district between the Strymon and the Nestus was 
added to Macedonia by Philip, and was usually 
called Macedonia A djecta. [Macedonia.] Under 
Augustus the part of the country N. of the Haemus 
was made a separate Roman province under the 
name of Moesia [Moesia] ; but the district be- 
tween the Strymon and the Nestus had been pre- 
viously restored to Thrace by the Romans. The 
Roman province of Thrace was accordingly bounded 
on the W. by the river Nestus, which separated it 
from Macedonia, on the N. by Mt. Haemus, 
which divided it from Moesia, on the E. by the 
Euxine, and on the S. by the Propontis and Ae- 
gaean. — Thrace, in its widest extent, was peopled 
in the times of Herodotus and Thucydides by a 
vast number of different tribes ; but their customs 
and character were marked by great uniformity. 
Herodotus says that, next to the Indians, the Thra- 
cians were the most numerous of all races, and if 
united under one head would have been irresistible. 
He describes them as a savage, cruel, and rapacious 
people, delighting in blood, but brave and warlike. 
According to his account, which is confirmed by 
other writers, the Thracian chiefs sold their chil- 
dren for exportation to the foreign merchant ; they 
purchased their wives from their parents ; they 
punctured or tattooed their bodies and those of the 
women belonging to them, as a sign of noble birth ; 
they despised agriculture, and considered it most 
honourable to live by war and robbery. Deep 
drinking prevailed among them extensively, and 
their quarrels over their wine cups were notorious 
even in the time of Augustus. (Hor. Carm. i, 27.) 
They worshipped deities, whom the Greeks assi- 
milated to Ares, Dionj'^sus, and Artemis : the 
great sanctuary and oracle of their god Dionysus 
was in one of the loftiest summits of Mt. Rhodope. 
The tribes on the S. coast attained to some degree 
of civilisation , owing to the numerous Greek co- 
lonies which were founded in their vicinity ; but 
the tribes in the interior seem to have retained 
their savage habits, with little mitigation, down to 
the time of the Roman empire. In earlier times, 
however, some of the Thracian tribes must have 
been distinguished by a higher degree of civilisa- 
tion than prevailed among them at a later period. 
The earliest Greek poets, Orpheus, Linus, Musaeus, 
and others, are all represented as coming from 
Thrace. Eumolpus, likewise, Avho founded the 
Eleusinian mysteries at Attica, is said to have been 
a Thracian, and to have fought against Erechtheus, 
king of Athens. We also find mention of the 
Thracians in other parts of southern Greece : thus 
they are said to have once dwelt both in Phocis 
and Boeotia. They were also spread over a part 
of Asia : the Thynians and Bithynians, and perhaps 
also the Mysians, were members of the great 
Thracian race. Even Xenophon speaks of Thrace 



in Asia, which extended along the Asiatic side of 
the Bosporus, as far as Heraclea. — The principal 
Greek colonies along the coast, beginning at the 
Strymon and going E.-wards, were Amphipolis, 
at the mouth of the Strymon ; Abdera, a little to 
the W. of the Nestus ; Dicaea or Dicaepolis, a 
settlement of Maronea ; Maronea itself, colonised 
by the Chians ; Stryme, a colony of the Thasians ; 
Mesembria, founded by the Samothracians ; and 
Aenos, a Lesbian colony at the mouth of the He- 
brus. The Thracian Chersonesus was probably 
colonised by the Greeks at an early period, but it 
did not contain any important Greek settlement 
till the migration of the first Miltiades to the 
country, during the reign of Pisistratus at Athens. 
[Chersonesus.] On the Propontis the 2 chief 
Greek settlements were those of Perinthus and 
Selymbria ; and on the Thracian Bosporus was 
the important town of Byzantium. There were 
only a few Greek settlements on the S.W. coast of 
the Euxine ; the most important were those of 
Apollonia, Odessus, Callatis,Tomi, renowned 
as the place of Ovid's banishment, and Istria, 
near the S. mouth of the Danube. — The Thracians 
are said to have been conquered by Sesostris, king 
of Egypt, and subsequently to have been subdued 
by the Teucrians and Mysians ; but the first really 
historical fact respecting them is their subjugation 
by Megabazus, the general of Darius. After the 
Persians had been driven out of Europe by the 
Greeks, the Thracians recovered their independence ; 
and at the beginning of the Pelopoimesian war, 
almost all the Thracian tribes were united under the 
dominion of Sitalces, king of the Odrysae, whose 
kingdom extended from Abdera to the Euxine and 
the mouth of the Danube. In the 3rd year of the 
Peloponnesian war (b. c. 429), Sitalces, who had 
entered into an alliance with the Athenians, in- 
vaded Macedonia with a vast army of 150,000 men, 
but Avas compelled by the failure of provisions to 
return home, after remaining in Macedonia 30 
days. Sitalces fell in battle against the Triballi in 
424, and was succeeded by his nephew Seuthes, 
who during a long reign raised his kingdom to a 
height of power and prosperity which it had never 
previously attained, so that his regular revenues 
amoimted to the annual sum of 400 talents, in ad- 
dition to contributions of gold and silver in the 
form of presents, to a nearly equal amount. After 
the death of Seuthes, which appears to have hap- 
pened a little before the close of the Peloponnesian 
war, we find his powerful kingdom split up into 
different parts ; and when Xenophon, with the 
remains of the 10,000 Greeks, arrived on the op- 
posite coast of Asia, another Seuthes applied to 
him for assistance to reinstate him in his dominions. 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, re- 
duced the greater part of Thrace ; and after the 
death of Alexander the country fell to the share of 
Lysimachus. It subsequently formed a part of 
the Macedonian dominions, but it continued to be 
governed by its native princes, and was oaJy no- 
minally subject to the Macedonian monarchs. Even 
under the Romans Thrace was for a long time go- 
verned by its own chiefs ; and we do not know at 
what period it was made into a Roman province. 

P. Thrasea Paetus, a distinguished Roman 
senator, and Stoic philosopher, in the reign of 
Nero, was a native of Patavium and was probably 
born soon after the death of Augustus. He ap- 
pears at an early period of his life to have made 

3i) 2 



772 



THRASYBULUS. 



THUCYDIDES. 



the younger Cato his model, of whose life he wrote 
an account. He married Arria, the daughter of 
the heroic Arria, who showed her husband Caecina 
how to die ; and his wife was worthy of her 
mother and her husband. At a later period he 
gave his own daughter in marriage to Helvidius 
Priscus, who trod closely in the footsteps of his 
father-in-law. After incurring the hatred of Nero 
by the independence of his character, and the free- 
dom with which he expressed his opinions, he was 
condemned to death by the senate by command of 
the emperor, A. D. 66. By his execution and that 
of his friend Barea Soranus, Nero, says Tacitus, 
resolved to murder Virtue herself. The panegyric 
of Thrasea was Avritten by Amlenus Rusticus, 
who was in consequence put to death by Domitian. 

Tlirasybulus (QpaavSovKos). 1. Tyrant of 
Miletus, was a contemporary of Periander and 
Alyattes, the king of Lydia. He was intimately 
connected with Thrasybulus. The story of the 
mode in which Thrasybulus gave his advice to 
Periander as to the best means of securing his 
power, is given under Periander. — 2. A cele- 
brated Athenian, son of Lycus. He was zealously 
attached to the Athenian democracy, and took an 
active part in overthrowing the oligarchical govern- 
ment of the 400 in B.C. 411. This is the first 
occasion on which he is mentioned ; but from this 
time he took a prominent part in the conduct of 
the Avar. On the establishment of the Thirty 
Tyrants at Athens he was banished, and was 
living in exile at Thebes when the rulers of Athens 
were perpetrating their excesses of tyranny. Being 
aided by the Thebans with arms and money, he 
collected a small band, and seized the fortress of 
Phyle. He next marched upon the Piraeus, which 
fell into his hands ; and from this place he carried 
on war for several months against the Ten, who 
had succeeded to the government, and eventually 
he obtained possession of Athens, and restored the 
democracy, 403. In 390 he commanded the 
Athenian fleet in the Aegean, and was slain by 
the inhabitants of Aspendus. — 3, Brother of 
Gelon and Hieron, tyrants of Syracuse. He suc- 
ceeded Hieron in the government, B.C. 467, and was 
soon afterwards expelled by the Syracusans, whom 
he had provoked by his rapacity and cruelty. He 
withdrew to Locri, in Italy, and there ended his 
days. 

Thrasydaeus (QpaavSaTos), tyrant of Agri- 
gentum, was the son and successor of Theron, b. c. 
472. Shortly after his accession he was defeated 
by Hieron of Syracuse ; and the Agrigentines 
immediately took advantage of this disaster to 
expel him from their city. He made his escape to 
Greece, but was arrested at Megara, and publicly 
executed, 

Thrasyllus or Thrasylus {QpdavWos, ®pd- 
(TvXos). 1. An Athenian, who actively assisted 
Thrasybulus in opposing the oligarchical revolution 
in B.C. 411. He was one of the commanders at 
the battle of Arginusae, and was among the 6 
generals who returned to Athens and were put 
to death, 406. — 2. A celebrated astrologer at 
Rhodes, with whom Tiberius became acquainted 
during his residence in that island, and whom he 
ever after held in the highest honour. He died in 
A. D. 36, the year before Tiberius, and is said to 
have saved the lives of many persons whom 
Tiberius would otherwise have put to death, by 
falsely predicting for this very purpose that the 



emperor would live ten years longer. The son of 
this Thrasyllus succeeded to his father's skill, and 
he is said to have predicted the empire to Nero. 

Thrasymachus {Spaav/xaxos), a native of Chal- 
cedon, was a sophist, and one of the earliest cul- 
tivators of the art of rhetoric. He was a contem- 
porary of Gorgias. He is introduced by Plato as 
one of the interlocutors in the Politia, and is referred 
to several times in the Phaedrus. 

Thrasymedes (QpaavuvS-qs), son of the Pylian 
Nestor and Anaxibia, accompanied his father on 
the expedition against Troy, and returned with 
him to Pylos. 

Thrasymenus. [Trasimenus.] 

Thronium (Qpoviou: Qpovios^ Qpovicvs : Ro- 
inani), the chief town of the Locri Epicnemidii, 
on the river Boagrius, at a short distance from the 
sea, with a harbour upon the coast. 

Thncydides (©oy/cvStSTjs). L An Athenian 
statesman, of the demus Alopece. son of Melesias. 
After the death of Cimon, in b. c. 449, Thncydides 
became the leader of the aristocratic party, which 
he concentrated and more thorou;?hly organised in 
opposition to Pericles. He was ostracised in 444, 
thus leaving the undisputed political ascendancy 
to Pericles. He left 2 sons, Melesias and Ste- 
phanus ; and a son of the former of these, named 
Thncydides after his grandfather, was a pupil of 
Socrates. — 2. The great Athenian };istorian, of 
the demus Halimus, was the son of Oloms or 
Orolus and Hegesipyle. He is said to have been 
connected with the family of Cimon ; and we 
know that Miltiades, the conqueror of Marathon, 
married Hegesipyle, the daughter of a Thracian 
king called Olorus, by whom she became the mother 
of Cimon ; and it has been conjectured with much 
probability that the mother of Thucydides was a 
granddaughter of Miltiades and Hegesipyle. Ac- 
cording to a statement of Pamphila [Pamphila], 
Thucydides was 40 yeaxs of .age at the commence- 
ment of the Peloponnesian war or b. c. 431, and 
accordingly he was born in 47 1 . There is a story 
in Lucian of Herodotus having read his History 
at the Olympic games to the assembled Greeks; 
and Suidas adds that Thucydides, then a boy, was 
present, and shed tears of emulation ; a presage of 
his own future historical distinction. But this 
celebrated story ought probably to be rejected as a 
fable. Thucydides is said to have been instructed 
in oratory by Antiphon, and in philosophy by 
Anaxagoras ; but whether these statements are to 
be received cannot be determined. It is certain, 
however, that being an Athenian, of a good family, 
and living in a city which was the centre of Greek 
civilisation, he must have had the best possible 
education : that he was a man of great ability and 
cultivated understanding his work clearly shows. 
He informs us that he possessed gold mines in that 
part of Thrace which is opposite to the island of 
Thasos, and that he was a person of the greatest 
influence among those in that part of Thrace. 
This propertj'-, according to some accounts, he had 
from his ancestors : according to other accounts he 
married a rich woman of Scaptesyle, and received 
them as a portion with her. Thucydides left a 
son, called Timotheus ; and a daughter also is 
mentioned, who is said to have written the 8 th 
book of the History of Thucydides. Thucydides 
(ii. 48) was one of those who suffered from the 
great plague of Athens, and one of the few who 
recovered. We have no trustworthy evidence of 



THUCYDIDES. 

Thucydides having distinguished himself as an 
orator, though it is not unlikely that he did, for 
his oratorical talent is shown by the speeches that 
he has inserted in his history. He was, however, 
employed in a military capacity, and he was in 
command of an Athenian squadron of 7 ships, at 
Thasus, B. c. 424, when Eucles, who commanded 
in Amphipolis, sent for his assistance against 
Brasidas, who was before that town with an army. 
Brasidas, fearing the arrival of a superior force, 
offered favourable terms to Amphipolis, which were 
readily accepted, for there were few Athenians in 
the place, and the rest did not wish to make re- 
sistance. Thucydides arrived at Eion, at the 
mouth of the Strymon, on the evening of the same 
day on which Amphipolis surrendered ; and though 
he was too late to save Amphipolis, he prevented 
Eion from falling into the hand of the enemy. In 
consequence of this failure, Thucydides became an 
exile, probably to avoid a severer punishment ; 
for Cleon, who was at this time in great favour 
with the Athenians, appears to have excited po- 
pular suspicion against him. There are various 
untrustworthy accounts as to his places of resi- 
dence during his exile ; but we may conclude that 
he could not safely reside in any place which was 
under Athenian dominion, and as he kept his eye 
on the events of the war, he must have lived in 
those parts which belonged to the Spartan alliance. 
His own words certainly imply that, during his 
exile, he spent much of his time either in the Pe- 
loponnesus or in places which were under Pelo- 
ponnesian influence (v. 26) ; and his work was the 
result of his own experience and observations. 
His minute description of Syracuse and the neigh- 
bourhood leads to the probable conclusion that he 
was personally acquainted with the localities ; and 
if he visited Sicily, it is probable that he also saw 
some parts of southern Italy. Thucydides says 
that he lived 20 years in exile (v. 26), and as his 
exile commenced in the beginning of 423, he may 
have returned to Athens in the beginning of 403, 
about the time when Thrasybulus liberated Athens. 
Thucydides is said to have been assassinated at 
Athens soon after his return ; but other accoimts 
place his death in Thrace. There is a general 
agreement, however, among the ancient authorities 
that he came to a violent end. His death cannot 
De placed later than 401. The time when he 
composed his work has been a matter of dispute. 
He informs us himself that he was busy in col- 
lecting materials all through the war from the be- 
ginning to the end (i. 22), and of course he would 
register them as he got them. Plutarch says that 
he wrote the work in Thrace ; but the work in 
the shape in which we have it was certainly not 
finished until after the close of the war, and he 
was probably engaged upon it at the time of his 
death. A question has been raised as to the 
authorship of the 8th and last book of Thucydides, 
which breaks off in the middle of the 2Ist year of 
the war (411). It differs from all the other books 
in containing no speeches, and it has also been 
supposed to be inferior to the rest as a piece of 
composition. Accordingly, several ancient critics 
supposed that the 8th book was not by Thucy- 
dides : some attributed it to his daughter, and 
some to Xenophon or Theopompus, because both 
of them continued the history. The words with 
which Xenophon's Hellenica commence (^era Se 
ravTo) may chiefly have led to the supposition that 



THUCYDIDES. 773 

hes was the author, for his work is made to appear 
as a continuation of that of Thucydides : but this 
argument is in itself of little weight ; and besides, 
both the style of the 8th book is different from 
that of Xenophon, and the manner of treating the 
subject, for the division of the year into summers 
and winters, which Thucydides has observed in 
his first 7 books, is continued in the 8th, but is 
not observed by Xenophon, The rhetorical style 
of Theopompus, which was the characteristic of 
his writing, renders it also improbable that he was 
the author of the 8th book. It seems the simplest 
supposition to consider Thucydides himself as the 
author of this book, since he names himself as the 
author twice (viii. 6, 60) ; but it is probable that 
he had not the opportunity of revising it with the 
same care as the first 7 books. It is stated by an 
ancient writer that Xenophon made the work of 
Thucydides known, w^hich may be true, as he 
wrote the first 2 books of his Hellenica, or the part 
which now ends with the 2nd book, for the pur- 
pose of completing the history. The work of 
Thucydides, from the commencement of the 2nd 
book, is chronologically divided into winters and 
summers, and each summer and winter make a 
year (ii. 1 ). His summer comjjrises the time from 
the vernal to the autumnal equinox, and the winter 
comprises the period from the autumnal to the 
vernal equinox. The division into books and 
chapters was probably made by the Alexandrine 
critics. The history of the Peloponnesian war 
opens the 2nd book of Thucydides, and the 1st is 
introductory to the history. He begins his 1st 
book by observing that the Peloponnesian war was 
the most important event in Grecian history, which 
he shows by a rapid review of the history of the 
Greeks from the earliest period to the commence- 
ment of the war (i. 1 — 21). After his intro- 
ductory chapters he proceeds to explain the alleged 
grounds and causes of the war : the real causes 
were, he says, the Spartan jealousy of the Athe- 
nian power. His narrative is interrupted (c. 89 
— 118), after he has come to the time when the 
Lacedaemonians resolved on war, by a digression 
on the rise and progress of the power of Athens ; 
a period which had been either omitted by other 
writers, or treated imperfectly, and with little 
regard to chronology, as by Hellanicus in his Attic 
history (c. 97). He resumes his narrative (c. 119) 
with the negotiations that preceded the Avar ; but 
this leads to another digression of some length on 
the treason of Pausanias (c. 128 — 134), and the 
exile of Themistocles (c. 1 35 — 138). He concludes 
the book with the speech of Pericles, who advised 
the Athenians to refuse the demands of the Pe- 
loponnesians ; and his subject, as already observed, 
begins with the 2nd book. A history which treats 
of so many events, which took place at remote 
spots, could only be written, in the time of Thucy- 
dides, by a man who took great pains to ascertain 
facts by persona\. inquiry. In modern times, facts 
are made known by printing as soon as they occur ; 
and the printed records of the time, newspapers 
and the like, are often the only evidence of many 
facts which become history. When we know the 
careless way in Avhich facts are now reported and 
recorded by very incompetent persons, often upon 
very indifferent hearsay testimony, and compare 
Avith such records the pains that Thucydides took 
to ascertain the chief events of a war, with which 
he was contemporary, in which he took a share as 

3 D 3 



774 



THULE. 



THYMBRA. 



a commander, the opportunities which his means 
allowed, his great abilities, and serious earnest 
character, it is a fair conclusion that we have a 
more exact history of a long OA-entful period by 
Thucydides than we have of any period in modern 
history, equally long and equally eventful. His 
whole work shows the most scrupulous care and 
diligence in ascertaining facts ; his strict attention 
to chronology, and the importance that he attaches 
to it, are additional proof of his historical accuracy. 
His narrative is brief and concise : it generally 
contains bare facts expressed in the fewest pos- 
sible words, and when we consider what pains it 
must have cost him to ascertain these facts, we 
admire the self-denial of a writer who is satisfied 
with giving facts in their naked brevity without 
ornament, without any parade of his personal im- 
portance, and of the trouble that his matter cost 
him. A single chapter must sometimes have 
represented the labour of many days and weeks. 
Such a principle of historical composition is the 
evidence of a great and elevated mind. The his- 
tory of Thucydides only makes an octavo volume 
of moderate size ; many a modern writer would 
have spim it out to a dozen volumes, and so have 
spoiled it. A work that is for all ages must con- 
tain much in little compass. He seldom makes 
reflections in the course of his narrative : occa- 
sionally he has a chapter of political and moral 
observations, animated by the keenest perception 
of the motives of action, and the moral character 
of man. Many of his speeches are political essays, 
or materials for them ; they are not mere imagina- 
tions of his ov/n for rhetorical effect ; they contain 
the general sense of what was actually delivered 
as nearly as he could ascertain, and in many in- 
stances he had good opportunities of knowing what 
was said, for he heard some speeches delivered 
(i. 22). His opportunities, his talents, his cha- 
racter, and his subject, all combined to produce a 
work that stands alone, and in its kind has neither 
equal nor rival. His pictures are sometimes striking 
and tragic, an effect produced by severe simplicity 
and minute particularity. Such is the description 
of the plague of Athens. Such also is the incom- 
parable history of the Athenian expedition to 
Sicily, and its melancholy termination. A man 
who thinks profoimdly will have a form of ex- 
pression which is stamped with the character of 
his mind ; and the style of Thucydides is accord- 
ingly concise, vigorous, and energetic. We feel that 
all the words were intended to have a meaning, 
and have a meaning : none of them are idle. Yet 
he is sometimes harsh and obscure ; and probably 
he was so, even to his own countrymen. Some of 
his sentences are very involved, and the connection 
and dependence of the parts are often difficult to 
seize. The best editions of Thucj'dides are by 
Bekker, Berlin, 1821, 3 vols. 8vo. ; by Poppo, 
Leipzig, 10 vols. 8vo., 1821 — 1838, of which two 
volumes are fiUed with prolegomena ; by Haack, 
with selections from the Greek Scholia and short 
uotes, Leipzig, 1820, 2 vols. 8vo. ; by Goller, 2 
vols. 8vo., Leipzig, 1826 ; and by Arnold, 3 vols. 
8vo., Oxford, 1830—1835. 

Thiile (©ouAtj), an island in the N. part of the 
German Ocean, regarded by the ancients as the 
most i^.-ly point in the whole earth. It is first 
mentioned by Pytheas, the celebrated Greek navi- 
gator of Massilia, who imdertook a voyage to 
Britain and Thule, of which he gave a descrip- 



tion in his work on the Ocean. All subsequent 
writers, who speak of Thule, appear to have taken 
their accounts from that of Pytheas. According 
to P3'theas, Thule was a six days' sail from 
Britain ; and the day and night there were each 
6 months long. He further stated that in Thule 
and those distant parts there was neither earth, 
sea, nor an-, but a sort of mixture of all these, like 
to the moUusca, in which the earth and the sea 
and everj" thing else were suspended, and which 
could not be penetrated either by land or by sea. 
Many modern writers suppose the Thule of Py- 
theas to be the same as Iceland, while others 
regard it as a part of Norway. The Thule of 
Ptolemy, however, lay much further to the S., 
and should probably be identified with the largest 
of the Shetland islands. 

Thurii, more rarely Thurium (Oovpioi, Qov- 
piov : Qovpios, 0ovpievs, Thurius, Thurinus : Terra 
nuova), a Greek city in Lucania, founded B.C. 443, 
near the site of the ancient Sybaris, which had 
been destroyed more than 60 years before. [Sy- 
baris.] It was built by the remains of the popu- 
lation of Sybaris, assisted by colonists from all 
parts of Greece, but especially from Athens. 
Among these colonists were the historian Hero- 
dotus and the orator Lysias, the latter of whom, 
hov/ever, was only a youth at the time and sub- 
sequently returned to Athens. The new city, 
from which the remains of the Sybarites were 
soon expelled, rapidly attained great power and 
prosperity, and became one of the most important 
Greek towns in the S. of Italy. Thus we are 
told that the Thurians Avere able to bring 14,000 
foot soldiers and 1000 horse into the field against 
the Lucanians. In the Samnite wars Thurii 
received a Roman garrison ; but it revolted to 
Hannibal in the 2nd Punic war. The Cartha- 
ginian general, however, at a later tune, not trust- 
ing the Thurians plundered the to-mi, and removed 
3500 of its inhabitants to Croton. The Romans 
subsequently sent a Latin colony to Thurii, and 
changed its name into Copiae ; but it continued to 
retain its original name, under which it is men- 
tioned by Caesar in the civil war as a municipiura. 

Thyamis (Qvafiis : Kalama),a river in Epirus, 
flowing into the sea near a promontory of the same 
name. 

Thyades. [Thyia.] 

Thyamus (Qva/xos), a mountain in Acamania, 
south of Argos Amphilochicimi. 

Th.yatira (ra Qvareipa : Qvareiprjuos), a city in 
the N. of Lydia, on the river Lycus, celebrated as 
one of the seven Churches in the Apocalypse (ii.l8). 

Thyestes (©ueo-TTjs), son of Pelops and Hippo- 
damia, was the brother of Atreus and the father 
of Aegisthus. See Atreus and Aegisthus, 

Thyia (&via), a daughter of Castalius or Ce- 
phisseus, became by Apollo the mother of Del- 
phus. She is said to have been the first to have 
sacrificed to Dionysus, and to have celebrated 
orgies in his honour. From her the Attic women, 
who went yearly to Mt. Parnassus to celebrate the 
Dionysiac orgies with the Delphian Thyiades, 
received themselves the name of Thyiades or 
Thyades. This word, however, comes from ^vw, 
and properl)'- signifies the raging or frantic women. 

Thymbra (0u^§p7?). 1. A city of the Troad, 
N. of Ilium Vetus, on a hill by the side of the 
river Thymbrius, with a celebrated temple of 
Apollo, Avho derived from this place the epithef 



THYMBRIA, 

Thymbraeus. The surrounding plain still bears 
the same name. — 2. A wooded district in Plirygia, 
no doubt connected with Thymbrium. 

Thymbria (QviJ.€pia), a place in Caria, on the 
Maeander, 4 stadia E. of Myus, with a Cha- 
ronium, that is, a cave containing mephitic vapour. 

Thymbrium {@viJ.§piov : Thymbriani), a small 
town of Phrj^gia, 10 parasangs W. of Tyriaeum, 
with the so-called fountain of Midas (Xen. Anab. 

1. 2.). 

Thymbrius {@vfji.€pios : T/dmhreF), a river of 
the Troad, falling into the Scaraander. At the 
present day, it flows direct into the Hellespont ; 
and, on this and other grounds, some doubt whether 
the Thimbrek is the ancient river. 

Thymele, a celebrated mima or female actress 
in the reign of Domitian, with whom she was a 
great favourite. She frequently acted along with 
Latinus. 

Thymoetes {Qvfio'iTns), one of the elders- of 
Troy. A soothsayer had predicted, that on a cer- 
tain day a boy should be born, by whom Troy 
should be destroyed. On that day Paris was born 
to Priam, and Munippus to Thymoetes. Priam 
ordered Munippus and his mother Cylla to be 
killed. Hence Virgil {Aen. ii. 31) represents 
Aeneas saying, that it was doubtful whether Thy- 
moetes advised the Trojans to draw the wooden 
horse into the city, in order to revenge himself. 

Tliyni (0woi'), a Thracian people, whose origi- 
nal abodes were near Salmydessus, but who after- 
wards passed over into Bithynia. 

Thynia {(dwia). 1. The land of the Thyni in 
Thrace. — 2. Another name for Bithynia. — 3. 
[Thynias]. 

Thynias or Thynia {@vvias, Qwla). 1. (/«- 
uda), a promontory on the coasjt of Thrace, N. W. 
of Salmydessus, with a town ot the same name. — 

2. (Kirpe), a smaU island of the Euxine, on the 
coast of Bithynia, near the Prom. Calpe, also 
called Apollonia and Daphnusa. 

Thyone (Qvuv-n), the name of Semele, under 
which Dionysus fetched her from Hades, and in- 
troduced her among the immortals. Hence Diony- 
sus is also called Thy5iieus. Both names are 
formed from i^ve/r', " to be inspired." 

Thyrea (@vp4a. Ion. ©upeTj : ©upearTjs), the 
chief town in Cynuria, the district on the borders 
of Laconia and Argolis, was situated upon a height 
on the bay of the sea called after it Simis Thy- 
reates {©vpedrris /cdATTO?). It was for the pos- 
session of Thyrea that the celebrated battle Avas 
fought between the 300 Spartans and 300 Argives. 
The territory of Thyrea was called Thyreatis 
{QvpeuTis). 

Thysdrus, Tisdrus, or Tusdrus (&vadp6s : 
El-Jemm, Ru.), a large fortified city of Byzacena, 
N.W. of the promontory Brachodes (Ras Kapou- 
diali). Under the Romans, it was a free city. It 
was here that the emperor Gordian assumed the 
purple. 

Thyssagetae (QvacrayeraL), a people of Sar- 
matia Asiatica, on the E. shores of the Palus 
Maeotis. 

Thyssus ( @v(j(Tos or Qvacros)^ a town of Mace- 
donia on the peninsula of Acte. 

Tiarantus, a river of Scythia and a tributary 
of the Danube. 

Tibareni or Tibari {TiSap-qvoi, TiSapoi), a quiet 
agricultural people on the N. coast of Pontus, E. 
of the river Iris. 



TIBERIUS. 775 

Tiberias. 1. (TLSepids: TiSepi^us), a city of 
Galilee, on the S. W. shore of the Lake of Tiberias, 
built by Herod Antipas in honour of the emperor 
Tiberius. After the destruction of Jerusalem, it 
became the seat of the Jewish sanhedrim. Near 
it were the warm baths of Emmaus. — 2. (Ti- 
Sepias, xip-vn] 7? T^gep^w^'), or Gennesaret {Vevvn- 
(Taper, vBwp Tevvriadp^ 7] TevvrjaapLTis), also the 
Sea of Galilee (v ^dXaaa-a rrjs FaXiXaias), in the 
0. T. Chinnereth {Bahr Tuhariyeh), the 2nd of 
the 3 lakes in Palestine, formed by the course of 
the Jordan. [Jordanes.] Its length is 11 or 
12 geographical miles, and its breadth from 5 to 6. 
It lies deep among fertile hills, has very clear and 
sweet water, and is full of excellent fish. Its sur- 
face is 750 feet below the level of the Mediterra- 
nean. In the time of our Saviour, its shores were 
covered with populous villages, but they are now 
almost entirely deserted. Its E. coast belonged 
to the districts of Decapolis and Gaulonitis. 

Tiberinus, one of the mythical kings of Alba, 
son of Capetus, and father of Agrippa, is said to 
have been drowned in crossing the river Alba, 
which was hence called Tiberis after him, and of 
Avhich he became the guardian god. 

Tiberiopolis (Ti§7jpiou7roAts), a city of Great 
Phrygia, near Eumenia. 

Tiberis alsoTibris, Tybris, Thybris, Amnis Ti- 
berinus or simply Tiberinus ( Tiber or Tevere), the 
chief river in central Italy, on which stood the city 
of Rome. It is said to have been originally called 
Albula, and to have received the name of Tiberis 
in consequence of Tiberinus, king of Alba, having 
been drowned in it. It has been supposed that 
Albula was the Latin and Tiberis the Etruscan 
name of the river. The Tiber rises from 2 springs 
of limpid water in the Apennines, near Tifernum, 
and flows in a S. W.-ly direction, separating 
Etruria from Umbria, the land of the Sabines, and 
Latium. After flowing about 110 miles it receives 
the Nar (Nera), and from its confluence with this 
river its regular navigation begins. Three miles 
above Rome, at the distance of nearly 70 miles 
from the Nar, it receives the Anio (Teverone), 
and from this point becomes a river of considerable 
importance. Within the walls of Rome, the Tiber 
is about 300 feet wide and from 12 to 18 feet 
deep. After heavy rains the river in ancient times, 
as at the present day, frequently overflowed its 
banks, and did considerable mischief to the lower 
parts of the city. (Hor. Carm. i. 2.) At Rome 
the maritime navigation of the river begins ; and 
at 18 miles from the city, and about 4 miles from 
the coast, it divides into 2 arras, forming an island, 
which was sacred to Venus, and called Insula 
Sacra (Isola Sagra). The left branch of the river 
runs into the sea by Ostia, which was the ancient 
harbour of Rome ; but in consequence of the accu- 
mulation of sand at the mouth of the left branch, 
the right branch was widened by Trajan, and was 
made the regular harbour of the city under the 
name of Partus Romcums^ Partus Azigusti, or simply 
Partus. The whole length of the Tiber, with 
its windings, is about 200 miles. The waters 
of the river are muddy and yellowish, whence it 
is frequently called by the Roman poets Jiavtis 
Tiberis. The poets also give it the epithets of 
Tyrrhenus, because it flov/ed past Etruria during 
the whole of its course, and of Lydius., because the 
Etruscans are said to have been of Lydian origin. 

Tiberius. 1. Emperor of Rome, a. d. 14—37. 

3 D 4 



776 



TIBERIUS. 



TIBERIUS. 



His full name was Tiberius Claudius Nero 
Caesar. He was the son of T. Claudius Nero 
and of Livia, and was born on the 16th of Novem- 
ber, B. c. 42, before his mother married Augustus. 
Tiberius was tall and strongly made, and his health 
was very good. His face was handsome, and his 
eyes were large. He was carefully educated, 
and became well acquainted with Greek and Latin 
literature. His master in rhetoric was Theodorus 
of Gadara. Though not without military courage, 
as his life shows, he had a great timidity of cha- 
racter, and was of a jealous and suspicious temper ; 
and these qualities rendered him cruel after he had 
acquired power. In the latter years of his life, 
particularly, he indulged his lustful propensities in 
every way that a depraved imagination could sug- 
gest : lust and cruelty are not strangers. He 
affected a regard to decency and to externals. He 
was the prince of hypocrites ; and the events of 
his reign are little more than the exhibition of his 
detestable character. In b. c. 11, Augustus com- 
pelled Tiberius, much against his will, to divorce 
his wife Vipsania Agrippina, and to marry Julia, 
the widow of Agrippa, and the emperor's daughter, 
with whom Tiberius however did not long live in 
harmony. Tiberius was thus brought into still 
closer contact with the imperial family ; but as 
Caesar and L. Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus, 
were still living, the prospect of Tiberius succeeding 
to the imperial power seemed very remote. He 
was employed by Augustus on various military- 
services. In 20 he was sent by Augustus to re- 
store Tigranes to the throne of Armenia. It was 
during this campaign that Horace addressed one of 
his epistles to Julius Florus (i. 12), who was serv- 
ing under Tiberius. In 15, Drusus and his brother 
Tiberius were engaged in warfare with the Rhaeti, 
and the exploits of the 2 brothers were sung by 
Horace {Carm. iv. 4, 14). In 13, Tiberius was 
consul with P. Quintilius Varus. In 11, while 
his brother Drusus was fighting against the Ger- 
mans, Tiberius conducted the war against the Dal- 
matians and against the Pannonians. Drusus died 
in 9, owing to a fall from his horse. On the news 
of the accident, Tiberius was sent by Augustus to 
Drusus, whom he found just alive. Tiberius re- 
turned to the war in Germany, and crossed the 
Rhine. In 7 he was consul a second time. In 6 
he obtained the tribunitia potestas for 5 years, but 
during this year he retired with the emperor's per- 
mission to Rhodes, where he spent the next 7 
years. Tacitus says that his chief reason for leav- 
ing Rome was to get away from his wife, who 
treated him with contempt, and whose licentious 
life was no secret to her husband ; probabl}-, too, 
he was unwilling to stay at Rome when the grand- 
sons of Augustus were attaining years of maturity, 
for there was mutual jealousy between them and 
Tiberius. He returned to Rome a. d. 2. He was 
relieved from one trouble during his absence, for 
his wife Julia was banished to the island of Pan- 
dataria (b. c. 2), and he never saw her again. 
After the deatlis of L. Caesar (a. d. 2) and C. 
Caesar (a. d. 4), Augustus adopted Tiberius, with 
the view of leaving to him the imperial power ; 
and at the same time he required Tiberius to 
adopt Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus, 
though Tiberius had a son Drusus by his wife 
Vipsania. From the year of his adoption to the 
death of Augustus, Tiberius was in command of 
the Roman armies, though he visited Rome several 



times. He was sent into Germany a. d. 4. He 
reduced all Illyricum to subjection a. D. 9 ; and in 
A. D. 12 he had the honour of a triumph at Rome 
for his German and Dalmatian victories. On the 
death of Augustus at Nola, on the 19th of August, 
A. D. 14, Tiberius, who was on his way to Illyri- 
cum, was immediately summoned home by his 
mother Livia. He took the imperial power with- 
out any opposition, affecting all the while a great 
reluctance. He began his reign by putting to 
death Postumus Agrippa, the surviving grandson 
of Augustus, and he alleged that it was done 
pursuant to the command of the late emperor. 
When he felt himself sure in his place, he began 
to exercise his craft. He took from the popular 
assembly the election of the magistrates, and trans- 
ferred it to the senate. The news of the death of 
Augustus roused a mutiny among the legions in 
Pannonia, which was quelled by Drusus, the son 
of Tiberius. The armies on the Rhine under Ger- 
manicus showed a disposition to reject Tiberius, 
and if Germanicus had been inclined to try the for- 
tune of a campaign, he might have had the assist- 
ance of the German armies against his uncle. But 
Germanicus restored discipline to the army by his 
firmness, and maintained his fidelity to the new 
emperor. The first year of his reign was marked 
by the death of Julia, whom Augustus had re- 
moved from Pandataria to Rhegium. The death 
of Germanicus in the East, in a. d. 19, relieved 
Tiberius from all fear of a rival claimant to the 
throne ; and it was believed by many that Ger- 
manicus had been poisoned by order of Tiberius. 
From this time Tiberius began to indulge with 
less restraint in his love of tyranny, and many 
distinguished senators were soon put to death on 
the charge of treason against the emperor (laesa 
majestas). Notwithstanding his supicious nature, 
Tiberius gave his complete confidence to Sejanus, 
who for many years possessed the real govern- 
ment of the state. This ambitious man aimed at 
the imperial power. In 23 Drusus, the son of Ti- 
berius, was poisoned by the contrivance of Sejanus. 
Three years afterwards (26) Tiberius left Rome, 
and withdrew into Campania. He never returned 
to the city. He left on the pretext of dedicating 
temples in Campania, but his real motives were his 
dislike to Rome, where he heard a great deal that 
was disagreeable to him, and his wish to indulge 
his sensual propensities in private. In order to 
secure still greater retirement, he took up his re- 
sidence (27) in the island of Capreae, at a short 
distance from the Campanian coast. The death of 
Livia (29), the emperor's mother, released Tiberius 
from one cause of anxiety. He had long been tired 
of her, because she wished to exercise authority, 
and one object in leaving Rome was to be out of 
her way. Livia's death gave Sejanus and Tiberius 
free scope, for Tiberius never entirely released him- 
self from a kind of subjection to his mother, and 
Sejanus did not venture to attempt the overthrow 
of Livia's influence. The destruction of Agrip- 
pina and her children Avas now the chief purpose of 
Sejanus : he finally got from the tyrant (31) the 
reward that was his just desert, an ignominious 
death. [Sejanus.] The death of Sejanus was 
followed by the execution of his friends ; and for 
the remainder of the reign of Tiberius, Rome con- 
tinued to be the scene of tragic occurrences. Ti- 
berius died on the 16th of March, 37, at the villa 
of Lucullus, in Misenum. He was '^8 years of 



TIBILIS. 



TIBULLUS. 



777 



age, and had reigned 22 years. He was succeeded 
by Caius (Caligula), the son of Germanicus, but 
he had himself appointed no successor. Tiberius 
did not die a natural death. It was known that 
his end was rapidly approaching, and having had 
a fainting fit, he was supposed to be dead. There- 
upon Caius came forth and was saluted as emperor ; 
but he was alarmed by the intelligence that Ti- 
berius had recovered and called for something to 
eat. Caius was so frightened that he did not 
know what to do ; but Macro, the praefect of the 
praetorians, with more presence of mind, gave orders 
that a quantity of clothes should be thrown on Ti- 
berius, and that he should be left alone. — In the 
time of Tiberius lived Valerius Maximus, Velleius 
Paterculus, Phaedrus, Fenestella, and Strabo ; also 
the jurists Massurius Sabinus, M. Cocceius Nerva, 
and others. — Tiberius wrote a brief commentary 
of his own life, the only book that the emperor 
Domitian studied : Suetonius made use of it for his 
life of Tiberius. Tiberius also wrote Greek poems, 
and a lyric poem on the death of L. Caesar. — 2. 
A philosopher and sophist, of unknown time, the 
author of numerous works on grammar and rhe- 
toric. One of his works, on the figures in the ora- 
tions of Demosthenes {-n-epl tcov Trapa ArjinocrOevei 
trxTjyuaTwi'), is still extant, and has been published. 

Tibilis {Hammam Miskouten?), a town of Nu- 
midia, in N. Africa, on the road from Cirta to 
Carthage, with warm springs, called Aquae Tibili- 
tanae. 

Tibiscum, a town of Dacia and a Roman mu- 
nicipium on the river Tibiscus. 

Tibiscus or Tibissus, probably the same as the 
Parthiscus or Parthissus (Theiss), a river of 
Dacia, forming the W. boundary of that country, 
rising in the Montes Carpates, and falling into the 
Danube. 

Tibullus, Albius, the Ronjan poet, was of eques- 
trian family. The date of his birth is uncertain ; 
but he died young, soon after Virgil. His birth is 
therefore placed by conjecture B. c. 54, and his 
death b. c. 18. Of his youth and education, ab- 
solutely nothing is known. The estate belonging 
to the equestrian ancestors of Tibullus was at Pe- 
dum, between Tibur and Praeneste. This pro- 
perty, like that of the other great poets of the day, 
Virgil and Horace, had been either entirely or par- 
tially confiscated during the civil wars ; yet Tibul- 
lus retained or recovered part of it, and spent there 
the better portion of his short, but peaceful and 
happy, life. His great patron was Messala, whom 
he accompanied in 31 into Aquitania, whither Mes- 
sala had been sent by Augustus to suppress a for- 
midable insurrection which had broken out in this 
province. Part of the glory of the Aquitanian 
campaign, which Tibullus celebrates in language of 
unwonted loftiness, redounds, according to the poet, 
to his own fame. He was present at the battle of 
Atax (Aude in Languedoc), which broke the Aqui- 
tanian rebellion. In the following year (30) Mes- 
sala, having pacified Gaul, was sent into the East. 
Tibullus set out in his company, but was taken ill, 
and obliged to remain in Corcyra, from whence he 
returned to Rome. So ceased the active life of 
Tibullus ; his life is now the chronicle of his poetry 
and of those tender passions which were the in- 
spiration of his poetry. The first object of his 
attachment is celebrated under the poetic name of 
Delia. To Delia are addressed the first 6 elegies 
of the 1st book. The poet's attachment to Delia 



had begun before he left Rome for Aquitania. But 
Delia seems to have been faithless during his ab- 
sence from Rome. On his return from Corcyra, he 
found her ill, and attended her with affectionate 
solicitude (Eler/. i. 5), and hoped to induce her to 
retire with him into the country. But first a richer 
lover appears to have supplanted him with the in- 
constant Delia ; and afterwards there appears a 
husband in his way. The 2nd book of Elegies 
is chiefly devoted to a new mistress named Ne- 
mesis. Besides these 2 mistresses Tibulks was en- 
amoured of a certain Glycera. He wrote elegies 
to soften that cruel beauty, whom there seems no 
reason to confound either with Delia, the object of 
his youthful attachment, or with Nemesis. Gly- 
cera, however, is not known to us from the poetry 
of Tibullus, but from the ode of Horace, Avhich 
gently reproves him for dwelling so long in his 
plaintive elegies on the pitiless Glycera. — The 
poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibullus as a 
gentle and singularly amiable man. To Horace 
especially he was an object of warm attachment. 
Besides the ode which alludes to his passion for 
Glycera (Hor. Carm. i. 33), the epistle of Horace 
to Tibullus gives the most full and pleasing view 
of his poetical retreat, and of his character : it is 
written by a kindred spirit. Horace does homage 
to that perfect purity of taste which distinguishes 
the poetry of Tibullus ; he takes pride in the 
candid but favourable judgment of his own satires. 
The time of Tibullus he supposes to be shared be- 
tween the finishing his exquisite small poems, 
which were to surpass even those of Cassius of 
Parma, up to that time the models of that kind of 
composition, and the enjoyment of the country. 
Tibullus possessed, according to his friend's notions, 
all the blessings of life — a competent fortune, fa- 
vour with the great, fame, health ; and he seemed 
to know how to enjoy all those blessings. — The 2 
first books alone of the Elegies, under the name of 
Tibullus, are of undoubted authenticity. The 3rd 
is the work of another, a very inferior poet, whether 
Lygdamus be a real or fictitious name or not. 
This poet was much younger than Tibullus, for he 
was born in the year of the battle of Mutina, 43. 
The hexameter poem on Messala, which opens the 
4th book, is so bad that, although a successful ele- 
giac poet may have failed when he attempted epic 
verse, it cannot well be ascribed to a writer of the 
exquisite taste of Tibullus. The smaller elegies 
of the 4th book have all the inimitable grace and 
simplicity of Tibullus. With the exception of the 
13th (of which some lines are hardly surpassed by 
Tibullus himself) these poems relate to the love of 
a certain Sulpicia, a woman of noble birth, for Ce- 
rinthus, the real or fictitious name of a beautiful 
youth. Nor is there any improbability in sup- 
posing that Tibullus may have written elegies in 
the name or by the desire of Sulpicia. If Sulpicia 
was herself the poetess, she approached nearer to 
Tibullus than any other writer of elegies. — The 
1st book of Elegies alone seems to have been pub- 
lished during the author's life, probably soon after 
the triumph of Messala (27). The 2nd book no 
doubt did not appear till after the death of Tibul- 
lus. With it, according to our conjecture, may 
have been published the elegies of his imitator, 
perhaps his friend and associate in the society of 
Messala, Lygdamus (if that be a real name), i. e. 
the 3rd book : and likewise the 4th, made up of 
poems belonging, as it were, to this intimate society 



778 



TIBUR. 



TIGRANES. 



of Messala, the Panegyric by some nameless author, 
which, feeble as it is, seems to be of that age ; the 
poems in the name of Sulpicia, with the concluding 
one, the 1 3th, a fragment of TibuUus himself. The 
best editions of TibuUus are by Lachmann, Berol. 
1829, and by Dissenus, Gottingen, 1835. 

Tibur (Tiburs, pi. Tiburtes, Tibiirtinus: Tivoli), 
one of the most ancient to-^-ns of Latium, 16 miles 
N. E. of Rome, situated on the slope of a hill 
(hence called by Horace supinum Tibur), on the 
left bank of the Anio, which here forms a mag- 
nificent waterfall. It is said to have been origi- 
nally built h\ the Siculi, and to have afterwards 
passed into the possession of the Aborigines and 
Pelasgi. According to tradition it derived its 
name from Tiburtus, son of Catillus, who emigrated 
from Greece ■v\ath Evander. It was afterwards 
one of the chief to^\Tis of the Latin league, and 
became subject to Rome with the other Latin 
cities on the final subjugation of Latium in B. c. 
338. Under the Romans Tibur continued to be 
a large and flourishing to-v\Ti, since the salubrity 
and beautiful scenery of the place led many of the 
most distinguished Roman nobles to build here 
magnificent villas. Of these the most splendid 
was the villa of the emperor Hadrian, in the 
extensive remains of which many valuable spe- 
cimens of ancient art have been discovered. Here 
also the celebrated Zenobia lived after adorning 
the triumph of her conqueror Aurelian. Horace 
likewise had a country house in the neighbourhood 
of Tibur, which he preferred to all his other resi- 
dences. The deity chiefly worshipped at Tibur 
was Hercules ; and in the neighbourhood was the 
grove and temple of the Sibyl Albunea, whose 
oracles were consulted from the most ancient times. 
[Albunea.] The surrounding country produced 
excellent olives, and also contained some celebrated 
stone quarries. There was a road from Rome 
leading to Tibur, called Via Tiburtina, which was 
continued from the town under the name of the 
Via Valeria, past Corfinium to Adria. 

TicMs or Tectun. [Tecum.] 

Tichiussa (TetxtoGo-o-o), a fortress in the terri- 
tory of Miletus. 

Ticinuin (Ticinensis : Pavia), a to-WTi of the 
Laevi, or, according to others, of the Insubres, in 
Gallia Cisalpina, on the left bank of the Ticinus. 
It was subsequently a Roman municipixma ; but it 
owed its greatness to the Lombard kings, who 
made it the capital of their dominions. The 
Lombards gave it the name of Papia, which it still 
retains under the slightly changed form of Pavia. 

Ticinus {Tessino\ an important river in Gallia 
Cisalpina, rises in Mons Adula, and after flowing 
through Lacus Verbanus {Lago Maggiore), falls 
into the Po near Ticinum. It was upon the bank 
of this river that Hannibal gained his first victory 
over the Romans by the defeat of P. Scipio, B. c. 
218. 

Tifata, a mountain in Campania, E. of Capua, 
near which the Samnites defeated the Campanians, 
and where at a later time Sulla gained a victory 
over the proconsul Norbanus. On this mountain 
there was a temple of Diana and also one of Jupiter 
of some celebrity. 

Tifenmm. 1. Tiberimim (Tifemates Tiberini, 
pi. : Citta di Castello), a town of Umbria, near the 
sources of the river Tiber, whence its surname, and 
npon the confines of Etruria. Near this to-wn the 
younger Pliny had a villa.— 2. Metaurense (Tifer- 



nates Metaurenses : 5. Angela in Vado), a town in 
Umbria, E. of the preceding, on the river ]Metau- 
nis, whence its surname. — 3. A town in Sam- 
nium, on the river Tifemus. 

Tiferaus (Bi/erno), a river of Samnium, rising 
in the Apennines, and flowing through the country 
of the Frentani into the Adriatic. 
^: Tigellinus Sophonius, the son of a native of 
Agrigentum, on-^ed his rise from poverty and ob- 
scurity to his handsome person and his unscrupulous 
character. He was banished to Scyllaceum in 
Bruttii (a. d. 39 — 40), for an intrigue with Agrip- 
pina and Julia Livilla, sisters of Caligula. He 
was probably among the exiles restored by Agrip- 
pina, after she became empress, since early in 
Nero's reign he was again in favour at court, and 
on the death of Burrus (63) was appointed prae- 
torian prefect jointly with Fenius Rufus. Tigel- 
Knus ministered to Nero's worst passions, and of all 
his favourites was the most obnoxious to the Roman 
people. He inflamed his jealousy or his avarice 
against the noblest members of the senate and the 
most pliant dependants of the court. In 65, Ti- 
gellinus entertained Nero in his Aemilian gardens, 
with a sumptuous profligacy imsurpassed even in 
that age, and m the same year shared with him the 
odium of burning Rome, since the conflagration had 
broken out on the scene of the banquet. On Nero's 
fall he joined with Nymphidius Sabinus, who had 
succeeded Fenius Rufus as praetorian prefect, in 
transferring the allegiance of the soldiers to Galba. 
The people clamorously demanded his death. 
During the brief reign of Galba his life was spared ; 
but on the accession of Otho, he was compelled to 
put an end to his own life. 
Tigellius Hermogenes. [Hermogenes.] 
Tigranes (Tiypdv-qs), kings of Armenia. L 
Reigned B. c. 96 — 56 or 55. He united under 
his sway not only all Armenia, but several of the 
neighbouring provinces, such as Atropatene and 
Gordyene, and thus raised himself to a degree of 
power far superior to that enjoyed by any of his 
predecessors. He assumed the pompous title of 
king of kings, and always appeared in public 
accompanied by some of his tributary princes as 
attendants. His power was also greatly strength- 
ened by his alliance with Mithridates the Great, 
king of Pontus, whose daughter Cleopatra he had 
married at an early period of his reign. In con- 
sequence of the dissensions in the royal family of 
Syria, Tigranes was enabled in 83 to make himself 
master of the whole Syrian monarchy from the 
Euphrates to the sea. He was now at the summit 
of his power, and continued in the undisputed 
possession of these extensive dominions for nearly 
14 years. At the instigation of his son-in-law 
Mithridates, he invaded Cappadocia in 74, and is 
said to have carried ofi" into captivity no less than 
300,000 of the inhabitants, a large portion of whom 
he settled in his newly founded capital of Tigrano- 
certa. [Tigranocert^.] In other respects he 
appears to have furnished little support to Mithri- 
dates in his war against the Romans ; but when the 
Romans haughtih' demanded from him the surren- 
der of Mithridates, who had taken refuge in his 
dominions, he returned a peremptory refusal, accom- 
panied with an express declaration of war. Lu- 
cuUus invaded Armenia in 69, defeated the mighty 
host which Tigranes led against him, and followed 
up his victor}' by the capture of Tigranocerta. 
In the following 'year (68) the united forces of 



TIGRANOCERTA. 



TIMAEUS. 



779 



Tigranes and Mithridates were again defeated by 
Lucullus ; but the mutinous disposition of the 
Roman troops prevented Lucullus from gaining 
any furtber advantages over the Armenian king, 
and enabled the latter not only to regain his do- 
minions, but also to invade Cappadocia. The 
arrival of Pompey (66) soon changed the face of 
events. Mithridates, after his final defeat by 
Pompey, once more threw himself upon the sup- 
port of his son-in-law : but Tigranes, Avho sus- 
pected him of abetting the designs of his son 
Tigranes, who had rebelled against his father, 
refused to receive him, while he himself hastened 
to make overtures of submission to Pompey. That 
general had already advanced into the heart of 
Armenia under the guidance of the young Tigranes, 
when the old king repaired in person to the Roman 
camp, and presenting himself as a suppliant before 
Pompey, laid his tiara at his feet. By this act of 
humiliation he at once conciliated the favour of the 
conqueror, who treated him in a friendly manner, 
and left him in possession of Armenia Proper with 
the title of king, depriving him only of the provinces 
of Sophene and Gordyene, v/hich he erected into 
a separate kingdom for his son Tigranes. The 
elder monarch was so overjoyed at obtaining these 
imexpectedly favourable terms, that he not only 
paid the sum of 6000 talents demanded by 
Pompey, but added a large sum as a donation to 
his army, and continued ever after the steadfast 
friend of the Roman general. He died in 56 or 
55, and was succeeded by his son Artavasdes. — 
2. Son of Artavasdes, and grandson of the pre- 
ceding. He was living an exile at Rome, when a 
party of his countrymen, discontented Avith the 
rule of his elder brother, Artaxias, sent to request 
that he should be placed on the throne. To this 
Augustus assented, and Tiberius was charged with 
the duty of accomplishing it, a task which he 
effected apparently without opposition (b. c. 20). 

Tigranocerta (refc TiypavoKepra and tj Ttyp., 
i. e., in Armenian, the City of Tigranes : Sert, 
Ru.), the later capital of Armenia, built by Ti- 
granes, on a height by the river Nicephorius, in 
the valley between M. Masius and Niphates. It 
was strongly fortified, and peopled chiefly with 
Macedonians and Greeks, forcibly removed from 
Cappadocia and Cilicia; but, after the defeat of 
Tigranes by Lucullus under its walls, these people 
were permitted to return to their homes. The 
citj'' was at the same time partially destroyed ; but 
it still remained a considerable place. 

Tigris, gen. -idos and -is (o Tiypis, gen. Ti- 
ypidos and T'lypios, also Tiypris, gen. TiypriTos : 
Tigris)^ a great river of W. Asia, rises from several 
sources on the S. side of that part of the Taurus 
chain called Niphates, in Armenia, and flows 
S. E., first through the narrow valley between M. 
Masius and the prolongation of M. Niphates, and 
then through the great plain which is bounded on 
the E. by the last-named chain, till it falls into 
the head of the Persian Gulf, after receiving the 
Euphrates from the W. [Comp. Euphrates.] 
Its other chief tributaries, all falling into its E. 
side, were the Nicbphorius or Centrites, the 
Lycus, the Caprus, the Physcus, the Gorgus, 
SiLLAS, or Delas, the Gyndes, and the Cho- 
ASPES. It divided Assyria and Susiana on the 
E., from Mesopotamia and Babylonia, and (at its 
mouth) Arabia, on the W. The name is some- 
times applied to the Pasitigris. 



Tigurini, a tribe of the Helvetii, who joined the 
Cimbri in invading the country'- of the Allobroges 
in Gaul, where they defeated the consul L. Cassius 
Longinus, B.C. 107. They formed in the time of 
Caesar the most important of the 4 cantons {pagi) 
into which the Helvetii were divided. It was 
perhaps from this people that the town of Tigurum 
{Zurich) derived its name, though this name does 
not occur in any ancient writer. 

Tilphusium (TiXcpovcnoi/, TiXcpovacnov, Dor. 
Ti\(pd(>a(riov ; TiXcpovaios, Dor. TiXcpdxrios), a 
town in Boeotia, situated upon a mountain of the 
same name, S. of lake Copais, and between Coronea 
and Haliartus. It derived its name from the foun- 
tain Tilphusa, which was sacred to Apollo, and 
where Tiresias is said to have been buried. 

Timaeus (Tt>aio$). 1. The historian, was the 
son of Andromachus, tyrant of Tauromenium, in 
Sicily. Timaeus attained the age of 96 ; and 
though we do not know the exact date either of his 
birth or death, we cannot be far wrong in placing his 
birth in B. c. 352, and his death in 256. Timaeus 
received instruction from Philiscus, the Milesian, 
a disciple of Isocrates ; but we have no further 
particulars of his life, except that he was banished 
from Sicily by Agathocles, and passed his exile at 
Athens, where he had lived 50 years when he 
wrote the 34th book of his history. The great 
work of Timaeus was a history of Sicily from the 
earliest times to 264, in which year Polybius 
commences the introduction to his work. This 
history was one of great extent. We have a quo- 
tation from the 38th book, and there were pro- 
bably many books after this. The value and 
authority of Timaeus as an historian have been 
most vehemently attacked by Polybius in many 
parts of his work. Most of the charges of Polybius 
appear to have been well founded ; but he has not 
only omitted to mention some of the peculiar ex- 
cellencies of Timaeus, but has even regarded these 
excellencies as deserving the severest censure. 
Thus it was one of the great merits of Timaeus, 
for which he is loudly denounced by Polybius, 
that he attempted to give the myths in their 
simplest and most genuine form, as related by the 
most ancient writers. Timaeus also collected the 
materials of his history with the greatest diligence 
and care, a fact which even Polybius is obliged to 
admit. He likewise paid very great attention to 
chronology, and was the first writer who intro- 
duced the practice of recording events by Olym- 
piads, which was adopted by almost all subsequent 
writers of Greek history. The fragments of Ti- 
maeus have been collected by Goller, in his De 
Situ et Origine Syracusarum^ Lips, 1818, and by 
Car. and Theod. Muller, in the Fragmenta His- 
toric. Graec.^ Paris, 1841.— 2. Of Locri, in Italy, 
a Pythagorean philosopher, is said to have been a 
teacher of Plato, There is an extant work, bear- 
ing his name, written in the Doric dialect, and 
entitled irepX i|/ux«s k6ij[j.ou kol (pvaios : but its 
genuineness is very doubtful, and it is in all pro- 
bability nothing more than an abridgment of 
Plato's dialogue of Timaeus, The best edition 
is by Gelder, Leyden, 1836. — 3. The Sophist, 
wrote a Lexicon to Plato, addressed to a certain 
Gentianus, which is still extant. The time at 
which he lived is quite uncertain. He is usually 
placed in the 3rd century of the Christian aera, 
which produced so many ardent admirers of the 
Platonic philosophy, such as Porphyry, Longinus, 



780 



TIMAGENES. 



TIMOLEON. 



Plotinus, &c. The Lexicon is very brief, and 
bears the title Ti/j-aiov aocpiarov 4k tuu tov U\d- 
Twvos Ae|ewi'. It is evident that the work has 
received several interpolations, especially in expla- 
nations of words occurring in Herodotus. But it 
is one of great value, and the explanations of 
words are some of the very best which have come 
down to us from the ancient grammarians. It has 
been edited by Ruhnken, Leyden, 1754, and 
again, Leyden, 1789 ; and by Koch, Leipzig, 1828, 
and 1833. 

Timagenes (Ti;ua7eV7]s), a rhetorician and a 
historian, was a native of Alexandria, from which 
place he was carried as a prisoner to Rome, where 
he was first employed as a slave in menial offices, 
but being liberated by Faustus Sulla, the son of 
the dictator, he opened a school of rhetoric, in 
which he taught with great success. (Comp. Hor. 
Ep. i. 19, .15.) The emperor Augustus induced 
him to write a history of his exploits ; but having 
offended Augustus by sarcastic remarks upon his 
family, he was forbidden the palace ; whereupon 
he burnt his historical works, gave up his rhe- 
torical school, and retired from Rome to the house 
of his friend Asinius Pollio at Tusculura. He 
afterwards went to the East, and died at Dabanum 
in Mesopotamia. 

Timanthes {TiixdvB'f]s), a celebrated Greek 
painter at Sicyon, contemporary with Zeuxis and 
Parrhasius, about B. c. 400. The masterpiece of 
Timanthes was his celebrated picture of the sa- 
crifice of Iphigenia, in which Agamemnon was 
painted with his face hidden in his mantle. The 
ancient critics tell us that the picture showed 
Iphigenia, standing by the altar, surrounded, 
among the assistants, by Calchas, whose prophetic 
voice had demanded her sacrifice, and whose hand 
was about to complete it; Ulysses, who had 
brought her from her home, and Menelaus, her 
father's brother, all manifesting difierent degrees 
of grief, so that, when the artist had painted the 
sorrow of Calchas, and the deeper sorrow of Ulysses, 
and had added all his powers to express the woe 
of Menelaus, his resources Avere exhausted, and, 
unable to give a powerful expression to the agony 
of the father, he covered his head with a veil. 
But this is clearly not the reason why Timanthes 
hid the face of Agamemnon. The critics ascribe 
to impotence what was the forbearance of judg- 
ment. Timanthes felt like a father : he did not 
hide the face of Agamemnon because it was be- 
yond the possibility, but because it was beyond 
the dignity, of expression. If he made Agamemnon 
bear his calamity as a man, he made him also feel 
it as a man. It became the leader of Greece to 
sanction the ceremony with his presence, but it 
did not become the father to see his daughter be- 
neath the dagger's point. 

Timavus (Timavo), a small river in the N. of 
Italy, forming the boundary between Istria and 
Venetia, and falling into the Sinus Tergestinus in 
the Adriatic, between Tergeste and Aquileia. This 
river is frequently celebrated by the poets and other 
ancient writers, who speak of its numerous sources, 
its lake, and its subterraneous passage ; but these 
accounts seem, to a great extent, fabulous. 

Timocles {Ti/jlokKtis), a distinguished Athenian 
comic poet of the Middle Comedy, who lived at a 
period when the revival of political energy, in con- 
sequence of the encroachments ef Philip, restored 
to the Middle Comedy much of the vigour and 



real aim of the Old. He is conspicuous for the 
freedom with which he discussed public men and 
measures, as well as for the number of his dramas 
and the purity of his style. He flourished from 
about the middle of the 4th century b. c. till after 
324, so that at the beginning of his career he was 
in part contemporary with Antiphanes, and at the 
end of it with Menander. 

Timocreon (TifxoKpeuy), of Rhodes, a lyric 
poet, celebrated for the bitter and pugnacious spirit 
of his works, and especially for his attacks on 
Themistocles and Simonides. He was a native of 
lalysus in Rhodes, whence he was banished on 
the then common charge of an inclination towards 
Persia (ix-nSKT/xos) ; and in this banishment he was 
left neglected by Themistocles, who had formerly 
been his friend, and his connection by the ties of 
hospitality. Timocreon was still flourishing after 
B. c. 471, since one of his poems, of which we have 
a fragment, was an attack upon Themistocles after 
the exile of the latter. It appears that Timocreon 
was a man of prodigious strength, which he sus- 
tained by great voracity. 

Timoleon (Ti^oAew;/), son of Timodemus or 
Timaenetus and Demariste, belonged to one of the 
noblest families at Corinth. His early life was 
stained by a dreadful deed of blood. We are told 
that so ardent was his love of liberty, that when 
his brother Timophanes endeavoured to make him- 
self tyrant of their native city, Timoleon murdered 
him rather than allow him to destroy the liberty 
of the state. The murder was perpetrated just 
before an embassy arrived from several of the 
Greek cities of Sicily, begging the Corinthians to 
send assistance to the island, which was distracted 
by internal dissensions, and was expecting an in- 
vasion of the Carthaginians. It is said that the 
Corinthians were at the very moment of the arrival 
of the Sicilians deliberating respecting Timoleon's 
act, and had not come to any decision respecting 
it; and that they avoided the difficulty of a decision 
by appointing him to the command of the Sicilian 
expedition, with the singular provision, that if he 
conducted himself justly in the command, they 
would regard him as a tyrannicide, and honour him 
accordingly ; but if otherwise, they would punish 
him as a fratricide. To whatever causes Timoleon 
owed his appointment, his extraordinary success 
more than justified the confidence which had been 
reposed in him. His history reads almost like a 
romance; and yet of the main facts of the narrative 
we cannot entertain any reasonable doubt. Al- 
though the Corinthians had readily assented to 
the requests of the Sicilians in the appointment of 
a commander, they were not prepared to make 
many sacrifices in their favour ; and accordingly it 
was only with 10 triremes and 700 mercenaries 
that Timoleon sailed from Corinth to repel the 
Carthaginians, and restore order to the Sicilian 
cities. He reached Sicily in B. c. 344, and 
straightway marched against Syracuse, of 2 quarters 
of which he obtained possession. In the following 
spring (343) Dionysius, despairing of success, sur- 
rendered the citadel to Timoleon, on condition of 
his being allowed to depart in safety to Corinth. 
[Dionysius.] Timoleon soon afterwards obtained 
possession of the whole of Syracuse. He destroyed 
the citadel, which had been for so many years the 
seat and bulwark of the power of the tyrants, 
and restored the democratical form of government. 
He then proceeded to expel the tyrants from the 



TIMOMACHUS. 

other Greek cities of Sicily, but was interrupted in 
this undertaking by a formidable invasion of the 
Carthaginians, who landed at Lilybaeum in 339, 
with an immense army, under the command of 
Hasdrubal and Hamilcar, consisting of 70,000 foot 
and 10,000 horse. Such an overwhelming force 
struck the Greeks with consternation and dismay. 
So great was their alarm that Timoleon could only 
induce 12,000 men to march with him against the 
Carthaginians. But with this small force he gained 
a brilliant victory over the Carthaginians on the 
river Crimissus (339). This victory justly ranks 
as one of the greatest gained by Greeks over bar- 
barians. The booty which Timoleon acquired was 
prodigious; and some of the richest of the spoils he 
sent to Corinth and other cities in Greece, thus 
diffusing the glory of his victory throughout the 
mother country. Timoleon now resolved to carry 
into execution his project of expelling all the 
tyrants from Sicily. Of these, two of the most 
powerful, Hicetas of Leontini, and Mamercus of 
Catana, had recourse to the Carthaginians for as- 
sistance, who sent Gisco to Sicily with a fleet of 
70 ships and a body of Greek mercenaries. Al- 
though Gisco gained a few successes at first, the 
war was upon the whole favourable to Timoleon, 
and the Carthaginians were therefore glad to con- 
clude a treaty with the latter in 338, by which 
the river Halycus was fixed as the boundary of 
the Carthaginian and Greek dominions in Sicily. 
It was diiring the Avar with Gisco that Hicetas 
fell into the hands of Timoleon, and was massacred 
by his order. His wife and daughters were carried 
to Syracuse ; where they were executed by the 
people, as a satisfaction to the manes of Dion, 
whose wife Arete and sister Aristomache had both 
been put to death by Hicetas. This is one of the 
greatest stains upon Timoleon's character, as he 
might easily have saved these unfortunate women 
if he had chosen. After the treaty between the 
Carthaginians and Timoleon, Mamercus, being 
unable to maintain himself in Catana, fled to Mes- 
sana, where he took refuge with Hippon, tyrant of 
that city. Timoleon quickly followed, and be- 
sieged Messana so vigorously by sea and land, that 
Hippon, despairing of holding out, attempted to 
escape by sea, but was taken and put to death in 
the public theatre. Mamercus now surrendered, 
stipulating only for a public trial before the Syra- 
cusans, with the condition that Timoleon should 
not appear as his accuser. But as soon as he was 
brought into the assembly at Syracuse, the people 
refused to hear him, and unanimously condemned 
him to death. Thus almost all the tyrants were 
expelled from the Greek cities in Sicily, and a 
democratical form of government established in 
their place. Timoleon, however, was in reality the 
ruler of Sicily, for all the states consulted him on 
every matter of importance ; and the wisdom of his 
rule is attested by the flourishing condition of the 
island for several years even after his death. He 
did not, however, assume any title or oflice, but 
resided as a private citizen among the Syracusans. 
Timoleon died in 337, having become blind a short 
time before his death. He was buried at the 
public expense in the market-place at Syracuse, 
where his monument was afterwards surrounded 
with porticoes and a gymnasium, which was called 
after him the Timoleonteum. Annual games were 
also instituted in his honour. 

Timomaclius (Ttjuo;uoxos\ a distinguished 



TIMOTHEUS, 781 
painter, of Byzantium, lived (according to Pliny') 
in the time of Julius Caesar, Avho purchased two of 
his pictures, the Ajax and Medea, for the immense 
sum of 80 Attic talents, and dedicated them in the 
temple of Venus Genitrix. It has been supposed, 
however, by some modern writers that Timomachus 
lived at an earlier period. 

TTmSn (Ti/awv). 1. The son of Tiraarchus of 
Phlius, a philosopher of the sect of the Sceptics, 
flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
about B. c, 279, and onwards. He first studied 
philosophy at Megara, under Stilpon, and then re- 
turned home and married. He next went to Elis 
with his wife, and heard Pyrrhon, whose tenets 
he adopted. Driven from Elis by straitened cir- 
cumstances, he spent some time on the Hellespont 
and the Propontis, and taught at Chalcedon as a 
sophist with such success that he realised a fortune. 
He then removed to Athens, where he passed the 
remainder of his life, with the exception of a short 
residence at Thebes. He died at the age of almost 
90. Timon appears to have been endowed by nature 
with a powerful and active mind, and with that 
quick perception of the follies of men which be- 
trays its possessor into a spirit of universal distrust 
both of men and truths, so as to make him a sceptic 
in philosophy and a satirist in every thing. He 
wrote numerous works both in prose and poetry. 
The most celebrated of his poems were the satiric 
compositions called Silli (aiXXoi), a word of some- 
what doubtful etymology, but which undoubtedly 
describes metrical compositions of a character at 
once ludicrous and sarcastic. The invention of this 
species of poetry is ascribed to Xenophanes of Co- 
lophon. [Xenophanes.] The Silli of Timon 
were in 3 books, in the first of which he spoke in 
his own person, and the other 2 are in the form 
of a dialogue between the author and Xenophanes 
of Colophon, in which Timon proposed questions, 
to which Xenophanes replied at length. The sub- 
ject was a sarcastic account of the tenets of all 
philosophers, living and dead ; an unbounded field 
for scepticism and satire. They were in hexameter 
verse, and, from the way in which they are men- 
tioned by the ancient writers, as well as from the 
few fragments of them which have come down to 
us, it is evident that they were very admirable 
productions of their kind. The fragments of his 
poems are collected by Wolke, De Graecorum 
Syllis, Varsav. 1820 ; and by Paul, Dissertatio de 
Sillis, Berol. 1821. — 2, The Misanthrope {6 ^jli- 
(rdvOpaTTos), lived in the time of the Peloponnesian 
war. He was an Athenian, of the demos of Co- 
lyttus, and his father's name was Echecratides. 
In consequence of the ingratitude he experienced, 
and the disappointments he suffered, from his early 
friends and companions, he secluded himself en- 
tirely from the world, admitting no one to his 
society except Alcibiades, in whose reckless and 
variable disposition he probably found pleasure in 
tracing and studying an image of the world he had 
abandoned ; and at last he is said to have died in 
consequence of refusing to suffer a surgeon to come 
to him to set a broken limb. One of Lucian's 
pieces bears his name. 

Timotheus (TiixoOeos). 1. Son of Conon, the 
famous general, was himself a distinguished Athe- 
nian general. He was first appointed to a public 
command in B. c. 378 ; and from this time his 
name frequently occurs as one of the Athenian 
generals down to 356. In this year he was asso* 



782 



TIMOTHEUS. 



TIRIDATES. 



ciated with Iphicrates, Menestteus, and Chares iu 
the command of the Athenian fleet. In conse- 
quence of his conduct in this war he was arraigned 
in 354, and condemned to the crushing fine of 100 
talents (more than 24,000^.). Being unable to pay 
the fine, he withdrew to Chalcis in Euboea, where 
he died sliortly after. The Athenians subsequently 
remitted nine-tenths of the penalty, and allowed 
his son Conon to expend the remainder on the 
repair of the walls, which the famous Conon had 
restored. — 2. Son of Ciearchus, the tyrant of He- 
raclea on the Euxine, whom he succeeded in the 
sovereignty, b. c. 353. There is extant a letter 
addressed to him by Isocrates. — 3. A celebrated 
musician and poet of the later Athenian dithyramb, 
was a native of Miletus, and the son of Thersander. 
He was bom B. c. 446, and died in 357, in the 90th 
year of his age. Of the details of his life we have 
very little information. He was at first unfortunate 
in his professional efforts. Even the Athenians, 
fond as they were of novelty, were offended at the 
bold innovations of Timotheus, and hissed off his 
performance. On this occasion it is said that Eu- 
ripides encouraged Timotheus by the prediction 
that he would soon have the theatres at his feet. 
This prediction appears to have been accomplished 
in the vast popularity which Timotheus afterwards 
enjoyed. The Ephesians rewarded him, for his 
dedicatory hymn to Artemis, with the sum of 1000 
pieces of gold ; and the last accomplishmeBt, by 
which the education of the Arcadian youth was 
finished, was learning the nomes of Timotheus and 
Philoxenus. Timotheus is said to have died in 
Macedonia. He delighted in the most artificial 
and intricate forms of musical expression, and he 
used instrumental music, without a vocal accompa- 
niment, to a greater extent than any previous 
composer. Perhaps the most important of his 
innovations, as the means of introducing all the 
others, was his addition to the number of the 
strings of the cilhara. Respecting the precise na- 
ture of that addition the ancient writers are not 
agreed ; but it is most probable, from the whole 
evidence, that the lyre of Timotheus had 11 strings. 
It is said that, when Timotheus visited Sparta, 
and entered the musical contest at the Camea, one 
of the ephors snatched away his lyre, and cut 
from it the strings, 4 in number, by which it ex- 
ceeded the seven- stringed l}Te of Terpander, and, 
as a memorial of this public vindication of the 
ancient simplicity of music, and for a warning to 
future innovators, the Lacedaemonians hung up the 
mutilated lyre of Timotheus in their Scias. With 
regard to the subjects of his compositions, and the 
manner in which he treated them, we have abirn- 
dant evidence that he even went beyond the other 
musicians of the period in the liberties which he 
took with the ancient myths, in the attempt to 
make his music imitative as well as expressive, 
and in the confusion of the different subjects and 
departments of lyric poetry ; in one word, in the 
application of that false principle, which also misled 
his firiend Euripides, that pleasure is the end of 
poetry.— 4. A distinguished flute-player of Thebes, 
flourished under Alexander the Great, on whom his 
music made so powerful an impression that once 
in the midst of a performance by Timotheus, of an 
Orthian Nome to Athena, Alexander started from 
Ms seat, and seized his arms. — 5. A statuary and 
sculptor, whose country is not mentioned, but who 
belonged to the later Attic school of the time of 



Scopas and Praxiteles. He was one of the artists 
who executed the bas-reliefs which adorned the 
frieze of the Mausoleum, about b. c. 352. 

Tingis (77 Tiyyis : Tangier)^ a city of Maure- 
tania, on the S. coast of the Fretum Gaditaimm 
{Straits of Gibraltar), was a place of very great 
antiquity. It was made by Augustus a free city, 
and by Claudius a colony, and the capital of 
Mauretania Tingitana. 

Tinia (Timia), a small river in Umbria, rising 
near Spoletium, and falling into the Tiber, after re- 
ceiving the Clitumnus. 

Tiresias (Teipriaias), a Theban, son of Everes 
and Chariclo, was one of the most renowTied sooth- 
sayers in all antiquity. He was blind from his 
seventh year, but lived to a very old age. It was 
believed that his blindness was occasioned by his 
having revealed to men things which they ought 
not to have known, or by his having seen Athena 
while she was bathing, on which occasion the god- 
dess deprived him of sight by sprinkling water 
upon his face. Chariclo prayed to Athena to re- 
store his sight, but as the goddess was unable to 
do this, she conferred upon him the power of un- 
derstanding the voices of birds, and gave him a 
staff, with the help of which he could walk as 
safely as if he had his eyesight. Another tradition 
accounts for his blindness in the following manner. 
Once, when on Mount Cithaeron (others say Cyl- 
lene), he saw a male and a female serpent together; 
he struck at them with his staff, and as he happened 
to kill the female, he himself was metamorphosed 
into a woman. Seven years later he again saw 2 
serpents, and now killing the male, he again be- 
came a man. It was for this reason that Zeus and 
Hera, when disputing whether a man or a woman 
had more enjoyments, referred the matter to Tire- 
sias, who declared that women enjoyed more 
pleasure than men. Hera, indignant at the answer, 
deprived him of sight, but Zeus gave him the 
power of prophecy, and granted him a life which 
was to last for seven or nine generations. In the 
war of the Seven against Thebes, he declared that 
Thebes should be victorious, if Menoeceus would 
sacrifice himself; and during the war of the Epigoni, 
when the Thebans had been defeated, he advised 
them to commence negotiations of peace, and to 
avail themselves of the opportunity that would thus 
be afforded them, to take to flight He himself 
fled with them (or, according to others, he was 
carried to Delphi as a captive), but on his way he 
drank from the well of Tilphossa and died. His 
daughter Manto (or Daphne) was sent by the vic- 
torious Argives to Delphi, as a present to Apollo. 
Even in the lower world Tiresias was believed to 
retain the powers of perception, while the souls of 
other mortals were mere shades, and there also he 
continued to use his golden staff His tomb was 
shown in the neighbourhood of the Tilphusian well 
near Thebes, and in Macedonia likewise. The place 
near Thebes where he had observed the birds was 
pointed out as a remarkable spot even in later 
times. The blind seer Tiresias acts so prominent 
a part in the mythical history of Greece that there 
is scarcely any event with which he is not con- 
nected in some way or other; and this introduction 
of the seer in so many occurrences separated by 
long intervals of time, was facilitated by the beliei 
in his long life. 

TTridates or Teridates (TtjpjSottjs). 1. The 
second king of Parthia. [Aksaces II.] — & 



TIRO. 

King of Annenia, and brother of Vologeses I. 
(Arsaces XXIII,), king of Parthia. He was 
made king of Armenia by his brother, but was 
driven out of the kingdom by Corbulo, the Roman 
general, and finally received the Armenian crown 
from Nero at Rome in a. d. 63, 

Tiro, M. Tullius, the freedman of Cicero, to 
whom he was an object of tender affection. He 
appears to have been a man of very amiable dispo- 
sition, and highly cultivated intellect. He was not 
only the amanuensis of the orator, and his assistant 
in literary labour, but was himself an author of no 
mean reputation, and notices of several works from 
his pen have been preserved by ancient writers. 
It is supposed by many that Tiro Avas the chief 
agent in bringing together and arranging the works 
of his illustrious patron, and in preserving his cor- 
respondence from being dispersed and lost. After 
the death of Cicero, Tiro purchased a farm in the 
neighbourhood of Puteoli, where he lived until he 
reached his 100th year. It is usually believed 
that Tiro was the inventor of the art of short-hand 
writing among the Romans; and hence abbreviations 
of this description, which are common in MSS, 
from the 6th century downwards, have very gene- 
rally been designated by the learned as Notae 
Tironianae. 

Tiryns (Tipws, -wQos : Tipvveios)^ an ancient 
town in Argolis, S. E. of Argos, and one of the 
most ancient in all Greece, is said to have been 
founded by Proetus, the brother of Acrisius, who 
built the massive walls of the city Avith the help of 
the Cyclopes. Proetus was succeeded by Perseus ; 
and it was here that Hercules was brought up. 
Hence we find his mother Alcmena called Tirynthia^ 
and the hero himself Tirynthius. Homer represents 
Tiryns as subject to Argos ; the town was at a later 
time destroyed by the Argives, and most of the in- 
habitants were removed to Argos. Tiryns was built 
upon a hill of small extent, rising abruptly from 
the dead level of the surrounding country. The 
remains of the city are some of the most interesting 
in all Greece, and are, with those of Mycenae, the 
most ancient specimens of what is' called Cyclopian 
architecture. They consist of masses of enormous 
stones, rudely piled in tiers above one another. 

Tisamenus {Tiffaix^vds). 1. Son of Orestes and 
Hermione, was king of Argos, but was deprived of 
his kingdom when the Heraclidae invaded Pelo- 
ponnesus. He was slain in a battle against the 
Heraclidae, and his tomb was afterwards shown at 
Helice, from which place his remains were subse- 
quently removed to Sparta by command of an 
oracle. — 2. Son of Thersander and Demonassa, 
was king of Thebes, and the father of Autesion.— 
3. An Elean soothsayer, of the family of the Cly- 
tiadae. He was assured by the Delphic oracle that 
he should be successful in 5 great conflicts. Sup- 
posing this to be a promise of distinction as an 
athlete, he devoted himself to gymnastic exercises; 
but the Spartans, understanding the oracle to refer, 
not to gymnastic, but to military victories, made 
great offers to Tisamenus to induce him to take 
with their kings the joint-command of their armies. 
This he refused to do on any terms short of re- 
ceiving the full franchise of their city, which the 
Spartans eventually granted. He was present 
with the Spartans at the battle of Plataea, B.C. 379, 
which was the first of the 5 conflicts referred to 
by the oracle. The 2nd was with the Argives and 
Tegeans at Tegea ; the 3rd, with the Arcadians at 



TITANES. 7^3 
Dipaea; the 4th was the 3rd Messenian War (465 
■ — 455) ; and the last was the battle of Tanagra, 
with the Athenians and their allies, in 457. 

Tisia (Tisiates, pi.), a town in Bruttium in the 
Sila Silva, of uncertain site. 

Tisicrates, an eminent Greek statuary, of the 
school of Lysippus, to whose works those of Tisi- 
crates so nearly approached, that many of them 
were scarcely to be distinguished from the works 
of the master. 

Tisiphone. [Eumenidae.] 

Tissa (Tissiensis, Tissinensis), a town in Sicily 
N. of Mt. Aetna. 

Tissaphernes {Tiaa-acpepuvs), a famous Persian, 
who was appointed satrap of lower Asia in B. c. 
414. He espoused the cause of the Spartans in 
the Peloponnesian war, but he did not give them 
any effectual assistance, since his policy was not 
to allow either Spartans or Athenians to gain the 
supremacy, but to exhaust the strength of both 
parties by the continuance of the war. His plans, 
however, were thwarted by the arrival of Cyrus in 
Asia Minor in 407. This prince supplied the 
Lacedaemonians with cordial and effectual assist- 
ance. Tissaphernes and Cyrus were not on good 
terms ; and after the death of Darius, they were 
engaged in continual disputes about the cities in 
the satrapy of the latter, over which Cyrus claimed 
dominion. The ambitious views of Cyrus towards 
the throne at length became manifest to Tissa- 
phernes, who lost no time in repairing to the king 
with information of the danger. At the battle of 
Cunaxa, in 401, he was one of the 4 generals who 
commanded the army of Artaxerxes, and his troops 
Avere the only portion of the left wing that was 
not put to flight by the Greeks. When the 1 0,000 
had begun their retreat, Tissaphernes professed his 
great anxiety to serve them, and promised to con- 
duct them home in safety. In the course of the 
march he treacherously arrested Clearchus and 4 
of the other generals, who were put to death. 
After this, Tissaphernes annoyed and harassed the 
Greeks in their march, without however seriously 
impeding it, till they reached the Carduchian 
Mountains, at which point he gave up the pursuit. 
Not long after, Tissaphernes, as a reward for his 
great services, was invested by the king, in ad- 
dition to his own satrapy, with all the authority 
which Cyrus had enjoyed in western Asia. On 
his arrival he claimed dominion over the Ionian 
cities, Avhich applied to Sparta for aid. Their re- 
quest was granted, and the Spartans carried on 
war against Tissaphernes with success for some 
years under the command successively of Thimbron, 
Dercyllidas, and Agesilaus (400 — 395). The con- 
tinued want of success on the part of Tissaphernes 
led to grievous complaints against him ; and the 
charges Avere transmitted to court, where they 
were backed by all the influence of Parysatis, 
eager for revenge on the enemy of Cyrus, her fa- 
vourite son. The result Avas that Tithraustes was 
commissioned by the king to put Tissaphernes to 
death and to succeed him in his government, which 
was accordingly done (395). 

Titanes (Tiraves, sing, Tirdv, Ion. Tirrives: 
Fem. Tiravides, sing. Tiravis). 1. The sons and 
daughters of Uranus and Ge, originally dwelt in 
heaven, whence they are called Ovpuv'iwves or Ou- 
pavidai. They Avere 12 in number, 6 sons and 6 
daughters, nam elj^, Oceanus, Coeus, Crius,H3^erion, 
lapetus, Cronus, Thia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, 



784 



TITARESIUS. 



TITUS. 



Phoebe, and Tethys; but their names are different 
in other accounts. It is said that Uranus, the first 
ruler of the world, threw his sons, the Hecaton- 
cheires (Hundred-Handed), — Briareus, Cottys, 
Gyes — and the Cyclopes, — Arges, Steropes, and 
Brontes — into Tartarus. Gaea, indignant at this, 
persuaded the Titans to rise against their father, 
and gave to Cronus an adamantine sickle. They 
did as their mother bade them, with the exception 
of Oceanus. Cronus, with his sickle, unmanned his 
father, and threw the part into the sea : from the 
drops of his blood there arose the Erinnyes, — 
Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megaera. The Titans then 
deposed Uranus, liberated their brothers who had 
been cast into Tartarus, and raised Cronus to the 
throne. But Cronus hurled the Cyclopes back into 
Tartarus, and married his sister Rhea. Having 
been foretold by Gaea and Uranus, that he should 
be dethroned by one of his own children, he swal- 
lowed successively his children Hestia, Demeter, 
Hera, Pluto, and Poseidon. Rhea therefore, when 
she was pregnant with Zeus, went to Crete, and 
gave birth to the child in the Dictaean Cave, 
where he was brought up by the Curetes. When 
Zeus had grown up he availed himself of the 
assistance of Thetis, the daughter of Oceanus, who 
gave to Cronus a potion which caused him to bring 
up the stone and the children he had swallowed. 
United with his brothers and sisters, Zeus now 
began the contest against Cronus and the ruling 
Titans. This contest (usually called the Titano- 
machia) was carried on in Thessaly, Cronus and 
the Titans occupying Mount Othrys, and the sons 
of Cronus Mount Olympus. It lasted 10 years, 
till at length Gaea promised victory to Zeus if he 
would deliver the Cyclopes and Hecatoncheires 
from Tartarus. Zeus accordingly slew Campe, 
who guarded the Cyclopes, and the latter furnished 
him with thunder and lightning. The Titans then 
w^ere overcome, and hurled down into a cavity 
below Tartarus, and the Hecatoncheires were set 
to guard them. It must be observed that the fight 
of the Titans is sometimes confounded by ancient 
writers with the fight of the Gigantes. — 2. The 
name Titans is also given to those divine or semi- 
divine beings who were descended from the Titans, 
such as Prometheus, Hecate, Latona, Pyrrha, and 
especially Helios (the Sim) and Selene (the Moon) 
as the children of Hyperion and Thia, and even 
the descendants of Helios, such as Circe. 

TitaresiUS {TiTap-fjffios : Elasso7iitiko ov XerqgJd), 
a river of Thessaly, also called Europus, rising in 
Mt. Titarus, flowing through the country of the 
Perrhaebi, and falling into the Peneus, S. E. of 
Phalanna. Its waters were impregnated with an 
oily substance, whence it was said to be a branch 
of the infernal Styx. 

Tithonus (Tidui/os), son of Laomedon and 
Strymo, and brother of Priam. By the prayers of 
Eos (Aurora), who loved him, he obtained from 
the gods immortality, but not eternal youth, in 
consequence of which he completely shrunk to- 
gether in his old age, whence an old decrepit man 
was proverbially called Tithonus. As he could 
not die, Eos changed him into a cicada. 

Tithorea. [Neox.] 

Titiiraustes {TLSpava-Tfjs), a Persian, who suc- 
ceeded Tissaphemes in his satrapy, and put him to 
death by order of Artaxerxes ]\Inemon, B. C 396. 
Being unable to make peace with Aegesilaus, he 
sent Timocrates, the Rhodian, into Greece vnth 50 



talents, to distribute among the leading men in the 
several states, in order to induce them to excite a 
war against Sparta at home. 

Titianus, Julius, a Roman writer, was the 
father of the rhetorician Titianus, who taught the 
younger Maximinus. The elder Titianus may 
therefore be placed in the reigns of Commodus, 
Pertinax, and Severus. He was called the ape of 
his age, because he had imitated every thing. All 
his works are lost. 

Titinius, a Roman dramatist whose productions 
belonged to the department of the Comoedia Togata^ 
is commended by Varro on account of the skill 
with which he developed the characters of the 
personages whom he brought upon the stage. It 
appears that he was younger than Caecilius, but 
older than Terence, and flourished about B.C. 170. 
The names of upwards of 14 plays, together with a 
considerable number of short fragments, have been 
preserved by the grammarians. 

Titius Septimius. [Septimius.] 

Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus, Roman 
emperor, a. d. 79 — 81, commonly called by his 
praenomen Titus, was the son of the emperor 
Vespasianus and his wife Flavia Domitilla. He 
was born on the 30th of December, a. D. 40. 
When a young man he served as tribunus militura 
in Britain and in Germany, with great credit. 
After having been quaestor, he had the command 
of a legion, and served under his father in the 
Jewish wars. Vespasian returned to Italy, after 
he had been proclaimed emperor on the 1st of July, 
A, D. 69 ; but Titus remained in Palestine to pro- 
secute the siege of Jerusalem, during which he 
showed the talents of a general with the daring of 
a soldier. The siege of Jerusalem was concluded 
by the capture of the place, on the 8 th of Sep- 
tember, 70. Titus returned to Italy in the fol- 
lowing year (71), and triumphed at Rome with 
his father. He also received the title of Caesar, 
and became the associate of Vespasian in the go- 
vernment. His conduct at this time gave no good 
promise, and the people looked upon him as likely 
to be another Nero. He was accused of being 
excessively addicted to the pleasures of the table, 
of indulging lustful passions in a scandalous way, 
and of putting suspected persons to death with 
very little ceremony. His attachment to Berenice, 
the sister of Agrippa II., also made him unpopular. 
Titus became acquainted with her when he was 
in Judaea, and after the capture of Jerusalem she 
followed him to Rome with her brother Agrippa, 
and both of them lodged in the emperor's residence. 
It was said that Titus had promised to marry Be- 
renice, but as this intended union gave the Romans 
great dissatisfaction, he sent her away from Rome 
after he became emperor. Titus succeeded his 
father in 79, and his government proved an agree- 
able surprise to those who had anticipated a return 
of the times of Nero. His brother Domitian was 
accused of having entertained designs against 
Titus ; but instead of punishing him, Titus en 
deavoured to win his affection, and urged him not 
to attempt to gain by criminal means that power 
which he would one day have in a legitimate way 
During his Avhole reign Titus displayed a sincere 
desire for the happiness of the people, and he did 
all that he could to relieve them in times of dis- 
tress. He assumed the office of Pontifex Maximus 
after the death of his father, and with the purpose, 
as he declared, of keeping his hands free from 



SCYLLA. TRITON. ULYSSES. YERTUMNUS. 




Scylla. (From a Coin of Agrigentum.) Page 689. Triton. (From a Iloman Lamp.) Page 790. 




Ulysses and the Sirens. (From a Vase in the British Museum.) Page 7D9. 




ITofacep. 784.. 



COINS OF PEKSONS. SULLA. — VALENTINIAN. 




M. Claudius Tacitus, Roman Emperor, a. d. 275 — 276. 
Page 740. 




Tetricus Senior, Roman Emperor, A. d. 2o7 — 274. Page 754. 




Theodosius I., Roman Emperor, a. d. 378 — 395. Page 761. 




Theodosius II., Roman Emperor, a.d. 408 — 450. Page 761. 
To face p. 785.] 




Titus, Roman Emperor, a. d. 79 — 81. Page 784. 




Trajan, Roman Emperor, a. d. 98 — 117. Page 787. 




Tryphon, King of Syria, ob. B. C. 139. Page 792. 




Yalens, Roman Emperor, a. d. 364 — 378. Page 802. 



TITYUS. 



TOLOSA. 



785 



blood; a resolution which he kept. Two patricians 
who were convicted by the senate of a conspiracy 
against hina, were pardoned and treated with kind- 
ness and confidence. He checked all prosecutions 
for the crime of laesa majestas^ and he severely 
punished all informers. The 1st year of his reign 
is memorable for the great eruption of Vesuvius, 

• which desolated a large part of the adjacent coun- 
try, and buried with lava and ashes the towns of 
Herculaneum and Pompeii. Titus endeavoured to 
repair the ravages of this great eruption : he sent 
two consulars with money to restore the ruined 
towns, and he applied to this purpose the property 
of those who had been destroyed, and had left no 
next of kin. At the beginning of the following 
year (80) there was a great fire at Rome, which 
lasted 3 days and 3 nights, and destroyed the 
Capitol, the library of Augustus, the theatre of 
Pompeius, and other public buildings, besides 
many houses. The emperor declared that he 
should consider all the loss as his own, and he set 
about repairing it with great activity : he took 
even the decorations of the imperial residences, 
and sold them to raise money. The eruption of 
Vesuvius was followed by a dreadful pestilence, 
which called for fresh exertions on the part of the 
benevolent emperor. In this year he completed 
the great amphitheatre called the Colosseum, which 
had been commenced by his father ; and also the 
baths called the baths of Titus. The dedication of 
these two edifices was celebrated by spectacles 
which lasted 100 days ; by a naval battle in the 
old naumachia, and fights of gladiators : on one 
day alone 5000 wild animals are said to have been 
exhibited, a number which we may reasonably 
suspect to be exaggerated. He died on the 13th 
of September, 81, after a reign of 2 years and 2 
months, and 20 days. He was in the 41st year of 
his age. There were suspicions that he was poi- 
soned by Domitian. There is a story that Domitian 
came before Titus was dead, and ordered him to 
be deserted by those about him : according to 
another story, he ordered him to be thrown into a 
vessel full of snow, under the pretext of cooling 
his fever. Titus was succeeded by his brother 
Domitian. His daughter Julia Sabina was married 
to Flavins Sabinus, his cousin, the son of Flavius 
Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian. Titus is said 
to have written Greek poems and tragedies ; he 
was very familiar with Greek. He also wrote 
many letters in his father's name during Vespasian's 
life, and drew up edicta. 

Tityus (TiTu^s), son of Gaea, or of Zeus and 
Elara, the daughter of Orchomenus, was a giant in 
Euboea. Instigated by Hera, he attempted to 
offer violence to Leto or Artemis (Latona), when 
she passed through Panopaeus to Pytho, but he 
was killed by the arrows of Artemis or Apollo; 
according to others, Zeus destroyed him Avith a 
flasli of lightning. He was then cast into Tartarus, 
and there he lay outstretched on the ground, co- 
vering 9 acres, with 2 vultures or snakes devouring 

I fais liver. His destruction by the arrows of Arte- 
mis and Apollo was represented on the throne of 
Apollo at Amyclae. 

Tius or Tium (Ti'os, Ttov, also Ti]iov : Tios or 
Tilios), a seaport town of Bithynia, on the river 
Billaeus ; a colony from Miletus, and the native 
place of Philetaerus, the founder of the Pergamene 
kingdom. - 

Tlepolemus (TATjiroAe^ios), son of Hercules by 



Astyoche, daughter of Phylas, or by Astydamia, 
daughter of Amyntor. He was king of Argos, but 
after slaying his uncle Licymnius, he was obliged 
to take to flight; and, in conformity with the com- 
mand of an oracle, he settled in Rhodes, where he 
built the towns of Lindos, lalysus, and Camirus. 
He joined the Greeks in the Trojan war with 9 
ships, but was slain by Sarpedon. 

TIOS (TAws, gen. TAw : TKwevs, TXaoh-qs : Ru. 
near Doover), a considerable city, in the interior 
of Lycia, about 2^ miles E. of the river Xanthus, 
on the road leading over M. Massicytus to Ci- 
byra. 

Tmarus. [Tomarus.] 

Tmolus (TjUwAos), god of Mt. Tmolus in Lydia, 
is described as the husband of Pluto (or Omphale) 
and father of Tantalus, and is said to have decided 
the musical contest between Apollo and Pan. 

Tmolus or Timolus (T/iwAos: KisiJja Musa 
Dagh\ a celebrated mountain of Asia Minor, 
running E. and W. through the centre of Lydia, 
and dividing the plain of the Herraus, on the N., 
from that of the Cayster, on the S. At its E. end 
it joins M. Messogis, thus entirely enclosing the 
valley of the Cayster. On the W., after throwing 
out the N.W. branch called Sipylus, it runs far 
out into the Aegean, forming, under the name of 
Mimas, the great Ionian peninsula, beyond which 
it is still further prolonged in the island of Chios. 
On its N. side are the sources of the Pactolus and 
the Cogamus ; on its S. side those of the Cayster. 
It produced wine, saffron, zinc, and gold. 

Togata, Gallia. [Gallia.] 

Tolbiacum {Zulpicli)^ a town of Gallia Belgica, 
on the road from Colonia Agrippina to Treviri. 

Tolentinum (Tolinas, -atis : Tohntino)^ a town 
of Picenum, on a height on the river Flusor 
iChiente). 

Tolenus or Tel5nius {Turano), a river in the 
land of the Sabines, rising in the country of the 
Marsi and Aequi, and falling into the Velinus. 

Toletum ( Toledo), the capital of the Carpetani 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on the river 
Tagus, which nearly encompasses the town, and 
upon 7 hills. According to tradition it was founded 
by Jews, who fled thither when Jerasalem was 
taken by Nebuchadnezzar, and who called it To- 
ledoth, or the " city of generations." It was taken 
by the Romans under the proconsul M. Fulvius, 
B. c. 192, when it is described as a small but for- 
tified town. It was celebrated in ancient, as well 
as in modern times, for the manufactory of swords ; 
but it owed its greatness to the Gothic kings, who 
made it the capital of their dominions. It still 
contains many Roman remains. 

Tolistobogi, Tolistoboji (ToXi(rTo§6yioi, To- 
\i(rTo§6ioL, ToXL(TTo§wyioi). [Galatia.] 

Tolophon (To\o(pQ)v : ToXocpwuios), also called 
Col5ph5n (KoAo0«v), a town of Locris, on the 
Corinthian gulf. 

Tolosa ( Tolouse), a town of Gallia Narbonensis, 
and the capital of the Tectosages, was situated on 
the Garumna, neat the frontiers of Aquitania. It 
was subsequently made a Roman colony, and was 
surnamed Palladia. It was a large and wealthy 
town, and contained a celebrated temple, in which 
great riches were deposited. In this temple there 
is said to have been preserved a great part of the 
booty taken by Brennus from the temple at Del- 
phi. The town and temple were plundered by 
the consul Q. Servilius Caepio, in b. c. 106 ; but the 

3b 



786 TOLUMNIUS. 

subsequent destruction of his arraj' and his OAvn 
unhappy fate were regarded as ^ divine punishment 
for his sacrilegious act. Hence arose the proverb, 
Aicnim Tolosanum liahei. There are the ruins of a 
small amphitheatre, and some other Roman re- 
mains at the modern town. 

Tolumnius, Lar, king of the Veientes, to whom 
Fidenae revolted in b. c. 438, and at whose insti- 
gation the inhabitants of Fidenae slew the 4 
Roman ambassadors, who had been sent to Fidenae 
to inquire into the reasons of their recent conduct. 
Statues of these ambassadors were placed on the 
Rostra at Rome, where tliey continued till a late 
time. In the war which followed. Tolumnius was 
slain in single combat bj'' Cornelius Cossus, who 
dedicated his spoils in the temple of Jupiter Fere- 
trius, the 2nd of the 3 instances in which the 
spolia opima were won. 

Tomeus (To^eus : Kondozoni), a mountain in 
jMessenia, E. of the promontory Coriphasium. 

Tom! or Tomis {Tojxoi, Toixis : To^evs, To- 
mita : Tomisivar or Jegni Pangola), a town of 
Thrace (subsequently Moesia), situated on the W. 
shore of the Euxine, and at a later time the capital 
of Scythia Minor. According to tradition it was 
called Tomi (from re'^w, " cut "), because Medea 
here cut to pieces the body of her brother Absyr- 
tus. It is said to have been a colony of the Mile- 
sians. It is renowned as the place of Ovid's ba- 
nishment. 

Tomorus or Tmarus (Tofxapos, Tfjdpos : To- 
maro), a mountain in Epirus, in the district Mo- 
lossia, between the lake Pambotis and the river 
Arachthus, near Dodona. 

Tomyris (ToiJ-vpis), a queen of the Massagetae, 
who dwelt south of the Araxes (Jaxartes), by 
whom Cyrus was slain in battle, b. c. 529. 

Tornadotus. [Physcus, No. 3.] 

Torone {Topwpr) : Topwva7os), a towTi of Mace- 
donia,- in the district Chalcidice, and on the S.W. 
side of the peninsula Sithonia, from which the gulf 
between the peninsulas Sithonia and Pallene was 
called Sinus Toronaicus. 

Torquatus, the name of a patrician family of 
the Manila Gens. 1. T. Manlius Imperiosus 
Torquatus, the son of L. Manlius Capitolinus 
Imperiosus, dictator b, c. 363, was a favourite hero 
of Roman story. Manlius is said to have been 
dull of mind in his youth, and was brought up by 
his father in the closest retirement in the country. 
When the tribune M. Pomponius accused the elder 
Manlius in b. c. 362, on account of the cruelties he 
had practised in his dictatorship, he endeavoured 
to excite an odium against him, by representing 
him at the same time as a cruel and tpannical 
father. As soon as the younger Manlius heard of 
this, he hurried to Rome, obtained admission to 
Pomponius early in the morning, and compelled 
the tribime, by threatening him with instant death 
if he did not take the oath, to swear that he Avould 
drop the accusation against his father. In 361 
Manlius served under the dictator T. Quintius 
Pennus in the war against the Gauls, and in this 
campaign earned immortal glory by slaying in 
single combat a gigantic Gaul. From the dead 
body of the barbarian he took the chain (torques) 
which had adorned him, and placed it around his 
ovra neck ; and from this circumstance he obtained 
the surname of Torquatus. He was dictator in 
333, and again in 349. He was also three times 
consul, namely in 347, 344, and in 340. In the 



TORQUATUS. 

last of these years Torquatus and his colleague P 
Decius Mus gained the great victory over the 
Latins at the foot of Vesuvius, which established 
for ever the supremacy of Rome over Latium. 
[Decius.] Shortly before the battle, when the 
two armies were encamped opposite to one another, 
the consuls published a proclamation that no Roman 
should engage m single combat Avith a Latin on 
pain of death. Notwithstanding this proclamation, 
the young Manlius, the son of the consul, provoked 
by the insults of a Tusculan noble of the name of 
Mettius Geminus, accepted his challenge, slew his 
adversary, and bore the bloody spoils in triumph 
tr> his father. Death was his reward. The consul 
v. ould not overlook this breach of discipline : and 
the unhappy youth was executed by the lictor in 
presence of the assembled army. This severe sen- 
tence rendered Torquatus an object of detestation 
among the Roman youths as long as he lived ; and 
the recollection of his severity was preserved in 
after ages by the expression Manliana imperia. 
— 2. T. Manlius Torquatus, consul b. c. 235, 
when he conquered the Sardinians; censor 231; 
and consul a 2nd time in 224. He possessed the 
hereditary sternness and severity of his family ; 
and we accordingly find him opposing in the senate 
the ransom of those Romans who had been taken 
prisoners at the fatal battle of Cannae. In 217 
he was sent into Sardinia, where he carried on the 
war with success against the Carthaginians and 
the Sardinians. He was dictator in 210. — 3. T. 
Manlius Torquatus, consul 165 with Cn. Octa- 
vius. He inherited the severity of his ancestors ; 
of which an instance is related in the condemnation 
of his son, who had been adopted by D. Junius 
Silanus. [Silanus, No. 1.] — 4. L. Manlius 
Torquatus, consul b. c. 65 -with L. Aurelius Cotta. 
Torquatus and Cotta obtained the consulship in 
consequence of the condemnation, on account of 
briber}', of P. Cornelius Sulla and P. Autronius 
Paetus, who had been already elected consuls. 
After his consulship Torquatus obtained the pro- 
vince of Macedonia. He took an active part in 
suppressing the Catilinarian conspiracy in 63; and 
he also supported Cicero when he was banished 
in 58. — 5. L. Manlius Torquatus, son of No. 4, 
accused of bribery, in 66, the consuls elect, P. 
Cornelius Sulla and P. Autronius Paetus, and thus 
secured the consulship for his father. He was 
closely connected with Cicero during the praetor- 
ship (65) and consulship (63) of the latter. In 
62 he brought a 2nd accusation agamst P. Sulla, 
whom he now charged with having been a party 
to both of Catiline's conspiracies. Sulla was de- 
fended by Hortensius and by Cicero in a speech 
which is still extant. Torquatus, like his father, 
belonged to the aristocratical party, and accordingly 
opposed Caesar on the breaking out of the civil 
war in 49. He was praetor in that year, and was 
stationed at Alba with 6 cohorts. He subsequently 
joined Pompey in Greece, and in the following 
year (48) he had the command of Oricum intrusted 
to him, but was obliged to surrender both himself 
and the town to Caesar, who, however, dismissed 
Torquatus uninjured. After the battle of Pharsalia 
Torquatus went to Africa, and upon the defeat of 
his party in that country in 46 he attempted to 
escape to Spain along with Scipio and others, but 
was taken prisoner by P. Sittius at Hippo Regius 
and slain together with his companions. Torquatus 
was well acquamted with Greek literature, and is 



TORQUATUS. 
praised by Cicero as a man well trained in every 
kind of learning. He belonged to the Epicurean 
school of philosophy, and is introduced by Cicero 
as the advocate of that school in his dialogue De 
Finihus, the first book of w^hich is called Torquatus 
in Cicero's letters to Atticus. — 6. A. Manlius 
Torquatus, praetor in 52, when he presided at 
the trial of Milo for bribery. On the breaking out 
of the civil war he espoused the side of Pompey, 
and after the defeat of the latter retired to Athens, 
where he was living in exile in 45. He was an 
intimate friend of Cicero, who addressed 4 letters 
to him while he was in exile. 

Torquatus Silanus. [Silanus,] 

Toxandri, a people in Gallia Belgica, between 
the Menapii and Morini, on the right bank of the 
Scaldis. 

Ti'abea, Q., a Roman comic dramatist who oc- 
cupies the eighth place in the canon of Volcatius 
Sedigitus [Sedigitus].. The period when he flou- 
rished is uncertain, but he has been placed about 
B. c. 130. No portion of his works has been pre- 
served with the exception of half a dozen lines 
quoted by Cicero. 

Trachalus, Galerius, consul a. d. 68 with Silius 
Italicus, is frequently mentioned by his contem- 
porary Quintilian, as one of the most distinguished 
orators of his age. 

TracMs or TracMn (Tpaxi's, Ion. T^p-nxis, Tpa- 
X'V: Tpaxlvios). 1. Also called Heraclea Tra- 
chiniae, or Heraclea PhtMotidis, or simply He- 
raclea ('Hpa/cAeta ?} eV Tpaxivais, or 'H. 77 eV 
Tpax^vi), a town of Thessaly in the district Malis, 
celebrated as the residence of Hercules for a time. 

— 2. A town of Phocis, on the frontiers of Boeo- 
tia, and on the slope of Mt. Helicon in the neigh- 
bourhood of Lebadea. 

Trachonitis or Trachon {Tpaxi^v7Tis, Tpdxcci'), 
the N. district of Palestine beyond the Jordan, lay 
between Antilibanus and the mountains of Arabia, 
and was bounded on the N. by the territory of 
Damascus, on the E. by Auranitis, on the S. by 
Ituraea, and on the W. by Gaulanitis. It was for 
the most part a sandy desert, intersected by 2 
ranges of rocky mountains, called Trachones (Tpa- 
X^i'es), the caves in Avhich gave refuge to numerous 
bands of robbers. For its political relations under 
the Asmonaean and Idumaean princes, see Pa- 
LAESTiNA. Under the Romans, it belonged some- 
times to the province of Judaea, and sometimes to 
that of Arabia. It forms part of the Hauran. 

. Tragia, Tragiae, or Tragias (Tpay(a, TpayiaL, 
Tpay'ias), a small island (or more than one) in the 
Aegean sea, near Samos, probably between it and 
Pharmacussa, where Pericles gained a naval vic- 
tory over the Samians, B. c. 439. 

Tragurium (Trau or Troghie), a town of Dal- 
matia in Illyricum, celebrated for its marble, and 
situated on an island connected with the main land 
by means of a mole. 

Trajanopolis. 1. {Orichovo\ a town in the in- 
terior of Thrace, on the Hebrus, founded by Trajan. 

— 2. A town of Cilicia. [Selinus.] — 3. A town 
in Mysia on the borders of Phrygia. 

Trajanus, M. Ulpius, Roman emperor a. d. 98 
— 117, Avas born at Italica, near Seville, the 18th 
of September, 52. He was trained to arms, and 
served with distinction in the East and in Ger- 
many. He was consul in 91, and at the close of 97 
lie was adopted by the emperor Nerva, who gave 
him the rank of Caesar and the names of Nerva 



TRAJANUS. 787 
and Germanicus, and shortly after the title of im- 
perator, and the tribunitia potestas. His style and 
title after his elevation to the imperial dignity 
were Imperator Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus. 
He was the first emperor who was born out of 
Ital3^ Nerva died in January 98, and was suc- 
ceeded by Trajan, who was then at Cologne. His 
accession was hailed with joy, and he did not dis- 
appoint the expectations of the people. He was a 
man adapted to command. He was strong and 
healthy, of a majestic appearance, laborious, and 
inured to fatigue. Though not a man of letters, 
he had good sense, a knowledge of the world, and 
a sound judgment. His mode of living was very 
simple, and in his campaigns he shared all the 
sufferings and privations of the soldiers, by whom 
he was both loved and feared. He was a friend 
to justice, and he had a sincere desire for the hap- 
piness of the people. Trajan did not return to 
Rome for some months, being employed in settling 
the frontiers on the Rhine and the Danube. He 
( entered Rome on foot, accompanied by his wife 
I Pompeia Plotina. This lady is highly commended 
by Pliny the younger for her modest virtues, and 
her affection to Marciana, the sister of Trajan. 
Trajan left Rome for his campaign against the 
Daci. Decebalus, king of the Daci, had compelled 
Domitian to purchase peace by an annual payment 
of money; and Trajan determined on hostilities. 
This war employed Trajan between 2 and 3 years; 
but it ended with the defeat of Decebalus, who 
sued for peace at the feet of the Roman emperor. 
Trajan assumed the name of Dacicus, and entered 
Rome in triumph (103). In the following year 
(104) Trajan commenced his second Dacian war 
against Decebalus, who, it is said, had broken the 
treaty. Decebalus was completely defeated, and 
put an end to his life (106). In the course of this 
war Trajan built (105) a permanent bridge across 
the Danube at a place called Szernecz. The piers 
were of stone and of an enormous size, but the 
arches were of wood. After the death of Decebalus 
Dacia was reduced to the form of a Roman pro- 
vince ; strong forts were built in various places, 
and Roman colonies were planted. It is generally 
supposed that the column at Rome called the 
Column of Trajan was erected to commemorate his 
Dacian victories. On his return Trajan had a 
triumph, and he exhibited games to the people for 
123 days. 11,000 animals were slaughtered 
during these amusements; and an army of gla- 
diators, 10,000 men, gratified the Romans by 
killing one another. — About this time Arabia Pe- 
traea was subjected to the empire by A. Cornelius 
Palma, the governor of Syria ; and an Indian em- 
bassy came to Rome. Trajan constructed a road 
across the Pomptine marshes, and built magnificent 
bridges across the streams. Buildings, probably 
mansiones, were constructed by the side of this 
road. In 114 Trajan left Rome to make war on 
the Armenians and the Parthians. He spent the 
winter of 114 at Antioch, and in the following 
year he invaded the Parthian dominions. The 
most striking and brilliant success attended his 
arms. In the course of 2 campaigns (115 — lie), 
he conquered the greater part of the Parthian em- 
pire, and took the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. 
In 116 he descended the Tigris and entered the 
Erythraean Sea (the Persian Gulf). While he was 
thus engaged the Parthians rose against the 
Romans, but were again subdued by the generals 

3 E 2 



788 



TRAJAN US. 



TREBONIUS. 



of Trajan. On his return to Ctesiplion, Trajan 
determined to give the Parthians a king, and 
placed the diadem on the head of Parthamaspates. 
In 117 Trajan fell ill, and as his complaint grew 
worse he set out for Italy. He lived to reach Selinus 
in Cilicia, afterwards called Trajanopolis, where he 
died in August, 117, after a reign of 19 years, 6 
months and 15 days. His ashes were taken to 
Rome in a golden um, carried in triumphal pro- 
cession, and deposited under the column which 
bears his name. He left no children, and he was 
succeeded by Hadrian. Trajan constructed several 
great roads in the empire ; he built libraries at 
Rome, one of which, called the Ulpia Bihliotheca, 
is often mentioned ; and a theatre in the Campus 
Martins. His great work was the Forum Tra- 
janum, in the centre of which was placed the 
column of Trajan. — Under the reign of Trajan lived 
Sextus Julius Frontinus, C. Cornelius Tacitus, the 
Younger Pliny, and various others of less note. 
Plutarch, Suetonius, and Epictetus survived Tra- 
jan. The jurists Juventius Celsus and Neratius 
Piiscus were living under Trajan. 

Trajanus Portus. [Centum Cellae.] 
Trajectum ( Ctrecht), a town of the Batavi on 
the Rhine, called at a later time Trajectus Rheni, 
or Ad Rhenum. 

Tralles or Trallis {al Tpa\\e7s, rj TpdWis : 
TpaAXiuvos, Trallianus : Ghiuzel-Hisar, Ru., near 
Aidin), a flourishing commercial city of Asia 
Minor, reckoned sometimes to Ionia, and some- 
times to Caria. It stood on a quadrangular height 
at the S. foot of M. Messogis (with a citadel on a 
higher point), on the banks of the little river 
Eudon, a N. tributary of the Maeander, from 
which the city was distant 80 stadia (8 geog. 
miles). The surrounding country was extremely 
fertile and beautiful, and hence the city was at 
first called Anthea ("Av^etct). Under the Seleu- 
cidae it bore the names of Seleucia and Antiochia. 
It was inhabited by a mixed population of Greeks 
and Carians. There was a less important city of 
the same name in Phrygia, if indeed it be not the 
same. 

Tranquillus, Suetonius. [Suetonius.] 
Transcelleusis Mons, a mountain of Maure- 

tania Caesariensis, between Caesarea and the river 

Chinalaph. 

Trapezopolis (TpaTre^ouTroAts), a towm of Asia 
Minor, on the S. slope of M. Cadmus, on the con- 
fines of Caria and Phrygia. Its site is uncertain. 

Trapezus (TpaTre^oSs ; TpaTT^^ovvTios and 
-ovaios). 1. (Near Mavria), a city of Arcadia, on 
the Alpheus, the name of which was mythically 
derived from the rpoTre^a, or altar, on which Ly- 
caon was said to have offered human sacrifices to 
Jove. At the time of the building of Megalopolis, 
the inhabitants of Trapezus, rather than be trans- 
ferred to the new city, migrated to the shores of 
the Euxine, and theii city fell to ruin. — 2. (Tara- 
bosan, Trabezun, or Trehizond)^ a colony of Sinope, 
at almost the extreme E. of the N. shore of Asia 
Minor. After Sinope lost her independence, Tra- 
pezus belonged, first to Armenia Minor, and after- 
wards to the kingdom of Pontus. Under the 
Romans, it was made a free city, probably by 
Pompey, and, by Trajan, the capital of Pontus 
Cappadocius. Hadrian constructed a new harbour ; 
and the city became a place of first-rate commercial 
importance. It was also strongly fortified. It 
was taken by the Goths in the reign of Valerian ; 



but it had recovered, and was in a flourishing state 
at the time of Justinian, who repaired its fortifica- 
tions. In the middle ages it was for some time 
the seat of a fragment of the Greek empire, called 
the empire of Trebizond. It is now the second 
commercial port of the Black Sea, ranking next 
after Odessa. 

Trasimenus Lacus (^Lago di Perugia), some- 
times, but not correctly, written Thrasymenus, a 
lake in Etniria, between Clusium and Perusia, 
memorable for the victory- gained by Hannibal over 
j the Romans under Flaminius, B. c. 217. 

Treba (Trebanus : Trevi\ a town in Latium, 
near the sources of the Anio, N. E. of Anagnia. 

Trebatius Testa. [Testa.] 

Trebellius Pollio, one of the 6 Scriptores His- 
ioriae Augustae, flourished under Constantine, and 
was anterior to Yopiscus. His name is prefixed 
to the biographies of, 1. The 2 Valeriani, father 
and son; 2. The Gallieni; 3. The Thirty TjTants ; 
4. Claudius, the last-named piece being addressed 
to Constantine. We learn from Vopiscus that the 
lives written by Trebellius Pollio commenced with 
Philippus and extended down to Claudius. Of 
these, all as far as the Valeriani, regarding whom 
but a short fragment remains, have been lost. 

Trebia {TrMia), a small river in Gallia Cisal- 
pina, falling into the Po near Placentia. It is 
memorable for the victory which Hannibal gained 
over the Romans, B.C. 218. This river is gene- 
rally dry in summer, but is filled with a rapid 
stream in ^vdnter, which was the season when Han- 
nibal defeated the Romans. 

Trebonius, C, played rather a prominent part 
in the last days of the republic. He commenced 
public life as a supporter of the aristocratical party, 
and in his quaestorship (b. c. 60) he attempted to 
prevent the adoption of P. Clodius into a plebeian 
family. He changed sides soon afterwards, and in 
his tribunate of the plebs (55) he was the instru- 
ment of the triumvirs in proposing that Pompey 
should have the 2 Spains, Crassus Syria, and 
Caesar the Gauls and IlljTicum for another period 
of 5 years. This proposal received the approbation 
of the comitia, and is known by the name of the 
Leo: Trebonia. For this service he was rewarded 
by being appointed one of Caesar's legates in Gaul, 
where he remained till the breaking out of the 
civil war in 49. In the course of the same year 
he was intrusted by Caesar vAxk the command of 
the land forces engaged in the siege of Massilia. 
In 48 Trebonius was city-praetor, and in the dis- 
charge of his duties resisted the seditious attempts 
of his colleague M. Caelius Rufus to obtain by 
force the repeal of Caesar's law respecting the pay- 
ment of debts. Towards the end of 47, Trebonius, 
as pro-praetor, succeeded Q. Cassius Longinus in 
the government of Further Spain, but was expelled 
from the province by a mutiny of the soldiers who 
espoused the Pompeian party. Caesar raised him 
to the consulship in October, 45, and promised 
him the province of Asia. In return for all 
these honours and favours, Trebonius was one 
of the prime movers in the conspiracy to assas- 
sinate Caesar, and after the murder of his pa- 
tron (44) he went as proconsul to the province 
of Asia. In the following year (43) Dolabella, 
who had received from Antonius the province of 
Syria, surprised the town of Smj-rna, where 
Trebonius was then residing, and slew him in 
his bed. 



TREBULA. 



TRIERES. 



789 



Trebilla (Trebulanus). 1. {Tregglda}^ a towTi 
in Samnium situated in the S. E. part of the moun- 
tains of Cajazzo.—'2. Mutusca, a town of the 
Sabines of uncertain site. —3. Suffena, also a town 
of the Sabines, and of uncertain site. 

Trerus {Sacco)^ a river in Latium, and a tri- 
butary of the Liris. 

Tres Tabemae. 1. A station on the Via Appia 
in Latium, between Aricia and Forum Appii. It 
is mentioned in the account of St. Paul's journey- 
to Rome.— 2. (Borghetto), a station in Gallia Cisal- 
pina, on the road from Placentia to Mediolanum. 

Tretum (Tp-qTov : C. Bugiaroni, or Bos Seba 
Rous^ i. e. ISeven Capes)^ a great promontory on 
the coast of Numidia, forming the W. headland of 
the Sinus Olcachites {Bay of Storah). 

Treviri or Treveri, a powerful people in Grallia 
Belgica, who were faithful allies of the Romans, 
and whose cavalry was the best in all Gaul, The 
river Mosella flowed through their territory, which 
extended W.-ward from the Rhine as far as the 
Remi. Their chief town was made a Roman 
colony by Augustus, and was called Augusta 
Trevirorum {Trier or Treves). It stood on the 
right bank of the Mosella, and became under the 
later empire one of the most flourishing Roman 
cities N. of the Alps. It was the capital of Bel- 
gica Prima ; and after the division of the Roman 
world by Diocletian (a. d. 292) into 4 districts, it 
became the residence of the Caesar, who had the 
government of Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Here 
dwelt Constantius Chlorus and his son Constantine 
the Great, as well as several of the subsequent em- 
perors. The modem city still contains many in- 
teresting Roman remains. They belong, however, 
to the latter period of the empire, and are conse- 
quently not in the best style of art. The most im- 
portant of these remains is 'the Porta Nigra or 
Black Gate, a large and massive building in an ex- 
cellent state of preservation. In addition to this, 
we have extensive remains of the Roman baths, of 
the amphitheatre, and of the palace of Constan- 
tine, The piers of the bridge over the Moselle 
are likewise Roman. At the village of Igel, 
about 6 miles from Treves, is a beautiful Roman 
structure, being a 4-sided obelisk, more than 70 
feet high, covered with carvings, inscriptions, and 
bas-reliefs. There has been much dispute respect- 
ing the object for which this building was erected ; 
but it appears to have been set up by 2 brothers, 
named Secundini ; partly as a funeral monument 
to their deceased relatives, partly to celebrate their 
sister's marriage, which is represented on one of 
the bas-reliefs by the figures of a man and woman 
joining hands. 

Triarius, Valerius. 1. L., quaestor urbanus 
B. c. 81 ; and propraetor in Sardinia 77, when he 
repulsed Lepidus, who had fled into that island 
after his unsuccessful attempt to repeal the laws of 
Sulla. Triarius served under Lucullus as one of 
his legates in the war against Mithridates, and at 
first gained considerable distinction by his zeal 
and activity. In 68 Triarius was despatched to 
the assistance of Fabius, who had been intrusted 
with the defence of Pontus, while Lucullus invaded 
Armenia, and who was now attacked by Mithri- 
dates with overwhelming numbers. Triarius com- 
pelled Mithridates to assume the defensive, and 
early in the following year he commenced active 
operations against the Pontic king. Anxious to 
gain the victory over Mithridates before the arrival 



of Lucullus, Triarius allowed himself to be attacked 
at a disadvantage, and was defeated with great 
slaughter near Zela. — 2. P., son of the preceding 
accused M. Aemilius Scaurus, in 54, first of repe- 
tundae and next of ambitus. Scaurus was defended 
on both occasions by Cicero. — 3. C, a friend of 
Cicero, who introduces him as one of the speakers 
in his dialogue De Finibus, and praises his oratory 
in his Brutus. He fought on Pompey's side at 
the battle of Pharsalia. Triarius perished in the 
civil wars, probably in Africa, for Cicero speaks in 
45 of his death, and adds, that Triarius had left 
him the guardian of his children. 

Triballi, a powerful people in Thrace, a branch 
of the Getae dwelling along the Danube, who were 
defeated by Alexander the Great, B. c, 335, and 
obliged to sue for peace. 

Tribocci, a German people, settled in Gallia 
Belgica, between M. Vogesus and the Rhine, in 
the neighbourhood of Strasburg. 

Tribonianus, a jurist, commissioned by Justi- 
nianus, with 16 others, to compile the Digest ov. 
Pandect. For details see Justinianus, 

Tricala. [Triocala.] 

Tricaranon (TptKapai'oj' : TpiKapavevs), a for- 
tress in Phliasia, S. E. of Phlius, on a mountain of 
the same name. 

Tricasses, Tricasii, or Tricassini, a people in* 
Gallia Lugdunensis, E. of the Senones, whose^ 
chief town was Augustobona, afterwards Tricassae- 
{Troyes). 

Tricastini, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, be- 
tween the Cavares and Vocontii, inhabiting a nar- 
row slip of country between the Drome and the ■ 
Isere. Their chief town was Augusta Tricastino- 
rum, or simply Augusta {Aouste). 

Tricca, subsequently Tricala (TpiKKr;, Tp'ucaXa : 
Trikkah), an ancient town of Thessaly in the dis- 
trict Hestiaeotis, situated on the Lethaeus, N. of 
the Peneus. Homer represents it as governed by 
the sons of Aesculapius ; and it contained in later- 
times a celebrated temple of this god, 

Trichonis {Tpixuvis : Zygos or Vrakkori)^ a 
large lake in Aetolia, E. of Stratos and N. of Mt.. 
Aracynthus. 

Trichonium {^pix<J>viov'. Tpix'^vi^vs)., a town 
in Aetolia, E. of lake Trichonis. 

Triciptinus, Lucretius. [Lucrvtia Gens.] 

Tricoloni {TpiKoKwuoi : TpiKoXcat/evs), a town 
of Arcadia, a little N. of Megalopolis, of wliich a 
temple of Poseidon alone remained in the time of ' 
Pausanias, 

Tricorii, a Ligurian people in Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, a branch of the Sallyi, in the neighbour- 
hood of Massilia and Aqiiae Sextiae. 

Tricorythus {TpiKo^.Sos : TpiKopvaios), a de- 
mus in Attica, belonging to the tribe Aiantis,. 
between Marathon and Rhamnus. 
. Tricrana {Tp'iKpam: TrikUri), an island off' 
the coast of Argolis near Hermione. 

Tridentum {Trent, in Italian Trento), tl^- 
capital of the Tridentini, and the chief town of 
Rhaetia, situated on the river Athesis {Jdige), 
and on the pass of the Alps leading to Verona. 
Its greatness dates from the Middle Ages, and it 
is chiefly celebrated on account of the ecclesias- 
tical council, which assembled within its walls, 
a. d. 1545. 

Trieres or Trieris {Tpii]pr]s: Enfeh'i), a small 
fortress on the coast of Phoenicia, between TripoUs 
and the Prom. Theuprosopon. 

8 £ 3 



.90 



TRIFANUM. 



TRITON. 



Trifanuin, a to^^n in Latium of uncertain site, 
between Mintumae and Sinuessa. 
Trinacria. [Sicilia.] 

Trinemeis or Trinemia (Tpiv€fx€7s, TpivefjLeia 
Tpivejxevs), a demos in Attica, belonging to tlie 
tribe Cecropis, on Mt. Fames. 

Trinobantes, one of the most powerful people 
of Britain, inhabiting the modem Essex. They 
are mentioned in Caesar's invasion of Britain, and 
they offered a formidable resistance to the in- 
vading force sent into the island by the emperor 
Claudius. 

Triocala or Tricala (TpioKaXa, Tpi'/coAo : Tpi- 
Ka\7vos, Tricalinus : nr. Calata Bellota), a moun- 
tain fortress in the interior of Sicily, near the Cri- 
missus, was in the SerAdle War the head-quarters 
of the slaves, and the residence of their leader 
Trrphon. 

Triopas (TptoVas or Tpio^), son of Poseidon 
and Canace, a daughter of Aeolus, or of Helios 
and Rhodos, and the father of Iphimedia and Ery- 
sichthon. Hence, his son Erysichthon is called 
Triopeius, and his granddaughter Mestra or Metra, 
the daughter of Erysichthon, Triopeis. Triopas 
expelled the Pelagians from the Dotian plain, but 
was himself obliged to emigrate, and went to Caria, 
where he founded Cnidus on the Triopian pro- 
montory. His son Erysichthon was punished by 
Demeter with insatiable hunger, because he had 
violated her sacred grove ; but others relate the 
same of Triopas himself. 

Triopia or Triopion, an early name of Cnidus. 

Triopium (Tpio-mov : C. Krio\ the promontory 
which terminates the peninsula of Cnidus, forming 
the S.W. headland of Caria and of Asia Minor. 
Upon it was a temple of Apollo, sumamed Trio- 
pius, which was the centre of union for the states 
of Doris. Hence it was also called the Sacred 
Promontory (aKpwT-npLov lephv). 

Triphylia (Tpj^uAi'o: TpicpvXios), the S. por- 
tion of Elis, lying between the Alpheus and the 
Neda, is said to have derived its name from the 3 
different tribes by which it was peopled. Its chief 
town was Pylos. 

Tripodiscus (TpnTobia-Kos : TpiirodiaKios nr. 
Derweni Ru.), a town in the interior of Megaris, 
N. W. of Megara. 

Tripolis {TpLTToXis : TpittoAi'ttjs), is properly 
the name of a confederacy composed of 3 cities, or 
a district containing 3 cities, but it is also applied 
to single cities which had some such relation to 
others as to make the name appropriate. L In 
Arcadia, comprising the 3 cities of Callia, Dipoena, 
and Nonacris : its name is preserved in the modern 
town of Tripolitza. — 2. T. Pelagonia, in Thes- 
saly, comprising the 3 towns of Azoms, Doliche, 
and Pythium. — 3. In Rhodes, comprising the 3 
Dorian cities, Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus. 
[Rhodus.]— 4. {Kash Yeniji\ a city on the 
Maeander, 12 miles W. of Hierapolis, on the bor- 
ders of Phrygia, Caria, and Lydia, to each of which 
it is assigned by different authorities. —5. (Tire- 
holi), a fortress on the coast of Pontus, on a river 
of the same name (Tireboli Su), 90 stadia E. of 
the Prom. Zephyrium ((7. Ze/reA). — 6. {Tripoli, 
Tarahulus), on the coast of Phoenicia, consisted of 
3 distinct cities, 1 stadium (600 feet) apart, each 
having its own walls, but all united in a common 
constitution, having one place of assembly, and 
forming in re-ality one city. They were colonies of 
Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus respectively. Tripolis 



stood about 30 miles S. of Aradus, and about the 
same distance N. of Byblus, on a bold headland, 
formed by a spur of M. Lebanon. It had a fine 
harbour, and a flourishing commerce. It is now a 
city of about 15,000 inhabitants, and the capital 
ot one of the pachalicks of Syria, that of Tripoli. 
— 7. The district on the N. coast of Africa, be- 
tween the 2 Syrtes, comprising the 3 cities of 
Sabrata (or Abrotonum), Oea, and Leptis Magna, 
and also called Tripolitana Regio. [Syrtica.] 
Its name is preserved in that of the regency of 
Tripoli, the W. part of which answers to it, and 
in that of the city of Tripoli, probably the ancient 
Oea. 

Tripolitana Regio. [Syrtica : Tripolis, 
No. 7.] 

Triptolennis (TpnrTdAefios), son of Celeus, king 
of Eleusis, and Metanira or Polymnia. Others de- 
scribe him as son of king Eleusis by Cothonea, or 
of Oceanus and Gaea, or of Trochilus by an Eleu- 
sinian woman. Triptolemus was the favourite of 
Demeter, and the inventor of the plough and agri- 
culture, and of civilisation, which is the result of it. 
He was the great hero in the Eleusinian mysteries. 
According to the common legend he hospitably 
received Demeter at Eleusis, when she was wan- 
dering in search of her daughter. The goddess, 
in return, "wished to make his son Demophon im- 
mortal, and placed him in the fire in order to 
destroy his mortal parts ; but Metanira screamed 
out at the sight, and the child was consumed by 
the flames. As a compensation for this bereave- 
ment, the goddess gave to Triptolemus a chariot 
with winged dragons and seeds of wheat. In this 
chariot Triptolemus rode over the earth, making 
man acquainted with the blessings of agriculture. 
On his return to Attica, Celeus endeavoured to 
kill him, but by the command of Demeter he was 
obliged to give up his country to Triptolemus, who 
now established the worship of Demeter, and insti- 
tuted the Thesmophoria. Triptolemus is repre- 
sented in works of art as a youthful hero, some- 
times with the petasus, on a chariot drawn by 
dragons, and holding in his hand a sceptre and 
com ears. 

Tritaea (Tpiraia : TpiTaievs). 1. A town of 
Phocis, N. W. of Cleonae, on the left bank of the 
Cephissus and on the frontiers of Locris. — 2. One 
of the 12 cities of Achaia, 120 stadia E. of Pharae 
and near the frontiers of Arcadia. Augustus made 
it dependent upon Patrae. 

Trito or l^itogenia (Tpirw or Tpiroyiveia 
and TpLToyevrjs), a surname of Athena, which Is 
explained in different ways. Some derive it from 
lake Tritonis in Libya, near which she is said to 
have been bom ; ot'ners from the stream Triton 
near Alalcomenae in Boeotia, where she was wor- 
shipped, and where according to some statements 
she was also bom ; the grammarians, lastly, derive 
the name from rpirca-, which, in the dialect of the 
Athamanians, is said to signify " head," so that it 
would be the goddess bom out of the head of her 
father, 

Triton (Tplruv), son of Poseidon and Amphi- 
trite (or Celaeno), who dwelt with his father and 
mother in a golden palace in the bottom of the 
sea, or, according to Homer, at Aegae. Later 
writers describe him as riding over the sea on 
horses or other sea-monsters. Sometimes we find 
mention of Tritons in the plural. Their appear- 
ance is differently described ; though they are 



TRITON. 

always conceived as having the human figure m 
the upper part of their bodies, and that of a fish 
in the lower part. The chief characteristic of 
Tritons in poetry as well as in works of art is a 
trumpet made out of a shell {concJia), which the 
Tritons blow at the command of Poseidon, to 
soothe the restless Avaves of the sea. 

Triton Fl., Tritonis, or Tritonitis Palus (Tpt- 
T(tiu, TpLTocvLS, TpiTcoj/tTis), a rivcr and lake on the 
Mediterranean coast of Libya, which are men- 
tioned in several old Greek legends, especially in 
the mythology of Athena, whom one account repre- 
sented as bom on the lake Tritonis, and as the 
daughter of the nymph of the same name, and of 
Poseidon : hence her surname of Tpiroyheia. 
When the Greeks first became acquainted geo- 
graphically with the N. coast of Africa, they 
identified the gulf afterwards called the Lesser 
Syrtis with the lake Tritonis. This seems to be 
the notion of Herodotus, in the story he relates of 
Jason (iv. 178, 179). A more exact knowledge 
of the coast showed them a great lake beyond the 
inmost recess of the Lesser Syrtis, to which the 
name Tritonis was then applied. This lake had 
an opening to the sea, as well as a river flowing 
into it, and accordingly the geographers represented, 
the river Triton as rising in a mountain, called 
Zuchabari, and forming the lake Tritonis on its 
course to the Lesser Syrtis, into which it fell. The 
lake is undoubtedly the great salt lake, in the S. 
of Tunis, called El-Sibkah ; but as this lake has 
no longer an opening to the sea, and the whole 
coast is much altered by the inroads of the sands 
of the Sahara, it seems impossible to identify the 
river : some suppose that it is represented by the 
Wady-el-KJiahs. Some of the ancient writers 
gave altogether a different locality to the legend, 
and identify the Triton with the river usually 
called Lathon, in Cyrenaica; and ApoUonius 
Rhodius even transfers the name to the Nile. 

Trmcns (Trivico), a small town in Samnium, 
situated among the mountains separating Samnium 
from Apulia. 

Troas (77 Tpwds, sc. X'^P"? the fem. of the adj. 
Tpas : TpcaaSevs : Chan), the territory of Ilium or 
Troy, formed the N. W. part of Mysia. It was 
bounded on the W. by the Aegean sea, from Pr. 
Lectum to Pr. Sigeum at the entrance of the 
Hellespont ; on the N. W. by the Hellespont, as 
far as the river Rhodius, below Abydus ; on the 
N. E. and E. by the mountains which border the 
valley of the Rhodius, and extend from its sources 
S.-wards to the main ridge of M. Ida, and on the 
S. by the N. coast of the Gulf of Adramyttium 
along the S. foot of Ida ; but on the N. E. and E. 
the boundary is sometimes extended so far as to 
include the whole coast of the Hellespont and part 
of the Propontis, and the country as far as the 
river Granicus, thus embracing the district of 
Dardania, and somewhat more. Strabo extends 
the boundary still further E., to the river Aesepus, 
and also S. to the Caicus ; but this clearly results 
from his including in the territory of Troy that of 
her neighbouring allies. The Troad is for the 
most part mountainous, being intersected by M. 
Ida and its branches : the largest plain is that in 
which Troy stood. The chief rivers Avere the 
Satnois on the S., the Rhodius on the N., and 
the Scamander and Simois in the centre. These 
2 rivers, so renowned in the legends of the Trojan 
War, flow from 2 different points in the chain of 



TROAS. 791 

M. Ida, and unite in the plain of Troy, through 
which the united stream flows N.W. and falls into 
the Hellespont E. of the promontory of Sigeum. 
The Scamander, also called Xanthus, is usually 
identified with the Mendereh-Chai, and the Simois 
Avith the Gumbrek; but this subject presents diffi- 
culties which cannot be discussed within the limits 
of the present article. The precise locality of the 
city of Troy, or, according to its genuine Greek 
name. Ilium, is also the subject still of much dis- 
pute. First, there is the question, whether the 
Ilium of Homer had any real existence; next, 
whether the Ilium Vetus of the historical period, 
which was visited by Xerxes and by Alexander 
the Great, was on the same site as the city of 
Priam. The most probable opinion seems to be 
that which places the original city in the upper 
part of the plain, on a moderate elevation at the 
foot of M. Ida, and its citadel (called Pergama, 
likpyajxa), on a loftier height, almost separated 
from the city by a ravine, and nearly surrounded 
b}' the Scamander. This city seems never to have 
been restored after its destruction by the Greeks. 
The Aeolian colonists subsequently built a new 
city, on the site, as they doubtless believed, of the 
old one, but reallj'- much lower down the plain ; 
and this city is the Troja or Ilium Vetus of most 
of the ancient writers. After the time of Alex- 
ander, this city declined, and a new one was built 
still further down the plain, below the confluence 
of the Simois and Scamander, and near the Helles- 
pont, and this was called Ilium Novum. Under 
the Romans, this city was honoured with various 
immunities, as the only existing representative of 
the ancient Ilium. Its substantial importance, 
however, was entirely eclipsed by that of Alex- 
andria Troas. — For the general political history 
of the Troad, see Mysia. The Teucrians, by 
whom it was peopled at a period of unknown an- 
tiquity, were a Thracian people. Settling in the 
plain of the Scamander, they founded the city of 
Ilium, which became the head of an extensive 
confederacy, embracing not only the N.W. of Asia 
Minor, but much of the opposite shores of Thrace, 
and with allies in Asia Minor even as far as 
Lycia, and evidently much in advance of the 
Greeks in civilisation. The mythical account of 
the origin of the kingdom is briefly as follows. 
Teucer, the first king in the Troad, had a daugh- 
ter, who married Dardanus, the chieftain of the 
country N. E. of the Troad. [Dardania.] Dar- 
danus had 2 sons, Ilus and Erichthonius ; and the 
latter was the father of Tros, from whom the 
country and people derived the names of Troas 
and Troes. Tros Avas the father of Ilus, Avho 
founded the city, Avhich was called after him 
Ilium, and also, after his father, Troja. The next 
king Avas Laomedon, and after him Priam. 
[Priamus.] In his reign the city Avas taken and 
destroyed by the confederated Greeks, after a 10 
years' siege. [Helena, Alexander, Aga- 
memnon, Achilles, Hector, Ajax, Ulysses, 
Neoptolemus, Aeneas, &c. and Homerus.] 
To discuss the historical value of this legend 'is 
not the province of this work : it is enough to say 
that Ave have in it evidence of a great conflict, at 
a very early period, between the great Thracian 
empire in the N.W. of Asia Minor, and the rising 
power of the Achaeans in Greece, in which the 
latter were victorious ; but their victory Avas fruit- 
less, in consequence of their comparatively low 

3 E 4 



792 



TROCMI. 



TUBANTES. 



civilisation, and especially of their want of mari- 
time power. The chronologers assigned different 
dates for the capture of Troy : the calculation 
most generally accepted placed it in b. c. 1184. 
This date should be carefully remembered, as it 
forms the starting point of various computations ; 
but it should also be borne in mind that the date 
is of no historical authority. (There is not space 
to explain this matter here.) The subsequent 
history of the Troad presents an entire blank, till 
we come to the period of the great Aeolic mi- 
gration, when it merges in that of Aeolis and 
Mysia. — In writers of the Roman period, the 
name Troas is often used by itself for the city of 
Alexandria Troas. 

Trocmi or -ii. [Galatia.] 

Troes. [Troas.] 

Troezen {Tpoi^7]v^ more rarely TpoiCv^ri : Tpoi- 
Cnvios : Dhamala), the capital of Troezenia 
{TpoiC-qvia), a district in the S.E. of Argolis on 
the Saronic gulf, and opposite the island of Aegina. 
The town was situated at some little distance from 
the coast, on which it possessed a harbour called 
Pogon (Uoiyuv), opposite the island of Calauria. 
Troezen was a very ancient city, and is said to 
have been originally called Poseidonia, on account 
of its worship of Poseidon. It received the name 
of Troezen from Troezen, one of the sons of Pelops; 
and it is celebrated in mythology as the place 
where Pittheus, the maternal grandfather of 
Theseus, lived, and where Theseus himself was 
born. Troezen was for a long time dependent 
upon the kings of Argos ; but in the historical 
period it appears as an independent state. It was 
a city of some importance, for we read that the 
Troezenians sent 5 ships of war to Salarais and 
1000 heavy-armed men to Plataea. When the 
Persians entered Attica the Troezenians distin- 
guished themselves by the kindness with which 
they received the Athenians, who were obliged to 
abandon their city. 

Trogiliae, 3 small islands, named Psilon, Ar- 
gennon, and Sandalion, lying off the promontory of 
Trogilium. [Mycale.] 

Trogitis Lacus. [Pisidia.] 

Troglodytae (TpooyXodvTai, i. e. dwellers in 
caves), the name applied by the Greek geographers 
to various uncivilised people, who had no abodes but 
caves, especially to the inhabitants of the W. coast 
of the Red Sea, along the shores of Upper Egypt 
and Aethiopia. The whole of this coast was called 
Troglodytice (TpuyXoSvTucT]). There were also 
Troglodytae in Moesia, on the banks of the Danube. 

Trogus, Pompeius. [Justinus.] 

Troilium. [Trossulum.] 

Troilus {Tpw'iXos), son of Priam and Hecuba, 
or according to others son of Apollo. He fell by 
the hands of Achilles. 

Troja {Tpoia, Ion. Tpoir], Ep. Tpoia: TpcSs, 
Tpwoy, Ep. and Ion. Tpca'ios, fern. Tpaids Sec. : 
Tros, Troius, Trojanus, fem. Troas, pi. Troades 
and Troiades), the name of the city of Troy or 
Ilium, also applied to the coimtry. [Troas.] 

Trophonius (Tpocpcvuios), son of Erginus, king 
of Orchomenus, and brother of Agamedes. He 
and his brother built the temple at Delphi and the 
treasury of king Hyrieus in Boeotia. For details 
see Agamedes. Trophonius after his death was 
worshipped as a hero, and had a celebrated oracle 
in a cave near Lebadea in Boeotia. (See Diet, of 
Antiq.^ art. Oraculiim.) 



Tros (Tpws), son of Erichthonius and Astyoche, 
and grandson of Dardanus. He was married to 
Callirrhoe, by whom he became the father of Ilus, 
Assaracus, and Ganymedes, and was king of 
Phrygia. The country and people of Troy derived 
their name from him. He gave up his son Gany- 
medes to Zeus for a present of horses. [Gany- 
medes.] 

Trossulum (Trossulanus : Trosso\ a town in 
Etruria, 9 miles from Volsinii, which is said to 
have been taken by some Roman equites without 
the aid of foot-soldiers ; whence the Roman equites 
obtained the name of Trossuli. Some writers 
identify this town with Troilium, which was taken 
by the Romans, B. c. 293; but they appear to 
have been different places. 

Trotllum (TpdnXov : TronteUo), a town of 
Sicily, on the road from SjTacuse to Leontini. 

Truentum, a town of Picenum on the river 
Truentus or Truentinus (Tronto). 

Trutulensis Portus, a harbour on the N. E. 
coast of Britain near the aestuary Taus (Tay), 
but of which the exact site is unknown. 

Tryphiodorus (Tpuc^idSwpos), a Greek gram- 
marian and poet, was a native of Egypt ; but 
nothing is known of his personal history. He is 
supposed to have lived in the 5th century of the 
Christian era. Of his grammatical labours we 
have no record ; but one of his poems has come 
down to us, entitled 'IK'iov aAacris, the Capture of 
Ilium., consisting of 691 lines. From the small 
dimensions of it, it is necessarily little but a sketch. 
The best editions are by Northmore, Cambridge 
1791, London 1804; by Schafer, Leipzig 1808; 
and by Wernicke, Leipzig 1819. 

Tryphon {Tpu(pa}u). 1. Diodotus, a usurper 
of the throne of Syria during the reign of De- 
metrius II. Nicator. After the death of Alex- 
ander Balas in b. c. 146, Tryphon first set up 
Antiochus, the infant son of Balas, as a pretender 
against Demetrius ; but in 142 he murdered 
Antiochus and reigned as king himself. Tryphon 
was defeated and put to death by Antiochus 
Sidetes, the brother of Demetrius, in 139, after a 
reign of 3 years. — 2. Salvius, one of the leaders 
of the revolted slaves in Sicily, Avas supposed to 
have a knowledge of divination, for which reason 
he was elected king by the slaves in 103. He dis- 
played considerable abilities, and in a short time 
collected an army of 20,000 foot and 2000 horse, 
with which he defeated the propraetor P. Licinius 
Nerva. After this victory Salvius assumed all the 
pomp of royalty, and took the surname of Tryphon, 
probably because it had been borne by Diodotus, 
the usurper of the Syrian throne. He chose the 
strong fortress of Triocala as the seat of his new 
kingdom. Tryphon was defeated by L. LucuUus 
in 102, and was obliged to take refuge in Triocala. 
But Lucullus failed in taking the place, and 
returned to Rome without effecting any thing 
more. Lucullus was succeeded by C. Servilius ; 
and on the death of Tryphon, about the same time, 
the kingdom devolved upon Athenion, who was 
not subdued till 101. 

Tryplioninus, Claudius, a Roman jurist, wrote 
under the reigns of Septimius Severus and Ca- 
racalla. 

Tubantes, a people of Germany, allies of the 
Cherusci, originally dwelt between the Rhine and 
the Yssel ; in the time of Germanicus on the S. 
bank of the Lippe, between Paderborn, Haram, 



TUBERO. 

and the Annsberger Wald ; and at a still later 
time in the neighbourhood of the Thiiringer Wald 
between the Fulda and the Werra. Subsequently 
they are mentioned as a part of the great league 
of the Franci. 

Tubero, Aelius. 1. Q., son-in-law of L. Ae- 
milius Paulus, served under the latter in his 
war against Perseus, king of Macedonia. This 
Tubero, like the rest of his family, was so poor 
that he had not an ounce of silver plate, till 
his father-in-law gave him 5 pounds of plate 
from the spoils of the Macedonian monarch. 
— 2. Q., son of the preceding, was a pupil of 
Panaetius, and is called the Stoic. He had a 
reputation for talent and legal knowledge. He 
was praetor in 123, and consul suflfectus in 118. 
He was an opponent of Tib. Gracchus, as well as 
of C.Gracchus, and delivered some speeches against 
the latter, 123. Tubero is one of the speakers 
in Cicero's dialogue de Repuhlica. The passages 
in the Digest in which Tubero is cited do not refer 
to this Tubero, but to No. 4. — 3. L., an intimate 
friend of Cicero. He was a relation and a school- 
fellow of the orator, had served with him in the 
Marsic war, and had afterwards served under his 
brother Quintus as legate in Asia. On the break- 
ing out of the civil war, Tubero, who had espoused 
the Pompeian party, received from the senate 
the province of Africa ; but as Atius Vanis and 
Q. Ligarius, who likewise belonged to the aris- 
tocratical party, would not surrender it to him, 
he passed over to Pompey in Greece. He was 
afterwards pardoned by Caesar, and returned with 
his son Quintus to Rome. Tubero cultivated 
literature and philosophy. He wrote a history, 
and the philosopher Aenesidemus dedicated to him 
his work on the sceptical philosophy of Pyrrlion. 
•—■4. Q., son of the preceding. In 46 he made a 
speech before C. Julius Caesar against Q. Ligarius, 
who was defended by Cicero in a speech which is 
extant {Pro Q. Ligario). Tubero obtained con- 
siderable reputation as a jurist. He had a great 
knowledge both of Jus Publicum and Privatum, 
and he wrote several works on both these divisions 
of law. He married a daughter of Servius Sul- 
picius, and the daughter of Tubero was the mother 
of the jurist C. Cassius Longinus. Like his father, 
Q. Tubero wrote a history. Tubero the jurist, who 
is often cited in the Digest, is this Tubero ; but 
there is no excerpt from his writings. 

Tucca, Plotius, a friend of Horace and Virgil. 
The latter poet left Tucca one of his heirs, and be- 
queathed his unfinished writings to him and Varius, 
"who afterwards published the Aeneid by order of 
Augustus. 

Tuder (Tuders, -tis : Todi), an ancient town of 
Umbria, situated on a hill near the Tiber, and on 
the road from Mevania to Rome. It was sub- 
sequently made a Roman colony. There are still 
remains of the polygonal walls of the ancient 
town. 

Tiiditanus, Sempronius. 1. M., consul b. c. 
240, and censor 230. — 2. P., tribune of the sol- 
diers at the battle of Cannae in 216, and one of 
the few Roman officers who survived that fatal 
day. In 214 he was curule aedile ; in 213 praetor, 
with Ariminum as his province, and was continued 
in the command for the two following years (212, 
211). He was censor in 209 with M. Cornelius 
Cethegus, although neither he nor his colleague 
had yet held the consulship. In 205 he was sent 



TULLIA. 798 

into Greece with the title of proconsul, for the pur- 
pose of opposing Philip, with Avhom however he 
concluded a treaty, which was ratified by the Ro- 
mans. Tuditanus was consul in 204, and received 
Bruttii as his province. He was at first defeated 
by Hannibal, but shortly afterwards he gained a 
decisive victory over the Carthaginian general. — • 
3. C, plebeian aedile 198, and praetor 197, when 
he obtained Nearer Spain as his province. He 
Avas defeated by the Spaniards with great loss, and 
died shortly afterwards of a wound which he had 
received in the battle. -—4. M., tribune of the 
plebs 193; praetor 189, when he obtained Sicily 
as his province ; and consul 185. In his consul- 
ship he carried on war in Liguria, and defeated 
the Apuani, while his colleague was equally suc- 
cessful against the Ingauni. He was carried ofi? 
by the great pestilence which devastated Rome in 
174. — 5. C, praetor 132, and consul 129. In his 
consulship he carried on war against the lapydes in 
Illyricum, over whom he gained a victory chiefly 
through the military skill of his legate, D. Junius 
Brutus. Tuditanus was an orator and an historian, 
and in both obtained considerable distinction. 

Tulcis, a river on the E. coast of Spain near 
Tarraco. 

Tulingi, a people of Gaul of no great import- 
ance, who dwelt on the Rhine between the Rau- 
raci and the Helvetii. 

Tullia, the name of the 2 daughters of Servius 
TuUius, the 6th king of Rome. [Tullius.] 

Tullia, frequently called by the diminutive Tul- 
liola, was the daughter of M. Cicero and Terentia, 
and was probably born B.C. 79 or 78. She was be- 
trothed in 67 to C. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, whom 
she married in 63 during the consulship of he? 
father. During Cicero's banishment Tullia lost 
her first husband. She was married again in 56 
to Furius Crassipes, a young man of rank and large 
property ; but she did not live with him long, 
though the time and the reason of her divorce are 
alike unknown. In 50 she was married to her 3rd 
husband, P. Cornelius Dolabella, who was a tho- 
rough profligate. The marriage took place during 
Cicero's absence in Cilicia, and, as might have 
been anticipated, was not a happy one. On the 
breaking out of the civil war in 49, the husband 
and the father of Tullia espoused opposite sides. 
While Dolabella fought for Caesar, and Cicero 
took refuge in the camp of Pompey, Tullia re- 
mained in Italy. On the 19th of May, 49, she 
was delivered of a 7 months' child, which died 
soon afterwards. After the battle of Pharsalia, 
Dolabella returned to Rome ; but he continued to 
lead a dissolute and profligate life, and at length 
(46) a divorce took place by mutual consent. At 
the beginning of 45 Tullia Avas delivered of a son. 
As soon as she was sufficiently recovered to bear 
the fatigues of a journey, she accompanied her 
father to Tusculum, but she died there in Februarj'. 
Her loss Avas a severe bloAv to Cicero. Among the 
many consolatory letters which he received on the 
occasion is the Avell-knoAvn one from the celebrated 
jurist Serv. Sulpicius [ad Fam. \x. 5). To dissi- 
pate his grief, Cicero drew up a treatise on Coit- 
solation. 

Tullia Gens, patrician and plebeian. The pa- 
trician Tullii Avere one of the Alban houses, Avhich 
Avere transplanted to Rome in the reign of Tullus 
Hostilius. The patrician branch of the gens ap- 
pears to have become extinct at an early period ; 



794 



TULLIANUM. 



TULLUS. 



for after the eavlj times of the republic no one of 
the name occurs for some centuries, and the Tullii 
of a later age are not only plebeians, but, with the 
exception of their bearing the same name, cannot 
be regarded as having any connection with the 
ancient gens. The first plebeian TuUius who rose 
to the honour's of the state was M. Tullius Decula, 
consul B.C. 81, and the next was the celebrated 
orator M. Tullius Cicero. [Cickro.] 

Tullianum. [Roma, p. 654, b.] 

Tullius, Servius, the 6th king of Rome. The 
account of the early life and death of Servius Tul- 
lius is full of marvels, and cannot be regarded as 
possessing any title to a real historical narrative. 
His mother, Ocrisia, was one of the captives taken 
at Comiculum, and became a female slave of Tana- 
quil, the wife of Tarquinius Priscus. He was bom 
in the king's palace, and potwithstanding his ser- 
vile origin was brought up as the king's son, since 
Tanaquil by her powers of divination had foreseen 
the greatness of the child ; and Tarquinius placed 
such confidence in him, that he gave him his 
daughter in marriage, and entrusted him with the 
exercise of the government. His rule was mild 
and beneficent ; and so popular did he become, 
that the sons of Ancus Marcius, fearing lest they 
should be deprived of the throne which they 
claimed as their inheritance, procured the assas- 
sination of Tarquinius [Tarquinius]. They did 
not, however, reap the fruit of their crime, for 
Tanaquil, pretending that the king's wound was 
not mortal, told the people that Tarquinius would 
recover in a few days, and that he bad commanded 
Servius meantime to discharge the duties of the 
kingly office. Servius forthwith began to act as 
king, greatly to the satisfaction of the people ; and 
when the death of Tarquinius could no longer be 
concealed, he was already in firm possession of 
the royal power. The reign of Servius is almost 
as barren of military exploits as that of Niuna. 
The only war which Livy mentions is one against 
Veii, which was brought to a speedy conclusion. 
The great deeds of Servius were deeds of peace ; 
and he was regarded by posterity as the author of 
all their civil rights and institutions, just as Numa 
was of their religious rites and ordinances. Three 
important events are assigned to Servius by uni- 
versal tradition. First, he gave a new constitution 
to the Roman state. The two main objects of this 
constitution were to give the plebs political inde- 
pendence, and to assign to property that influence 
in the state which had previously belonged to birth 
exclusively. In order to carry his purpose into 
efi"ect, Servius made a two-fold division of the 
Roman people, one territorial, and the other ac- 
cording to property. For details, see Did. o/Aniiq. 
art. Comitia. Secondly, he extended the pomoe- 
rium, or hallowed boimdary of the city, and com- 
pleted the city by incorporating with it the Quirinal, 
Viminal, and Esquiline hills. [Roma.] Thirdly, he 
established an important alliance with the Latins, 
by which Rome and the cities of Latium became 
the members of one great league. By his new 
constitution Servius incurred the hostility of the 
patricians, who conspired wiih. L. Tarquinius to 
deprive him of his life and of his throne. His 
death was the subject of a legend, which ran as 
follows. Servius, soon after his succession, gave 
his 2 daughters in marriage to the 2 sons of Tar- 
quinius Priscus. L. Tarquinius the elder was mar- 
lied to a quiet and gentle v/ife ; Aruns, the younger, 



to an aspiring and ambitious woman. The character 
of the two brothers was the very opposite of the 
wives who had fallen to their lot ; for Lucius was 
proud and haughty, but Aruns unambitious and 
quiet. The wife of Aruns, fearing that her hus- 
band would tamely resign the sovereignty to his 
elder brother, resolved to destroy both her father 
•and her husband. She persuaded Lucius to mur- 
der his wife, and she murdered her own husband ; 
and the survivors straightway married. TuUia 
now urged her husband to murder her father ; and 
it was said that their design was hastened by the 
belief that Servius entertained the thought of lay- 
ing down his kingly power, and establishing the 
considar form of government. The patricians were 
equally alarmed at this scheme. Their mutual 
hatred and fears united them closely together ; 
and when the conspiracy was ripe, Tarquinius 
entered the forum arrayed in the kingly robes, 
seated himself in the royal chair in the senate- 
house, and ordered the senators to be summoned 
to him as their king. At the first news of the 
commotion, Servius hastened to the senate-house, 
and, standing at the door-way, ordered Tarquinius 
to come down from the throne. Tarquinius sprang 
forward, seized the old man, and flung him down 
the stone steps. Covered with blood, the king 
was hastening home; but, before he reached it, he 
was overtaken by the servants of Tarquinius, and 
murdered. Tullia drove to the senate-house, and 
greeted her husband as king ; but her transports of 
joy struck even him with horror. He bade her go 
home ; and as she was returning, her charioteer 
pulled up, and pointed out the corpse of her father 
lying in his blood across the road. She commanded 
him to drive on ; the blood of her father spirted 
over the carriage and on her dress ; and from that 
day forward the street bore the name of the Vicus 
Seeleratu^, or Wicked Street. The body lay un- 
buried, for Tarquinius said scoffingly, Romulus 
too went without burial ;" and this impious mockery 
is said to have given rise to his surname of Su- 
perbus. Servius had reigned 44 years. His memory 
was long cherished by the plebeians. 
Tullius Tiro. [Tiro.] 

Tullum {Toul)^ the capital of the Leuci, a 
people in the S. E. of Gallia Belgica between the 
Matrona and Mosella. 

Tullus Hostilius, 3rd king of Rome, is said to 
have been the grandson of Hostus Hostilius, who 
fell in battle against the Sabines in the reign of 
Romulus. His legend ran as follows: — Tullus 
Hostilius departed from the peaceful ways of 
Numa, and aspired to the martial renown of Ro- 
mulus. He made Alba acknowledge Rome's su- 
premacy in the war wherein the 3 Roman brothers, 
the Horatii, fought with the 3 Alban brothers, the 
Curiatii, at the Fossa Cluilia. Next be warred 
with Fidenae and with Veii, and being straitly 
pressed by their joint hosts, he vowed temples to 
Pallor and Pavor — Paleness and Panic. And after 
the fight was won, he tore asunder with chariots 
Mettius Fufetius, the king or dictator of Alba, be- 
cause he had desired to betray Rome ; and he 
utterly destroyed Alba, sparing only the temples of 
the gods, and bringing the Alban people to Rome, 
where he gave them the Caelian hill to dwell on. 
Then he turned himself to war with the Sabines; 
and being again straitened in fight in a wood 
called the Wicked Wood, he vowed a yearly festi- 
val to Saturu and Ops, and to double the number 



TUNES. 



TYANA. 



795 



of the Salii, or priests of Mamers. And when, by 
their help, he had vanquished the Sabines, he per- 
formed his vow, and its records were the feasts 
Saturnalia and Opalia. In his old age, Tullus 
grew weary of warring ; and when a pestilence 
struck him and his people, and a shower of burn- 
ing stones fell from heaven on Mt. Alba, and a 
voice as of the Alban gods came forth from the 
solitary temple of Jupiter on its summit, he remem- 
bered the peaceful and happy days of Numa, and 
sought to win the favour of the gods, as Numa had 
done, by prayer and divination. But the gods 
heeded neither his prayers nor his charms, and 
when he would inquire of Jupiter Elicius, Jupiter 
Avas wroth, and smote Tullus and his whole house 
with fire. Perhaps the only historical fact em- 
bodied in the legend of Tullus is the ruin of Alba. 

Tunes or Tnnis (Tw-qs, Tovvis : Twrjaaios : 
Tunis), a strongly fortified city of N. Africa, stood 
at the bottom of the Carthaginian gulf, 10 miles 
S. W. of Carthage, at the mouth of the little river 
Catada. At the time of Augustus it had greatly 
declined, but it afterwards recovered, and is now 
the capital of the Regency of Tunis. 

Tungri, a German people who crossed the 
Rhine, and settled in Gaul in the country formerly 
occupied by the Aduatici and the Eburones. 
Their chief town was called Tungri or Aduaca 
Tongrorum {Tongem)^ on the road from Cas- 
tellum Morinorum to Colonia Agrippina. 

Turdetani, the most numerous people m His- 
pania Baetica, dwelt in the S. of the province on 
both banks of the Baetis as far as Lusitania. 
They were regarded as the most civilised people 
in all Spain. Their country was called Turde- 
tania. 

Turduli, a people in Hispania Baetica, situated 
to the E. and S. of the Turdetani, with whom they 
were closely connected. The names, in fact, ap- 
pear identical. 

Turia or Turium {Guadalaviar), a river on the 
E. coast of Spain, flowing into the sea at Valentia, 
memorable for the battle fought on its banlcs be- 
tween Pompey and Sertorius. 

Turiasso (Turiassonensis : Tarrazona\ a town 
of the Celtiberi in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the 
road from Caesaraugusta to Numantia. It pos- 
sessed a fountain, the water of which was said to 
be very excellent for hardening iron. 

Turaus (Tu/)vos). 1. Son of Daunus and Venilia, 
and king of the Rutuli at the time of the arrival 
of Aeneas in Italy. He was a brother of Juturna, 
and related to Amata, the wife of king Latinus ; 
and he fought against Aeneas, because Latinus had 
given to the Trojan hero his daughter Lavinia, 
who had been previously promised to Turnus. He 
appears in the Aeneid as a brave Avarrior ; but in 
the end he fell by the hand of Aeneas.— 2. A 
Roman satiric poet, was a native of Aurunca, and 
lived under Vespasian and Domitian. We possess^ 
30 hexameters, forming a portion of, apparently, a- 
long satiric poem, the subject being an enumeration 
of the crimes and abominations which characterised 
the reign of Nero. These lines are ascribed by 
some modern scholars to Tumus. 

Turnus Herdonius. [Herdonius.] 

Turones, Tiironi or Turonii, a people in the 
interior of Gallia Lugdunensis between the Au- 
lerci, Andes and Pictones. Their chief town was 
Caesarodiinum, subsequently Turoni (Tours) on 
the Liger (Loire), 



Turpilius, Sextus, a Roman dramatist, whose 
productions belonged to the department of Comoe- 
dia Palliata. The titles of 13 or 14 of his plays 
have been preserved, together with a few frag- 
ments. He died, when very old, at Sinuessa in 
B. c. 101. He stands 7th in the scale of Volcatius 
Sedigitus. [Sedigitus.] 

Turpio, L. Ambivius, a very celebrated actor 
in the time of Terence, in most of whose plays he 
acted. 

Turris Hannibalis {Bourj SaleUah, Ru.), a 
castle on the coast of Byzacena, between Thapsus 
and AchoUa, belonging to Hannibal, who embarked 
here when he fled to Antiochus the Great. 
Turris Stratonis. [Caesarea, No. 3.] 
Tuscama (Tuscaniensis : Toscanella), a town 
of Etruria on the river Marta, rarely mentioned 
by ancient Avriters, but celebrated in modem times, 
on account of the great number of Etruscan anti- 
quities which have been discovered in its ancient 
tombs. 

Tusci, Tuscia. [Etruria.] 

Tusciiluni (Tusculanus : nr. FrascaU, Ru.;, an 
ancient town of Latium, situated about 10 miles 
S. E. of Rome, on a lofty summit of .the mountains, 
which are called after the town Tusculani Montes, 
and which are a continuation of Mens Albanus. 
Tusculum was one of the most strongly fortified 
places in all Italy, both by nature and by art. 
It is said to have been founded by Telegonus, the 
son of Ulysses; and it was always one of the 
most important of the Latin towns. Its import- 
ance in the time of the Roman kings is shown by 
Tarquinius Superbus giving his daughter in mar- 
riage to Octavius Mamilius, the chief of Tusculum. 
At a later time it became a Roman municipium, 
and was the birth-place of several distinguished 
Roman families. Cato the Censor was a native of 
Tusculum. Its proximity to Rome, its salubrity, 
and the beauty of its situation made it a favourite 
residence of the Roman nobles during the summer. 
Cicero, among others, had a favoiu:ite villa at this 
place, which he frequently mentions under the 
name of Tusculanum. The site of this villa is 
not exactly knoAvn ; some placing it near Grotta 
Ferrata, on the road from Frascati to the Alban 
lake ; and others near La Rufinella. The ruins 
of ancient Tusculum are situated on the summit of 
the mountain about 2 miles above Frascati. 

Tliticanus, a Roman poet and a friend of Ovid, 
who had translated into Latin verse a portion of 
the Odyssey. 

Tutzis [GarsJiee or Guerfey Hassan, Ru.;, a 
city in the Dodecaschoenus, that is, the part of 
Aethiopia immediately above Egypt, on the W. 
bank of the Nile, N. of Pselcis, and S. of Talmis. 

Tyana [Tvava : Tvavevs : Kiz Hisar, Ru.), a 
city of Asia Minor, stood in the S. of Cappadocia, 
at the N. foot of M. Taurus, on the high road to 
the Cilician Gates, 300 stadia from Cybistra. and 
400 from Mazaca, in a position of great natural 
strength, which was improved by fortifications. 
Under Caracalla it was made a Roman colony. In 
B. c. 272 it was taken by Aurelian, in the war 
with Zenobia, to whose territory it then belonged. 
Valens made it the chief city of Cappadocia Se- 
cunda. In its neighbourhood was a great temple 
of Jupiter, by the side of a lake in a swampy 
plain ; and near the temple was a remarkable effer- 
vescing spring called Asmabaeon. Tyana was the 
native place of Apollonius, the supposed worker of 



796 



TYCHE. 



TYRANNION. 



miracles. The S. district of Cappadocia, in which 
the city stood, was called Tyanitis. 

Tyche. [Fort una.] 

Tyche. [Syracusak] 

Tydeus (TuSevs), son of Oeneus, king of Caly- 
don, and Periboea. He was obliged to leave 
Calydon in consequence of some murder which he 
had committed, but which is differently described 
by the different authors, some saying that he 
killed his father's brother, Melas, Lycopeus, or 
Alcathous ; others that he slew Thoas or Apha- 
reus, his mother's brother; others that he slew his 
brother Olenias ; and others again that he killed 
the sons of Melas, who had revolted against Oe- 
neus. He fled to Adrastus at Argos, who purified 
him from the murder, and gave him his daughter 
Deipyle in marriage, by whom he became the 
father of Diomedes, who is hence frequently called 
Tydides. He accompanied Adrastus in the expe- 
dition against Thebes, where he was wounded by 
Melanippus, who, however, was slain by him. 
When Tydeus lay on the ground wounded, Athena 
appeared to him with a remedy which she had 
received from Zeus, and which was to make him 
immortal. This, however, was prevented by a 
stratagem of Amphiaraus, who hated Tydeus, for 
he cut off the head of Melanippus and brought it 
to Tydeus, who divided it and ate the brain, or 
devoured some of the flesh. Athena, seeing this, 
shuddered, and left Tydeus to his fate, who conse- 
quently died, and was buried by Macon. 

Tylos or Tyros (TuAos, Tvpos : Bahrein), an 
island in the Persian Gulf, off the coast of Arabia, 
celebrated for its pearl fisheries. 

Tymbres or Tembrogius (PurseJc\ a river of 
Phrygia, rising in M. Dindymene, and flowing 
past Cotyaeum and Dorylaeum into the San- 
garius. It was the boundary between Phrygia 
Epictetus and Phrygia Salutaris. 

Tymnes (Tv/j.vris), an epigrammatic poet, whose 
epigrams were included in the Garland of Mele- 
ager, but respecting whose exact date we have no 
further evidence. There are 7 of his epigrams in 
the Greek Anthology. 

Tymphaei (Tu/^^atoi), a people of Epirus, on the 
borders of Thessaly, so called from Mt. Tymphe 
(Tw/i^Tj), sometimes, but less correctly, written 
Stymphe (2Tu^(/)r/), Their country was called 
Tymphaea {Tvficpa'ia). 

Tymphrestus (TufMcpprja-rSs : Elladha), a moun- 
tain in Thessaly, in the country of the Dryopes, in 
which the river Spercheus rises. 

Tyndareus {Tvi/Mpeos), not Tyndarus, which 
is not found in classical writers, was son of Peri- 
eres and Gorgophone, or, according to otners, son 
of Oebalus, by the nymph Batia or by Gorgophone. 
Tyndareus and his brother Icarius were expelled 
by their step-brother Hippocoon and his sons ; 
whereupon Tyndareus fled to Thestius in Aetolia, 
and assisted him in his wars against his neigh- 
bours. In Aetolia Tyndareus married Leda, the 
daughter of Thestius, and was afterwards restored 
to Sparta hy Hercules. By Leda, Tyndareus 
became the father of Timandra, Clytaemnestra, 
and Philonoe. One night Leda was embraced 
both by Zeus and Tyndareus, and the result was 
the birth of Pollux and Helena, the children of 
Zeus, and of Castor and Clytaemnestra, the chil- 
dren of Tyndareus. The patronymic Tyndaridae 
is frequently given to Castor and Pollux, and the 
female patronymic Tyndaris to Helen and Cly- 



taemnestra. When Castor and Pollux had been 
received among the immortals, Tyndareus invited 
Menelaus to come to Sparta, and surrendered hia 
kingdom to him. 

Tyndaris or Tyndarium (Twdapis^Twddpiou: 
Tyndaritanus : Tindare), a town on the N. coast of 
Sicily, with a good harbour, a little W. of Mes- 
sana, near the promontory of the same name 
founded by the elder Dionysius, b. c. 396, which 
became an important place. It was the head- 
quarters of Agrippa, the general of Octavian, in 
the war against Sex. Pompey. The greater part 
of the town was subsequently destroyed by an 
inundation of the sea. 

Typhon or Typhoeus (Tv^awv, Tu^xweus, con- 
tracted into Tu^(6s), a monster of the primitive 
world, is described sometimes as a destructive 
hurricane, and sometimes as a fire-breathing giant. 
According to Homer, he was concealed in the 
earth in the country of the Arimi (EtV ^Ap'ifxois, 
of which the Latin poets have made Inarime), 
which was lashed by Zeus with flashes of light- 
ning. In Hesiod, Typhaon and Typhoeus are 2 
distinct beings. Typhaon is represented as a son 
of Typhoeus, and a fearful hurricane, who by 
Echidna became the father of the dog Orthus, 
Cerberus, the Lernaean hydra, Chimaera, and the 
Sphynx. Typhoeus, on the other hand, is called 
the youngest son of Tartarus and Gaea, or of Hera 
alone, because she was indignant at Zeus having 
given birth to Athena. He is described as a 
monster with 100 heads, fearful eyes, and terrible 
voices ; he wanted to acquire the sovereignty of 
gods and men, but was subdued, after a fearful 
struggle, by Zeus, with a thunderbolt. He begot 
the winds, whence he is also called the father of 
the Harpies; but the beneficent winds Notus, 
Boreas, Argestes, and Zephyrus, were not his sons, 
Aeschylus and Pindar describe him as living in a 
Cilician cave. He is further said to have at one 
time been engaged in a struggle with all the im- 
mortals, and to have been killed by Zeus with a 
flash of lightning; he was buried in Tartaras 
under Mount Aetna, the workshop of Hephaestus, 
which is hence called by the poets Typhois Aetna* 
The later poets frequently connect Typhoeus with 
Egypt. The gods, it is said, unable to hold out 
against him, fled to Egypt, where, from fear, they 
metamorphosed themselves into animals, with the 
exception of Zeus and Athena. 

Tyragetae, Tyrigetae or Tjrrangetae, a people 
in European Sarmatia, probably a branch of the 
Getae, dwelling E. of the river Tyras. 

Tyrannion (Typowi'wi/). 1. A Greek gramma- 
rian, a native of Amisus in Pontus, was originally 
called Theophrastus, but received from his in- 
structor the name of Tyrannion on account of his 
domineering behaviour to his fellow disciples. In 
B. c. 72 he was taken captive by Lucullus, who 
carried him to Rome. He was given by Lucullus 
to Murena, who manumitted him. At Rome 
Tyrannion occupied himself in teaching. He was 
also employed in arranging the library of Apelli- 
con, which Sulla brought to Rome. This library 
contained the writings of Aristotle, upon which 
Tyrannion bestowed considerable care and atten- 
tion. Cicero speaks in the highest terms of the 
learning and ability of Tyrannion. Tyrannion 
amassed considerable wealth, and died at a very 
advanced age of a paralytic stroke. — 2. A native 
of Phoenicia, the son of Artemidorus, and a 



TYRAS. 



TZETZES. 



797 



disciple of the preceding. His original name was 
Diodes. He was taken captive in the war be- 
tween Antony and Octavian, and was purchased 
by Dymas, a freedman of the emperor. By him 
he was presented to Terentia, the wife of Cicero, 
who manumitted him. He taught at Rome, and 
wrote a great number of works, Avhich are all lost. 

Tyras (Tvpas, Tvprjs : Dniester), subsequently 
called Danastris, a river in European Sarmatia, 
forming in the lower part of its course the boundary 
between Dacia and Sarmatia, and falling into the 
Pontus Euxinus, N. of the Danube. At its mouth 
there was a town of the same name, probably on 
the site of the modern Ackjermann. 

Tyriaeum (Jvpialov : Ilghun\ a city of Lyca- 
onia, described by Xenophon (in the Anabasis) as 
20 parasangs W. of Iconium. It lay due W. of 
Laodicea. 

Tyro (Tvpw), daughter of Salmoneus and Al- 
cidice. She was wife of Cretheus, and beloved by 
the river-god Enipeus in Thessaly, in whose form 
Poseidon appeared to her, and became by her the 
father of Pelias and Neleus. By Cretheus she 
was the mother of Aeson, Pheres, and Amythaon. 

Tyrrheni, Tyrrhema. [Etruria.] 

Tyrrhenum Mare. [Etruria.] 

Tjrrrhenus (Tupp-qvSs or Tvparjvos), son of the 
Lydian king Atys and Callithea, and brother of 
Lydus, is said to have led a Pelasgian colony from 
Lydia into Italy, into the country of the Um- 
brians, and to have given to the colonists his name, 
Tyrrhenians. Others call Tyrrhenus a son of 
Hercules by Omphale, or of Telephus and Hiera, 
and a brother of Tarchon. The name Tarchon 
seems to be only another form of Tyrrhenus. 

Tyrrheus, a shepherd of king Latinus. As 
Ascanius was hunting, he killed a tame stag be- 
longing to Tyrrheus, whereupon the country people 
took up arms, which was the first conflict in Italy 
between the natives and the Trojan settlers. 

Tjnrtaeus {Tvpralos or Tvpraius), son of Ar- 
chembrotus, of Aphidnae in Attica. According to 
the older tradition, the Spartans during the 2nd 
Messenian war were commanded by an oracle to 
take a leader from among the Athenians, and thus 
to conquer their enemies, whereupon they chose 
Tyrtaeus as their leader. Later writers embellish 
the story, and represent Tyrtaeus as a lame school- 
master, of low family and reputation, whom the 
Athenians, when applied to by the Lacedae- 
monians in accordance with the oracle, purposely 
sent as the most inefficient leader they could select, 
being unwilling to assist the Lacedaemonians in 
extending their dominion in the Peloponnesus, but 
little thinking that the poetry of Tyrtaeus would 
achieve that victory which his physical consti- 
tution seemed to forbid his aspiring to. Many 
modern critics reject altogether the account of the 
Attic origin of Tyrtaeus, and maintain that the 
extant fragments of his poetry actually furnish 
evidence of his being a Lacedaemonian. But it is 
impossible to arrive at any positive decision upon 
the subject. It is certain, however, that the 
poems of Tyrtaeus exercised an important influence 
upon the Spartans, composing their dissensions at 
home, and animating their courage in the field. 
In order to appease their civil discords, he com- 
posed his celebrated elegy entitled " Legal Order " 
(Evvoixia), which appears to have had a wondrous 
efi'ect in stilling the excited passions of the Spar- 
tans. But still more celebrated were the poems 



by which he animated the courage of the Spartans 
in their conflict with the Messenians. These 
poems were of 2 kinds ; namely, elegies, con- 
taining exhortations to constancy and courage, and 
descriptions of the gloiy of fighting bravely for 
one's native land ; and more spirited compositions, 
in the anapaestic measure, which were intended as 
marching songs, to be performed with the music of 
the flute. He lived to see the success of his efforts 
in the entire conquest of the Messenians, and their 
reduction to the condition of Helots. He there- 
fore flourished down to b. c. 668, which was the 
last year of the 2nd Messenian war. The best 
separate edition of the fragments of his poems is 
by Bach, with the remains of the elegiac poets, 
Callinus and Asius, Lips. 1831. 

Tyrus (Tripos : Aram. Tura : 0. T. Tsor : Tu- 
pios, Tyrius : Sur, Ru.), one of the greatest and 
most famous cities of the ancient world, stood on 
the coast of Phoenice, about 20 miles S. of Sidon. 
It was a colony of the Sidonians, and is therefore 
called in Scripture " the daughter of Sidon." It 
gradually eclipsed the mother city, and came to be 
the chief place of all Phoenice for wealth, commerce, 
and colonising activity. In the time of Solomon, 
we find its king, Hiram, who was also king of 
Sidon, in close alliance with the Hebrew monarch, 
whom he assisted in building the temple and his 
palace, and in commercial enterprises. Respecting 
its colonies and maritime enterprise, see Phoenice 
and Carthago. The Assyrian king Shalma- 
neser laid siege to Tyre for 5 years, but without 
success. It was again besieged for 13 years by Ne- 
buchadnezzar, and there is a tradition that he took 
it, but the matter is not quite certain. At the 
period when the Greeks began to be well ac- 
quainted with the city, its old site had been aban- 
doned, and a new city erected on a small island 
about half a mile from the shore, and a mile in 
length, and a little N. of the remains of the former 
city, which was now called Old Tyre {UaAairvpos). 
With the additional advantage of its insular po- 
sition, this new city soon rose to a prosperity 
scarcely less than that of its predecessor ; though, 
under the Persian kings, it seems to have ranked 
again below Sidon. [Sidon.] In b. c. 322 the 
Tyrians refused to open their gates to Alexander, 
who laid siege to the city for 7 months, and united 
the island on which it stood to the mainland by a 
mole constructed chiefly of the ruins of Old Tyre. 
This mole has ever since formed a permanent con- 
nection between the island and the mainland. 
After its capture and sack by Alexander, Tyre 
never regained its former consequence, and its 
commerce was for the most part transferred to 
Alexandria. It recovered, however, sufficiently 
to be mentioned as a strong fortress and flourishing 
port under the early Roman emperors. ' Septimius 
Severus made it a Roman colony. It was the 
see of a bishop, and Jerome calls it the most beau- 
tiful city of Phoenicia. It was a place of consider- 
able importance in medieval history, especially as 
one of the last points held by the Christians on the 
coast of Syria. The wars of the Crusades com- 
pleted its ruin, and its site is now occupied by a 
poor village ; and even its ruins are for the most 
part covered by the sea. Even the site of Baby- 
lon does not present a more striking fulfilment of 
prophecy. 

Tzetzes (TCeT^ijs). 1. Joannes, a Greek gram- 
marian of Constantinople, flourished about A. D. 



'98 



TZITZIS. 



1150. His writings bear evident traces of the 
extent of liis learning, and not less of the inordi- 
nate self-conceit with which they had filled him. 
He Avrote a vast number of works, of which several 
are still extant. Of these the 2 following are the 
most important : 1. Iliaca, which consists properly 
of 3 poems, collected into one under the titles Ta 
TTpo 'O/xripov^ TO, 'O/xrjpov^ Koi to, ixeff "O/JLTjpov. 
The whole amoimts to 1676 lines, and is "nTitten 
in hexameter metre. It is a very dull composition. 
Edited by Bekker, Berlin, 1816. 2. Chiliades, 
consisting in its present form of 12,661 liaes. 
This name was given to it hj the first editor, who 
divided it, without reference to the contents, into 
13 divisions of 1000 lines, the last being incom- 
plete. Its subject-matter is of the most miscella- 
neous kind, but embraces chiefly mythological and 
historical narratives, arranged imder separate titles, 
and without any further connection. The follow- 
ing are a few of them, as they occur: Croesus, 
Midas, Gyges, Codrus, Alcmaeon, &c. It is 
written in bad Greek, ia that abominable make- 
believe of a metre called political verse. Edited 
by Kiessling, Lips. 1826. --2. Isaac, brother of 
the preceding, the author of a valuable commentary 
on the Cassandra of Lycophron. The commentary 
is printed ia most of the editions of Lycophron. 

Tzitzis or Tzutzis (Ru. S. of Debovi\ a city in 
the N. of the Dodecaschoenus, that is, the part of 
Aethiopia immediately above Egypt, a little S. of 
Parembole, and considerably N. of Taphis. 



U. 



TJbii, a German people, who originally dwelt on 
the right bank of the Rhine, but were transported 
across the river by Agrippa in b. c. 37, at their 
own request, because they wished to escape the 
hostilities of the Suevi. They took the name of 
Agrippenses, from their town Colonia Agrip- 

Ucalegon (OvKa\4ycav), one of the elders at 
Troy, whose house was burnt at the destruction of 
the city. 

TTcubis, a town in Hispania Baetica near Cor- 
duba. 

Ufens {Uffente)^ a river in Latium, flowing 
from Setia, and falling into the Amasenus. 

TJflfagum, a town in Bruttium, between Scyl- 
laciimi and Rhegium. 

Ugernum {Beaucaire)^ a town in GaUia Nar- 
bonensis, on the road from Nemausus to Aquae 
Sextiae, where Avitus was proclaimed emperor. 

TTlia {Montemayor), a Roman municipium in 
Hispania Baetica, situated upon a lull and upon 
the road from Gades to Corduba. 

TJliarus or Olarionensis Insula {Oleron), an 
island off the W. coast of Gaul, in the Aquitanian 
gulf. 

Ulpiantis. 1. Domitius Ulpianus, a celebrated 
jiirist, derived his origin from Tyre in Phoenicia, 
but was probably not a native of Tyre himself. 
The time of his birth is unknown. The greater 
part of his juristical works were written during 
the sole reign of Caracalla, especially the 2 great 
works Ad Edictum and the Libri ad Sahinum. 
He was banished or deprived of his functions under 
Elagabalus, who became emperor 217 ; but on the 
accession of Alexander Sevems 222, he became the 
emperor s chief adviser. The emperor conferred on 



ULYSSES. 

Ulpian the office of Scriniorum magister, and made 
him a consiliarius. He also held the office of 
Praefectus Annonae, and he was likewise made 
Praefectus Praetorio. Ulpian perished in the reign 
of Alexander by the hands of the soldiers, who 
forced their way into the palace at night, and 
killed him in the presence of the emperor and his 
mother, 228. His promotion to the office of prae- 
fectus praetorio was probably an unpopular mea- 
sure. A great part of the numerous "WTitings of 
Ulpian were still extant in the time of Justinian, 
and a much greater quantity is excerpted from him 
by the compilers of the Digest than from any 
other jurist. The number of excerpts from Ulpian 
is said to be 2462 ; and many of the excerpts are 
of great length, and altogether they form about one- 
third of the whole body of the Digest. The ex- 
cerpts from Paulus and Ulpian together make about 
one half of the Digest. Ulpian's style is perspi- 
cuous, and presents fewer difficulties than that of 
many of the Roman jurists who are excerpted in 
the Digest. The great legal knowledge, the good 
sense, and the industry of Ulpian place him among 
the first of the Roman jurists ; and he has exer- 
cised a great influence on the jurisprudence of 
modem Europe, through the copious extracts from 
his writings which have been preserved by the 
compilers of Justinian's Digest. We possess a 
fragment of a work under the title of Domitii Ul- 
piani Fragmenta ; it consists of 29 titles, and is a 
valuable source for the history of the Roman law. 
The best editions are by Hugo, Berlin, 1834, and 
by Bbcking, Bonn, 1 836.— 2. Of Antioch, a sophist, 
lived in the time of Constantine the Great, and 
wrote several rhetorical works. The name of Ul- 
pianus is prefixed to extant Commentaries in Greek, 
on 18 of the orations of Demosthenes ; and it is 
usually stated that they were written by Ulpianus 
of Antioch. But the Commentaries have evidently 
received numerous additions and interpolations from 
some grammarian of a very late period. They are 
printed in several editions of the Attic orators. 

ITlpms Trajanus. [Trajanus.] 

TJltor, "the avenger," a surname of Mars, to 
whom Augustus built a temple at Rome in the 
forum, after taking vengeance upon the murderers 
of his great-uncle, Julius Caesar. 

XJlubrae (Ulubranus, Ulubrensis), a small town 
in Latium, of micerlain site, but in the neighbour- 
hood of the Pontine Marshes. 

Ulysses, TJlyxes, or Ulixes, called Odysseus 
(*05u(r(revs) b}^ the Greeks, one of the principal 
Greek heroes in the Trojan war. According to 
the Homeric account, he was a son of Laertes and 
Anticlea, the daughter of Autolycus, and was mar- 
ried to Penelope, the daughter of Icarius, by whom 
he became the father of Telemachus. But accord- 
ing to a later tradition he was a son of Sisj-phus 
and Anticlea, who, being with child by Sisyphus, 
was married to Laertes, and thus gave birth to 
him either after her arrival in Ithaca, or on her 
way thither. Later traditions further state that 
besides Telemachus, Ulysses became by Penelope 
the father of Arcesilaus or Ptoliporthus ; and, by 
Circe, the father of Agrius, Latinus, Telegonus, 
and Cassiphone ; by Calypso of Nausithous and 
Nausinous or Auson, Telegonus, and Teledamus ; 
and lastly, by Evippe of Leontophron, Doryclus or 
Eiu^^alus. The name Odysseus is said to signify 
tlie angry. The story of Ulysses ran as follows 
When a young man, Ulysses went to see his 



ULYSSES. 



ULYSSES. 



799 



grandfather Autolycus near Mt. Parnassus. There, 
while engaged in the chase, he Avas wounded by a 
boar in his knee, by the scar of which he was sub- 
sequently recognised by Euryclia. Even at that 
age he was distinguished for courage, for knowledge 
of navigation, for eloquence and for skill as a nego- 
tiator ; and, on one occasion, when the Messenians 
had carried off some sheep from Ithaca, Laertes 
sent him to Messene to demand reparation. He 
there met with Iphitus, who was seeking the horses 
stolen from him, and who gave him the famous 
bow of Eurytus. This bow Ulysses used only in 
Ithaca, regarding it as too great a treasure to be 
employed in the field, and it Avas so strong that 
none of the suitors was able to handle it. Accord- 
ing to some accounts he went to Sparta as one of 
the suitors of Helen ; and he is said to have ad- 
vised Tyndareus to make the suitors swear, that 
they would defend the chosen bridegroom against 
any one who should insult him on Helen's account. 
Tyndareus, to show him his gratitude, persuaded 
his brother Icarius to give Penelope in marriage to 
Ulysses ; or, according to others, Ulysses gained 
her by conquering his competitors in the footrace. 
Homer, however, mentions nothing of all this, and 
states that Agamemnon, who visited Ulj'sses in 
Ithaca, prevailed upon him only with great diffi- 
culty to join the Greeks in their expedition against 
Troy. Other traditions relate that he was visited 
by Menelaus and Agamemnon, and that Palamedes 
more especially induced him to join the Greeks. 
When Palamedes came to Ithaca, Ulysses pre- 
tended to be mad : he yoked an ass and ox to a 
plough, and began to sow salt. Palamedes, to trj-- 
him, placed the infant Telemachus before the 
plough, whereupon the father could not continue to 
play his part. He stopped the plough, and was 
obliged to undertake the fulfilment of the promise 
he had made when he was one of the suitors of 
Helen. This occurrence is said to have been the 
cause of his hatred of Palamedes. Being now him- 
self gained for the undertaking, he contrived to 
discover Achilles, who was concealed among the 
daughters of king Lycomedes. [Achilles.] Be- 
fore, however, the Greeks sailed from home, Ulysses 
in conjunction with Menelaus went to Troy for 
the purpose of inducing the Trojans to restore Helen 
and her treasures. When the Greeks were assem- 
bled at Aulis, Ulysses joined them with 12 ships 
and men from Cephallene, Ithaca, Neriton, Cro- 
cylia, Zacynthus, Samos, and the coast of Epirus. 
During the siege of Troy he distinguished himself 
as a valiant and undaunted warrior, but more par- 
ticularly as a cunning spy, and a prudent and elo- 
quent negotiator. After the death of Achilles,Ulysses 
contended for his armour with the Telamonian 
Ajax, and gained the prize. He is said by some 
to have devised the stratagem of the wooden horse, 
and he was one of the heroes concealed within it. 
He is also said to have taken part in carrying off 
the palladium. — But the most celebrated part of 
his story consists of his adventures after the de- 
struction of Troy, which form the subject of the 
i Homeric poem called after him, the Odyssey. After 
the capture of Troy he set out on his voyage home, 
but was overtaken by a storm and thrown upon 
the coast of Ismarus, a 'town of the Cicones, in 
Thrace, N. of the island of Lemnos. He plundered 
the town, but several of his men were cut off by 
the Cicones. From thence he was driven by a N. 
Trind towards Malea and to the Lotophagi on the 



coast of Libya. Some of his companions were so 
much delighted Avith the taste of the lotus that 
they wanted to remain in the country, but Ulysses 
compelled them to embark again, and continued his 
voyage. In one day he reached the goat-island, 
situated N. of the country of the Lotophagi. He 
there left behind 11 ships, and Avith one he sailed 
to the neighbouring island of the Cyclopes (the 
western coast of Sicily), where Avith 12 companions 
he entered the cave of the Cyclops Polyphemus, a 
son of Poseidon and Thoosa. This giant devoured 
one after another 6 of the companions of Ulysses, 
and kept the unfortunate Ulysses and the 6 others 
as prisoners in his cave. In order to save himself 
Ulysses contrived to make the monster drunk with 
Avine, and then with a burning pole deprived him 
of his one eye. He now succeeded in making his 
escape with his friends, by concealing himself and 
them under the bodies of the sheep Avhich the 
Cyclops let out of his cave. In this Avay Ulysses 
reached his ship. The Cyclops implored his father 
Poseidon to take vengeance upon Ulysses, and 
henceforth the god of the sea pursued the Avander- 
ing king Avith implacable enmity. Ulysses next 
arrived at the island of Aeolus ; and the god on 
his departure gave him a bag of Avinds, Avhich were 
to carry him home ; but the companions of Ulysses 
opened the bag, and the Avinds escaped, Avhereupon 
the ships Avere driven back to the island of Aeolus, 
who indignantly refused all further assistance. 
After a voyage of 6 days, Ulysses arrived at Te- 
lepylos, the city of Lamus, in which Antiphates 
ruled over the Laestrygones, a sort of cannibals. 
This place must probably be sought someAvhere in 
the N. of Sicily. Ulysses escaped from them with 
only one ship; and his fate noAv carried him to a 
Avestern island, Aeaea, inhabited by the sorceress 
Circe. Part of his people Avere sent to explore the 
island, but they Avere changed by Circe into swine. 
Eurylochus alone escaped, and brought the sad 
news to Ulysses, who, Avhen he was hastening to 
the assistance of his friends, was instructed by 
Hermes by Avhat means he could resist the magic 
powers of Circe. He succeeded in liberating his 
companions, Avho Avere again changed into men, 
and Avere most hospitably treated by the sorceress. 
When at length Ulysses begged for leave to de- 
part, Circe desired him to descend into Hades and 
to consult the seer Tiresias. He noAV sailed W. 
right across the river Oceanus, and having landed 
on the other side in the country of the Cimme- 
rians, where Helios does not shine, he entered 
Hades, and consulted Tiresias about the manner 
in which he might reach his native island. Tire- 
sias informed him of the danger and difficulties 
arising from the anger of Poseidon, but gave him 
hope that all would yet turn out well, if Ulysses 
and his companions would leave the herds of Helios 
in Thrinacia uninjured. Ulysses noAv returned to 
Aeaea, where Circe again treated the strangers 
kindly, told them of the dangers that yet awaited 
them, and of the means of escaping. The wind 
Avhich she sent with them carried them to the 
island of the Sirens, somewhere near the W. coast 
of Italy. The Sirens sat on the shore, and with 
their sweet voices attracted all that passed by, and 
then destroyed them. Ulysses, in order to escape 
the danger, filled the ears of his companions with 
wax, and fastened himself to the mast of his ship, 
until he was out of the reach of the Sirens' song. 
His ship next sailed between Scylla and Charyb- 



800 



ULYSSES. 



UMBRIA. 



dis, two rocks between Thrinacia and Italy. As 
the ship passed between them, Scylla, the monster 
inhabiting the rock of the same name, carried off 
and devoured 6 of the companions of Ulysses. 
From thence he came to Tiirinacia, the island of 
Holios, who there kept his sacred herds of oxen. 
Mindful of the advice of Tiresias and Circe, 
Ulysses wanted to sail past, but his companions 
compelled him to land. He made them swear not 
to touch any of the cattle ; but as they were de- 
tained in the island by storms, and were hungry, 
they killed the finest of the oxen while Ulysses 
was asleep. After some days the storm abated, 
and they sailed away, but soon another storm came 
on, and their ship was destroyed by Zeus with a 
flash of lightning. All were drowned with the ex- 
ception of Ulysses, who saved himself by means of 
the mast and planks, and after 10 days reached 
the island of Ogygia, inhabited by the nymph 
Calypso. She received him with kindness, and 
desired him to marry her, promising immortality 
and eternal youth, if he would consent, and forget 
Ithaca. But he could not overcome his longing 
after his own home. Athena, who had always 
protected Ulysses, induced Zeus to promise that 
her favourite hero, notwithstanding the anger of 
Poseidon, should one day return to his native 
island, and take vengeance on the suitors of Pene- 
lope. Hermes carried to Calypso the command of 
Zeus to dismiss Ulysses. The nymph obeyed, and 
taught him how to built a raft, on which, after 
remaining 8 years with her, he left the island. In 
18 days he came in sight of Scheria, the island of 
the Phaeacians, when Poseidon sent a storm, 
which cast him off the raft. By the assistance of 
Leucothea and Athena he reached Scheria by dint 
of swimming. The exhausted hero slept on the 
shore, until he was awoke by the voices of maidens. 
He found Nausicaa, the daughter of king Alcinous 
and Arete, Avho conducted the hero to her father's 
court. He was there honoured with feasts and 
contests, and the minstrel Demodocus sang of tlie 
fall of Troy, which moved Ulysses to tears, and 
being questioned about the cause of his emotion, 
he related his whole history. At length he was 
sent home in a ship. One night as he had fallen 
asleep in his ship, it reached the coast of Ithaca ; 
the Phaeacians who had accompanied' him carried 
him on shore, and left him. He had now been 
away from Ithaca for 20 years, and when he awoke 
he did not recognise his native land, for Athena, 
that he might not be recognised, had enveloped 
him in a cloud. As he was lamenting his fate the 
goddess informed him where he was, and advised 
him how to take vengeance upon the enemies of 
his house. During his absence his father Laertes, 
bowed down by grief and old age, had withdraAvn 
into the country, his mother Anticlea had died of 
sorrow, his son Telemachus had grown up to man- 
hood, and his wife Penelope had rejected all the 
offers that had been made to her by the importu- 
nate suitors from the neighbouring islands. During 
the last few years more than a hundred nobles of 
Ithaca, Same, Dulichium, and Zacynthus had been 
suing for the hand of Penelope, and in their visits 
to her house had treated all that it contained as if 
it had been their own. That he might be able to 
take vengeance upon them, it was necessary that 
he should not be recognised. Athena accordingly 
metamorphosed him into an unsightly beggar, and 
he was kindly received by Eumaeus, the swine- 



herd, a faithful servant of his house. While staying 
with Eumaeus, his son Telemachus returned from 
Sparta and Pylos, whither he had gone to obtain 
information concerning his father. Ulysses made 
himself known to him, and with him deliberated 
upon the plan of revenge. In the disguise of a 
beggar he accompanied Telemachus and Eumaeus 
to the town. The plan of revenge was now carried 
into effect. Penelope, with great difficulty, was made 
to promise her hand to him who should conquer the 
others in shooting with the bow of Ulysses. As 
none of the suitors was able to draw this bow,Ulysses 
himself took it up and then began to attack the 
suitors. He was supported by Athena and his son, 
and all fell by his hands. Ulysses now made 
himself known to Penelope, and went to see his 
aged father. In the meantime the report of the 
death of the suitors was spread abroad, and their 
relatives rose in arms against Ulysses; but 
Athena, who assumed the appearance of Mentor, 
brought about a reconciliation between the people 
and the king. It has already been remarked that 
in the Homeric poems Ulysses is represented as a 
prudent, cunning, inventive, and eloquent man, but 
at the same time as a brave, bold, and persevering 
warrior, whose courage no misfortune or calamity 
could subdue, but later poets describe him as a 
cowardly, deceitful, and intriguing personage. 
Respecting the last period of his life the Homeric 
poems give us no information, except the prophecy 
of Tiresias, who promised him a painless death in 
a happy old age ; but later writers give us different 
accounts. According to one, Telegonus, the son 
of Ulysses by Circe, was sent out by his mother 
to seek his father. A storm cast him upon Ithaca, 
which he began to plunder in order to obtain pro- 
visions. Ulysses and Telemachus attacked him, 
but he slew Ulysses, and his body was afterwards 
carried to Aeaea. According to some, Circe re- 
called Ulysses to life again, or on his arrival in 
Tyrrhenia he was burnt on Mt. Perge. In works 
of art Ulysses is commonly represented as a sailor, 
wearing a serai-oval cap. 

Umbria, called by the Greeks Ombrica (rj 'O^- 
SpiKT)), a district of Italy, bounded on the N. by 
Gallia Cisalpina, from which it was separated by 
the river Rubicon ; on the E. by the Adriatic sea ; 
on the S. by Picenum, from which it was separated 
by the river Aesis, and by the land of the Sabines, 
from which it was separated by the river Nar; and 
on the W. byEtruria, from which it was separated 
by the Tiber. Under Augustus it formed the 6th 
Regio of Italy. The Apennines ran through the 
W. part of the country, but it contained many fertile 
plains on the coast. Its inhabitants, the Umbri 
(sing. Umber), called by the Greeks Umbrici 
{'Ofx§piKo'i), were one of the most ancient peoples 
of Italy, and were connected with the Opicans, 
Sabines, and those other tribes whose languages 
were akin to the Greek. The Umbri were at a 
very early period the most powerful people in 
central Italy, and extended across the peninsula 
from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhene seas. Thus 
they inhabited the country afterwards called Etru- 
ria ; and we are expressly told that Crotona, Pe- 
rusia, Clusium, and other Etruscan cities, were 
built by the Umbrians. They were afterwards de- 
prived of their possessions W. of the Tiber by the 
Etruscans, and confined to the country between 
this river and the Adriatic. Their territories were 
still further diminished by the Senones a Gallic 



VENTI, THE WINDS. 




[To/acep. 800. 



COINS OF CITIES AND COUNTRIES. ULIA — ZEUGMA. 




Vibo or Hipponium. Page 814.^ 




View of the Fort Euryalus at Syracuse. Page 736, col. 1. 



To face p. r-Oi.] 



UMBRO. 



UXII. 



801 



people, who took possession of the whole country on 
the coast, from Ariminum to the Aesis. The Urn- 
bri were subdued by the Romans, B. c. 307 ; and 
after the conquest of the Senones by the Romans 
in 283, they again obtained possession of the country 
on the coast of the Adriatic. This district, how- 
ever, continued to be called Ager Gallicus down to 
a late period. The chief towns of Umbria were 
Ariminum, Fanuai Fortunae, Mevania, 
TuDER, Narnia, and Spoletium. 

Umbro {Omhrone)^ one of the largest rivers in 
Etruria, falling into the Tyrrhene sea, near a town 
of the same name. 

Ummidius Quadratus. [Quadratus.] 

Unelli, a people on the N. coast of Gaul, on a 
promontory opposite Britain (the modern Cotantin), 
belonging to the Armorici. 

Upis (OuTTis). 1. A surname of Artemis, as the 
goddess assisting women in child-birth. — 2, The 
name of a mythical being, who is said to have 
reared Artemis, and who is mentioned by Virgil as 
one of the nymphs in her train. The masculine 
Upis is mentioned by Cicero as the father of 
Artemis. 

XTr. [Edessa.] 

Urania (Ovpavia). 1. One of the Muses, a 
daughter of Zeus by Mnemosyne. The ancient 
bard Linus is called her son by Apollo, and Hyme- 
naeus also is said to have been a son of Urania. 
She was regarded, as her name indicates, as the 
Muse of Astronomy, and was represented with a 
celestial globe, to which she points with a small 
staff, — 2. Daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, who 
also occurs as a nymph in the train of Perseplione. 
— 3. A surname of Aphrodite, describing her as 
" the heavenly," or spiritual, to distinguish her 
from Aphrodite Panderaos. Plato represents her 
as a daughter of Uranus, begotten without a 
mother. Wine was not used in the libations offered 
to her, 

Uranus (Ovpav6s) or Heaven, sometimes called 
a son, and sometimes the husband of Gaea (Earth). 
By Gaea Uranus became the father of Oceanus, 
Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, lapetus, Thia, Rhia, 
Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys, Cronos ; of 
the Cyclopes, — Brontes, Steropes, Arges ; and of 
the Hecatoncheires — Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes. 
According to Cicero, Uranus also was the father of 
Mercury by Dia. and of Venus by Hemera. Ura- 
nus hated his children, and immediately after their 
birth he confined them in Tartarus, in consequence 
of which he was unmanned and dethroned by 
Cronos at the instigation of Gaea. Out of the 
drops of his blood sprang the Gigantes, the Melian 
nymphs, and according to some, Silenus, and from 
the foam gathering around his limbs in the sea 
sprang Aphrodite. 

Urbigenus Pagus. [Helvetii.] 

Urbinum (Urbinas, -atis). 1. Hortense (Z7r- 
beno), a town in Umbria and a municipium, situated 
on a steep round rock. — 2. Metaurense (Urba- 
nfa), a town in Umbria on the river Metaurus, and 
not far from its source. 

Urbs Salvia. [Pollentia, No. 2.] 

Urci, a town of the Bastetani in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, on the coast, and on the road from Cas- 
tulo to Malaca. 

Urcinium (Omwe), a town on the W. coast of 
Corsica. 

Urgo or Gorgon (Gorgona), an island off the 
coast of Etruria, N. of Ilva. 



Uria (Uriiis : Oria), called Hyria ('T/ji'tj) by 
Herodotus, a town in Calabria on the road from 
Brundisiura to Tarentum, was the ancient capital 
of lapygia, and is said to have been founded by 
the Cretans under Minos. 

Urium, a small town in Apulia, from which 
the Sinus Urias took its name, being the bay on 
the N. side of Mt. Garganus opposite the Diome- 
dean islands. 

Urseius Feroz. [Ferox.] 

Ursus, a contemporary of Domit|in, whom he 
dissuaded from killing his wife Domitia. Statins 
addressed to him a poem of consolation on the 
death of a favourite slave {Silv. ii. 6), and he also 
mentions him in the Preface to the 2d book of his 
Silvae. 

Uscana, a large town in Illyria, on a tributary 
of the Aous and in the district Penestiana. 

Usipetes or Usipii, a German people, Avho, being 
driven out of their abodes by the Suevi, crossed 
the Rhine and penetrated into Gaul ; but they 
were defeated by Caesar, and compelled to recross 
the river. They were now received by the Sigam- 
bri, and allowed to dwell on the N/bank of the 
Lippe ; but we afterwards find them S. of the 
Lippe ; and at a still later time they become lost 
under the general name of Alemanni. 

Ustica, a valley near the Sabine villa of Horace. 

Utica (t] 'Itukt) or OvTiKT] : 'ItvkuIos, Uti- 
censis : Bou-Skater, Ru.), the greatest city of 
ancient Africa, after Carthage, was a Phoenician 
colony, older (and, if the chronologers are to be 
trusted, much older) than Carthage. Like others of 
the very ancient Phoenician colonies in the territory 
of Carthage, Utica maintained a comparative inde- 
pendence, even during the height of the Punic 
power, and was rather the ally of Carthage than 
her subject. It stood on the shore of the N. part 
of the Carthaginian Gulf, a little W, of the mouth 
of the Bagradas, and 27 Roman miles N, W. of 
Carthage ; but its site is now inland, in conse- 
quence of the changes effected by the Bagradas in 
the coast-line. [Bagradas.] In the 3d Punic 
War, Utica took part with the Romans against 
Carthage, and was rewarded with the greatest part 
of the Carthaginian territory. It afterwards be- 
came renowned to all future time as the scene 
of the last stand made by the Pompeian party 
against Caesar, and of the glorious, though mis- 
taken, self-sacrifice of the younger Cato. [Cato.] 

Utus ( Vid), a river in Moesia and a tributary of 
the Danube, falling into the latter river at the 
town Utus. It is perhaps the same river as the 
Artanes of Herodotus. 

Uxama {Osma\ a town of the Arevaci in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, on the road from Asturica to 
Caesaraugusta, 50 miles W. of Numantia. 

Uxantis {Ushant), an island off the N. W. 
coast of Gaul, 

Uxellodunum, a town of the Cadurci in Gallia 
Aquitanica, situated on a steep hill, rising out of 
the plain, at the foot of which a river flowed. It 
is probably the same as the .modern Capdenac on 
the Lot. 

Uxentum (Uxentinus : Ugento\ a town in Ca- 
labria, N, W. of the lapygian promontory. 

Uxii (Ou|joi), a warlike people, of predatory 
habits, who had their strongholds in M. Para- 
choathras, on the N. border of Persis, in the district 
called Uxia (Ou|£a), but who also extended over 
a considera])le tract of country in Media. 

3 p 



802 



VACCA. 



VALENTINIANUS. 



V. 

Vacca, Vaga, or Valia (Ouaya, Bdya : Beja), 
a city of Zeugitana in N. Africa, on the borders of 
Numidia, on an E. tributar}- of tbe river Tusca, 
a good day's journey S. of Utica. It was a 
great emporium for the trade between Hippo, 
Utica, and Carthage, and the interior. It was de- 
stroyed by Met«llus in the Jugurthine War, but 
was restored and colonised by the Romans. Its 
fortifications were renewed by Justinian, who 
named it Theodorias in honour of his wife. 

Vaccaei, a people in the interior of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, occupying the modem Toro, Palen- 
cia, Burgos, and Valladolid, E. of the Astures, S. 
of- the Cantabri, W. of the Celtiberi, and N. of 
the Cantabri. Their chief towns were Pallantia 
and Intercatia. 

Vada. 1. A fortress of the Batavi in Gallia 
Belgica, E. of Batavodurum. — 2. Vada Sabbatia 
( Vado), a town of Liguxia on the coast, which was 
the harbour of Sabbata or Savo. — 3. Vada Vola- 
terrana {Torre di Vado), a small io\\n on the 
coast of Etruria, in the territory of Volaterrae. 

Vadicassii, a people in Gallia Belgica, near the 
sources of the Sequana. 

Vadimonis Lacus {Lago di Bassano), a small 
lake of Etruria of a circular form, with sulphureous 
waters, and renowned for its floating islands, a 
minute description of which is given by the younger 
Pliny. It is celebrated in history for the defeat of 
the Etruscans in 2 great battles, first by the dic- 
tator Papirius Cursor, in B. c. 309, from the effects 
of which the Etruscans never recovered ; and again 
in 283, when the allied forces of the Etruscans and 
Gauls were routed by the consul Cornelius Dola- 
bella. The lake has so shrunk in dimensions in 
modem times as to be only a small stagnant pond, 
almost lost in the tall reeds and bulrushes which 
grow in it. 

Vagedrusa, a small river in Sicily, between Ca- 
raarina and Gela. 

Vagienni, a small people in Liguria, whose 
chief town was Augusta Vagiennorum. Their site 
is uncertain, but they perhaps dwelt near Saluzzo. 

VahSlis. [Rhenus.] 

Valens, emperor of the East a. d. 364 — 378, 
was bom about A. d. 328, and was made emperor 
by his brother Valentinian. [Valentinianus.] 
The greater part of Valens' reign is occupied by 
his wars with the Goths. At first he gained great 
advantages over the barbarians, and concluded a 
peace with them in 370, on the condition that they 
should not cross the Danube. In 376 the Goths 
were driven out of their country by the Huns, and 
were allowed by Valens to cross the Danube and 
settle in Thrace and the country on the borders of 
the Danube. Dissensions soon arose between the 
Romans and these dangerous neighbours ; and in 
377 the Goths took up arms, Valens collected a 
powerful army, and marched against the Goths : 
but he was defeated by them with immense 
slaughter, near Hadrianople, on the 9 th of August, 
378. Valens was never seen after the battle; 
some say he died on the field ; and others relate 
that he was burnt to death in a peasant's house, 
to which he was carried, and which the barbarians 
set fire to without knowing who was m it. The 
reign of Valens is important in the history of the 
empire on account of the admission of the Goths 



into the countries S. of the Danube, the commence- 
ment of the decline of the Roman power. The 
furious contests between the rival creeds of the 
Catholics and the Arians also characterise this 
reign. 

Valens, Abumus, also called Abumius, one 

of the jurists who are excerpted in the Digest, be- 
longed to the school of the Sabinians. He flourished 
under Antoninus Pius. 

Valens, Fabins, one of the principal generals 
of the emperor Vitellius in A. d. 69, marched into 
Italy through Gaul, and, after forming a junction 
with the forces of Caecina, defeated Otho in the 
decisive battle of Bedriacum, which secured for 
Vitellius the sovereignty of Italy. Vitellius 
raised Valens and Caecina to the consulship, and 
he left the whole government in their hands. 
Valens remained faithful to Vitellius, when An- 
tonius Primus, the general of Vespasian, marched 
into Italy ; but as he had not sufficient forces to 
oppose Antonius after the capture of Cremona, he 
resolved to sail to Gaul and rouse the Gallic pro- 
vinces to espouse the cause of Vitellius ; but he 
was taken prisoner at the islands of the Stoe- 
chadae (Hieres), off Massilia, and was shortly 
afterwards put to death at Urbinura ( JJrhino). 

Valentia. 1. ( Valencia), the chief to^vn of the 
Edetani on the river Turia, 3 miles from the coast, 
and on the road from Carthago Nova to Castulo. 
It was founded by Junius Bratus, who settled 
here the soldiers of Viriathus ; it was destroyed 
by Pompey, but it was soon afterwards rebuilt and 
made a Roman colony. It continued to be an im- 
portant place down to the latest times. — 2. ( Fa- 
lence), a town in Gallia Narbonensis on the Rhone, 
and a Roman colony. Some writers call it a town 
of the Cavares, and others a town of the Segeliauni. 
— 3. A town of Sardinia of uncertain site, but 
which some writers place on the E. coast between 
Portus Sulpicii and Sorabile. — 4. Or Valentium, 
a tovm in Apulia, 10 miles from Brundusium. — 
6. A province in the N. of Britain, beyond the 
Roman wall, which existed only for a short time. 
[ Britannia, j 

Valentlnianns. I., Roman emperor a. d. 364 
■ — 375, w^as the son of Gratianus, and was born 
A. D. 321, at Cibalis in Pannonia. His first wife 
was Valeria Severa, by whom he became the father 
of the emperor Gratianus. He held important 
military commands under Julian and Jovian ; and 
on the death of the latter in February, 364, Va- 
lentinian was elected emperor by the troops at 
Nicaea. A few weeks after his elevation Valen- 
tinian elected his brother Valens emperor, and as- 
signed to him the East, while he himself undertook 
the government of the West. Valentinian was a 
Catholic, though his brother Valens was an Arian; 
but he did not persecute either Arians or heathens. 
He possessed good abilities, prudence, and vigour 
of character. He had a capacity for military- 
matters, and was a vigilant, impartial, and laborious 
administrator ; but he sometimes punished with 
excessive severity. The greater part of Valen- 
tinian' s reign was occupied by the wars against 
the Alemanni, and the other barbarians on the 
Roman frontiers. His operations were attended 
with success. He not only drove the Alemanni 
out of Gaul, but on more than one occasion crossed 
the Rhine, and carried the war into the enemy's 
country. His usual residence was Treviri (Treves). 
In 375 he went to Camuntum on the Danube, in 



VALERIA. 



VALERIUS. 



order to repel the Quadi and Sarmatians, who had 
invaded Pannonia. After an indecisive campaign 
he took up his winter- quarters at Bregetio. In 
this place, while giving an audience to the deputies 
of the Quadi, and speaking with great heat, he fell 
down in a fit and expired suddenly on the 17th of 
November.— II., Roman emperor A. d. 375 — 392, 
younger son of the preceding, was proclaimed Au- 
gustus by the army after his father's death, though 
he was then only 4 or 5 years of age. His elder 
brother Gratianus, who had been proclaimed Au- 
gustus during the lifetime of their father, assented 
to the choice of the army, and a division of the 
West was made between the 2 brothers. Valen- 
tinian had Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. Gratian 
had the Gauls, Spain, and Britain. In 383 Gratian 
was defeated and slain by Maximus, who left 
Valentinian a precarious authority out of fear for 
Theodosius, the emperor of the East ; but in 387, 
Valentinian was expelled from Italy by Maximus, 
and fled for refuge to Theodosius. ' In 388, Theo- 
dosius defeated Maximus, and restored Valentinian 
to his authority as emperor of the West. Theo- 
dosius returned to Constantinople in 391 ; and in 
the following year (392) Valentinian was murdered 
by the general Arbogastes, who raised Eugenius 
to the throne. Valentinian perished on the 15th 
of May, being only a few months above 20 years 
of age. His funeral oration was pronounced by 
St. Ambrose. — III., Roman emperor a. d. 425 — 
455, was bom 419, and was the son of Constantius 
III. by Placidia, the sister of Honorius, and the 
daughter of Theodosius I. He was declared Au- 
gustus in 425 by Theodosius II., and was placed 
over the West, but as he was only 6 years of age 
the government was intrusted to his mother Pla- 
cidia. During his long reign the empire was re- 
peatedly exposed to the invasions of the barbarians; 
and it was only the military abilities of Aetius 
which saved the empire from ruin. In 429 the 
Vandals under Genseric crossed over into Africa, 
which they conquered, and of which they continued 
in possession till the reign of Justinian. The 
Goths likewise established themselves in Gaul ; 
but Aetius finally made peace with them (439), 
and with their assistance gained a great victory 
over Attila and the vast army of the Huns at 
Chalons in 451. The power and influence of 
Aetius excited the jealousy and fears of Valentinian, 
who murdered his brave and faithful general in 
454. In the following year the emperor himself 
was slain by Petronius Maximus, whose wife he 
had violated. He was a feeble and contemptible 
prince, and had all the vices that in a princely 
station disgrace a man's character. 

Valeria. 1. Sister of P. Valerius Publicola, 
advised the Roman matrons to ask Veturia, the 
mother of Coriolanus,to go to the camp of Coriolanus 
in order to deprecate his resentment.— 2. The last 
wife of Sulla, was the daughter of M.Valerius Mes- 
sala, and bore a daughter soon after Sulla's death. 
— 3. Galeria Valeria, daughter of Diocletian and 
Prisca, was, upon the reconstruction of the empire 
in A. D. 292, united to Galerius, one of the new 
Caesais. After the death of her husband in 311 
Valeria rejected the proposals of his successor 
Maximinus, who in consequence stripped her of her 
possessions, and banished her along with her 
mother. After the death of Maximinus, Valeria 
and her mother were executed by order of Licinius, 
315.-4. Messalina. [Messalina,] 



Valeria Gens, one of the most ancient patmcian 
houses at Rome. The Valerii were of Sabine 
origin, and their ancestor Volesus or Volusus is 
said to have settled at Rome with Titus Tatius. 
One of the descendants of this Volesus, P. Valerius, 
afterwards surnamed Publicola, plays a distin- 
guished part in the story of the expulsion of the 
kings, and was elected consul in the first year of 
the republic, B. c. 509. From this tiiae forward 
down to the latest period of the empire', for nearly 
1000 years, the name occurs more or less frequently 
in the Fasti, and it was borne by the emperors 
Maximinus, Maximianus, Maxentius, Diocletian, 
Constantius, Constantino the Great, and others. 
The Valeria gens enjoyed extraordinary honours 
and privileges at Rome. Their house at the 
bottom of the Velia was the only one in Rome of 
which the doors were allowed to open back into 
the street. In the Circus a conspicuous place was 
set apart for them, where a small throne was 
erected, an honour of which there was no other 
example among the Romans. They were also 
allowed to bury their dead within the walls. The 
Valerii in early times were ahvays foremost in 
advocating the rights of the plebeians, and the 
laws which they proposed at various times were 
the great charters of the liberties of the second 
order. (See Did. of Antiq. s. v. Leges Valeriae.) 
The Valeria gens was divided into various families 
under the republic, the most important of which 
bore the names of CoRVUS, Flaccus, Laevinus, 
Messala, Publicola, and Triarius. 

Valeria, a province in Pannonia formed by Ga- 
lerius, and named in honour of his wife. [Pan- 
nonia.] 

VSJerianus. 1. Roman emperor, a. d. 253 — 
260, whose full name was P. Licinius Vale- 
RiANUS. Valerian was proclaimed emperor by the 
troops whom he was leading against the usurper 
Aemilianus. Valerian proclaimed his son Gal- 
lienus Augustus, and first carried on war against 
the Goths, Avhom he defeated (257). But though 
the barbarians still threatened the Roman fron- 
tiers on the Danube and the Rhine, the conquests 
of the Persians, who had crossed the Euphrates 
and stormed Antioch, compelled him to hasten to 
the East. For a time his measures were both 
vigorous and successful. Antioch was recovered, 
and the Persian king Sapor was compelled to fall 
back behind the Euphrates; but the emperor, 
flushed by his good fortune, followed too rashly. 
He was surrounded, in the vicinity of Edessa, by 
the countless horsemen of his active foe ; he was 
entrapped into a conference, taken prisoner (260), 
and passed the remainder of his life in captivity, 
subjected to every insult which Oriental cruelty 
could devise. After death his skin was stuffed and 
long preserved as a trophy in the chief temple of 
the nation. — 2. Son of the preceding, but not by 
the same mother as Gallienus. He perished along 
with Gallienus at Milan in 268. [Gallienus.] 

Valerius. [Valeria Gens.] 

Valerius Voliisus Maximus, M',, was a brother 
of P. Valerius Publicola, and was dictator in B. c. 
494, when the dissensions between the burghers 
and commonalty of Rome de Nexis were at the 
highest. Valerius was popular with the plebs 
and induced them to enlist for the Sabine and 
Aequian wars, by promising that when the enemy 
was repulsed, the condition of the debtors (w&w) 
should be alleviated. He defeated and triumphed 

o IP *t 



804 



VALERIUS. 



VARRO 



over the Sabines ; but, unable to fulfil his promise 
to the commons, resigned his dictatorship. The 
plebs, seeing that Valerius at least had kept faith 
with them, escorted him honourably home. As 
he was advanced in life at the time of his dictator- 
ship, he probably died soon after. — There were 
several descendants of this Valerius Maxiraus, but 
none of them are of sufficient importance to require 
special mention. 

Valerius Maximus, is known to us as the 
compiler of a large collection of historical anec- 
dotes, entitled De Fadis Dictisque Memorahilihus 
Libri IX., arranged under different heads, the 
sayings and doings of Roman worthies being, 
moreover, kept distinct in each division from 
those of foreigners. He lived in the reign of the 
emperor Tiberius, to whom he dedicated his work. 
Of his personal history we know nothing, except 
the solitary circumstance, recorded by himself, 
that he accompanied Sex. Pompeius into Asia 
(ii. 6. § 8), the Sextus Pompeius apparently who 
was consul a. d. 14, at the time when Augustus 
died. The subjects treated of in the work are of 
a character so miscellaneous, that it would be im- 
possible, without transcribing the short notices 
placed at the head of each chapter, to convey a 
clear idea of the contents. In some books the 
topics selected for illustration are closely allied to 
each other, in others no bond of union can be 
traced. Thus the 1 st book is entirely devoted to 
matters connected with sacred rites ; the 2nd book 
relates chiefly to certain remarkable civil institu- 
tions ; the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th, to the more pro- 
minent social virtues ; but in the 7th the chapters 
De Strategematis, De Repulsis, are abruptly fol- 
lowed by those De Necessitate, De Testamentis 
Rescissis, De Raiis Testamentis et Insperatis. In 
an historical point of view the work is by no 
means without value, since it preserves a record of 
many curious events not to be found elsewhere ; 
but from the errors actually detected upon points 
Avhere we possess more precise information, it is 
manifest that we must not repose implicit con- 
fidence in the statements unless where they are 
corroborated by collateral testimony. The work 
of Valerius Maximus became very popular in the 
later times of the empire and in the middle ages. 
It was frequently abridged, and we still possess an 
abridgment of it made by Julius Paris. The best 
editions of the original work are by Torrenius, 
Leid. 1726, and by Kappius, Lips. 1782. 

Valerius Flaccus. [Flaccus.] 

Valgius Rufus, C, a Roman poet, and a con- 
temporary of Virgil and Horace, the latter of whom 
ranks him along with Varius, Maecenas, and Virgil, 
among those friends of genius whose approbation 
far more than compensated for the annoyance 
caused by the attacks of his detractors. 

Vandali, Vandalii, or Vindalii, a confederacy 
of German peoples, probably of the great Suevic 
race, to Avhich the Burgundiones, Gothones, Gepi- 
dae, and Rugii belonged. They dwelt originally 
on the N. coast of Germany, but were afterwards 
settled N. of the Marcomanni in the Riesengebirge, 
which are hence called Vandalici Montes. They 
subsequently appear for a short time in Dacia and 
Pannonia ; but at the beginning of the 5th cen- 
tury ( a. d. 409) they traversed Germany and Gaul, 
and invaded Spain. In this country they subju- 
gated the Alani, and founded a powerful kingdom, 
the name of which is still preserved in Andalusia 



(Vandalusia). In a. n. 429 they crossed over into 
Africa, under their king Genseric, and conquered 
all the Roman dominions in that country. Gen- 
seric subsequently invaded Italy, and took and 
plundered Rome in 455. The Vandals continued 
masters of Africa till 535, when their kingdom was 
destroyed by Belisarius, and annexed to the By- 
zantine empire. 

Vangiones, a German people, dwelling along 
the Rhine, in the neighbourhood of the modern 
Worms. 

Varagri. [Veragri.] 

Varduli, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
W. of the Vascones, in the modern Guipuzcoa and 
Alava. 

Vargunteius, a senator and one of Catiline's 
conspirators, undertook, in conjunction with C. Cor- 
nelius, to murder Cicero in B. c. 63, but their plan 
was frustrated by information conveyed to Cicero 
through Fulvia. He was afterwards brought to 
trial, but could find no one to defend him. 

Varia (Farea), a town of the Berones in His- 
pania Tarraconensis on the Iberus, which was 
navigable from this town. 

Varini, a people of Germany, on the right bank 
of the Albis, N. of the Langobardi. 

Varius. 1, Q. Varius Hybrida, tribune of the 
plebs, B. c. 90, was a native of Sucro in Spain, and 
received the surname of Hybrida, because his mo- 
ther was a Spanish woman. In his tribuneship he 
carried a lex de majestate, in order to punish all 
those who had assisted or advised the Socii to take 
up arms against the Roman people. Under this 
law many distinguished senators were condemned ; 
but in the following year Varius himself was con- 
demed under his own law, and was put to death. 
— 2. L. Varius Eufus, one of the most distin- 
guished poets of the Augustan age, the companion 
and friend of Virgil and Horace. By the latter he 
is placed in the foremost rank among the epic bards, 
and Quintilian has pronounced that his tragedy of 
Thyestes might stand a comparison with any pro- 
duction of the Grecian stage. He enjoyed the 
friendship of Maecenas, and it was to the recom- 
mendation of Varius in conjunction with that of 
Virgil, that Horace was indeked for an introduc- 
tion to the minister, about B. c. 39. Virgil ap- 
pointed Plotius Tucca and Varius his literary exe- 
cutors, and they revised the Aeneid. Hence Varius 
was alive subsequent to b. c, 1 9, in which year 
Virgil died. Only the titles of 3 works of Varius 
have been preserved : ]. De Morte. 2. Panegyricus 
in Caesarem Octavianum. 3. The tragedy Thyestes. 
Only a very few fragments of these poems are 
extant. 

Varro, Atacinus. [See below, Varro, No. 3.] 
Varro, Cingonius, a Roman senator under Nero, 
supported the claims of Nymphidius to the throne 
on the death of Nero, and was put to death in con- 
sequence by Galba, being at the time consul de- 
signatus. 

Varro, Terentius. 1. C, consul b. c. 216 with 
L. Aemilius Paulus. Varro is said to have been 
the son of a butcher, to have carried on business 
himself as a factor in his early years, and to have 
risen to eminence by pleading the causes of the 
lower classes in opposition to the opinion of all 
good men. Notwithstanding the strong opposition 
of the aristocracy, he was raised to the consulship 
by the people, who thought that it only needed a 
man of energy at the head of an overwhelming force 



VARRO. 



VARDS. 



805 



to bring the war against Hannibal to a close. His 
colleague was L. Aemilius Paulus, one of the leaders 
of the aristocratical party. The 2 consuls were de- 
feated by Hannibal at the memorable battle of 
Cannae. [Hannibal.] The battle was fought by 
Varro against the advice of Paulus. The Roman 
army was all but annihilated. Paulus and almost all 
the officers perished. Varro was one of the few who 
escaped and reached Venusia in safety, with about 
70 horsemen. His conduct after the battle seems to 
have been deserving of high praise. He proceeded 
to Canusium, where the remnant of the Roman army 
had taken refuge, and there adopted every pre- 
caution which the exigencies of the case required. 
His conduct was appreciated by the senate and 
the people, and his defeat was forgotten in the 
services he had lately rendered. On his return to 
the city all classes went out to meet him, and the 
senate returned him thanks because he had not 
despaired of the commonwealth. He continued to 
be emploj'^ed in Italy for several successive years 
in important military commands till nearly the close 
of the Punic war. — 2. The celebrated writer, 
whose vast and varied erudition in almost every 
department of literature, earned for him the title of 
the " most learned of the Romans." He was born 
B. c. 1 1 6, and was trained under the superintendence 
of L. Aelius Stilo Praeconinus, and he afterwards 
received instruction from Antiochus, a philosopher 
of the Academy. Varro held a high naval com- 
mand in the wars against the pirates and Mithri- 
dates, and afterwards served as the legatus of Pom- 
peius in Spain in the civil war, but was compelled 
to surrender his forces to Caesar. He then passed 
over into Greece, and shared the fortunes of tho 
Pompeian party till after the battle of Pharsalia ; 
when he sued for and obtained the forgiveness of 
Caesar, who employed him in superintending the 
collection and arrangement of the great library 
designed for public use. For some years after this 
period Varro remained in literary seclusion, passing 
his time chiefly at his country seats near Cumae 
and Tusculum, occupied with study and compo- 
sition. Upon the formation of the 2nd triumvirate, 
his name appeared upon the list of the proscribed ; 
but he succeeded in making his escape, and, after 
having remained for some time concealed, he ob- 
tained the protection of Octavian. The remainder 
of his career was passed in tranquillity, and he 
continued to labour in his favourite studies, although 
his magnificent library had been destroyed, a loss 
to him irreparable. His death took place B. c. 28, 
when he was in his 89th year. Not only was 
Varro the most learned of Roman scholars, but he 
was likewise the most voluminous of Roman au- 
thors. We have his own authority for the asser- 
tion that he had composed no less than 490 books; 
but of these only 2 works have come down to us, 
and one of them in a mutilated form. The follow- 
ing is a list of the principal works, both extant and 
lost : ■ — 1. De Re Rustica Libri III., still extant, 
was written when the author was 80 years old, 
and is the most important of all the treatises upon 
ancient agriculture now extant, being far superior 
to the more voluminous production of Columella, 
with which alone it can be compared. The best 
editions are in the Scriptores Rei Rusticae veteres 
Latini by Gesner, 4to. 2 vols. Lips. 1735, and by 
Schneider, 8vo. 4 vols. Lips. 1794—1797. 2. De 
Lingua Latina^ a grammatical treatise which ex- 
tended to 24 books; but 6 only (v. — x.) have been 



preserved, and these are in a mutilated condition. 
The remains of this treatise are particularly valu- 
able, in so far as they have been the means of 
preserving many terms and forms which would 
otherwise have been altogether lost, and much 
curious information is here treasured up connected 
with the ancient usages, both civil and religious, 
of the Romans. The best editions are by Spengel, 
8vo. Berol. 1826, and by Miiller, 8vo. Lips. 1833. 

3. Sententiae. 165 Seidentiae, or pithy sayings, 
have been published by Devit under the name of 
Varro, Patav. 1843. It is manifest that these 
sayings were not strung together by Varro himself, 
but are scraps gleaned out of various works, pro- 
bably at different times and by different hands. 

4. Antiquiiatum Libri, divided into 2 sections. An- 
tiquitates Rerum humanarum, in 25 books, and 
Antiquitates Rerum divinarum, in 16 books. This 
was Varro's great work ; and upon this chiefly his 
reputation for profound learning was based ; but 
unfortunately only a few fragments of it have 
come down to us. With the 2nd section of the 
work we are, comparatively speaking, familiar, 
since Augustine drew very largely from this 
source in his "City of God." 5. Saiurae, 
which were composed, not only in a variety of 
metres, but contained an admixture of prose also. 
Varro in these pieces copied to a certain extent the 
productions of Menippus the Gadarene [Menip- 
pus], and hence designated them as Saturae Me- 
nippeae s. Cynicae. They appear to have been a 
series of disquisitions on a vast variety of subjects, 
frequently, if not uniformly, couched in the shape 
of dialogue, the object proposed being the incul- 
cation of moral lessons and serious truths in a 
familiar, playful, and even jocular style. The best 
edition of the fragments of these Sahirae is by 
Oehler, M. Terentii Varronis Saturarum Menip- 
pearum Reliquiae, Quedlingb. 1844. Of the re- 
maining works of Varro we possess little except 
a mere catalogue of titles. — 3, P., a Latin poet 
of considerable celebrity, surnamed Atacinus, 
from the Atax, a river of Gallia Narbonensis his 
native province, was born B. c. 82. Of his personal 
history nothing further is known. He is believed 
to have been the composer of the following works, 
of which a few inconsiderable fragments only have 
come down to us ; but some of them ought perhaps 
to be ascribed to his illustrious contemporary M. 
Terentius Varro : — 1. Argonautica, probably a free 
translation of the well-known poem by ApoUonius 
Rhodius. Upon this piece the fame of Varro. 
chiefly rested. It is referred to by Propertius, by 
Ovid, and by Statins. 2. ChorograpMa s, Cosmo- 
graphia, appears to have been a metrical system of 
astronomy and geography. 3. Libri Navales, ap- 
pears to have been a poem upon navigation. 

Varus, a cognomen in many Roman gentes, sig- 
nified a person who had his legs bent inwards, audi 
was opposed to Valgus, which signified a person 
having his legs turned outward. 

Varus, Alfenus. 1. A Roman jurist, was a 
pupil of Servius Sulpicius, and the only pupil of 
Servius from whom there are any excerpts in the 
Digest. The scholiast on Horace {Sat.l 3. 130) tells 
us that the " Alfenus Tafer" of Horace was the law- 
yer, and that he was a native of Cremona, where he 
carried on the trade of a barber or a botcher of 
shoes (for there are both readings, sutor and ton-- 
sor) ; that he came to Rome, where he became a 
pupil of Servius Sulpicius, attained the dignity of 

3 F 3 



806 



VARUS. 



VATINIUS. 



the consulship, and was honoured with a public 
funeral. — 2. A general of Vitellius, in the civil 
war in A. D. 69, and perhaps a descendant of the 
jurist. 

Varus, Atius. 1. P., a zealous partisan of Pora- 
pey in the civil war, was stationed in Picenum on 
the breaking out of the civil war in B, c. 49. He 
subsequently crossed over into Africa, and took 
possession of the province, which was then go- 
verned by Q. Ligarius. [Ligarius.] In conse- 
quence of his having been propraetor of Africa a 
few years previously, Varus was well acquainted 
with the country and the people, and was thus able 
to raise 2 legions without much difficulty. Mean- 
time, L. Aelius Tubero, who had received from the 
senate the province of Africa, arrived to take the 
command ; but Varus would not even allovv him 
to land, and compelled him to sail away. In 
the course of the same year Varus, assisted by 
king Juba, defeated Curio, Caesar's legate, who had 
crossed over from Sicily to Africa. [Curio.] Varus 
fought with the other Pompeians in Africa against 
Caesar in 46; but after the battle of Thapsus he 
sailed away to Cn. Porapey in Spain. He fell at 
the battle of Munda, and his head was carried to 
Caesar. -—2. Q. Atius Varus, commander of the 
cavalry under C. Fabius, one of Caesar's legates in 
Gaul, and probably the same as the Q. Varus, who 
commanded the cavalry under Domitius, one of 
Caesar's generals in Greece in the war with Pom- 
pey. It is supposed by many modern writers that 
he is the same person as the Varus to whom Virgil 
dedicated his 6th eclogue, and whose praises the 
poet also celebrates in the ninth (ix. 27), from 
which poems we learn that Varus had obtained 
renown in war. 

Varus, Quintilius. 1. Sex., quaestor b.c. 49, 
belonged to the Pompeian party. He fell into 
Caesar's hands at the capture of Corfinium, but 
was dismissed by Caesar. He afterwards fought 
under Brutus and Cassius against the triumvirs; 
and after the loss of the battle of Philippi, he fell 
by the hands of his freedmen, who slew him at 
his own request.— 2. P., son of the preceding, was 
consul B. c. 1 3, and was subsequently appointed to 
the government of Syria, where he acquired enor- 
mous wealth. Shortly after his return from Syria 
he was made governor of Germany (probably about 
A. D. 7). Drusus had conquered a great part of 
central Germany as far as the Visurgis ( Weser) ; 
and Varus received orders from Augustus to intro- 
duce the Roman jurisdiction into the newly con- 
quered country. The Germans, however, were not 
prepared to submit thus tamely to the Roman 
yoke, and found a leader in Arminius, a noble chief 
of the Cherusci, who had previously served in the 
Roman army. Arminius organised a general revolt 
of all the German tribes betv^^een the Visurgis and 
the Weser, but kept his design a profound secret 
from Varus, with whom he continued to live on the 
most friendly terras. When he had fully matured 
his plans, he suddenly attacked Varus, at the head 
of a countless host of barbarians, as the Roman 
general was marching with his 3 legions through a 
pass of the Saltus Teutohurgiensis, a range of hills 
covered with wood, which extends N. of the Lippe 
from Osnabriick to Paderborn, and is known in 
the present day by the name of the Teutoburger- 
wald or Lippische Wald. The battle lasted 3 
days, and ended with the entire destruction of the 
Roman army Varus put an end to his own life. 



His defeat was followed by the loss of all the Ro- 
man possessions between the Weser and the Rhine, 
and the latter river again became the boundary of 
the Roman dominions. When the news of this 
defeat reached Rome, the whole city was thrown 
into consternation; and Augustus, who was both 
weak and aged, gave way to the most violent grief, 
tearing his garments and calling upon Varus to give 
him back his legions. Orders were issued, as if 
the very empire was in danger; and Tiberius was 
despatched with a veteran army to the Rhine. 

Varus ( Far, or Vai'o\ a river in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, forming the boundary between this pro- 
vince and Italy, rises in Mt. Cema in the Alps, 
and falls into the Mediterranean Sea, between 
Antipolis and Nicaea. 

Vasates, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, on the 
Garumna, whose chief town was Cossium (Bazas), 
on the road from Burdigala to Elusa. 

Vascones, a powerful people on the N. coast of 
Hispania Tarraconensis, between the Iberus and 
the Pyrenees, in the modern Navarre and Gui- 
puzco. Their chief towns were Pompelon and 
Calagurris. They were a brave people, and 
fought in battle bare-headed. Under the empire 
they were regarded as skilful diviners and prophets. 
Their name is still retained in that of the modern 
Basques. 

Vasconum Saltus. [Pyrene.] 

Vasio ( Vaison), a considerable town of the Vo- 
contii in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Vatia Isauricus, P. Servilius. 1. Consul in 
B, c. 79, was sent in the following year as pro- 
consul to Cilicia, in order to clear the seas of the 
pirates, whose ravages now spread far and wide. 
He carried on the war with great ability and suc- 
cess, and from his conquest of the Isauri, he 
obtained the surname of Isauricus. After giving 
Cilicia the organisation of a Roman province, he 
entered Rome in triumph in 74. After his return 
Servilius took a leading part in public aifairs. In 
70 he was one of the judices at the trial of Verres; 
in 66 he supported the rogation of Manilius for 
conferring upon Pompey the command of the war 
against the pirates; in 63 he was a candidate for 
the dignity of pontifex maximus, but was defeated 
by Julius Caesar; in the same year he spoke in 
the senate in favour of inflicting the last penalty of 
the law upon the Catilinarian conspirators; in 57 
he joined the other nobles in procuring Cicero's 
recall from banishment; in 56 he opposed the 
restoration of Ptolemy to his kingdom; and in 55 
he was censor with M. Valerius Messala Niger. 
He took no part in the civil Avars, probably on ac- 
count of his advanced age, and died in 44. — 2. 
Praetor 54, belonged originally to the aristocratical 
party, but espoused Caesar's side on the breaking 
out of the civil war, and was consul with Caesar in 
48. In 46 he governed the province of Asia as 
proconsul, during which time Cicero wrote to him 
several letters. After the death of Caesar in 44, 
he supported Cicero and the rest of the aristo- 
cratical party, in opposition to Antony, But he 
soon changed sides again, became reconciled to 
Antony, and was made consul a second time in 41. 

Vatinius. 1. P., a political adventurer in the 
last days of the republic, Avho is described by 
Cicero as one of the greatest scamps and villains 
that ever lived. His personal appearance was un- 
prepossessing; his face and neck were covered with 
swellings, to which Cicero alludes, calling him the 



VATRENUS. 



VEIOVIS. 



807 



struma civitatis. Vatinius was quaestor b, c. 63, 
and tribune of the plebs 59, when he sold his ser- 
vices to Caesar, who was then consul along with 
Bibulus. It was Vatinius who proposed the bill 
to the people, by which Caesar received the pro- 
vinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for 5 years. 
Vatinius continued to take an active part in poli- 
tical affairs. In 56 he appeared as a witness against 
Milo and Sestius, two of Cicero's friends, in conse- 
quence of Avhich the orator made a vehement attack 
upon the character of Vatinius, in the speech which 
has come down to us. Vatinius was praetor in 55, 
and in the following year (54) he was accused by 
C. Licinius Calvus of having gained the praetor- 
ship by bribery. He was defended on this occa- 
sion by Cicero, in order to please Caesar, whom 
Cicero had offended by his former attack upon 
Vatinius. Soon aftervvards Vatinius went to Gaul, 
where we find him serving in 51. He accom- 
panied ^Caesar in the civil war, and was made 
consul suflfectus for a few days, at the end of 
December 47. At the beginning of the follow- 
ing year, he was sent into Illyricum, where he 
carried on the war with success. After Caesar's 
death he was compelled to surrender Dyrrhachium 
and his army to Brutus who had obtained posses- 
sion of Macedonia, because his troops declared in 
favour of Brutus. — 2. Of Beneventum, one of the 
vilest and most hateful creatures of Nero's court, 
equally deformed in body and in mind. He was 
originally a shoemaker's apprentice, next earned his 
living as one of the lowest kinds of scurrae or buf- 
foons, and finally obtained great power and^vealth 
by accusing the most distinguished men in the 
state. A certain kind of drinking-cups, having nasi 
or nozzles, bore the name of Vatinius, probably 
because he brought them into fashion. Juvenal 
alludes (v. 46.) to a cup of this kind. 
Vatrenus. [Pad us.] 

Vectis or Vecta (Isle of Wight), an island off the 
S. coast of Britain, with which the Romans became 
acquainted before their conquest of Britain, by 
means of the inhabitants of Massilia, who were ac- 
customed to visit this island for the purpose of ob- 
taining tin. It is related by Diodorus that at low 
water the space between Vectis and the coast of 
Britain was almost entirely dry, so that the Britons 
used to bring tin to the island in waggons. It was 
conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Claudius. 

Vedius Pollio. [PoLLio.] 

Vegetius, Flavius Renatus, the author of a 
treatise, Rei Militaris Instituta, or Epitome Rei 
Militarise dedicated to the emperor Valentinian II. 
The materials were derived, according to the de- 
claration of the writer himself, from Cato the Cen- 
sor, De Disciplina Militari, from Cornelius Celsus, 
from Frontinus, from Paternus, and from the im- 
perial constitutions of Augustus, Trajan, and Had- 
rian. The work is divided into 5 books. The 1st 
treats of the levying and training of recruits, in- 
cluding instructions for the fortification of a camp; 
the 2nd, of the different classes into which soldiers 
are divided, and especially of the organisation of 
the legion; the 3rd, of the operations of an army in 
the field; the 4th, of the attack and defence of for- 
tresses; the 5th, of marine warfare. The value of 
this work is much diminished by the fact that the 
usages of periods the most remote from each other 
are mixed together into one confused mass, and not 
unfrequently,we have reason to suspect, are blended 
with arrangements which never existed, except in 



the fancy of the author. The best edition is by 
Schwebelius, Norimberg, 1767; and by Oudeu- 
dorp and Bessel, Argent. 1806. 

Veiento, Fabricius, was banished in the reign 
of Nero, a. d. 62, in consequence of his having 
published several libels. He afterwards returned 
to Rome, and became in the reign of Domitian 
one of the most infamous informers and flatterers 
of that tyrant. He also enjoyed the friendship of 
Nerva. 

Veii (Veiens, -entis, Veientanus: Isola Far- 
wese), one of the most ancient and powerful cities of 
Etruria, situated on the river Cremera, about 12 
miles from Rome. It possessed a strongly fortiiied 
citadel, built on a hill rising precipitously from the 
deep glens which bound it, save at the single point 
where a narrow ridge unites it to the city. It 
was one of the 12 cities of the Etruscan Confede- 
ration, and apparently the largest of all. As far 
as we can judge from its present remains, it was 
about 7 miles in circumference, which agrees with 
the statement of Dionysius, that it was equal in 
size to Athens. Its territory {Ager Veiens) was 
extensive, and appears originally to have extended 
on the S. and E. to the Tiber ; on the ^.W. to the 
sea, embracing the salinae or salt-works, at the 
mouth of the river ; and on the W. to the territory 
of Caere. The Ciminian forest appears to have 
been its N. W. boundary ; on the E. it must 
have embraced all the district S. of Socrate and E.- 
ward to the Tiber. The cities of Capena and Fi- 
denae were colonies of Veii. Veii was a powerful 
city at the time of the foundation of Rome, and 
the most formidable and dangerous of her neigh- 
bours. The Veientes were engaged in almost un- 
ceasing hostilities with Rome for more than 3 cen- 
turies and a half, and we have records of 14 distinct 
wars between the 2 peoples. Veii was at length 
taken by the dictator Camillus, after a siege which 
is said to have lasted 10 years. The city fell into 
his hands, according to the common story, by means 
of a cuniculus or mine, which was carried by Ca- 
millus from the Roman camp under the city into 
the citadel of Veii. So well built and spacious was 
Veii, that the Romans were anxious, after the de- 
struction of their own city by the Gauls in 390, to 
remove to Veii, and are said to have been only 
prevented from carrying their purpose into effect by 
the eloquence of Camillus. From this time Veii 
was abandoned ; but after the lapse of ages it was 
colonised afresh by Augustus, and made a Roman 
municipium. The new colony, however, occupied 
scarcely a 3rd of the ancient city, and had again 
sunk into decay in the reign of Hadrian, From 
this time Veii disappears entirely from history, and, 
on the revival of letters, even its site was long an 
object of dispute. It is now settled, however, be- 
yond a doubt, that it stood in the neighbourhood 
of the hamlet of Isola Farnese, where several re- 
mains of the ancient city have been discovered. 
Of these the most interesting is its cemetery ; but 
there is now only one tomb remaining open, which 
was discovered in the winter of 1842-3, and con- 
tains many interesting remains of Etruscan art. 

Veiovis, a Roman deity, whose name is ex- 
plained by some to mean "little Jupiter ;" while 
others interpret it "the destructive Jupiter," and 
identify him with Pluto. Veiovis was probably 
an Etruscan divinity of a destructive nature, whose 
fearful lightnings produced deafness in those who 
were to be struck by them, even before they 



808 



VELABRUM. 



VENETIA. 



were actually hurled. His temple at Rome stood 
between the Capitol and the Tarpeian rock; he was 
represented as a youthful god armed with arrows. 

Velabrum. [Roma, p. 650, b.] 

Velauni or Vellavi, a people in Gallia Aqui- 
tanica, in the modern Velay, who were originally 
subject to the Arverni, but subsequently appear as 
an independent people. 

Veleda, a prophetic virgin, by birth belonged to 
the Bructeri, and was regarded as a divine being 
by most of the nations in central Germany in the 
reign of Vespasian. She inhabited a lofty tower 
in the neighbourhood of the river Luppia (Lippe). 
She encouraged Civilis in his revolt against the 
Romans, but slie was afterwards taken prisoner and 
carried to Rome. 

Velia or Eiea, also called Hyele ('EAea, 'TeArj, 
the different forms are owing to the word having 
originally the Aeolic digamma, which the Romans 
changed into V : Velienses or Eleates, pi. : Cas- 
teW a Mare della Brucca), a Greek town of Lu- 
cania on the W. coast between Paestum and Bux- 
entum, was founded by the Phocaeans, who had 
abandoned their native city to escape from the 
Persian sovereignty, about b. c. 543. It was si- 
tuated about 3 miles E. of the river Hales, and 
possessed a good harbour. It is celebrated as the 
birthplace of the philosophers Parmenides and Zeno, 
who founded a school of philosophy usually known 
under the name of the Eleatic. It possessed a ce- 
lebrated temple of Demeter (Ceres). Cicero, who 
resided at Velia at one time, frequently mentions it 
in his correspondence ; and it appears to have been 
reckoned a healthy place. (Hor. Ep. i. 15.) In 
the time of Strabo it had ceased to be a town of 
importance. 

Velinus ( Velino), a river in the territory of the 
Sabines, rising in the central Apennines, and fall- 
ing into the Nar. This river in the neighbourhood 
of Reate overflowed its banks and formed several 
small lakes, the largest of which was called Lacus 
Velinus (Piedi Luffo, also Ixcgo delle Mormore). 
In order to carry off these waters, a channel was 
cut through the rocks by Curius Dentatus, the con- 
queror of the Sabines, by means of which the waters 
of the Velinus were carried through a narrow gorge 
to a spot where they fall from a height of several 
hundred feet into the river Nar. This fall, which 
is one of the most celebrated in Europe, is known 
at the present day by the name of the fall of Terni, 
or the cascade delle Marmore. 

Velitrae (Velitemus : Velletri), an ancient town 
of the Volscians in Latium, but subsequently be- 
longing to the Latin League. It was conquered 
by the Romans, and colonised at an early period, 
but it frequently revolted from Rome. It is chiefly 
celebrated as the birthplace of the emperor Augustus. 

Velius Longus, a Latin grammarian, known to 
as from a treatise, De OrthograpMa^ still extant, 
printed in the " Grammaticae Latinae Auctores 
Antiqui," of Putschius, 4to, Hanov. 1605. Velius 
also wrote a commentary on Virgil, which is men- 
tioned by Macrobius. 

Vellaunoduntim (Beaiine), a town of the Se- 
nones in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Vellavi. [Velauxi.] 

VeUeius Paterciilus. [Paterculcjs.] 

VeUocasses, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, 
N.W. of the Parisii, extending along the Sequana 
as far as the ocean ; their chief town was Rato- 

MAGUS. 



Venafrum ( Venafranus : Venqfri), a town in the 
N. of Samnium, near the river Vultumus, and on 
the confines of Latium, celebrated for the excellence 
of its olives. 

Venedi or Venedae,.a people in European Sar- 
matia, dwelling on the Baltic E. of the Vistula. 
The^Sinus Venedicus (Gulf of Riga), and the 
Venedici Montes, a range of mountains between 
Poland and East Prussia, were called after this 
people. 

Veneris Promontorium. [Pyrenes Prom.] 
Veneris Portus or Pyrenaei Portas, a seaport 
town of the Indigetes in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
near the Prom. Veneris, and on the frontiers of Gaul. 

Venetia. 1. A district in the N. of Italy, was 
originally included under the general name of 
Gallia Cisalpina, but was made by Augustus the 
10th Regio of Italy. It was bounded on the W. 
by the river Athesis, which separated it from Gallia 
Cisalpina ; on the N. by the Carnic Alps ; on th« 
E. by the river Timavus, which separated it from 
Istria ; and on the S. by the Adriatic Gulf. This 
country was, and is, very fertile ; and its inhabit- 
ants enjoyed great prosperity. The chief pro- 
ductions of the country were excellent wool, a sweet 
but much prized wine, and race-horses. Dionysius, 
the tyrant of Syracuse, is said to have kept a stud 
of race-horses in this country. — Its inhabitants, 
the Veneti, frequently called Heneti ('Everoi) by 
the Greeks, were commonly said to be descendants 
of the Paphlagonian Heneti, whom Antenor led 
into the country after the Trojan war ; but this 
tale, like so many others, has evidently arisen from 
the mere similarity of the name. Others supposed 
the Veneti to be a branch of the Celtic Veneti in 
Gaul ; but this supposition is disproved by the ex- 
press testimony of Polybius, that they spoke a lan- 
guage entirely difierent from the Celtic : and that 
they had no connexion with the Celts, may be in- 
ferred from the fact that they were always on hostile 
terms with the Celtic tribes settled in Italy. He- 
rodotus regards them as an lUyrian race ; and all 
writers are agreed that they did not belong to the 
original population of Italy. In consequence of 
their hostility to the Celtic tribes in their neigh- 
bourhood, they formed at an early period an alliance 
with Rome ; and their country was defended by 
the Romans against their dangerous enemies. On 
the conquest of the Cisalpine Gauls, the Veneti 
likewise became included under the Roman do- 
minions ; and they were almost the only people in 
Italy who became the subjects of Rome without 
off'ering any resistance. The Veneti continued to 
enjoy great prosperity down to the time of tne Mar- 
comannic wars, in the reign of the emperor Aure- 
lius ; but from this time their country was fre- 
quently devastated by the barbarians who invaded 
Italy; and at length, in the 5th century, many of 
its inhabitants, to escape the ravages of the Huns 
under Attila, took refuge in the islands off their 
coast, on which now stands the city of Venice. 
The chief towns of Venetia in ancient times were, 
Patavium, Altinum, and Aquileia. The 2 
latter carried on an extensive commerce, and ex- 
ported, among other things, large quantities of 
amber, which was brought from the Baltic through 
the interior of Europe to these cities. —2. A district 
in the N. W. of Gallia Lugdunensis, inhabited by 
the Veneti, who were a brave people, and the best 
sailors in all Gaul. Off their coast was a group 
of islands called Insulae Veneticae. 



VENETUS LAC US. 



VENUS. 



»09 



Venetus Lacas. [Brigantinus Lacus.] 
Venilia, a nymph, daughter of Pilumnus, sister 
of Amata, wife of king Latinus, and mother of 
Turnus and Juturna by Daunus. 

Vennones, a people of Rhaetia, and according to 
Strabo the most savage of the Rhaetian tribes, in- 
habiting the Alps near the sources of the Athesis 
(Adige). 

Venta. L Belgarum (Winchester), the chief 
town of the Eelgae in Britain. The modem city 
still contains several Roman remains. — 2. Ice- 
norum. [Iceni.] —3. Silurum (Caerwent), a 
town of the Silures in Britain, in Monmouthshire. 

Venti (^vejuoi), the winds. They appear per- 
sonified, even in the Homeric poems, but at the 
same time they are conceived as ordinary phe- 
nomena of nature. The master and ruler of all 
the winds is Aeolus, who resides in the island 
Aeolia [Aeolus] ; but the other gods also, espe- 
cially Zeus, exercise a power over them. Homer 
mentions by name Boreas (N. wind), Eurus (E. 
wind), Notus (S. wind), and Zephyrus (W. wind). 
When the funeral pile of Patroclus could not be 
made to bum, Achilles promised to offer sacrifices 
to the winds ; and Iris accordingly hastened to 
them, and found them feasting in the palace of 
Zephyrus in Thrace, Boreas and Zephyrus there- 
upon straightway crossed the Thracian sea into 
Asia, to cause the fire to blaze. According to 
Hesiod, the beneficial winds, Notus, Boreas, Ar- 
gestes, and Zephyrus, were the sons of Astraeus 
and Eos; and the destructive ones, such as Typhon, 
are said to be the sons of Typhoeus. Later, 
especiall}' philosophical, writers endeavoured to 
define the winds more accurately, according to 
their places in tlie compass. Thus Aristotle, 
besides the 4 principal winds (Boreas or Aparctias, 
Eurus, Notus, and Zephyrus), mentions 3, the 
Meses, Caieias, and Apeliotes, between Boreas 
and Eurus ; between Eurus and Notus he places 
the Phoenicias ; between Notus and Zephyrus he 
has only the Lips; and between Zephyrus and 
Boreas he places the Argestes (Olympias or Sciron ) 
and the Thrascias. It must further be observed 
that, according to Aristotle, the Eurus is not due E. 
but S. E. In the Museum Pio-Clementinum there 
exists a marble monument upon Avhich the winds 
are described with their Greek and Latin names, 
viz. Septentrio (Aparctias), Eurus (Euros or S. E.), 
and between these 2 Aquilo (Boreas), Vulturnus 
(Caieias) and Solanus (Apheliotes). Between 
Eurus and Notus (Notos) there is only one, the 
Euroauster (Euronotus) ; between Notus and 
Favonius (Zephyrus) are marked Austro-Africus 
(Libonotus), and Africus (Lips) ; and between 
Favonius and Septentrio we find Chrus (lapyx) 
and Circius (Thracius). The winds were repre- 
sented by poets and artists in different ways ; the 
latter usually represented them as beings with 
wings at their heads and shoulders. The most 
remarkable monument representing the winds is 
the octagonal tower of Andronicus Cyrrhestes at 
Athens. Each of the 8 sides of the monument 
represents one of the 8 principal winds in a flying 
attitude. A moveable Triton in the centre of the 
cupola pointed with his staff to the wind blowing 
at the time. All these 8 figures have wings at 
their shoulders, all are clothed, and the peculia- 
rities of the winds are indicated by their bodies 
and various attributes. Black lambs were offered 
as sacrifices to the destructive winds, and white 



ones to favourable or good winds. Boreas had a 
temple on the river Ilissus in Attica ; and Ze- 
phyrus had an altar on the sacred road to Eleusis. 

Ventidius Bassus, P., a celebrated Roman 
general, was a native of Picenum, and was taken 
prisoner by Pompeius Strabo in the Social war 
(b. c. 89), and carried to Rome. When he grew 
up to man's estate, he got a poor living by under- 
taking to furnish mules and vehicles for those 
magistrates who went from Rome to administer a 
province. In this humble employment he became 
known to C. Julius Caesar, whom he accompanied 
into Gaul. In the Civil war he executed Caesar's 
orders with ability, and became a favourite of his 
great commander. He obtained the rank of tribune 
of the plebs, and was made a praetor for b. c. 43. 
After Caesar's death Ventidius sided with M. An- 
tony in the war of Mutina (43), and in the same 
year was made consul suffectus. In 3,9 Antony 
sent Ventidius into Asia, to oppose Labienus and 
the Parthians. He conducted this war with dis- 
tinguished ability and success. In the 1st cam- 
paign (39) he defeated the Parthians and Labienus, 
the latter of whom was slain in his flight after 
the battle ; and in the 2nd campaign (38) Ventidius 
gained a still more brilliant victory over the Par- 
thians, who had again invaded Syria. Pacorus, 
the king's son, fell in this battle. Antony, how- 
ever, far from being pleased with the success of 
Ventidius, showed great jealousy of him, and 
dismissed him from his employment. Yet his ser- 
vices were too great to be overlooked ; and he had 
a triumph in November, 38. Nothing more is 
known of him. Ventidius was often cited as an 
instance of a man who rose from the lowest con- 
dition to the highest honours ; a captive became a 
Roman consul and enjoyed a triumph ; but this 
was in a period of revolution. 

Venus, the goddess of love among the Romans. 
Before she was identified with the Greek Aphro- 
dite, she was one of the least important divinities 
in the religion of the Romans ; but still her wor- 
ship seems to have been established at Rome at 
an early time. There was a stone chapel with an 
image of Venus Murtea or Murcia in the Circus 
near the spot where the altar of Consus was con- 
cealed. This surname was said to be the same as 
Myrtea (from myrtus, a myrtle), and to indicate 
the fondness of the goddess for the myrtle-tree. In 
ancient times there is said to have been a myrtle- 
grove in front of her sanctuary below the Aven- 
tine. Another ancient surname of Venus Avas 
Cloacina, which is said to have been derived from 
her image having been found in the great sewer 
(cloaca) ; but this tale is nothing but an etymolo- 
gical inference from the name. It is supposed by 
modern writers that this surname signifies the 
"Purifier" from cloaj-e or cluere "to wash" or 
" purify." The statue of Venus under this sur- 
name was set up by T. Tatius in a temple near 
the forum. A 3rd ancient surname of Venus is 
Calva, under which she had 2 temples in the 
neighbourhood of the Capitol. Some believed that 
one of them had been built by Ancus Marcius, 
because his wife was in danger of losing her hair ; 
others thought that it was a monument of a pa- 
triotic act of the Roman women, who during the 
siege of the Gauls cut off their hair and gave it 
to the men to make strings for their bows ; and 
others again supposed it to refer to the fancies and 
caprices of lovers, calvere signifying " to teaze.' 



810 



VENUSIA. 



VERRES. 



But it probably refers to tbe fact that on her wed- 
ding day the bride, either actually or symbolically, 
cut off a lock of hair to sacrifice it to Venus. In 
these, the most ancient surnames of Venus, "we 
must recognise her primitive character and attri- 
butes, — In later times her worship became much 
more extended, and her identification with the 
Greek Aphrodite introduced various new attributes. 
At the beginning of the second Punic war, the 
worship of Venus Erycina was introduced from 
Sicily, and a temple was dedicated to her on the 
Capitol, to which subsequently another was added 
outside the Colline gate. In the year b. c. 114, a 
Vestal virgin was killed by lightning ; and as the 
general moral corruption, especially among the 
Vestals, was believed to be the cause of this dis- 
aster, the Sibylline books, upon being consulted, 
commanded that a temple should be built to Venus 
Verticordia (the goddess who turns the hearts of 
men) on the via Salaria. After the close of the 
Samnite war. Fabius Gurges founded the worship 
of Venus Obsequens and Postvorta ; Scipio Africa- 
nus the younger, that of Venus Genitrix, in w'hich 
he was afterwards followed by Caesar, who added 
that of Venus Victrix. The worship of Venus was 
promoted by Caesar, who traced his descent from 
Aeneas, who was supposed to be the son of Mairs 
and Venus. The month of April, as the beginning 
of spring, was thought to be peculiarly sacred to 
the goddess of love. Respecting the Greek goddess 
see Aphrodite. 

Venusia ( Venusinus : Venosa), an ancient town 
of Apulia, S. of the river Aufidus, and near Mt. 
Vultur, situated in a romantic country, and me- 
morable as the birthplace of the poet Horace. It 
was originally a town of the Hirpini in Samnium ; 
and after its original Sabellian inhabitants had been 
driven out by the Romans, it was colonised by the 
latter, B.C. 291, and formed an important militar}- 
station. Here the remnants of the Roman army 
took refuge after the fatal battle of Cannae, 216. 

Veragxi or Varagri, a people in Gallia Belgica, 
on the Pennine Alps, near the confluence of the 
Dranse and the Rhone. 

Verbanus Lacus {Logo Maggiore), a lake in 
Gallia Cisalpina, and the largest lake in all Italy, 
being about 40 miles in length from N. to S. : its 
greatest breadth is 8 miles. It is formed by the 
river Ticinus and other streams descending from the 
Alps ; and the river Ticinus issues from its southern 
extremity. 

Verceilae (Vercellensis : Vercelli), the chief 
town of the Libici in Gallia Cisalpina, and subse- 
quently a Roman municipium, and a place of con- 
siderable importance. 

Vercingetoris, the celebrated chieftain of the 
Arvemi, who carried on war with great ability 
against Caesar in B. c. 52. The history of this 
war occupies the 7th book of Caesar's Commen- 
taries on the Gallic war. Vercingetorix feU into 
Caesar's hands on the capture of Alesia, was sub- 
sequently taken to Rome, where he adorned the 
triumph of his conqueror in 45, and was afterwards 
put to death. 

Veretnm (Veretinus : Akssano), more anciently 
called Baris, a tovm in Calabria, on the road from 
Leuca to Tarentum, and 600 stadia S. E. of the 
latter city. 

Vergae, a town in the interior of Bruttium, of 
uncertain site. 

Yergellus, a rivulet in Apulia crossing the plain 



of Cannae, which is said to have been choked by 
the dead bodies of the Romans slain in the me- 
morable battle against Hannibal. 

Vergilius. [Virgilius.] 

Verginius. [Virginius.] 

VerolamiTun or Verulaniium {Old Vemlam, 
near St. Albans), the chief town of the Catuellani 
in Britain, probably the residence of the king Cas- 
sivellaunus, which was conquered by Caesar. It i 
was subsequently made a Roman municipium. It 
was destroyed by the Britons under Boadicea, in 
their insurrection against the Romans, but was 
rebuilt and continued to be an important place. 

VeromandTii, a people in Gallia Belgica, be- 
tween the Nervii and Suessiones, in the modem 
Vermandois. Their chief tovra was Augusta Vero- 
manduornm {St. Qmntin). 

Verona (Veronensis : Verona)^ an important 
tovrn in Gallia Cisalpina, on the river Athesis, was 
originally the capital of the Euganei, but subse- 
quently belonged to the Cenomani. At a still later 
time it was made a Roman colony, with the sur- 
name Augusta ; and under the empire it was one 
of the largest and most flourishing towns in the N. 
of Italy. It was the bhiihplace of Catullus ; and, 
according to some accounts, of the elder Pliny, 
though others make him a native of Comum. It 
is celebrated on account of the battle fought in its 
neighbourhood in the Campi Raudii, by Marius 
against the Cimbri, and also by the victor)' of Theo- 
doric the Great over Odoacer. Theodoric took up 
his residence in this to^-n, whence it is called by 
the German writers of the middle ages Dietrichs 
Bern, to distinguish it from Bern in Switzerland. 
There are still many Roman remains at Verona, 
and among others an amphitheatre in a good state 
of preservation. 

Verres, C, was quaestor b. c. 82, to Cn. Papi- 
rius Carbo, and therefore at that period belonged 
to the Marian party. He, however, deserted Carbo 
and went over to Sulla, who sent him to Beneven- 
tam, where he was allowed a share of the confis- 
cated estates. Verres next appears as the legate 
of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella, praetor of Cilicia in 80 
— 79, and one of the most rapacious of the provin- 
cial governors. On the death of the regular quaestor 
C. Malleolus, Verres became the pro-quaestor of 
Dolabella. In Verres Dolabella found an active 
and unscrupulous agent, and, in return, connived 
at his excesses. But the pro-quaestor proved as 
faithless to Dolabella as he had been to Carbo, and 
turned evidence against him on his prosecution by 
M. Scaurus in 78. Verres was praetor urbanus in 
74, and afterwards propraetor in Sicily, where he re- 
mained nearly 3 years (73 — 71). The extortions 
and exactions of Verres in the island have become 
notorious through the celebrated orations of Cicero. 
No class of the inhabitants of Sicily was exempted 
from his avarice, his cruelty, or his insults. The 
wealthy had money or works of art to yield up ; 
the middle classes might be made to pay heavier 
imposts ; and the exports of the vineyards, the 
arable land, and the loom, he saddled with heavier 
burdens. By capricious changes or violent abro- 
gation of their compacts, Verres reduced to beg- 
gary both the producers and the farmers of the 
revenue. His three years' rule desolated the island 
more effectually than the two recent Servile wars 
and than the old struggle between Carthage and 
Rome for the possession of the island. So diligently 
did he employ his opportunities, that he boasted of 



i 



VERRES. 



VERUS. 



811 



having amassed enough for a life of opulence, even 
if he were compelled to disgorge two-thirds of his 
plunder, in stifling inquiry or purchasing an ac- 
quittal. As soon as he left Sicily, the inhabitants 
resolved to bring him to trial. They committed 
the prosecution to Cicero, who had been Lilybaean 
quaestor in Sicily in 75, and had promised his 
good offices to the Sicilians whenever they might 
demand them, Cicero heartily entered into the 
cause of the Sicilians, and spared no pains to secure 
a conviction of the great criminal. Verres was 
defended by Hortensius, and was supported by the 
whole power of the aristocracy. At first his parti- 
sans attempted to stop the prosecution by bribes, 
flatteries, and menaces ; but finding this to be im- 
possible, they endeavoured to substitute a sham 
prosecutor in the place of Cicero. Hortensius 
therefore offered as prosecutor Q. Caecilius Niger, 
who had been quaestor to the defendant, had quar- 
relled with him, and had consequently, it was 
alleged, the means of exposing officially his abuse 
of the public m^oney. But the Sicilians rejected 
Caecilius altogether, not merely as no match for 
Hortensius, but as foisted into the cause by the 
defendant or his advocate. B}' a technical process 
of the Roman law, called Divinatio, the judices, 
without hearing evidence, determined from the 
arguments of counsel alone, who should be ap- 
pointed prosecutor. They decided in Cicero's fa- 
vour. The oration which Cicero delivered on this 
occasion, was the Divinatio in Q. Caecilium. The 
pretensions of Caecilius were thus set aside. Yet 
hope did not yet forsake Verres and his friends. 
Evidence for the prosecution was to be collected in 
Sicily itself. Cicero was allowed 110 days for 
the purpose. Verres once again attempted to set 
up a sham prosecutor, who undertook to impeach 
him for his former extortions in Achaia, and to 
gather the evidence in 108 days. But the new 
prosecutor never went even so far as Brundisium 
in quest of evidence, and the design was aban- 
doned. Instead of the 110 days allowed, Cicero, 
assisted by his cousin Lucius, completed his re- 
searches in 50, and returned with a mass of evi- 
dence and a crowd of witnesses gathered from all 
parts of the island. Hortensius now grasped at his 
last chance of an acquittal, and it was not an un- 
likely one. Could the impeachment be put off to 
the next year, Verres was safe. Hortensius him- 
self would then be consul, with Q. Metellus for his 
colleague, and M. Metellus would be praetor ur- 
banus. For every firm and honest judex whom 
the upright M. Acilius Glabrio, then praetor ur- 
banus, had named, a partial or venal substitute 
would be found. Glabrio himself would give 
place as quaesitor or president of the court to M. 
Metellus, a partisan, if not a kinsman, of the de- 
fendant. It was already the month of July. The 
games to be exhibited by Cn. Pompey were fixed 
for the middle of August, and would occupy a 
fortnight; the Roman games would immediately 
succeed them, and thus 40 days intervene between 
Cicero's charge and the reply of Hortensius, who 
again, by dexterous adjournments, would delay the 
proceedings until the games of Victory, and the 
commencement of the new year. Cicero therefore 
abandoned all thought of eloquence or display, and 
merely introducing his case in the first of the 
Verrine orations, rested all his hopes of success on 
the weight of testimony alone. Hortensius was 
qviite imprepared with counter- evidence, and after , 



Orations 
foimded on 
the Deposi- 
tions. 



the first day he abandoned the cause of Verres. 
Before the nine days occupied in hearing evidence 
Avere over, Verres quitted the city in despair, r.nd 
was condemned in his absence. He retired to 
Marseilles, retaining so many of his treasures of 
art as to cause eventually his proscription by 
M. Antony in 43. Of the 7 Verrine orations 
of Cicero, 2 only, the Divinatio and the Aciio 
Prima, were spoken, while the remaining 5 were 
compiled from the depositions after the verdict. 
Cicero's own division of the impeachment is the 
following : 

f 1. In Q, Caecilium or Divinatio. 
1 . Preliminary -j 2. Proemiura — Actio Prima — 
1^ Statement of the Case. 
These alone were spoken. 

^ 3. Verres's official life to b. c. 73. 

4. Jurisdictio Siciliensis. 

5. Oratio Frumentaria. 

6. De Signis. 

7. De Suppliciis. 

These were circulated as documents or mani- 
festoes of the cause after the flight of Verres. 

Verrugo, a town of the Volsci in Latium, of 
uncertain site. 

Verticordia. [Venus.] 

Vertunmus or Vortumnus, is said to have 
been an Etruscan divinity whose worship was in- 
troduced at Rome hj an ancient Vulsinian colony 
occupying at first the Caelian bill, and afterwards 
the vicus Tuscus. The name is evidently con- 
nected with verto, and formed on the analogy of 
alumnus from alo, whence it must signify " the 
god who changes or metamorphoses himself." For 
this reason the Romans connected Vertumnus with 
all occurrences to which the verb verto applies, 
such as the change of seasons, purchase and sale, 
the return of rivers to their proper beds, &c. But 
in reality the god was connected only with the 
transformation of plants and their progress from 
blossom to fruit. Hence the story, that when 
Vertumnus was in love with Pomona, he assumed 
all possible forms, imtil at last he gained his end 
by metamorphosing himself into a blooming youth. 
Gardeners accordingly offered to him the first 
produce of their gardens and garlands of budding 
flowers. The whole people celebrated a festival to 
Vertumnus on the 23rd of August, under the name 
of the Vortumnaliay denoting the tmnsition from 
the beautiful season of autumn to the less agreeable 
one. He had a temple in the vicus Tuscus, andja 
statue of him stood in the vicus Jugarius near the 
altar of Ops. The story of the Etruscan origin 
seems to be sufficiently refuted by his genuine 
Roman name, and it is much more probable that 
the worship of Vertumnus was of Sabine origin. 
The importance of the worship of Vertumnus at 
Rome is evident from the fact, that it was attended 
to by a special flamen {fiamen Vortumnalis). 

Vemlae (Verulanus : Veroli), a town of the 
Hernici in Latium, S. E. of Aletrium, and N. of 
Frusino, subsequently a Roman colony. 

Verulamium. [Verolamium.] 

Verus, L. Aurelius, the colleague of M. Aure- 
lius in the empire, a. d. 161 — 169. He was born 
in 130, and his original name was L. Ceionius 
Commodus. His father L. Ceionius Commodus 
was adopted by Hadrian in 136; and on the death 
of his father in 138, he was, in pursuance of the 
command of Hadrian, adopted, along with M. 
Aurelius, by M. Antoninus. Ou the death of 



«I2 VESCINUS. 

Antoninus in 161, lie succeeded to the empire 
along with M. Aurelius. The history of his reign 
is given under Aurelius. Verus died suddenly 
at Altinum in the country of Veneti, towards the 
close of 169. He had been married to Lucilla, 
the daughter of his colleague. 

Vescinus Ager. [Suessa Aurunca.] 

Vesevus. [Vesuvius.] 

Vesontio {Besan^on), the chief town of the Se- 
quani in Grallia Belgica, situated on the river Dubis 
(Doubs), which flowed around the town, with the 
exception of a space of 600 feet, on which stood a 
mountain, forming the citadel of the town, and con- 
nected with the latter by means of walls. Veson- 
tio was an important place under the Romans, and 
still contains ruins of an aqueduct, a triumphal 
arch, and other Roman remains. 

Vespasianus, T. Flavius Sabinus, Roman 
emperor, a. d. 70—79, was bom in the Sabine 
country on the 17th of November, A. d. 9. His 
father was a man of mean condition, of Reate, in 
the country of the Sabini. His mother, Vespasia 
Polla, was the daughter of a praefectus castrorum, 
and the sister of a Roman senator. She was left 
a widow with 2 sons, Flavius Sabinus and Vespa- 
sian. Vespasian served as tribunus militum in 
Thrace, and was quaestor in Crete and Cyrene. 
He was afterwards aedile and praetor. About 
this time he took to wife Flavia Domitilla, the 
daughter of a Roman eques. by whom he had 2 
sons, both of whom succeeded him. In the reign 
of Claudius he was sent into Germany as legatus 
legionis ; and in 43 he held the same command in 
Britain, and reduced the Isle of Wight. He was 
consul in 51, and proconsul of Africa under Nero. 
He was at this time very poor, and was accused of 
getting money by dishonourable means. But he 
had a great military reputation, and he was liked 
by the soldiers. Nero afterwards sent him to the 
East (66), to conduct the war against the Jews. 
His conduct of the Jewish war had raised his re- 
putation, when the war broke out between Otho 
and Vitellius after the death of Galba. He was 
proclaimed emperor at Alexandria on the 1 st of 
July 69, and soon after aU through the East. 
Vespasian came to Rome in the following year 
(70), leaving his son Titus to continue the war 
against the Jews. Titus took Jerusalem after a 
siege of 5 months ; and a formidable insurrection 
of the Batavi, headed by Civilis, was put down 
about the same period. Vespasian, on his arrival 
at Rome, worked with great industry to restore 
order in the city and in the empire. He disbanded 
some of the mutinous soldiers of Vitellius, and 
maintained discipline among his own. He co- 
operated in a friendly manner with the senate in 
the public administration. The simplicity and 
frugality of his mode of life formed a striking con- 
trast with the profusion and luxury of some of his 
predecessors, and his example is said to have done 
more to reform the morals of Rome than all the 
laws which had ever been enacted. He lived 
more like a private person than a man who pos- 
sessed supreme power: he was affable and easy of 
access to all persons. The personal anecdotes of 
such a man are some of the most instructive records 
of his reign. He was never ashamed of the mean- 
ness of his origin, and ridiculed all attempts to 
make out for him a distinguished genealogy. When 
Vologeses, the Parthian king, addressed^to him a 
letter commencing in these terms, " Arsaces, king 



VESTA. 

of kings, to Flavius Vespasianus," the answer be- 
gan, " Flavius Vespasianus to Arsaces, king of 
kings." If it be true, as it is recorded, that he 
was not annoyed at satire or ridicule, he exhibited 
an elevation of character almost unparalleled in 
one who filled so exalted a station. He knew the 
bad character of his son Domitian, and as long as 
he lived he kept him under proper restraint. The 
stories that are told of his avarice and of his modes 
of raising money, if true, detract from the dignity 
of his character ; and it seems that he had a taste 
for little savings, and for coarse humour. Yet it 
is admitted that he was liberal in all his expendi- 
ture for purposes of public utility. In 71 Titus 
returned to Rome, and both father and son tri- 
umphed together on account of the conquest of the 
Jews. The reign of Vespasian was marked by 
few striking events. The most important was the 
conquest of North Wales and the island of Angle- 
sey by Agricola, who was sent into Britain in 78. 
In the summer of 79 Vespasian, whose health was 
failing, went to spend some time at his paternal 
house in the mountains of the Sabini. By drink- 
ing to excess of cold water he damaged his stomach, 
which was already disordered. But he still at- 
tended to business, just as if he had been in perfect 
health ; and on feeling the approach of death, he 
said that an emperor should die standing ; and in 
fact he did die standing in this attitude, on the 
24th of June 79, being 69 years of age. 

Vesta, one of the great Roman divinities, iden- 
tical with the Greek Hestia, both in name and 
import. She was the goddess of the hearth, and 
therefore inseparably connected with the Penates ; 
for Aeneas was believed to have brought the eternal 
fire of Vesta from Troy, along with the images of 
the Penates ; and the praetors, consuls, and dicta- 
tors, before entering upon their official functions, 
sacrificed, not only to the Penates, but also to Vesta 
at Lavinium. In the ancient Roman house, the 
hearth was the central part, and around it all the 
inmates daily assembled for their common meal 
(coena) ; every meal thus taken was a fresh bond 
of union and affection among the members of a 
family, and at the same time an act of worship of 
Vesta, combined with a sacrifice to her and the 
Penates. Every dwelling-house therefore was, in 
some sense, a temple of Vesta ; but a public sanc- 
tuary united all the citizens of the state into one 
large family. This sanctuary stood in the Forum, 
between the Capitoline and Palathie hills, and not 
far from the temple of the Penates. The temple 
was roimd with a vaulted roof, like the impluvium 
of private houses, so that there is no reason to 
regard that form as an imitation of the vault of 
heaven. The goddess was not represented in her 
temple by a statue, but the eternal fire burning on 
her hearth or altar was her living symbol, and was 
kept up and attended to by the Vestals, her virgin 
priestesses. As each house, and the city itself, so 
also the country had its own Vesta, and the latter 
was worshipped at Lavinium, the metropolis of the 
Latins, where she was worshipped and received 
the regular sacrifices at the hands of the highest 
magistrates. The goddess herself was regarded as 
chaste and pure like her symbol, the fire ; and the 
Vestals who kept up the sacred fire were likewise 
pure maidens. Respecting their duties and obli- 
gations, see Did. of Antiq. art. VestaUs. On the 
1st of March in every year her sacred fire, and the 
laurel tree which shaded her hearth, were renewed, 



VESTINI. 



VET US. 



813 



and on the 15th of June her temple was cleaned 
and purified. The dirt was carried into an angi- 
portus behind the temple, which was locked by a 
gate that no one might enter it. The day on which 
this took place was a dies ne/astiis, the first half of 
which was thought to be so inauspicious, that the 
priestess of Juno was not allowed to comb her hair 
or to cut her nails, while the second half was very 
favourable to contracting a marriage or entering 
upon other important undertakings. A few days 
before that solemnity, on the 9th of June, the 
Vestalia was celebrated in honour of the goddess, 
on which occasion none but women walked to the 
temple, and that with bare feet. On one of these 
occasions an altar had been dedicated to Jupiter 
Pistor. Respecting the Greek goddess see Hestia. 

Vestini, a Sabellian people in central Italy, 
lying between the Apennines and the Adriatic sea, 
and separated from Picenum by the river Matri- 
nus, and from the Marrucini by the river Aternus. 
They are mentioned in connexion with the Marsi, 
Marrucini, and Peligni ; but they subsequently 
separated from these peoples, and joined the Sam- 
nites in their war against Rome. They were con- 
quered by the Romans, B. c. 328, and from this 
time appear as the allies of Rome. They joined 
the other allies in the Marsic war, and were con- 
quered by Pompeius Strabo in 89. They made a 
particular kind of cheese, which was a great 
favourite with the Romans. 

Vesulus. [Alpes.] 

Vesuvius, also called Vesevus, Vesbius, or 
Vesvius, the celebrated volcanic mountain in Cam- 
pania, rising out of the plain S. E. of Neapolis. 
There are no records of any eruption of Vesuvius 
before the Christian era, but the ancient writers 
were aware of its volcanic nature from the igneous 
appearance of its rocks. The slopes of the moun- 
tain were extremely fertile, but the top was a 
rough and sterile plain, on which Spartacus and 
his gladiators were besieged by a Roman army. In 
A. D. 63 the volcano gave the first symptoms of 
agitation in an earthquake, which occasioned con- 
siderable damage to several towns in its vicinity ; 
and on the 24th of August A. d. 79, occurred the 
first great eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed 
the cities of Stabiae, Herculaneum, and Pompeii. 
It was in this eruption that the elder Pliny lost 
his life. [Plinius.] There have been numerous 
eruptions since that time, which have greatly 
altered the shape of the mountain. Its present 
height is 3200 feet. 

Vetera or Castra Vetera. [Castra, No. 5.] 

Vetranio, commanded the legions in Illyria and 
Pannonia, at the period (a, d. 350) when Constans 
was treacherously destroyed, and his throne seized 
by Magnentius. Vetranio was proclaimed emperor 
by liis troops; but at the end of 10 months he 
resigned his pretensions in favour of Constantius, 
by whom he was treated with great kindness, and 
permitted to retire to Prusa, in Bithynia, where 
he passed the remaining 6 years of his life. 

Vettius, L., a Roman eques, in the pay of 
Cicero in b. c. 63, to whom he gave some valuable 
information respecting the Catilinarian conspiracy. 
He again appears in 59, as an informer. In that 
year he accused Curio, Cicero, L. Lucullus, and 
many other distinguished men, of having formed a 
conspiracy to assassinate Pompey. This conspiracy 
was a sheer invention for the purpose of injuring 
Cicero, Curio, and others ; but there is difficulty 



in determining who were the inventors of it. 
Cicero regarded it as the work of Caesar, who 
used the tribune Vatinius as his instrument. At 
a later period, when Cicero had returned from 
exile, and feared to provoke the triumvir, he threw 
the whole blame upon Vatinius. Vettius gave 
evidence first before the senate and on the next 
day before the assembly of the people ; but his 
statements were regarded with great suspicion, 
and on the following morning he was found 
strangled in prison, to which the senate had sent 
him. It was given out that he had committed 
suicide; but the marks of violence were visible on 
his body, and Cicero at a later time charged Va- 
tinius with the murder. 

Vettius Scato. [Scato.] 

Vettones or Vectones, a people in the interior 
of Lusitania, E. of the Lusitani and W. of the 
Carpetani, extending from the Durius to the Tagus. 

Vetulonia, Vetulonium, or Vetulonii, an an- 
cient city of Etruria, and one of the 12 cities of 
the Etruscan confederation. From this city the 
Romans are said to have borrowed the insignia of 
their magistrates — the fasces, sella curulis, and 
toga praetexta — as well as the use of the brazen 
trumpet in war. After the time of the Roman 
kings we find no further mention of Vetulonia, 
except in the catalogues of Pliny and Ptolemy, 
both of whom place it among the inland colonies of 
Etruria. Pliny also states that there were hot 
springs in its neighbourhood not far from the sea, 
in which fish were found, notwithstanding the 
warmth of the water. The very site of the ancient 
city was supposed to have been entirely lost ; but 
it has been discovered within the last few years 
near a small village called Magliano, between the 
river Osa and the Albegna, and about 8 miles in- 
land. It appears to have had a circuit of at least 
41 miles. 

Veturia Geas, anciently called Vetusia, pa- 
trician and plebeian. The Vetm-ii rarely occur in 
the later times of the republic, and after b. c. 206, 
when L. Veturius Philo was consul, their name 
disappears from the Fasti. The most distinguished 
families in the gens bore the names Calvin us, 
CicuRiNus, and Philo. 

Veturius Mamurius is said to have been the 
armourer who made the 11 ancilia exactly like 
the one that was sent from heaven in the reign of 
Numa. His praises formed one of the chief sub- 
jects of the songs of the Salii. Even the ancients 
themselves doubted in the reality of his existence : 
Varro interpreted his name as equivalent to vetus 
memoria. Some modern writers regard Mamurius 
Veturius as an Etruscan artist, because he is said 
to have made a brazen image of the god Vertumniis. 

Vetus, Antistius. 1. Propraetor in Further 
Spain about b. c. 68, under whom Caesar served 
as quaestor. — 2. C, son of the preceding, quaestor 
in 61, and tribune of the plebs in 57, when he 
supported Cicero in opposition to Clodius. In the 
Civil war he espoused Caesar's part)', and we find 
him in Syria in 45, fighting against Q. Caecilius 
Bassus. In 34 Vetus carried on war against the 
Salassi, and in 30 was consul suifectus. He ac- 
companied Augustus to Spain in 25, and on the 
illness of the emperor continued the war against 
the Cantabri and Astures, whom he reduced to 
submission. — 3. C, son of No. 2., consul b. c. 6; 
and as he lived to see both his sons consuls, he 
must have been alive at least as late as a, d. 28, 



814 



VIADUS. 



VICTOR. 



He was a friend of Velleius Paterculus. — 4. L. 
grandson of No. 3, and consul with the emperor 
Nero, A. D. 55. In 58 he commanded a Roman 
army in Germany, and formed the project of con- 
necting the Mosella (Moselle) and the Arar (Saojie) 
by a canal, and thus forming a communication be- 
tween the Mediterranean and the Northern Ocean, 
as troops could be conveyed down the Rhone and 
the Saone into the Moselle through the canal, and 
down the Moselle into the Rhine, and so into the 
Ocean. Vetus put an end to his life in 65, in 
order to anticipate his sentence of death, which 
Nero had resolved upon. Vetus was the father- 
in-law of Rubellius Plautus. 

Viadus (Oder), a river of Germany, falling into 
the Baltic. 
VTbius Pansa, [Pansa.] 
Vibius Sequester. [Sequester,] 
Vibo (Vibonensis : Bivona), the Roman form of 
the Greek town Hipponium ('iTnrdoviou : 'Itttto;- 
viaTrjs), situated on the S. W. coast of Bruttium, 
and on a gulf called after it Sinus Vibonensis or 
Hipponiates. It is said to have been founded by 
the Locri Epizephyrii ; but it was destroyed by 
the elder Dionysius, who transplanted its inha- 
bitants to Syracuse. It was afterwards restored ; 
and at a later time it fell into the hands of the 
Bruttii, together with the other Greek cities on 
this coast. It was taken from the Bruttii by the 
Romans, who colonised it B. c. 194, and called it 
Vibo Valentia. Cicero speaks of it as a muni- 
cipium ; and in the time of Augustus it was one of 
the most flourishing cities in the S. of Italy. 

Vibulanus, the name of the most ancient family 
of the Fabia Gens. It was so powerful in the 
early times of the republic, that 3 brothers of the 
family held the consulship for 7 years in succession, 
B. c. 485 — 479. The last person of the gens who 
bore this surname was Q. Fabius Vibulanus, consul 
412. This Vibulanus assumed the agnomen of 
Ambustus ; and his descendants dropt the name of 
Vibulanus and took that of Ambustus in its place. 
In the same way Ambustus was after a time sup- 
planted by that of Maximus. — 1. Q. Fabius Vi- 
bulanus, consul 485, when he carried on war with 
success against the Volsci and Aequi, and consul a 
2nd time in 482. In 480 he fought imder his 
brother Marcus [No. 31] against the Etruscans, 
and was killed in battle. — 2, K., brother of the 
preceding, was quaestor parricidii in 485, and along 
with his colleague L. Valerius accused Sp. Cassius 
Viscellinus, who was in consequence condemned 
by the votes of the populus. He was consul in 
484, when he took an active part in opposing the 
agrarian law, which the tribunes of the people 
attempted to bring forward. In 481 he was consul 
a 2nd time, and in 479 a 3rd time, when he es- 
poused the cause of the plebeians, to whom he had 
become reconciled. As his propositions were re- 
jected with scorn by the patricians, he and his 
house resolved to quit Rome altogether, where 
they were regarded as apostates by their own 
order. They determined to found a settlement on 
the banks of the Cremera, a small stream that falls 
into the Tiber a few miles above Rome. According 
to the legend, the consul Kaeso went before the 
senate and said, that the Fabii were willing to 
carry on the war against the Veientes, alone and 
at their own cost. Their offer was joyfuUy ac- 
cepted, for the patricians were glad to see them 
expose themselves voluntarily to such dangers. On 



the day after Kaeso had made the proposal to the 
senate, 306 Fabii, all patricians of one gens, as- 
sembled on the Quirinal at the house of Kaeso, 
and from thence marched with the consul at their 
head through the Carmental gate. They proceeded 
straight to the banks of the Cremera, where they 
erected a fortress. Here they took up their abode 
along with their families and clients, and for 2 
years continued to devastate the territory of V eiL 
They were at length destroyed by the Veientes in 
477. Ovid says that the Fabii perished on the 
Ides of February ; but all other authorities state 
that they were destroyed on the day on which the 
Romans were subsequently conquered by the Gauls 
at the AUia, that is, on the 1 5th before the Kalends 
of Sextilis, June the 1 8th. The whole Fabia gens 
perished at the Cremera with the exception 
of one individual, the son of Marcus, from 
whom all the later Fabii were descended.— 3. M., 
brother of the 2 preceding, was consul 483, and a 
2nd time 480. In the latter year he gained a 
great victory over the Etruscans, in which however 
his colleague the consul Cincinnatus and his brother 
Q. Fabius were killed. — 4. Q., son of No. 3, is 
said to have been the only one of the Fabii who 
survived the destruction of his gens at the Cremera, 
but he could not have been left behind at Rome 
on account of his youth, as the legend relates, since 
he was consul 10 years afterwards. He was con- 
sul 467, a 2nd time in 465, and a 3rd time in 459. 
Fabius was a member of the 2nd decemvirate 
(450), and went into exile on the deposition of the 
decemvirs. 

Vibullius Eufus, L., a senator and a friend of 
Pompey, who made him praefectus fabrum in the 
Civil war. He was taken prisoner by Caesar at 
Corfinium (49), and a 2nd time in Spam later in 
the year. When Caesar landed in Greece in 48, 
he despatched Vibullius to Pompey with offers of 
peace. Vibullius made the greatest haste to reach 
Pompey, in order to give him the earliest intelli- 
gence of the arrival of his enemy in Greece. 

Vicentia or Vicetia, less correctly Vincentia 
(Vicentinus : Vicenza), a town in Venetia in the 
N, of Italy, and a Roman mxmicipium on the river 
Togisonus. 

Victor, Sex. Aurelius, a Latin writer, flourished 
in the middle of the 4 th century under the em- 
peror Constantius and his successors. He was bom 
of humble parents, but rose to distinction by his 
zeal in the cultivation of literature. Having at- 
tracted the attention of Julian when at Sirmium, 
he was appointed by that prince governor of one 
division of Pannonia. At a subsequent period, he 
was elevated by Theodosius to the high office of 
city praefect, and he is perhaps the same as the 
Sex. Aurelius Victor, who was consul along with 
Valentinian in a. d. 373. The following works, 
which present in a very compressed form a con- 
tinuous record of Roman affairs, from the fabulous 
ages down to the death of the emperor Theodosius, 
have all been ascribed to this writer ; but the evi- 
dence upon which the determination of authorship 
depends, is very slender, and in all probability the 
3rd alone belongs to the Sex. Aurelius Victor 
whom we have noticed above: — 1. Onyo Gentis 
Romanae, in 23 chapters, containing the annals of 
the Roman race, from Janus and Saturnus down 
to the era of Romulus. It is probably a production 
of some of the later grammarians who were desirous 
of prefixing a suitable introduction to the series. 



VICTOR. 



VINDELICIA. 



815 



2. De Viris illustribus Urhis Romae^ in 86 chapters, 
commencing with the birth of Romulus and Remus, 
and concluding with the death of Cleopatra. 3. 
De Caesaribus, in 42 chapters, exhibiting short 
biographies of the emperors, from Augustus to 
Constantius. 4, Epitome de Caesaribus, in 48 
chapters, commencing with Augustus and con- 
cluding with Theodosius. These lives agree for 
the most part almost word for word with the 
preceding, but variations may here and there be 
detected. Moreover, the first series terminates 
with Constantius, but the second comes down as 
low as Arcadius and Honorius. The best edition 
of these 4 pieces is by Arntzenius, Amst. et Traj. 
Bat. 1733, 4to. 

Victor, Publms, the name prefixed to an enu- 
meration of the principal buildings and monuments 
of ancient Rome, distributed according to the 
regions of Augustus, which has generally been 
respected as a work of great authority by Italian 
antiquaries. The best modern scholars, however, 
are agreed that this work, and a similar production 
ascribed to Sextus Rupus, cannot be received in 
their present state as ancient at all, but must be 
regarded as mere pieces of patchwork, fabricated 
not earlier than the 15th century. 

Victoria, the personification of victory among 
the Romans. It is said that Evander by the 
command of Minerva dedicated on mount Palatine 
a temple of Victoria, the daughter of Pallas. On 
the site of this ancient temple a new one was 
built by L. Postumius, during the war with the 
Samnites ; and M. Porcius Cato added to it a 
chapel of Victoria Virgo. In later times there 
existed 3 or 4 sanctuaries of Victory at Rome. 
Respecting the Greek goddess of Victory see 
Nice. 

Victoria or Victorina, the mother of Victo- 
rinus, after whose death she was hailed as the 
mother of camps {Mater Casirorum) ; and coins 
were struck, bearing her effigy. Feeling herself 
unequal to the weight of empire, she transferred 
her power first to Marius, and then to Tetricus, 
by Avhom some say that she was slain, while 
others affirm that she died a natural death. 

Victorinus. 1. One of the Thirty Tyrants, 
was the 3rd of the usurpers who in succession 
ruled Gaul during the reign of Gallienus. He was 
assassinated at Agrippina by one of his own 
officers in A. d. 268, after reigning somewhat more 
than a year. — 2. Bishop of Pettaw on the Drave 
in Styria, hence distinguished by the epithet Pe- 
iavionensis^ or Pidaviensis, flourished A. d. 270 — 
290, and suffered martyrdom during the perse- 
cution of Diocletian, probably in 303. He wrote 
commentaries on the Scriptures, but all his works 
are lost. — 3. C. Marius Victorinus, surnamed 
J/er from the country of bis birth, taught rhetoric 
at Rome in the middle of the 4th century, with so 
much reputation that his statue Avas erected in the 
forum of Trajan. In his old age he embraced 
Christianity ; and when the edict of Julian, pro- 
hibiting Christians from giving instruction in po- 
lite literature, was promulgated, Victorinus chose 
to shut up his school rather than deny his religion. 
Besides his commentaries on the Scriptures, and 
other theological works, many of which are extant, 
Victorinus wrote : — Commentarius s. Eocpositio in 
Ciceronis libros de Inventione, the best edition of 
which is in the 5th volume of Orelli's edition of 
Oicero. 2. Ars Grammatica de Orthographia et 



Ratione Metrorum, a complete and voluminous 
treatise upon metres, in 4 books, printed in the 
Grammaticae Latinae Audores Antiqui of Puts- 
chius, Hannov. 1605. The fame enjoyed by Vic- 
torinus as a public instructor does not gain any 
accession from his works. The exposition of the 
De Inventione is more difficult to comprehend than 
the text which it professes to explain. — 4. Maxi- 
raus Victorinus, We possess three short tracts 
— \ . De Re Grammatica ; 2. De Carmine He- 
roico ; 3. De Ratione Metrorum ; all apparently 
the work of the same author, and usually ascribed 
in MSS. to a Maximus Victorinus ; but whether 
we ought to consider him the same Avith the rhe- 
torician who flourished under Constantius, or as 
an independent personage, it is impossible to 
decide. They were printed in the collection of 
Putschius, Hannov. 1605, and in that of Linde- 
mann. Lips. 1831. 
Victrix. [Venus.] 

Viducasses, a tribe of the Armorici in Gallia 
Lugdunensis, S. of the modern Caen. 

Vienna (Viennensis : Vienne), the chief town of 
the Allobroges in Gallia Lugdunensis, situated on 
the Rhone, S. of Lugdunum. It was subsequently 
a Roman colony, and a wealthy and flourishing 
town. Under the later emperors it was the capital 
of the province called after it Gallia Viennensis. 
The modern town contains several Roman remains, 
of which the most important is a temple, supposed 
to have been dedicated to Augustus, and now con- 
verted into a museum. 

ViUius Annalis. [Annalis.] 

Viminalis. [Roma.] 

Vincentius, surnamed Lirinensis, from the 
monastery in the island of Lerins, where he offi- 
ciated as a presbyter. He was by birth a native 
of Gaul, and died in the reign of Theodosius and 
Valentinian, about A. d. 450. His fame rests 
upon a treatise against heretics, composed in 434. 
It commonly bears the title Commonitorium pro 
Catholicae ficiei antiquitate et universitate adversus 
pro/anas omnium Haereticorum novitates. The 
standard edition is that of Baluzius, 8vo. Paris, 
1663, 1669, 1684. 

Vindalum, a town of the Cavares in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, situated at the confluence of the Sulgas 
and the Rhone. 

Vindelicia, a Roman province S. of the Danube, 
bounded on the N. by the Danube, which separated 
it from Germany, on the W. by the territory of 
the Helvetii in Gaul, on the S. by Rhaetia, and on 
the E. by the river Oenus (Inn), which separated 
it from Noricum, thus corresponding to the N.E. 
part of Switzerland, the S.E. of Baden, the S. of; 
Wiirtemberg and Bavaria, and the N. part of the 
Tyrol. It was originally part of the province of 
Rhaetia, and was conquered by Tiberius in the 
reign of Augustus. At a later time Rhaetia was 
divided into two provinces, Rhaetia Prima and 
Rhaetia Secunda, the latter of which, names was 
gradually supplanted by that of Vindelicia. It 
was drained by the tributaries of the Danube, of, 
which the most important were the Licias, or Licus 
{Lech), with its tributary the Vindo, Vinda, or 
Virdo {Werlach), the Isarus (Isar), and Oenus 
(Inn). The E. part of the Lacus Brigantinus (LaTte 
of Constance) also belonged to Vindelicia; The 
greater part of Vindelicia was a plain, but the S. 
portion was occupied by the N. slopes of the Alpes 
Rhaeticae. It derived its name from its chief in- 



816 



VINDEX. 



VIRGILIUS. 



habitants, the Vindelici, a warlike people dwelling 
in the S. of the country. Their name is said to 
have been formed from the 2 rivers, Vinda and 
Licus ; but it is more litcely connected with the 
Celtic word Vind. which is foimd in the names 
Vindohona, FzWomagus, Fwcfonissa, &c. The 
Vindelici were a Celtic people, and were closely 
connected with the Rhaeli, with whom they are 
frequently spoken of by the ancient writers, and 
along with whom they were subdued by Tiberius, 
as is mentioned above. The other tribes in Vinde- 
licia were the Brigantii on the Lake of Constance, 
the Licatii or Licates on the Lech, and the Breimi 
in the N. of Tyrol on the Brenner. The chief 
town in the province was Augusta Vindelicorum 
(Augsbu7-g), at the confluence of Vindo and the 
Licus, which was made a Roman colony, a. d. 14, 
and was the residence of the governor of the pro- 
vince. This town, together with the other tomis 
of Vindelicia, fell into the hands of the Alemanni 
in the 4th century, and from this time the popu- 
lation of the country appears to have been entirely 
Germanized. 

Vindex, C. Julius, propraetor of Gallia Celtica 
in the reign of Nero, was the first of the Roman 
governors who disowned the authority of Nero 
(a. d. 68). He did not, however, aspire to the 
empire himself, but offered it to Galba. Vir- 
ginius Rufus, the governor of Upper Germany, 
marched with his army against Vindex, The two 
generals had a conference before Vesontio {Be- 
sa?2po/z), in which they appear to have come to 
some agreement ; but as Vindex was going to 
enter the tovm, he was attacked by the soldiers of 
Virofinius, and put an end to his own life. 

Vindicius, a slave, who is said to have given 
information to the consuls of the conspiracy, which 
was formed for the restoration of the Tarquins, 
and who was rewarded in consequence with liberty 
and the Roman franchise. He is said to have been 
the first slave manumitted by the Vindicta, the 
name of which was derived by some persons from 
that of the slave ; but it is unnecessary to point 
out the absurditj' of this etymology. 

Vindili. [Vaxdili.] 

Vindilis (Belle Isle), one of the islands of the 
Veneti off the N. W. coast of Gaul. 

Vindius or Viunius, a mountain in the N. W. 
of Hispania Tarraconensis, forming the boimdarj' 
between the Cantabri and Astures. 

Vindobona (Vienna, Engl. ; Wie7i, Germ.), a 
town in Pannonia, on the Danube, was originally 
a Celtic place, and subsequently a Roman muni- 
cipium. Under the Romans it became a town of 
importance ; it was the chief station of the Roman 
fleet on the Danube, and the head quarters of a 
Roman legion. It was taken and plundered by 
Attiia, but continued to be a flourishing tovm under 
the Lombards. It was here that the emperor M. 
Aurelius died, A. P. 180. 

Vindouissa (Windisck), a town in Gallia Bel- 
gica, on the triangular tongue of land between the 
Aar and Reuss, was an important Roman fortress 
in the country of the Helvetii. Several Roman 
remains have been discovered on the site of the 
ancient town ; and the foundations of walls, the 
traces of an amphitheatre, and a subterranean aque- 
duct, are still to be seen. 

Vinius, T., consul in a. d. 69 with the emperor 
Galba, and one of the chief advisers of the latter 
during his brief reign. He recommended Galba 



to choose Otho as his successor, but he was not- 
withstanding killed by Otho's soldiers, after the 
death of Galba. 

Vipsania Agrippina. L Daughter of M. Vip- 
sanius Agrippa by his first wife Pomponia, the 
daughter of T. Pomponius Atdcus, the friend of 
Cicero. Augustus gave her in marriage to his 
step-son Tiberius, by whom she was much beloved; 
but after she had borne him a son, Drusus, Ti- 
berius was compelled to divorce her hy the com- 
mand of the emperor, in order to marry Julia, 
the daughter of the latter. Vipsania afterwards 
married Asinius Gallus. She died in a. d. 20.— 
2. Daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa by his second 
wife Julia, better known by the name of Agrip- 
pina. [Agrippina.] 

Vipsanius Agrippa, M. [Agrippa.] 

Virbius, a Latin divinity worshipped along 
with Diana in the grove at Aricia, at the foot of 
the Alban Mt. He is said to have been the same 
as Hippolytus, who was restored to life by Aescu- 
lapius at the request of Diana. He was placed 
by this goddess under the care of the nymph 
Aricia, and received the name of Virbius. By this 
nymph he became the father of a son, who was 
also called Virbius, and whom his mother sent to 
the assistance of Tumus against Aeneas. 

Virdo. [Vindelicia.] 

Virgilius or Vergilius Maro, P., the Roman 
poet, was bom on the 15th of October, B. c. 70, 
at Andes (Pietola), a small village near iSIantua 
in Cisalpine Gaul. Virgil's father probably had a 
small estate which he cultivated : his mother's 
name was Maia. He was educated at Cremona 
and Mediolanum (Milan), and he took the toga 
virilis at Cremona on the day on which he com- 
menced his 16th year in 55. It is said that he 
subsequently studied at Neapolis (Naples) under 
Parthenius, a native of Bithynia, from whom he 
learned Greek. He was also instructed by Syron 
an Epicurean, and probably at Rome. Virgil's 
writings prove that he received a learned education, 
and traces of Epicurean opinions are apparent in 
them. The health of Virgilius was always feeble, 
and there is no evidence of his attempting to rise 
by those means by which a Roman gained dis- 
tinction, oratory and the practice of arms. After 
completing his education, Virgil appears to have 
retired to his paternal farm, and here he may have 
written some of the small pieces, which are attri- 
buted to him, the Culecc, Ciris, Moretum, and 
others. After the battle of Philippi (42) Octavian 
assigned to his soldiers lands in various parts of 
Italy ; and the neighbourhood of Cremona and 
Mantua was one of the districts in which the 
soldiers were planted, and from which the fonner 
possessors were dislodged. Virgil was thus de- 
prived of his property. It is said that it was 
seized by a veteran named Claudius or Clodius, 
and that Asinius PoUio, who was then governor 
of Gallia Transpadana, advised Virgil to apply to 
Octavian at Rome for the restitution of his land, 
and that Octavian granted his request. It is 
supposed that Virgilius wTOte the Eclogue which 
stands first in our editions, to commemorate his 
gratitude to Octavian. Virgil became acquainted 
with Maecenas before Horace wa.-=, and Horace 
(Sat. i. 5, and 6. 55, &c.) was introduced to Mae- 
cenas by Virgil. Whether this introduction was 
in 41, or a little later, is uncertain; but we may 
perhaps conclude from the name of Maecenas not 



CRONUS (SATURNUS). ZEUS (JUPITER). 




Head of Olympian Zeus (Jupiter"). (Vis- Zeus (Jupiter"). (A Medal of M. Aurelius in 

conti, Mus. Pio. Clem., vol. G. tav. 1.) Page 830. British Museum.) Page 830. 




Zeus (Jupiter) and the Giants. (Neapolitan Gem.) Page 830. 




COIXS OF PERSOXS. 



YALEXTIXIAX 



— ZEXOBIA. 




Valentinian II., Pioman Emperor, a.d. 375—392. Page 8C3. 




Galeria Valeria, daughter of Diocletian, ob. a.d. 315. 
Page 803. 




Valerian, Roman Emperor, a.d. 253—260. Page 803. 




L.AureliusVemSjEoman Emperor, A.D. 161—169. Page SI], 
To face p. 817.] 




Vespasian, Roman Emperor, a.d. 70—79. Page 812. 




Vetranio, Roman Emperor, a.d. .350. Page 813. 




Volusianus, Roman Emperor, a.d. 252 —251. Page 821. 




Zenobia, Queen of Palmj-ra. Page 829. 



VIRGILIUS. 
being mentioned in the Eclogues of Virgil, that he 
himself was not on those intimate terms with 
Maecenas which ripened into friendship, until 
after they were written. Horace, in one of his 
Satires {Sat. i. 5), in which he describes the 
journey from Rome to Brundusium, mentions 
Virgil as one of the party, and in language which 
shows that they were then in the closest intimacy. 
The most finished work of Virgil, his Georgica, 
an agricultural poem, was undertaken at the eug- 
gestion of Maecenas (Georg. iii. 41). The con- 
cluding lines of the Georgica were written at 
Naples (Georg. iv. 559), and the poem was com- 
pleted after the battle of Actium B. c. 31, while 
Octavian was in the East. (Comp. Georg. iv. 560, 
and ii. 171.) His Eclogues had all been com- 
pleted, and probably before the Georgica Avere 
begun (Georg. iv. 565). The epic poem of Virgil, 
the Aeneid, was probably long contemplated by 
the poet. While Augustus was in Spain (27), 
he wrote to Virgil to express his wish to have 
some monument of his poetical talent. Virgil 
appears to have commenced the Aeneid about this 
time. In 23 died Marcellus, the son of Octavia, 
Caesar's sister, by her first husband ; and as Virgil 
lost no opportunity of gratifying his patron, he 
introduced into his 6th book of the Aeneid (883) 
the well-known allusion to the virtues of this 
youth, who was cut oif by a premature death. 
Octavia is said to have been present when the 
poet was reciting this allusion to her son and to 
have fainted from her emotions. She rewarded 
the poet munificently for his excusable flattery. 
As Marcellus did not die till 23, these lines were 
of course written after his death, but that does 
not prove that the whole of the 6th book was 
written so late. A passage in the 7th book (606) 
appears to allude to Augustus receiving back the 
Parthian standards, which event belongs to 20. 
When Augustus was returning from Samos, where 
he had spent the winter of 20, he met Virgil at 
Athens. The poet, it is said, had intended to 
make a tour of Greece, but he accompanied the 
emperor to Megara and thence to Italy. His 
health, which had been long declining, was now 
completely broken, and he died soon after his 
arrival at Brundusium on the 22d of September, 
19, not having quite completed his 51st year. 
His remains were transferred to Naples, which 
liad been his favourite residence, and placed on 
the road from Naples to Puteoli (Pozzuoli), where 
a monument is still shown, supposed to be the 
tomb of the poet. The inscription said to have 
been placed on the tomb. 

" Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc 
Parthenope. Cecini pascua, rura, duces," 

we cannot suppose to have been written by the 
poet. Virgil named, as heredes in his testament, 
his half-brother Valerius Proculus, to whom he 
left one-half of his property, and also Augustus, 
Maecenas, L. Varius and Plotius Tucca. It is 
said that in his last illness he wished to bum the 
Aeneid, to which he had not given the finishing 
touches, but his friends would not allow him. 
Whatever he may have wished to be done with 
the Aeneid, it was preserved and published by his 
friends Varius and Tucca. The poet had been 
enriched by the liberality of his patrons, and he 
left behind him a considerable property and a 
house on the Esquiline Hill near the gardens of 



VIRGILIUS. «i7 

Maecenas. He used his wealth liberally, and his 
library, which was doubtless a good one, was easy 
of access. He used to send his parents money 
every year. His father, who became blind, did 
not die before his son had attained a mature age. 
Two brothers of Virgil also died before him. In 
his fortimes and his friends Virgil was a happy 
man. Munificent patronage gave him ample 
means of enjoyment and of leisure, and he had 
the friendship of all the most accomplished men of 
the day, among whom Horace entertained a strong 
affection for him. He Avas an amiable good-tem- 
pered man, free from the mean passions of envy 
and jealousy ; and in all but health he was pros- 
perous. His fame, which was established in his 
lifetime, was cherished after his death, as an in- 
heritance in which every Roman had a share ; and 
his works became school-books even before the 
death of Augustus, and continued such for cen- 
turies after. The learned poems of Virgil soon 
gave employment to commentators and critics. 
Aulus Gellius has numerous remarks on Virgil, 
and Macrobius, in his Saturnalia, has filled four 
books (iii — vi.) with his critical remarks on 
Virgil's poems. One of the most valuable com- 
mentaries of Virgil, in which a great amount of 
curious and instructive matter has been preserved, 
is that of Servius [Servius]. Virgil is one of 
the most difficult of the Latin authors, not so 
much for the form of the expression, though that 
is sometimes ambiguous enough, but from the 
great variety of knowledge that is required to 
attain his meaning in all its fulness. Virgil was 
the great poet of the middle ages too. To him 
Dante paid the homage of his superior genius, and 
owned him for his master and his model. Among 
the vulgar he had the reputation of a conjurer, a 
necromancer, a worker of miracles : it is the fate 
of a great name to be embalmed in fable. — The 
10 short poems called Bucolica were the earliest 
wcrks of Virgil, and probably all written between 
41 and 37. These Bucolica are not Bucolica in 
the same sense as the poems of Theocritus, which 
have the same title. They have all a Bucolic 
form and colouring, but some of them have nothing 
more. They are also called Eclogae or Selections, 
but this name may not have originated with the 
poet. Their merit consists in their versification, 
which was smoother and more polished than the 
hexameters which the Romans had yet seen, and 
in many natural and simple touches. But as an 
attempt to transfer the Syracusan muse into Italy, 
they are certainly a failure, and we read the 
pastorals of Theocritus and of Virgil with a very 
different degree of pleasure. The 4 th Eclogue, 
entitled Pollio, which may have been written in 
40, after the peace of Brundusium, has nothing of 
the pastoral character about it. It is allegorical, 
mystical, half historical and prophetical, aenig- 
matical, anything in fact but Bucolic. The 1st 
Eclogue is Bucolic in form and in treatment, with 
an historical basis. The 2nd Eclogue, the Alexis, 
is an amatory poem, with a Bucolic colouring, 
which indeed is the characteristic of all Virgil's 
Eclogues, whatever they may be in substance. 
The 3rd, the 5th, the 7th, and the 9th are more 
clearly modelled on the form of the poems of his 
Sicilian prototype ; and the 8th, tha Pharma- 
ceutria, is a direct imitation of the original Greek. 
The 10th, entitled Gallus, perhaps written the 
last of all, is a love poem, which, if written in 

3 o 



818 



VIRGILIUS. 



VIRGILIUS. 



elegiac verse, would be more appropriately called 
an elegy than a Bucolic. — The Georgica or "Agri- 
cultural Poem " in 4 books is a didactic poem, 
which Virgil dedicated to his patron Maecenas, 
He .treats of the cultivation of the soil in the first 
book, of fruit trees in the second, of horses and 
other cattle in the third, and of bees in the fourth. 
In this poem Virgil shows a great improvement 
both in his taste and in his versification. Neither 
In the Georgics nor elsewhere has Virgil the merit 
of striking originality ; his chief merit consists in 
the skilful handling of borrowed materials. His 
subject, which was by no means promising, he 
treated in a manner both instructive and pleasing ; 
for he has given many useful remarks on agri- 
culture and diversified the dryness of didactic 
poetry by numerous allusions and apt embellish- 
ments, and some occasional digressions without 
wandering too far from his main matter. In the 
first book he enumerates the subjects of his poem, 
among which is the treatment of bees ; yet the 
management of bees seems but meagre material 
for one fourth of the whole poem, and the author 
accordingly had to complete the ifourth book with 
matter somewhat extraneous — the long story of 
Aristaeus. The Georgica is the most finished 
specimen of the Latin hexameter which we have ; 
and the rude vigour of Lucretius and the anti- 
quated rudeness of Ennius are here replaced by a 
versification, which in its kind cannot be sur- 
passed. The Georgica are also the most original 
poem of Virgil, for he found little in the Works 
and Days of Hesiod that could furnish him with 
hints for the treatment of his subject, and we are 
not aware that there was any work which he could 
exactly follow as a whole. For numerous single 
lines he was indebted to his extensive reading of 
the Greek poets. — The Aeneid, or adventures of 
Aeneas after the fall of Troy, is an epic poem on 
the model of the Homeric poems. It was founded 
upon an old Roman tradition that Aeneas and his 
Trojans settled in Italy, and were the founders 
of the Roman name. In the 1st book we have 
the story of Aeneas being driven by a storm on 
the coast of Africa, and being hospitably received 
by Dido queen of Carthage, to whom he relates 
in the episode of the 2nd and 3rd books the fall 
of Troy and his wanderings. In the 4th book 
the poet has elaborated the story of the attach- 
ment of Dido and Aeneas, the departure of Aeneas 
in obedience to the will of the gods, and the sui- 
cide of the Carthaginian queen. The 5th book 
contains the visit to Sicily, and the 6th the landing 
of Aeneas at Cumae in Italy, and his descent to 
the infernal regions, where he sees his father An- 
chises, and has a prophetic vision of the glorious 
destinies of his race and of the future heroes of 
Rome. In the first 6 books the adventures of 
Ulysses in the Odyssey are the model, and these 
books contain more variety of incident and situ- 
ation than those which follow. The critics have 
discovered an anachronism in the visit of Aeneas 
to Carthage, which is supposed not to have been 
founded until two centuries after the fall of Troy, 
but this is a matter which we may leave without 
discussion, or admit without allowing it to be a 
poetical defect. The last 6 books, the history of 
the struggles of Aeneas in Italy, are founded on 
the model of the battles of the Iliad. Latinus, 
the king of the Latini, offers the Trojan hero his 
daughter Lavinia in marriage, who had been be- 



trothed to Turnus, the warlike king of the Rutuli. 
The contest -is ended by the death of Turnus, who 
falls by the hand of Aeneas. The fortunes of 
Aeneas and his final settlement in Italy are the 
subject of the Aeneid, but the glories of Rome 
and of the Julian house, to which Augustus be- 
longed, are indirectly the poet's theme. In the 
first book the foundation of Alba Longa is pro- 
mised by Jupiter to Venus (Aeneid, i. 254), and 
the transfer of empire from Alba to Rome ; from 
the line of Aeneas will descend the "Trojan 
Caesar," whose empire will only be limited by 
the ocean, and whose glory by the heavens. The 
future rivalry between Rome and Carthage, and 
the ultimate triumphs of Rome are predicted. The 
poems abound in allusions to the history of Rome ; 
and the aim of the poet to confirm and embellish 
the popular tradition of the Trojan origin of the 
Roman state, and the descent of the Julii from 
Venus, is apparent all through the poem. It is ob- 
jected to the Aeneid that it has not the unity of 
construction either of the Iliad or of the Odyssey, 
and that it is deficient in that antique simplicity 
which characterises these two poems. Aeneas, the 
hero, is an insipid kind of personage, and a much 
superior interest is excited by the savage Mezen- 
tius, and also by Turnus, the unfortunate rival 
of Aeneas. Virgil imitated other poets besides 
Homer, and he has occasionally borrowed from 
them, especially from Apollonius of Rhodes. If 
Virgil's subject was difficult to invest with in- 
terest, that is his apology ; but it cannot be denied 
that many parts of his poem are successfully ela- 
borated, and that particular scenes and incidents 
are treated with true poetic spirit. The historical 
colouring which pervades it, and the great amount 
of antiquarian learning which he has scattered 
through it, make the Aeneid a study for the his- 
torian of Rome. Virgil's good sense and taste are 
always conspicuous, and make up for the defect 
of originality. As a whole, the Aeneid leaves no 
strong impression, which arises from the fact that 
it is not really a national poem, like the Iliad or 
the Odyssey, the monument of an age of which 
we have no other literary monument ; it is a 
learned poem, the production of an age in which it 
does not appear as an embodiment of the national 
feeling, but as a monument of the talent and in- 
dustry of an individual. Virgil has the merit of 
being the best of the Roman epic poets, superior 
both to Ennius who preceded him, and on whom 
he levied contributions, and to Lucan, Silius Itali- 
CU3, and Valerius Flaccus, who belong to a later 
age. The passion for rhetorical display, which 
characterises all the literature of Rome, is much 
less offensive in Virgil than in those who followed 
him in the line of epic poetry. — The larger editions 
of Virgil contain some short poems, which are 
attributed to him, and may have been among his 
earlier works. The Culex or Gnat is a kind of 
Bucolic poem in 413 hexameters, often very ob- 
scure ; the Ciris, or the mythus of Scylla the 
daughter of Nisus, king of Megara, in 541 hexa- 
meters, has been attributed to Cornelius Gallus 
and others ; the Moretum, in 123 verses, the name 
of a compound mess, is a poem in hexameters, on 
the daily labour of a cultivator, but it contains 
only the description of the labours of the first part 
of the day, which consist in preparing the More- 
turn ; the Copa, in elegiac verse, is an invitation 
by a female tavern keeper or servant attached to 



VIRGINIA. 



VITELLIUS. 



819 



a Caupona, to passengers to come in and enjoy 
themselves. There are also 14 short pieces in 
various metres, classed under the general name of 
Catalecta. That addressed " Ad Venerem " shows 
that the writer, whoever he Avas, had a talent for 
elegiac poetry. Of the numerous editions of Virgil 
the best are by Burmann, Amsterdam, 1746, 4 
vols. 4to. ; by Heyne, 1767 — 1775, Lips. 4 vols. 
8vo., of which the 4th edition contains important 
improvements, by Wagner, Lips. 1830, 4 vols. 
8vo. ; and by Forbiger, Lips. 1845 — 1846, 3 vols. 
8vo. 

Virginia, daughter of L. Virginius, a brave 
centurion, was a beautiful and innocent girl, be- 
trothed to L. Icilius. Her beauty excited the 
lust of the decemvir Appius Claudius, who got one 
of his clients to seize the damsel and claim her as 
his slave. The case was brought before the de- 
cemvir for decision ; her friends begged him to 
postpone his judgment till her father could be 
fetched from the camp, and olfered to give security 
for the appearance of the maiden. Appius, fearing 
a riot, agreed to let the cause stand over till the 
next day; but on the following morning he pro- 
nounced sentence, assigning Virginia to his freed- 
man. Her father, who had come from the camp, 
seeing that all hope was gone, prayed the decemvir 
to be allowed to speak one word to the nurse in 
his daughter's hearing, in order to ascertain whe- 
ther she was really his daughter. The request was 
granted ; Virginius drew them both aside, and 
snatching up a butcher's knife from one of the 
stalls, plunged it in his daughter's breast, exclaim- 
ing, " There is no way but this to keep thee free." 
In vain did Appius call out to stop him. The 
crowd made way for him ; and holding his bloody 
knife on high, he rushed to the gate of the city, 
and hastened to the Roman camp. The result is 
known. Both camp and city rose against the de- 
cemvirs, who were deprived of their power, and the 
old form of government was restored. L. Virginius 
was the first who was elected tribune, and he has- 
tened to take revenge upon his cruel enemy. By 
his orders Appius was dragged to prison to await 
his trial, and he there put an end to his own life 
in order to avoid a more ignominious death. 

Virginia or Verginia Gens, patrician and ple- 
beian. The patrician Virginii frequently filled the 
highest honours of the state during the early years 
of the republic. They all bore the cognomen of 
Tricostus, but none of them are of sufficient import- 
ance to require a separate notice. 

Virginias, L., father of Virginia, whose tragic 
fate occasioned the downfall of the decemvirs, b. c. 
449. [Virginia.] 

Virginius Rufus, consul a. d. 63, and governor 
of Upper Germany at the time of the revolt of 
Julius Vindex in Gaul (68). The soldiers of 
Virginius wished to raise him to the empire ; 
but he refused the honour, and marched against 
Vindex, who perished before Vesontio. [Vindex.] 
After the death of Nero, Virginius supported the 
claims of Galba, and accompanied him to Rome. 
After Otho's death, the soldiers again attempted 
to proclaim Virginius emperor, and in consequence 
of his refusal of the honour, he narrowly escaped 
with his life. Virginius died in the reign of 
Nerva, in his 3rd consulship, A. d. 97, at 83 years 
of age. He was honoured with a public funeral, 
and his panegyric was pronounced by the historian 
Tacitus, who was then consul. The younger 



Pliny, of whom Virginius had been the tutor or 
guardian, also mentions him with praise. 

Viriathus, a celebrated Lusitanian, is described 
by the Romans as originally a shepherd or hunts- 
man, and afterwards a robber, or, as he would be 
called in Spain in the present day, a guerilla chief. 
His character is drawn very favourably by many 
of the ancient writers, who celebrate his justice and 
equity, which was particularly shown in the fair 
division of the spoils he obtained from the enemy. 
Viriathus was one of the Lusitanians who escaped 
the treacherous and savage massacre of the people 
by the proconsul Galba in b. c. 150. [Galea, 
No. 2.] He was destined to be the avenger of 
his country's wrongs. He collected a formidable 
force, and for several successive years he defeated 
one Roman army after another. At length, in 140, 
the proconsul Fabius Servilianus concluded a peace 
with Viriathus, in order to save his array, which 
had been enclosed by the Lusitanians in a moun- 
tain pass, much in the same way as their ancestors 
had been by the Samnites at the Caudine Forks. 
The treaty was ratified by the senate ; but Ser- 
vilius Caepio, who had succeeded to the command 
of Further Spain in 140, renewed the war, and 
shortly afterwards procured the assassination of 
Viriathus by bribing 3 of his friends. 

Viridomarus. 1. Or Britomartus, the leader 
of the Gauls, slain by Marcellus. [Marcellus, 
No. 1.] — 2. Or Virdumarus, a chieftain of the 
Aedui, whom Caesar had raised from a low rank 
to the highest honour, but who afterwards joined 
the Gauls in their great revolt in b. c. 52. 

Virtus, the Roman personification of manly 
valour. She was represented with a short tunic, 
her right breast uncovered, a helmet on her head, 
a spear in her left hand, a sword in the right, and 
standing with her right foot on a helmet. A 
temple of Virtus was built by Marcellus close to 
one of Honor. [Honor.] 

Viscellinus, Sp. Cassius. [Cassius, No. 1.]. 

Vistula ( Vistula, Engl. ; Weichsel, Germ.), an 
important river of Germany, forming the boundary 
between Germany and Sarmatia, rising in the Her- 
cynia Silva and falling into the Mare Suevicum or 
the Baltic. 

Visurgis (Weser), an important river of Ger- 
many, falling into the German Ocean. Ptolemy 
makes it rise in M. Meliboeus, because the Romans 
were not acquainted with the southern course of 
the Weser below Minden. 

Vitellius. 1. L., father of the emperor, was a 
consummate flatterer, and by his arts he gained 
promotion. After being consul in a. d. 34, he had 
been appointed governor of Syria, and had made 
favourable terras of peace with Artabanus. But 
all this only excited Caligula's jealousy, and he 
sent for Vitellius to put him to death. The 
governor saved himself by his abject hurailiation 
and the gross flattery which pleased and softened 
the savage tyrant. He paid the like attention to 
Claudius and Messalina, and was rewarded by 
being twice consul with Claudius, and censor. 

2. L., son of the preceding, and brother of the 
emperor, was consul in 48. He was put to death 
by the party of Vespasian on his brother's fall. — 

3. A., Roman emperor, from January 2nd to De- 
cember 22nd, A. D. 69, was the son of No. 1. He 
was consul during the first 6 months of 48, and 
his brother Lucius during the 6 following montha. 
He had some knowledge of letters and some elo- 

3 o 2 



820 



VITRUVIUS. 



VOLANDUM. 



queiice. His vices made him a favourite of Ti- 
berius, Caius Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, who 
loaded him with favours. People were much sixr- 
prised when Galba chose such a man to command 
the legions in Lower German}', for he had no 
military talent. His great talent was eating and 
drinking. The soldiers of Vitellius proclaimed 
him emperor at Colonia Agrippinensis {Cologne) 
on the 2nd of January, 69. His generals Fabius 
Valens and Caecina marched into Itah-, defeated 
Otho's troops at the decisive battle of Bedriacum, 
and thus secured for Vitellius the undisputed 
command of Italy. The soldiers of Otho, after the 
death of the latter, took the oath of fidelity to 
Vitellius. Vitellius reached Rome in July. He 
did not disturb any person in the enjoyment of 
what had been given hj Nero, Galba, and Otho ; 
nor did he confiscate any person's property. 
Though some of Otho's adherents were put to 
death, he let the next of kin take their property. 
But though he showed moderation in this part of 
his conduct, he showed none in his expenses. He 
was a glutton and an epicure, and his chief amuse- 
ment was the table, on which he spent enormous 
sums of money. Meantime Vespasian, who had 
at first taken the oath of allegiance to Vitellius, 
was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria on the 1st 
of July. Vespasian was speedily recognised by 
all the East ; and the legions of Illyricum under 
Antonius Primus entered the N. of Italy and de- 
clared for Vespasian. Vitellius despatched Cae- 
cina with a powerful force to oppose Primus ; but 
Caecina was not faithful to the emperor. Primus 
defeated the Vitellians in two battles, and after- 
wards took and pillaged the city of Cremona. 
Primus then marched upon Rome, and forced his 
way into the city, after much fighting. Vitellius 
was seized in the palace, led through the streets 
with every circumstance of ignominy, and dragged 
to the Gemoniae Scalae, where he was killed with 
repeated blows. His head was carried about 
Rome, and his body was dragged into the Tiber ; 
but it was afterwards interred by his wife Ga- 
leria Fundana. A few days before the death of 
Vitellius, the Capitol had been burnt in the assault 
made by his soldiers upon this building, where 
Flavins Sabinus, the brother of the emperor 
Vespasian, had taken refuge. 

VitruviUS Pollio, M., the author of the cele- 
brated treatise on Architecture, of whom we know 
nothing except a few facts contained in scattered 
passages of his own work. He appears to have 
served as a military engineer under Julius Caesar, 
in the African war, B. c. 46, and he was broken 
down with age when he composed his work, which 
is dedicated to the emperor Augustus. (The 
name of the emperor is not mentioned in the 
dedication, but there can be no doubt that it was 
Augustus.) The object of his work appears to 
have had refference to himself, as well as to his 
subject. He professes his intention to furnish 
the emperor with a standard by which to judge 
of the buildings he had already erected, as well 
as of those which he might afterwards erect ; 
which can have no meaning, unless he wished to 
protest against the style of architecture which pre- 
vailed in the buildings already erected. That this 
was really his intention appears from several other 
arguments, and especially from his frequent refer- 
ences to the unworthy means by which architects 
obtained wealth and favour, with which he con- 



trasts his own moderation and contentment in his 
more obscure position. In a word, comparatively 
unsuccessful as an architect, for we have no build- 
ing of his mentioned except the basilica at Fanum, 
he attempted to establish his reputation as a 
writer upon the theory of his art ; and in this he 
has been tolerably successful. His work is a 
valuable compendium of those written by nume- 
rous Greek architects, whom he mentions chiefly 
in the preface to his 7th book, and by some Roman 
writers on architecture. Its chief defects are its 
brevity, of which Vitruvius himself boasts, and 
which he often carries so far as to be unintelli- 
gible, and the obscurity of the style, arising in 
part from the natural difficulty of technical lan- 
guage, but in part also from the author's want of 
skill in writing, and sometimes from his imperfect 
comprehension of his Greek authorities. His work 
is entitled De Architectura Lihri X. In the First 
Boolx^ after the dedication to the emperor, and a 
general description of the science of architecture, 
and an account of the proper education of an archi- 
tect, he treats of the choice of a proper site for a 
city, the disposition of its plan, its fortifications, 
and the several buildings within it. The Second 
Book is on the materials used in building. The 
Third and Fourth Books are devoted to temples 
and the four orders of architecture employed in 
them, namely, the Ionic, Corinthian, Doric, and 
Tuscan. The Fifth Book relates to public build- 
ings, the Sixth to private houses, and the Sevetith 
to interior decorations. The Eighth is on the 
subject of water ; the mode of finding it ; its dif- 
ferent kinds ; and the various modes of conveying 
it for the supply of cities. The Ninth Book treats 
of various kinds of sun-dials and other instruments 
for measuring time ; and the Tenth of the machines 
used in building, and of military engines. Each 
book has a preface, upon some matter more or less 
connected with the subject; and these prefaces 
are the source of most of our information about the 
author. The best editions of Vitruvius are those 
of Schneider, 3 vols. Lips. 1807, 1808, 8vo. ; of 
Stratico, 4 vols., Udine, 1825-30, with plates 
and a Lexicon Vitruviamcm ; and of Marini, 
4 vols., Rom. 1836, fol. 

Vocates, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, dwell- 
ing in the neighbourhood of the Tarusates, Sossiates, 
and Elusates, probably in the modern Tursan or 
Teursan. 

Vocetius (Bozberg\ a mountain in Gallia Bel- 
gica, an eastern branch of the Jura. 

Voconius Saxa. [Saxa.] 

Vocontii, a powerful and important people in 
Gallia Narbonensis, inhabiting the S. E. part of 
Dauphine', and a part of Provence between the Drac 
and the Durance, bounded on the N. by the Allo- 
broges, and on the S. by the Salyes and Albioeci. 
Their country contained large and beautiful valleys 
between the mountains, in which good wine was 
grown. They were allowed by the Romans to 
live under their own laws, and, though in a Ro- 
man province, they were the allies and not the 
subjects of Rome. 

Vogesus or Vosgesus (Vosges), a range of 
mountains in Gaul in the territory of the Lingones, 
running parallel to the Rhine, and separating its 
basin from that of the Mosella. The rivers Se- 
quana (Seine)^ Arar (Saone), and the Mosella 
(Moselle), rise in these mountains. 

Volandum, a strong fortress in Armenia Major, 



VOLATERRA E. 



VOMANUS. 



821 



some days' journey W. of Artaxata, mentioned by 
Tacitus (Ann. xiii. 39). 

Volaterrae ( Volaterranus : Volaterra), called by 
the Etruscans Velathri, one of the 12 cities of 
the Etruscan Confederation, was built on a lofty 
till, about 1800 English feet above the level of the 
sea, rising from a deep valley, and precipitous on 
every side. The city was about 4 or 5 miles in 
circuit. It was the most N.-ly city of the Con- 
federation, and possessed an extensive territory. 
Its dominions extended E.-ward as far as the ter- 
ritory of Arretium, which was 50 miles distant ; 
W,-ward as far as the Mediterranean, which was 
more than 20 miles off ; and S.-ward at least as 
far as Populonia, which was either a colony or an 
acquisition of Volaterrae. In consequence of pos- 
sessing the 2 great ports of Luna and Populonia, 
Volaterrae, though so far inland, was reckoned as 
one of the powerful maritime cities of Etruria. Vo- 
laterrae is mentioned as one of the 5 cities which, 
acting independently of the rest of Etruria, deter- 
mined to aid the Latins against Tarquinius Priscus ; 
but its name is rarely mentioned in connection with 
the Romans, and we have no record of its conquest 
by the latter. Volaterrae, like most of the Etrus- 
can cities, espoused the Marian party against Sulla ; 
and such was the strength of its fortifications, that 
it was not till after a siege of two years that the 
city fell into Sulla's hands. Cicero speaks of Vola- 
terrae as a municipium, and a military colony was 
founded in it under the triumvirate. It continued 
to be a place of importance even after the fall of 
the Western Empire ; and it was for a time the 
residence of the Lombard kings, who fixed their 
court here on account of the natural strength of the 
site. The modern town covers but a small portion 
of the area occupied by the ancient city. It con- 
tains, however, several interesting Etruscan remains. 
Of these the most important, in addition to the 
ancient walls, are the family tomb of the Caecinae, 
and a double gateway, nearly 30 feet deep, united 
by parallel walls of very massive character. 
Volaterrana Vada. [V^da, No. 3.] 
Volcae, a powerful Celtic people in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, divided into the 2 tribes of the Volcae 
Tectosages and Volcae Arecomici, extending from 
the Pyrenees and the frontiers of Aquitania along 
the coast as far as the Rhone. They lived under 
their own laws, without being subject to the Ro- 
man governor of the province, and they also pos- 
sessed the Jus Latii. The Tectosages inhabited 
the western part of the country from the Pyrenees 
as far as Narbo, and the Arecomici the E. part 
from Narbo to the Rhone. The chief town of the 
Tectosages was ToLOSA. A portion of the Tec- 
tosages left their native country under Brennus, 
and were one of the 3 great tribes into which the 
Galatians in Asia Minor were divided. [Galatia.] 
Volcatius Sedigitus. [Sedigitus.] 
Volci or Vulci. 1. (Volcientes, pi. : Vulci), an 
inland city of Etruria, about 18 miles N. W. of 
Tarquinii, was about 2 miles in circuit, and was 
situated upon a hill of no great elevation. Of the 
history of this city we know nothing. It is only 
mentioned in the catalogues of the geographers, and 
in the Fasti Capitolini, from which we learn that 
its citizens, in conjunction with the Volsinienses, 
were defeated by the consul Tib. Coruncanius, B. c. 
280. But its extensive sepulchres, and the vast 
treasures of ancient art which they contain, prove 
that Vulci must at one time have been a powerful 



and flourishing city. These tombs were only 
discovered in 1828, and have yielded a greater 
number of works of art than have been discovered 
in any other parts of Etriu-ia. — 2. (Volcentes, 
Volcentani, pi. ; Vallo), a town in Lncania, 36 
miles S. E. of Paestum, on the road to Buxentum. 

Volero Publilius, [Publilius.] 

Vologeses, the name of 5 kings of Parthia. 
[ArsacesXXIIL, XXVIL, XXVIIL, XXIX., 
XXX.] 

Volsci, an ancient people in Latium, but ori- 
ginally distinct from the Latins, dwelt on both 
sides of the river Liris, and extended down to the 
Tyrrhene sea. Their language was nearly allied 
to the Umbrian. They were from an early period 
engaged in almost unceasing hostilities Avith the 
Romans, and were not completely subdued by the 
latter till b. c. 338, from which time they disappear 
from history. 

Volsinii or Vulsinii (Volsiniensis : Bolsena), 
called Velsina or Velsuna by the Etruscans, one 
of the most ancient and most powerful of the 12 
cities of the Etruscan Confederation, was situated 
on a lofty hill on the N. E. extremity of the lake 
called after it, Lacus Volsiniensis and Vulsinien- 
sis {Lago di Bolsena). Volsinii is first mentioned 
in B. c. 392, when its inhabitants invaded the Ro- 
man territory, but were easily defeated by the 
Romans, and were glad to purchase a 20 years' 
truce on humiliating terms. The Volsinienses also 
carried on war with the Romans in 311, 294, and 
280, but were on each occasion defeated, and in the 
last of these years appear to have been finally sub- 
dued. On their final subjugation their city was 
razed to the ground by the Romans, and its inha- 
bitants were compelled to settle on a less defensible 
site in the plain. The new city, on which stands 
the modern Bolsena, also became a place of im- 
portance. It was the birth-place of Sejanus, the 
favourite of Tiberius. Of the ancient city there 
are scarcely any remains. It occupied the sum- 
mit of the highest hill, N. E. of Bolsena, above the 
remains of a Roman amphitheatre. From the 
Lacus Volsiniensis the river Marta issues ; and the 
lake contains 2 beautiful islands. 

Volturcius, or Vulturcius, T., of Crotona, one 
of Catiline's conspirators, was sent by Lentulus to 
accompany the ambassadors of the Allobroges to 
Catiline. Arrested along with the ambassadors 
on the Mulvian bridge, and brought before the 
senate by Cicero, Volturcius turned informer upon 
obtaining the promise of pardon. 

Volumnia, wife of Coriolanus. [Coriolanus.] 
Volupia, or Voluptas, the personification of 
sensual pleasure among the Romans, who was 
honoured with a temple near the porta Romanula. 

Volusianus, son of the emperor Trebonianus 
Gallus, upon whom his father conferred the title of 
Caesar in a. d. 251, and of Augustus in 252. He 
was slain along with his father in 254. [Gallus.] 
L. Volusius Maeci^nus, a jurist, was in the 
consilium of Antoninus Pius, and was one of the 
teachers of M. Aurelius. Maecianus wrote several 
works ; and there are 44 excerpts from his writings 
in the Digest. A treatise, De A sse ei Fonderibus, is 
attributed to him, but there is some doubt about the 
authorship. It is edited by Booking, Bonn, 1831. 

Volusus or "Volesus, the reputed ancestor of the 
Valeria gens, who is said to have settled at Rome 
with Titus Tatius. [Valeria Gens.] 

Vomanus ( Vomano), a small river in Picenum. 

3 o 3 



822 



VONONES. 



XANTHUS. 



Vcnones, the name of two kings of Parthia. 
[Arsaces XVIIL, XXIL] 

Vopiscus, a Roman praenomen, signified a twin- 
child, who was born safe, while the other twin 
died before birth. Like many other ancient Ro- 
man praenomens, it was afterwards used as a cog- 
nomen. 

Vopiscus, Flavius, a native of Syracuse, and 

one of the G Scriptores Historiae Augustae^ flou- 
rished about A. D. 300. His name is prefixed to 
the biographies of — 1. Aurelianus ; 2. Tacitus ; 
3. Florianus; 4. Probus; 5. The four tyrants, 
Firmus, Satuminus, Proculus, and Bonosus ; 6. Ca- 
rus ; 7. Numerianus ; 8. Carinus ; at this point he 
stops, declaring that Diocletian, and those who 
follow, demand a more elevated style of compo- 
sition. For editions, see Capitolinus. 
Vosgesus. [VoGESus.] 
Votienus Montanus. [Montanus.] 
Vnlcaniae Insulae. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 
Vulcanus, the Roman god of fire, whose name 
seems to be connected with fulgere, fulgur, and 
fulmen. His worship was of considerable political 
importance at Rome, for a temple is said to have 
been erected to him close by the comitium as early 
as the time of Romulus and Tatius, in which the 
2 kings used to meet and settle the affairs of the 
state, and near which the popular assembly was 
held. Tatius is reported to have established the 
worship of Vulcan along with that of Vesta, and 
Romulus to have dedicated to him a quadriga 
after his victory over the Fidenatans, and to have 
set up a statue of himself near the temple. Ac- 
cording to others the temple was built by Romulus 
himself, who also planted near it the sacred lotus- 
tree which still existed in the days of Pliny. 
These circumstances, and what is related of the 
lotus-tree, show that the temple of Vulcan, like 
that of Vesta, was regarded as a central point of the 
whole state, and hence it was perhaps not without 
a meaning that the temple of Concord was subse- 
quently built within the same district. The most 
ancient festival in honour of Vulcan seems to have 
been the Fomacalia or Fumalia, Vulcan being the 
god of furnaces ; but his great festival was called 
Vulcanalia, and was celebrated on the 23d of 
August. The Roman poets transfer all the stories 
which are related of the Greek Hephaestus to their 
own Vulcan, the two divinities having in the course 
of time been completely identified. Respecting 
the Greek divinity, see Hephaestus. 
Vulci. [Volcl] 

Vulgientes, an Alpme people in Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, whose chief town was Apta Julia {Apt). 
Vulsinii. [VoLSiNii.] 

Vulso, Manlius. 1. L., consul b. c. 256 with 
M. Atilius Regulus. He invaded Africa along 
with his colleague. [For details see Regulus, 
No. 3,] Vulso returned to Italy at the fall of the 
year with half of the army, and obtained the ho- 
nour of a triumph. In 250 Vulso was consul a 
second time with T. Atilius Regulus Serranus, and 
■with his colleague commenced the siege of Lily- 
baeum. — 2. Cn., curule aedile 197, praetor with 
Sicily as his province 195, and consul 189. He 
was sent into Asia in order to conclude the peace 
which Scipio Asiaticus had made with Antiochus, 
and to arrange the affairs of Asia. He attacked 
and conquered the Gallograeci or Galatians in Asia 
Minor without waiting for any formal instructions 
from the senate. He set out on his return to Italy 



in 188, but in his march through Thrace he suf- 
fered much from the attacks of the Thracians, and 
lost a considerable part of the booty he had ob- 
tained in Asia. He reached Rome in 187. His 
triumph was a brilliant one, but his campaign in 
Asia had a pernicious influence upon the morals of 
his countrymen. He had allowed his army every 
kind of licence, and his soldiers introduced into 
the city the luxuries of the East. 

Vultur, a mountain dividing Apulia and Lu- 
cania near Venusia, is a branch of the Apennines. 
It is celebrated by Horace as one of the haunts of 
his youth. From it the S. E. wind was called 
Voltumus by the Romans. 

Vultxiriiuiii {Castd di Voltumo), a town in 
Campania, at the mouth of the river Vultumus, 
was originally a fortress erected by the Romans in 
the 2nd Punic war. At a later time it was made 
a colony. 

Vultumus (Voliurno), the chief river in Cam- 
pania, rising in the Apennines in Samnium, and 
falling into the Tyrrhene sea. Its principal affluents 
are the Calor {Colore), Tamarus (Tamaro), and 
Sabatus {Sabato). 

X. 

XantMppe {"EavQiinrri), wife of Socrates, said 
to be a woman of a peevish and quarrelsome dispo- 
sition. 

Xanthippus {s.<lvQnncos). 1. Son of Ariphron 
and father of Pericles. In b. c. 490, he impeached 
Miltiades on his return from his unsuccessful ex- 
pedition against the island of Paros. He suc- 
ceeded Themistocles as commander of the Athenian 
fleet in 479, and commanded the Athenians at the 
decisive battle of Mycale.— 3. The elder of the 
2 legitimate sons of Pericles, Paralus being the 
younger. For details, see Paralus. — 3. The 
Lacedaemonian, who commanded the Carthaginians 
against Regulus. For details, see Regulus, No. 3. 
Xanthippus appears to have left Carthage a short 
time after his victory over Regulus. 

Xanthus {s-avdos) 1. A lyric poet, older than 
Stesichorus, who mentioned him in one at least of 
his poems, and who borrowed from him in some of 
them. Xanthus may be placed about B. c. 650. 
No fragments of his poetry survive. — 2. A cele- 
brated Lydian historian, older than Herodotus, 
who flourished about B. c. 480. The genuineness 
of the Four Books of Lydian History which the 
ancients possessed under the name of Xanthus, 
and of which some considerable fragments have 
come down to us, was questioned by some of the 
ancient grammarians themselves. There has been 
considerable controversy respecting the genuineness 
of this work among modem scholars. It is certain 
that much of the matter in the extant fragments is 
spurious ; and the probability appears to be that 
the work from which they are taken is the pro- 
duction of an Alexandrian grammarian, founded 
upon the genuine work of Xanthus. 

Xanthus (Eaveoy), rivers. 1. [Scamander.J 
— 2. {Eclien Chai), the chief river of Lycia, rises 
in M. Taurus, on the borders of Pisidia and Lycia, 
and flows S. through Lycia, between M. Cragus 
and M. Massicytus, in a large plain called the 
Plain of Xanthus {rh "EdvQiov -rrediov), falling at 
last into the Mediterranean Sea, a little W. of 
Patara. Though not a large river, it is navigable 
for a considerable part of its course. 



XANTHUS 



XENOPHON. 



823 



Xantlms {aduOos : "EdvOios, Xanthius : Gtmik, 
Ru.), the most famous city of Lycia, stood on the 
W. bank of the river of the same name, 60 stadia 
from its mouth. Twice in the course of its history 
it sustained sieges, which terminated in the self- 
destruction of the inhabitants with their property, 
first against the Persians under Harpagus, and long 
afterwards against the Romans under Brutus. The 
city was never restored after its destruction on the 
latter occasion. Xanthus was rich in temples and 
tombs, and other monuments of a most interesting 
character of art. Among its temples the most 
celebrated were those of Sarpedon and of the 
Lycian Apollo; besides which there was a^re- 
nowned sanctuary of Latona (rh Atjtwoz/), near 
the river Xanthus, 10 stadia from its mouth, and 
60 stadia from the city. The splendid ruins of 
Xanthus have recently been thoroughly explored 
by Sir C. Fellowes and his coadjutors, and several 
important remains of its works of art are now ex- 
hibited in the British Museum under the name of 
the Xanthian Marbles. 

Xenarchus (EeVapxos)- 1- Son of Sophron, 
and, like his father, a celebrated writer of mimes. 
He flourished during the Rhegian War (b, c. 
399 — 389), at the court of Dionysius. — 2. An 
Athenian comic poet of the Middle Comedy, who 
lived as late as the time of Alexander the Great.—- 
3. Of Seleucia in Cilicia, a Peripatetic philosopher 
and grammarian, in the time of Strabo, who heard 
him. He taught first at Alexandria, afterwards at 
Athens, and last at Rome, where he enjoyed the 
friendship of Augustus. 

Xeniades (Hej/taS?7$), a Corinthian, who be- 
came the purchaser of Diogenes the Cynic, when 
he was taken by pirates and sold as a slave. 

Xenippa (prob. Uratippa)^ a city of Sogdiana, 
mentioned by Curtius. 

Xenocles (Eei/o/cATjs). 1. An Athenian tragic 
poet, son of Carcinus, who was also a tragic poet, 
and a contemporary of Aristophanes, who attacks 
him on several occasions. His poetry seems to 
have been indifferent, and to have resembled the 
worse parts of Euripides ; but he obtained a victory 
over Euripides, b. c. 415. There was another tragic 
poet of the name of Xenocles, a grandson of the 
preceding, of whom no particulars are recorded. 
— 3. An Athenian architect, of the demos of 
Cholargos, was one of the architects who superin- 
tended the erection of the temple of Demetcr, at 
Eleusis, in the time of Pericles. 

Xenocrates ( aevoKparris). 1. The philosopher, 
was a native of Chalcedon. He was born b. c. 
396, and died 314 at the age of 82. He attached 
himself first to Aeschines the Socratic, and after- 
wards, while still a youth, to Plato, whom he 
accompanied fo Syracuse, After the death of 
Plato he betook himself, with Aristotle, to Her- 
mias, tyrant of Atarneus ; and, after his return to 
Athens, he was repeatedly sent on embassies to 
Philip of Macedonia, and at a later time to 
Antipater during the Lamian war. He is said 
to have wanted quick apprehension and natural 
grace ; but these defects were more than compen- 
sated by persevering industry, pure benevolence, 
freedom from all selfishness, and a moral earnest- 
ness which obtained for him the esteem and confi- 
dence of the Athenians of his own age. Yet he 
is said to have experienced the fickleness of popular 
favour, and being too poor to pay the protection- 
money (fxcTo'iKiov)^ to have been saved only by 



the courage of the orator Lycurgus. He became 
president of the Academy even before the death 
of Speusippus, who was bowed down by sickness, 
and he occupied that post for 25 years. — The 
importance of Xenocrates is shown by the fact 
that Aristotle and Theophrastus wrote upon his 
doctrines, and thatPanaetius and Cicero entertained 
a high regard for him. Of his numerous works 
only the titles have come down to us, — 2. A 
phj^sician of Aphrodisias in Cilicia, lived about 
the middle of the 1st century after Christ. Be- 
sides some short fragments of his writings there is 
extant a little essay by him, entitled Uepl t^s atrh 
Twu 'Ez/LiSpcof Tpocpijs, " De Alimento ex Aqua- 
tilibus," which is an interesting record of the 
state of Natural History at the time in which he 
lived. Edited by Franz, 1774, Lips., and by 
Coray, 1794, Neap., and 1814, Paris. — 3. A 
statuary of the school of Lysippus, was the pupil 
either of Tisicrates or of Euthycrates. He also 
wrote works upon the art. He flourished about 
B.C. 260. 

Xenocritus (HevJ/cpiTos), of Locri Epizephyrii, 
in Lower Italy, a musician and lyric poet, was one 
of the leaders of the second school of Dorian music, 
which was founded by Thaletas, and was a com- 
poser of Paeans. 

Xenophanes (Hej/o^cti'Tjs), a celebrated philo- 
sopher, Avas a native of Colophon, and flourished 
between b. c. 540 and 500. He was a poet as 
well as a philosopher, and considerable fragments 
have come down to us of his elegies, and of a 
didactic poem " On Nature." According to the 
fragments of one of his elegies, he had left his 
native land at the age of 25, and had already 
lived 67 years in Hellas, when, at the age of 92, 
he composed that elegy. He quitted Colophon as 
a fugitive or exile, and must have lived some time 
at Elea (Velia) in Italy, as he is mentioned as the 
founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. He 
sung in one of his poems of the foundation of 
Velia. Xenophanes was usually regarded in an- 
tiquity as the originator of the Eleatic doctrine of 
the oneness of the universe. The Deity was in 
his view the animating power of the universe, 
which is expressed by Aristotle in the words, that, 
directing his glance on the whole universe, Xeno- 
phanes said, " God is the One." 

Xenophon (aevo^wv). 1, The Athenian, was 
the son of Gryllus, and a native of the demus 
Erchia. The time of his birth is not known, but 
it is approximated to by the fact that Xenophon 
fell from his horse in the flight after the battle of 
Delium, and was taken up by Socrates, the philo- 
sopher, on his shoulders and carried a distance of 
several stadia. The battle of Delium was fought 
B. c. 424 betw«en the Athenians and Boeotians, 
and Xenophon therefore could not well have been 
born after 444. The time of his death also is not 
mentioned by any ancient writer. Lucian says 
that he attained to above the age of 90, and 
Xenophon himself mentions the assassination of 
Alexander of Pherae, which happened in 357. 
Between 424 and 357, there is a period of 67 
years, and thus we have evidence of Xenophon 
being alive nearly 70 years after Socrates saved 
his life at Delium. Xenophon is said to have 
been a pupil of Socrates at an early age, which is 
consistent with the intimacy which might have 
arisen from Socrates saving his life. The most 
memorable event in Xenophon's life is his con- 

3 G 4 



tfi'4 



XENOPHOX. 



nection with the Greek army, which marched 
under Cvrus against Artaxerxes in 401. Xeno- 
phon himself mentions (Anab. iii, 1) the circum- 
stances under which he joined this army, Proxenus. 
a friend of Xenophon. vtsls already with Cyrus, 
and lie invited Xenophon to come to Sardis, and 
promised to introduce him to the Persian prince. 
Xenophon consulted his master Socrates, who ad- 
rised him to cousuli the oracle of Delphi, for it 
was rather a hazardous matter for him to enter the 
service of Cyrus, who was considered to be the 
friend of the Lacedaemonians and the enemy of i 
Athens. Xenophon went to Delphi, but he did ! 
not ask the god whether he should go or not : he ; 
probably had made up his mind. He merely asked j 
to what gods he should sacrifice in order that he i 
might be successful in his intended enterprise, j 
Socrates was not satisfied with his pupil's mode of , 
consulting the oracle, but as he had got an answer, 
he told him to go ; and Xenophon went to Sardis. ! 
which Cyrus was just about to leave. He accom- 
panied Cyrus into Upper Asia. In the battle of 
Cunaxa, Cyrus lost his life, his barbarian troops 
were dispersed, and the Greeks were left alone on 
the wide plains between the Tigris and the Eu- 
phrates. It was aiier the treacherous massacre of 
Clearchus and other of the Greek commanders by 
the Persian satrap Tissaphemes, that Xenophon 
came forward. He had held no command in the 
army of Cyrus, nor had he in feet served as a 
soldier. He was now elected one of the generals, 
and took the principal part in conducting the 
Greeks in their memorable retreat along the Tigris j 
over the high table lands of Armenia to Trapezus ; 
(Trebizond), on the Black Sea. From Trapezus { 
the troops were conducted to Chrysopolis, which is { 
opposite to Byzantium. The Greeks were in great j 
distress, and some of them under Xenophon en- , 
tered the service of Seuthes, king of Thrace. As j 
the Lacedaemonians under Thimbron were now at | 
war with Tissaphemes and Phamabazus, Xeno- i 
phon and his troops were invited to join the army 
of Thimbron, and Xenophon led them back out of 
Asia to join Thimbron 399. Xenophon, who was 
very poor, made an expedition into the plain of the 
Caicus with his troops before they joined Thimbron, to 
plunder the house and property of a Persian named 
Asidates. The Persian, with his women, children, 
and all his moveables was seized; and Xenophon, by 
this robbery, replenished his empty pockets (Anab. 
viL 8. 23). He tells the story himself as if he were 
not ashamed of it Socrates was put to death in 
399, and it seems probable that Xenophon was 
banished either shortly before or shortly after that 
event Xenophon was not banished at the time i 
when he was leading the troops back to Thimbron j 
(Anab. vii. 7. 57), but his expression rather seems i 
to imply that his banishment must have followed ; 
soon after. It is not certain what he was doing j 
after the troops joined Thimbron. As we know j 
nothing of his movements, the conclusion ought to j 
be that he stayed in Asia, and probably with ' 
Thimbron and his successor Dercyllidas. Agesi- 
laus, the Spartan kin?, was commanding the Lace- , 
daemonian forces in Asia against the Persians in 396, : 
and Xenophon was with him at least during part 
of the campaign. When Agesilaus was recalled ^ 
(394), Xenophon accompanied him ; and he was i 
on the side of the Lacedaemonians in the battle ' 
which they fought at Coronea ^394) against the i 
Athenians. It seems thar he went to Sparta with [ 



XENOPHON. 

Agesihms after the battle of Coronea, and soon 
after he settled at Scillus in Elis not far from 
Olympia, a spot of which he has given a descrip- 
tion in the Anabasis (v. 3. 7, 6cc.). Here he was 
joined by his wife Philesia and his children. His 
children were educated in Sparta. Xenophon was 
now an exile, and a Lacedaemonian so far as he 
could become one. His time during his long resi- 
dence at SciUus was employed in huntin?, writin?, 
and entertaining his friends ; and perhaps the 
Anaboiis and part of the HeUenica. were composed 
here. The treatise on huntins: and that on the 
horse were probably also written during this time, 
when amusement and exercise of that kind formed 
part of his occupation. Xenophon was at last ex- 
pelled from his quiet retreat at Scillus by the 
Eleans after remaining there about 20 years. 
The sentence of banishment from Athens was 
repealed on the motion of Eubulus, but it is 
uncertain in what year. In the battle of Man- 
tinea, which was fought 362, the Spartans and the 
Athenians were opposed to the Thebans, and 
Xenophon's 2 sons, GryUus and Diodorus, fought 
on the side of the aUies. Gryllus fell in the same 
battle in which Epaminondas lost his life. There 
is no evidence that Xenophon ever returned to 
Athens. He is said to have retired to Corinth 
after his expulsion from Scillus, and as we know 
nothing more, we assume that he died there. The 
Hipparddais was written after the repeal of the 
decree of banishment, and the treatise on the 
revenues of Athens. The events alluded to in 
the Epilogus to the Cyropaedia (viiL 8. 4) show 
that the Epilogus at least was ^Titten after 362. 
The time of his dea:h may have been a few years 
later. The following is a list of Xenophon's works. 
1. The Anabasis CAid§acis) or the History of the 
Expedition of the Younger Cyrus, and of the retreat 
of the Greeks, who formed part of his army. It is 
divided into 7 books. This work has immortalised 
Xenophon's name. It is a clear and pleasing nar- 
rative, written in a simple style, free from affecta- 
tion ; and it gives a great deal of curious informa- 
tion on the country which was traversed by the 
retreating Greeks, and on the manners of the 
people. It was the first work which made the 
Greeks acquainted with some portions of the Per- 
sian empire, and it showed the weakness of that 
extensive monarchy. The skirmishes of the re- 
treating Greeks ■n-iih their enemies and the battles 
•with some of the barbarian tribes are not such 
events as elevate the work to the character of a 
military history, nor can it as such be compared 
vriih Caesar's Commentaries. 2. The Hdlenica 
("EWrjvLKOL) of Xenophon are divided into 7 books, 
and comprehend the space of 48 years, from the 
time when the history of Thucydides ends [Thc- 
CTDLDEs] to the battle of Mantinea, 362. The 
Hdlenica is generally a dry narrative of events, 
and there is nothing in the treatment of them 
which gives a special interest to the work. Some 
events of importance are briefly treated, but a few 
striking incidents are presented with some parti- 
cularity. 3. The Cyropaedia (Kvpoirai^e'ia) in 8 
books, is a kind of political romance, the basis of 
which is the history of Cyrus, the founder of the 
Persian monarchy. It shows how citizens are to 
be made virtuous and brave ; and Cyrus is the 
model of a wise and good ruler. As a history it 
has no authority at all. Xenophon adopted the 
current stories as to Cvrus and the chief events of 



XENOPHON. 



XERXES. 



825 



his reign, without any intention of subjecting them 
to a critical examination ; nor have we any reason 
to suppose that his picture of Persian morals and 
Persian discipline is any thing more than a fiction. 
Xenophon's object was to represent what a state 
might be, and he placed the scene of his fiction far 
enough off to give it the colour of possibility. His 
own philosophical notions and the usages of Sparta 
were the real materials out of which he constructed 
his political system. The Cyropaedia is evidence 
enough that Xenophon did not like the political 
constitution of his own country, and that a well- 
ordered monarchy or kingdom appeared to him 
preferable to a democracy like Athens. 4. The 
Agesilaus {'Ayr](ri\aos) is a panegyric on Agesi- 
laus II., king of Sparta, the friend of Xenophon. 
5. The Hipparchicus {'iTnrapxiKos) is a treatise on 
the duties of a commander of cavalry, and it con- 
tains many military precepts. 6. The De Be 
Equesiri, a treatise on the Horse {'ImriK-f}), was 
written after the Hipparchicus, to which treatise 
he refers at the end of the treatise on the Horse. 
The treatise is not limited to horsemanship, as 
regards the rider : it shows how a man is to avoid 
being cheated in buying a horse, how a horse is to 
be trained, and the like. 7. The Cyncgeticus 
{Kvvt)y^riK6s) is a treatise on hunting ; and on 
the dog, and the breeding and training of dogs ; on 
the various kinds of game, and the mode of taking 
them. It is a treatise written by a genuine sports- 
man, who loved the exercise and the excitement of 
the chase ; and it may be read with delight by any 
sportsman who deserves the name. 8, 9. The 
Respuhlica Lacedaeinoniorinn and Respuhlica Athe- 
niensium, the 2 treatises on the Spartan andAthenian 
states (AaK€5cuiJ.ovtuv IIoAiTefo, and 'A6r]va'iwv 
lloXiTe'ia), were not always recognised as genuine 
works of Xenophon, even by the ancients. They 
pass, however, under his name, and there is 
nothing in the internal evidence that appears to 
throw any doubt on the authorship. The writer 
clearly prefers Spartan to Athenian institutions. 
1 0. The De Vectigalibus, a treatise on the Revenues 
of Athens (Ilopo: ^ irepi Ilpoaroduy) is designed to 
show how the public revenue of Athens may be 
improved. 11. The Memorabilia of Socrates, in 4 
books {' AiroiJLVT)fxovev/j.aTa 'S.wKpa.Tovs), was written 
by Xenophon to defend the memory of his master 
against the charge of irreligion and of corrupting 
the Athenian youth. Socrates is represented as 
holding a series of conversations, in which he 
developes and inculcates moral doctrines in his 
peculiar fashion. It is entirely a practical work, 
such as we might expect from the practical nature 
of Xenophon's mind, and it professes to exhibit 
Socrates as he taught. It is true that it may 
exhibit only one side of the Socratic argumenta- 
tion, and that it does not deal in those subtleties 
and verbal disputes which occupy so large a space 
in some of Plato's dialogues. Xenophon was a 
hearer of Socrates, an admirer of his master, and 
anxious to defend his memory. The charges 
against Socrates for which he suffered were, that 
" Socrates was guilty of not believing in the gods 
which the state believed in, and in introducing 
other new daemons {dai/xdvia) : he was also guilty 
of corrupting the youth." Xenophon replies to 
these two charges specifically ; and he then goes 
on to show what Socrates' mode of life was. The 
whole treatise is intended to be an answer to the 
charge for wliich Socrates was executed, and it is, 



therefore, in its nature, not intended to be a com- 
plete exhibition of Socrates. That it is a genuine 
picture of the man, is indisputable, and it is the 
most valuable memorial that we have of the prac- 
tical philosophy of Socrates. 12. The Apology 
of Socrates {'A'^oXoyia '2,wKp6.rovs Trphs rovs 
SiKacTTas) is a short speech, containing the reasons 
which induced Socrates to prefer death to life. It 
is not a first-rate performance ; and is considered 
by some critics not to have been written by Xeno- 
phon. 1 3. The Symposium ( 'Sv/xirocriou), or Banquet 
of Philosophers, in which Xenophon delineates the 
character of Socrates. The speakers are supposed 
to meet at the house of Callias, a rich Athenian, at 
the celebration of the great Panathenaea. Socrates 
and others are the speakers. The piece is in- 
teresting as a picture of an Athenian drinking 
party, and of the amusement and conversation with 
which it was diversified. The nature of love and 
friendship is discussed. 14. The Hiero {'lepwu ^ 
TvpavuiKos) is a dialogue between king Hiero and 
Simonides, in which the king speaks of the dangers 
and difficulties incident to an exalted station, and 
the superior happiness of a private man. The poet, 
on the other hand, enumerates the advantages 
which the possession of power gives, and the means 
which it offers of obliging and doing services. 15. 
The Oeconomicus (^OIkovo/xikos) is a dialogue be- 
tween Socrates and Critobulus, in which Socrates 
gives instruction in the art called Oeconomic, 
which relates to the administration of a household 
and of a man's property. This is one of the best 
treatises of Xenophon. — All antiquity and ail 
modern writers agree in allowing Xenophon great 
merit as a writer of a plain, simple, perspicuous, 
and unaffected style. His mind was not adapted 
for pure philosophical speculation : he looked to the 
practical in all things ; and the basis of his philo- 
sophy was a strong belief in a divine mediation in 
the government of the world. The best edition of 
Xenophon's complete works is by Schneider, Lips. 
1815, 6 vols. 8vo. — 2. The Ephesian, the author 
of a romance, still extant, entitled Ephesiaca, or 
the Loves of Anthia and Abrocomas ('E^eo-ioKa, 
TO /caret ^AvQ'iav koI 'A§pok6iu.t}v). The style of 
the work is simple, and the story is conducted 
without confusion, notwithstanding the number of 
personages introduced. The adventures are of a 
very improbable kind. The age when Xenophon 
lived is uncertain. He is probably the oldest of 
the Greek romance writers. The best editions of 
his work are by Peerlkamp, Harlem, 1818, and by 
Passow, Lips. 1833. 

Xerxes (HeplTjs). I. King of Persia b. c. 485 — 
465. The name is said by Herodotus (vi. 98) to 
signify the warrior, but it is probably the same 
word as the Zend ksathra and the Sanscrit kshatra, 
" a king." Xerxes was the son of Darius and 
Atossa. Darius was married twice. By his first 
Avife, the daughter of Gobryas, he had 3 children 
before he was raised to the throne ; and by his 
second wife, Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, he had 
4 children after he had become king. Artabazanes, 
the eldest son of the former marriage, and Xerxes, 
the eldest son of the latter, each laid claim to the 
succession ; but Darius decided in favour of 
Xerxes, no doubt through the influence of his 
mother Atossa, who completely ruled Darius. 
Xerxes succeeded his father at the beginning of 
485. Darius had died in the midst of his pre- 
parations against Greece, which had been inter- 



826 



XERXES. 



XIPHONIA. 



rupted by the revolt of the Egyptians. The first 
care of Xerxes was to reduce the latter people to 
subjection. He accordingly invaded Egypt at the 
beginning of the 2d year of his reign (b. c. 484), 
compelled the people again to submit to the Per- 
sian yoke, and then returned to Persia, leaving his 
brother Achaemenes governor of Egypt. The 
next 4 years were devoted to preparations for the 
invasion of Greece. In the spring of 480 he set 
out from Sardis on his memorable expedition 
against Greece. He crossed the Hellespont by a 
bridge of boats, and continued his march through 
the Thracian Chersonese till he reached the plain 
of Doriscus, which is traversed by the river Hebrus. 
Here he resolved to number both his land and naval 
forces. Herodotus has left us a most minute and 
interesting catalogue of the nations comprising this 
mighty army with their various military equip- 
ments and different modes of fighting. The land 
forces contained 46 nations. (Herod, vii. 61, 
foil.) In his march through Thrace and Mace- 
donia, Xerxes received a still further accession 
of strength ; and when he reached Thermopylae 
the land and sea forces amounted to 2,641,610 
fighting men. This does not include the at- 
tendants, the slaves, the crews of the provision 
ships, &c., which according to the supposition of 
Herodotus were more in number than the fight- 
ing men ; but supposing them to have been equal, 
the total number of male persons who accompanied 
Xerxes to Thermopylae reach the astounding figure 
of 5,283,220 ! Such a vast number must be dis- 
missed as incredible ; but, considering that this 
army was the result of a maximum of effort 
throughout the empire, and that provisions had 
been collected for 3 years before along the line of 
march, we may well believe that the numbers of 
Xerxes were greater than were ever assembled in 
ancient times, or perhaps at any known epoch of 
history. After the review of Doriscus Xerxes 
continued his march through Thrace. On reaching 
Acanthus, near the isthmus of Athos, Xerxes left 
his fleet, which received orders to sail through the 
canal that had been previously dug across the 
isthmus — and of which the remains are still visible 
[Athos] — and await his arrival at Therme, after- 
wards called Thessalonica. After joining his fleet 
at Therme, Xerxes marched through Macedonia 
and Thessaly without meeting with any opposition 
till he reached Thermopylae. Here the Greeks 
resolved to make a stand. Leonidas, king of 
Sparta, conducted a land force to Thermopylae ; 
and his colleague Eurybiades sailed with the 
Greek fleet to the N. of Euboea, and took up his 
position on the N. coast, which faced Magnesia, and 
was called Artemisium from the temple of Artemis 
belonging to the town of Hestiaea. Xerxes arrived 
in safety with his land forces before Thermopylae, 
but his fleet was overtaken by a violent storm and 
hurricane off the coast of Sepias in Magnesia, by 
which at least 400 ships of war were destroyed, 
as well as an immense number of transports. 
Xerxes attempted to force his way through the pass 
of Thermopylae, but his troops were repulsed 
again and again by Leonidas ; till a Malian, of the 
name of Ephialtes, showed the Persians a pass 
over the mountains of Oeta, and thus enabled 
them to fall on the rear of the Greeks. Leonidas 
and his Spartans disdained to fly, and were all 
slain. [Leonidas.] On the same days on which 
Leonidas was fighting with the land forces of 



Xerxes, the Greek ships at Artemisium attacked 
the Persian fleet. In the first battle, the Greeks 
had the advantage, and in the following night the 
Persian ships suffered still more from a violent 
storm. Two days afterwards the contest was 
renewed : and both sides fought Avith the greatest 
courage. Although the Greeks at the close still 
maintained their position, and had destroyed a 
great number of the enemy's ships, yet their own 
loss was considerable, and half the Athenian ships 
were disabled. Under these circumstances the 
Greek commanders abandoned Artemisium and 
retired to Salamis, opposite the S. W. coast of 
Attica. It was now too late to send an army into 
Boeotia, and Attica thus lay exposed to the full 
vengeance of the invader. The Athenians re- 
moved their women, children, and infirm persons to 
Salamis, Aegina, and Troezen. Meantime Xerxes 
marched through Phocis and Boeotia, and at length 
reached Athens. About the same time as Xerxes 
entered Athens, his fleet arrived in the bay of 
Phalerum. He now resolved upon an engagement 
with the Greek fleet. The history of this memor- 
able battle, of the previous dissensions among the 
Greek commanders, and of the glorious victory of the 
Greeks at the last, is related elsewhere. [Themis- 
TOCLES.] Xerxes witnessed the battle from a lofty 
seat, which was erected for him on the shore of the 
mainland on one of the declivities of Mount Aega- 
leos, and thus beheld with his own eyes the defeat 
and dispersion of his mighty armament. Xerxes 
now became alarmed for his own safety, and re- 
solved to leave Greece immediately. He was 
confirmed in his resolution by Mardonius, who 
undertook to complete the conquest with 300,000 
of his troops. Xerxes left Mardonius the number 
of troops which he requested, and with the remain- 
der set out on his march homewards. He reached 
the Hellespont in 45 days from the time of his 
departure from Attica. On arriving at the Helles- 
pont, he found the bridge of boats destroyed 
by a storm, and he crossed over to Asia by ship. 
He entered Sardis towards the end of the year 
480. In the following year, 479, the war was 
continued in Greece ; but Mardonius was defeated 
at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greeks, 
and on the same day another victory was gained 
over the Persians at Mycale in Ionia. Next year, 
478, the Persians lost their last possession in 
Europe by the capture of Sestos on the Hellespont. 
Thus the struggle was virtually brought to an end, 
though the war still continued for several years 
longer. We know little more of the personal his- 
tory of Xerxes. He was murdered in 465, after a 
reign of 20 years, by Artabanus, who aspired to 
become king of Persia. Xerxes was succeeded by 
his son Artaxerxes I. —II. The only legitimate 
son of Artaxerxes I., succeeded his father as king 
of Persia in 425, but was murdered after a short 
reign of only 2 months by his half-brother Sog- 
dianus, who thus became king. 

Xiphilinus (aKpiX^vos), of Trapezus, was a 
monk at Constantinople, and made an abridgement 
of Dion Cassius from the 36th to the 80th book at 
the command of the emperor Michael VII. Ducas, 
who reigned from A. D. 1071 to 1078. The work 
is executed with carelessness, and is only of value 
as preserving the main facts of the original, the 
greater part of which is lost. It is printed along 
with Dion Cassius. 

Xiphoma {s,i<pwvla : Capo di S. Croce), a pro- 



XOIS. 



ZALMOXIS. 



827 



montory on the E. coast of Sicily, above Syracuse, 
with a harbour (ai(l>u>ueios Aifiiju). 

Xois or Choi's (a6is, Hotjs, XS'is), an ancient 
city of Lower Egypt, N. of Leontopolis, on an 
island of the Nile, in the Nomos Sebennyticus, 
the seat, at one time, of a dynasty of Egyptian 
kings. It appears to have entirely perished under 
the Roman empire, and its site is very doubtful. 
Some identify it with the Papremis of Herodotus. 

XHthus (aov0os\ son of Hellen by the nymph 
Orseis, and a brother of Dorus and Aeolus. He 
was king of Peloponnesus, and the husband of 
Creusa, the daughter of Erechtheus, by whom he 
became the father of Achaeus and Ion. Others 
state that after the death of his father Hellen, 
Xuthus was expelled from Thessaly by his 
brothers, and went to Athens, Avhere he married 
the daughter of Erechtheus. After the death of 
Erechtheus, Xuthus being chosen arbitrator, ad- 
judged the kingdom to his eldest brother-in-law, 
Cecrops, in consequence of which he was expelled 
by the other sons of Erechtheus, and settled in 
Aegialus in Peloponnesus. 

Xyline, a town of Pisidia, between Corbasa 
and Termessus, mentioned by Livy (xxxviii. 15). 

Xynia or Xyniae (H vu'ta : avuievs : Tauldi). a 
town of Thessaly in the district Phthiotis, E. of 
the lake of the same name (jj Uwias \ifxvr) : Ni- 
zero or Dereli). 

Xjrpete (HuirerTj : "EvireTaiwv, avirerewu^ HuTre- 
raicoj/euy, SuTreTsuy, HuTrer/os), said to have been 
anciently called Troja, a demus of Attica belonging 
to the tribe Cecropis, near Piraeus. 

Z. 

Zabatus (Za§oTos). [Lycus, No. 5.] 
Zabo (Za§7j), a name applied, under the later 
emperors, to the S. part of Numidia, as far as the 
border of the Great Desert. 

ZaC3ntltllus {ZaKvuQos : ZukuuBios, Zacynthius : 
Zante), an island in the Ionian sea off the coast of 
Elis, about 40 miles in circumference. It con- 
tained a large and flourishing town of the same 
name upon the E. coast, the citadel of which was 
called Psophis. There are 2 considerable chains of 
mountains in the island. The ancient writers 
mention M. Elatus, which is probably the same as 
the modern Scopo in the S. E. of the island, and 
which rises to the height of 1509 feet. Zacynthus 
was celebrated in antiquity for its pitch wells, 
which were visited by Herodotus, and which still 
supply a large quantity of bitumen. About 100 
tons of bitumen are at the present day annually 
extracted from these wells. — Zacynthus was in- 
habited by a Greek population at an early period. 
It is said to have derived its names from Zacynthus, 
a son of Dardanus, who colonised the island from 
Psophis in Arcadia ; and according to an ancient 
tradition, the Zacynthians founded the town of 
Saguntum in Spain. [Saguntum.] The island is 
frequently mentioned by Homer, who speaks of it 
as the '* woody Zacynthus." It was afterwards 
colonised by Achaeans from Peloponnesus. It 
formed part of the maritime empire of Athens, and 
continued faithful to the Athenians during the 
Peloponnesian war. At a later time it was subject 
to the Macedonian monarchs, and on the conquest 
of Macedonia by the Romans passed into the 
hands of the latter. It is now one of the Ionian 
islands under the protection of Great Britain. 



Zadracarta (ZaSpa/capra), one of the capital 
cities and royal residences in Hyrcania, lay at the 
N. foot of the chief pass through M. Coronus. 
(Comp. Tapae.) 

Zagreus (Zaypev^), a surname of the mystic 
Dionysus (AiSuvaos x^^^'i'Os), whom Zeus, in the 
form of a dragon, is said to have begotten by Per- 
sephone (Proserpina), before she Avas carried oflF 
by Pluto. He was torn to pieces by the Titans ; 
and Athena carried his heart to Zeus. 

Zagros or -us (o Zdypos and rh Zdypiov opos, 
Mts. of Kurdistan and Louristan), the general 
name for the range of mountains forming the S. E. 
continuation of the Taurus, and the E. margin of 
the Tigris and Euphrates valley, from the S. W. 
side of the Lake Arsissa (Van) in Armenia, to 
the N. E. side of the head of the Persian Gulf, 
and dividing Media from Assyria and Susiana. 
More specifically, the name Zagros was applied to 
the central part of the chain, the N. part being 
called the mountains of the Cordueni or Gordyaei, 
and the S. part Parachoathras. 

Zaitha or Zautha (Zau0d), a town of Mesopo- 
tamia, on the E. bank of the Euphrates, 20 Roman 
miles S. of Circesium, remarkable as the place at 
which a monument was erected to the murdered 
emperor Gordian by his soldiers. 

Zaleucus (Za\6u/cos), the celebrated lawgiver 
of the Epizephyrian Locrians, is said by some to 
have been originally a slave, but is described by 
others as a man of good family. He could not 
however have been a disciple of Pythagoras, as 
some writers state, since he lived upwards of 100 
years before Pythagoras. The date of the legis- 
lation of Zaleucus is assigned to b. c. 660. His 
code is stated to have been the first collection of 
written laws that the Greeks possessed. The 
general character of his laws was severe ; but they 
were observed for a long period by the Locrians, 
who obtained, in consequence, a high reputation 
for legal order. Among other enactments we are 
told that the penalty of adulter}'- was the loss of 
the eyes. There is a celebrated story of the son 
of Zaleucus having become liable to this penalty, 
and the father himself suffering the loss of one eye 
that his son might not be utterly blinded. It is 
further related that among his laws was one for- 
bidding any citizen under penalty of death to 
enter the senate house in arms. On one occasion, 
however, on a sudden emergency in time of war, 
Zaleucus transgressed his own law, which was 
remarked to him by one present; whereupon he 
fell upon his own sword, declaring that he would 
himself vindicate the law. Other authors tell the 
same story of Charondas, or of Diodes. 

Zalmoxis or Zaniolxis {ZdK/j.o^is, Zd/jLoK^is)^ 
said to have been so called from the bear''s skin 
(ZdXfjLos) in which he was clothed as soon as he 
was born. He was, according to the story current 
among the Greeks on the Hellespont, a Getan, 
who had been a slave to Pythagoras in Samos, but 
was manumitted, and acquired not only great 
wealth, but large stores of knowledge from Py- 
thagoras, and from the Egyptians, whom he visited 
in the course of his travels. He returned among 
the Getae, introducing the civilisation and the re- 
ligious ideas which he had gained, especially re- 
garding the immortality of the soul. He was said 
to have lived in a subterraneous cave for 3 years, 
and after that to have again made his appearance 
among the Getae. Herodotus inclines to place 



828 



ZAMA. 



ZENO. 



the age of Zalmoxis a long time before Pythagoras, 
and expresses a doubt not only about the story 
itself, but as to whether Zalmoxis were a man, or 
an indigenous Getan deity. The latter appears to 
have been the real state of the case. The Getae 
believed that the departed went to him. 

Zama Regia (Za^o : Zamensis : Zowareen, 
S. E. of Kaff"), a strongly fortified city in the 
interior of Numidia, on the borders of the Cartha- 
ginian territory. It was the ordinary residence of 
King Juba, who had here his treasury and his 
fearem. It was the scene of one of the most im- 
portant battles in the history of the world, that in 
which Hannibal was defeated by Scipio, and the 
2nd Punic War was ended, b. c. 202. Strabo 
tells us that it was destroyed by the Romans ; but 
if so, it must have been restored, for we find it 
mentioned under the empire as a colony and a 
bishop's see. Pliny and Vitruvius speak of a 
fountain in its neighbourhood. — There were un- 
important places of the same name in Cappadocia 
and Mesopotamia. 

Zancle. [Messana.] 

Zapaortene, a city in the S. E. of Parthia, in 
the mountains of the Zapaorteni. 

Zaradrus (Sutlej), a river of N. India, now the 
S. boundary of the Punjab. It rises from 2 prin- 
cipal sources beyond the Himalaya, and falls into 
the Hyphasis {Gharra). 

Zarangae or -i, or Sarangae {Zapayyoi, 5a- 
pa77ot), a people in the N. of Drangiana, on the 
confines of Aria. The close resemblance of their 
name to the generic name of all the people of 
Drangiana, that is, Drangae, suggests a doubt 
whether they ought to be specifically distinguished 
from them. 

Zarax or Zarex (Za/jo^, Zaprjl). 1. The cen- 
tral part of the chain of mountains, extending along 
the E. coast of Laconica from Mt. Parnon, on the 
frontiers of Argolis, down to the promontory Ma- 
lea.— 2. {Jera1ca\ a town on the E. coast of 
Laconica, at the foot of the mountain of the same 
name. 

Zariaspe. [Bactra.] 

Zariaspis, an earlier, probably the native name 
for the river on which JBactra stood, and which is 
usually called Bactrus. [Bactra. J The people 
on its banks were called Zariaspae. 

Zela or Ziela (to ZrjAa : Zilleh)^ a city in the 
S. of Pontus, not far S. of Amasia, and 4 days' 
journey E. of Tavium. It stood on an artificial 
hill, and was strongly fortified. Near it was an 
ancient and famous temple of Anai'tis and other 
Persian deities, in which great religious festivals 
were held. The surrounding district was called 
Zeletis or Zelitis. At Zela the Roman general 
Valerius Triarius was defeated by Mithridates ; but 
the city is more celebrated for another great battle, 
that in which Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces, 
and of which he wrote this despatch to Rome : — 
Veni ; ViDi : Vici. 

Zelasmm, a Thessalian town in tlie district 
Phthiotis of uncertain site. 

Zelia (ZeAeia), an ancient city of Mysia, at 
the foot of M. Ida, and on the river Aesepus, 80 
stadia from its mouth, belonging to the territory of 
Cyzicus. At the time of Alexander's invasion the 
head-quarters of the Persian anny were fixed here. 

Zelus (Z-JjAos), the personification of zeal or 
strife, is described as a son of Pallas and Styx, and 
a brother of Nice. 



Zeno, Zenon {Zrtpwv). 1. The founder of th- 
Stoic philosophy, was a native of Citium in Cypru" 
and the son of Mnaseas. He began at an earl 
age to study philosophy through the writings of 
the Socratic philosophers, which his father was 
accustomed to bring back from Athens when he 
went thither on trading voyages. At the age of 
22, or, according to others, of 30 years, Zeno was 
shipwrecked in the neighbourhood of Piraeus ; 
whereupon he Avas led to settle in Athens, and 
to devote himself entirely to the study of philo- 
sophy. According to some writers he lost all his 
property in the shipwreck ; according to others, 
he still retained a large fortune ; but whichever of 
these accounts is correct, his moderation and con- 
tentment became proverbial, and a recognition of 
his virtues shines through, even the ridicule of the 
comic poets. The weakness of his health is said 
to have first determined him to live rigorously and 
simply ; but his desire to make himself inde- 
pendent of all external circumstances seems to have 
been an additional motive, and to have led him to 
attach himself to the cynic Crates. In opposition 
to the advice of Crates, he studied under Stilpo of 
the Megaric school ; and he subsequently received 
instruction from the 2 other contemporary Megarics, 
Diodorus Cronus and Philo, and from tlie Aca- 
demics, Xenocrates and Polemo. The period which 
Zeno thus devoted to study is said to have ex- 
tended to 20 years. At its close, and after he had 
developed his peculiar philosophical system, he 
opened his school in the porch adorned with the 
paintings of Polygnotus {Stoa Poecile), which, at an 
earlier time, had been a place in which poets met 
From this place his disciples were called Stoics. 
Among the warm admirers of Zeno was Antigo- 
nus Gonatas, king of Macedonia. The Athenians 
likewise placed the greatest confidence in him, and 
displayed the greatest esteem for him ; for al- 
though the well-known story that they deposited 
the keys of the fortress with him, as the most 
trustworthy man, may be a later invention, there 
seems no reason for doubting the authenticity of 
the decree of the people by which a golden crovra 
and a public burial in the Ceramicus were awarded 
to him. The Athenian citizenship, however, he 
is said to have declined, that he might not become 
unfaithful to his native land, where in return he 
was highly esteemed. We do not know the year 
either of Zeno's birth or death. He is said to 
have presided over his school for 58 years, and to 
have died at the age of 98. He is said to have 
been still alive in the 130th Olympiad (b. c. 260). 
Zeno wrote numerous works ; but the writings of 
Chrysippus and the later Stoics seem to have ob- 
scured those of Zeno, and even the warm ad- 
herents of the school seem seldom to have gone 
back to the books of its founder. Hence it is 
difficult to ascertain how much of the later Stoic 
philosophy really belongs to Zeno. —2. The Eleatic 
philosopher, was a native of Elea (Velia) in Italy, 
son of Teleutagoras, and the favourite disciple of 
Parraenides. He was born about B.C. 488, and at 
the age of 40 accompanied Parmenides to Athens. 
[Parmenides.] He appears to have resided 
some time at Athens, and is said to have unfolded 
his doctrines to men like Pericles and Callias for 
the price of 100 minae. Zeno is said to have 
taken part in the legislation of Parmenides, to the 
maintenance of which the citizens of Elea had 
pledged themselves every year by an oath. His 



ZENOBIA. 

love of freedom is sho^vn by the courage with 
which he exposed his life in order to deliver his 
native country from a tyrant. Whether he 
perished in the attempt, or survived the fall of the 
tyrant, is a point on which the authorities vary. 
They also state the name of the tyrant differently. 
Zeno devoted all his energies to explain and de- 
velop the philosophical system of Parraenides. 
[Parmenides.] — 3. An Epicurean philosopher, 
a native of Sidon, was a contemporary of Cicero, 
who heard him when at Athens. He was some- 
times termed Corypluxeus Epicureorum. He seems 
to have been noted for the disrespectful terms in 
which he spoke of other philosophers. For in- 
stance, he called Socrates the Attic buffoon. He 
was a disciple of Apollodorus, and is described as 
a clear-headed thinker and perspicuous expounder 
of his views. 

Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. After the death 
of her husband, Odenathus, whom, according to 
some accounts, she assassinated (a. d. 266), she 
assumed the imperial diadem, as regent for her 
sons, and discharged all the active duties of a 
sovereign. But not content with enjoying the 
independence conceded by Gallienus and tolerated 
by Claudius, she sought to include all Syria, Asia, 
and Egypt within the limits of her sway, and to 
make good the title which she claimed of Queen 
of the East. By this rash ambition she lost both 
her kingdom and her liberty. She was defeated 
by Aurelian, taken prisoner on the capture of 
Palmyra (273), and carried to Rome, where she 
adorned the triumph of her conqueror (274). Her 
life was spared by Aurelian, and she passed the 
remainder of her years with her sons in the vi- 
cinity of Tibur {Tivoli). Longinus lived at her 
court, and was put to death on the capture of Pal- 
myra. [Longinus.] 

Zenobia {Z-qvo^ia : ChekU or Zelebi), a city of 
Chalybonitis, in Syria, on the W. bank of the 
Euphrates, 3 days' journey both from Sura and 
from Circesium. It was founded by Zenobia. 

ZenobiUS {Zr}v6Sios)^ lived at Rome in the time 
of Hadrian, and was the author of a collection of 
proverbs in Greek, which have come down to us. 
In this collection the proverbs are arranged alpha- 
betically, and divided into hundreds. The last 
division is incomplete, the total number collected 
being 552. It is printed in the collection of 
Schottus {Ilapoifiiai 'EWrjuiKai, Antwerp, 1612). 

Zenodorus, a Greek artist, who made for Nero 
the colossal statue of that emperor, which he set 
up in front of the golden house, and which was 
afterwards dedicated afresh by Vespasian as a 
statue of the Sun. It was 110 feet in height. 

Zenodotium or -la (Ztjvo^Stiov, ZtivoSot'io), a 
fortress in the N. of Mesopotamia, on the small 
tributary of the Euphrates called Bilecha, a little 
above Nicephorium, and below Ichnae. It was a 
Macedonian settlement, and the only one of the 
Greek cities of Mesopotamia which did not revolt 
from the Parthians at the approach of Crassus. 

Zenoddtus {ZtjvSSotos). 1. Of Ephesus, a 
celebrated grammarian, was the first superintend- 
ent of the great library at Alexandria, and flou- 
rished under Ptolemy Philadelphus about B. c. 
208. Zenodotus was employed by Philadelphus 
together with his 2 great contemporaries, Alex- 
ander the Aetolian and Lycophron the Chalcidian, 
to collect and revise all the Greek poets. Alex- 
ander, we are told, undertook the task of collecting 



ZETES. 82y 
the tragedies, Lycopliron the comedies, and Zeno- 
dotus the poems of Homer, and of the other illus- 
trious poets. Zenodotus, however, devoted his 
chief attention to the Iliad and Odyssey. Hence 
he is called the first Reviser {Aiopdr]T-fjs) of Homer, 
and his recension (AiSpdwaris) of the Iliad and 
Odyssey obtained the greatest celebritj^ The 
corrections which Zenodotus applied to the text of 
Homer were of three kinds. 1. He expunged 
verses. 2. He marked them as spurious, but left 
them in his copy. 3. He introduced new read- 
ings or transposed or altered verses. The great 
attention which Zenodotus paid to the language of 
Homer caused a new epoch in the grammatical 
study of the Greek language. The results of his 
investigations respecting the meaning and the use 
of words were contained in two works which he 
published under the title of a Glossary (TKwacrai)^ 
and a Dictionary of barbarous or foreign phrases. 

— 2. Of Alexandria, a grammarian, lived after 
Aristarchus, whose recension of the Homeric poems 
he attacked. 

Zephyra. [Halicarnassus.] 

Zephyrmm {Zecpupiov, sc. aKpwr^piou, i. e. the 
W. promontory), the name of several promontories 
of the ancient world, not all of which, however, 
faced the W. The chief of them were the follow- 
ing: — I. In Europe. 1.(^7. di Brussano), a 
promontory in Bruttium, forming the S. E. ex- 
tremity of the country, from which the Locri, 
who settled in the neighbourhood, are said to have 
obtained the name of Epizephyrii. [See p. 387, b.] 

— 2. A promontory on the W. coast of Cyprus. 

II. In Asia. 1. In Pontus (C. Zefreh\ a headland 
W. of Tripolis, with a fort and harbour of the 
same name. — 2. [Caria.] — 3. In Cilicia (prob. 
C. Cavaliere), a far-projecting promontory, W. of 
Prom. Sarpedon. Some make it the headland E. 
of Prom. Sarpedon, and just S. of the mouth of 
the Calycadnus, which Polybius, Appian, and Livy 
call by the same name as the river, Calycadnus. — 

III. In Africa (Kasser Maarah), a headland on 
the N. E. coast of Cyrenaica, W. of Darnis. 

Zephyrus (Ze'^upos), the personification of the 
W. wind, is described by Hesiod as a son of As- 
traeus and Eos. Zephyrus and Boreas are frequently 
mentioned together by Homer, and both dwelt 
together in a palace in Thrace. By the Harpy 
Podarge, Zephyrus became the father of the horses 
Xanthus and Balius, which belonged to Achilles; 
but he was married to Chloris, whom he had car- 
ried off by force, and by whom he had a son Carpus. 

Zerynthus (z^pwdos^ Z-qpvvQios), a town of 
Thrace in the territory of Aenos, with a temple of 
Apollo and a cave of Hecate, who are hence called 
Zerynthius and Zerynthia respectively. Some 
writers, however, place the Zerynthian cave of 
Hecate in Samothrace. 

Zetes (ZTTjTrjs) and Calais (KaAais), sons of 
Boreas and Orithyia, frequently called the Borea- 
dae, are mentioned among the Argonauts, and are 
described as winged beings. Their sister Cleo- 
patra, who was married to Phineus, king of Sal- 
mydessus, had been thrown with her sons into 
prison by Phineus at the instigation of his second 
wife. Here she was found by Zetes and Calais, 
when they arrived at Salmydessus in the Ar- 
gonautic expedition. They liberated their sister 
and his children, gave the kingdom to the latter, 
and sent the second wife of Phineus to her own 
country, Scythia. Others relate that the Boreadae 



830 



ZETHUS. 



ZEUS. 



delivered Phineus from the Harpies; for it had 
been foretold that the Harpies might be killed by 
the sons of Boreas, but that the sons of Boreas must 
die, if they should not be able to overtake the 
Harpies. Others again state that the Boreadae 
perished in their pursuit of the Harpies, or that 
Hercules killed them with his arrows near the 
island of Tenos. Different stories were related to 
account for the anger of Hercules against the Bo- 
readae. Their tombs were said to be in Tenos, 
adorned with sepulchral stelae, one of which moved 
whenever the wind blew from the north. Calais 
is also mentioned as the founder of the Campanian 
town of Cales. 

Zethus (ZrjOos), son of Zeus and Antiope, and 
brother of Amphion. For details see Amphion. 

Zeugis, Zeugitana Eegio ZevyLravfj : N. 
part of Tunis\ the N. district of Africa Propria. 
[Africa.] 

Zeugma (Zevyiia, i. e. Junction : prob. Rum- 
Jcakh), a city of Syria, on the borders of Com- 
magene and Cyrrhestice, built by Seleucus Nicator, 
on the W. bank of the Euphrates, at a point where 
the river was crossed by a bridge of boats, which 
had been constructed by Alexander the Great : 
hence the name. Afterwards, when the ford of 
Thapsacus became impassable for travellers, on 
account of the hordes of Arabs who infested the 
banks of the Lower Euphrates, the bridge at 
Zeugma gave the only passage over the river. 

Zeus (Zeuj), called Jupiter by the Romans, the 
greatest of the Olympian gods, was a son of Cronos 
and Rhea, a brother of Poseidon, Hades (Pluto), 
Hestia, Demeter, Hera, and was also married to 
his sister Hera. When Zeus and his brothers 
distributed among themselves the government of 
the world by lot, Poseidon obtained the sea. Hades 
the lower world, and Zeus the heavens and the 
upper regions, but the earth became common to all. 
According to the Homeric account Zeus dwelt on 
Mt. Olympus in Thessaly, which was believed to pe- 
netrate with its lofty summit into heaven itself. He 
is called the father of gods and men, the most high 
and powerful among the immortals, whom all others 
obey. He is the supreme ruler, who with his 
counsel manages everything; the founder of kingly 
power, and of law and of order, whence Dice, 
Themis, and Nemesis are his assistants. For the 
same reason he protects the assembly of the people 
(ayopaios), the meetings of the council (/3ouA.a<os), 
and as he presides over the whole state, so also 
over every house and family (e/)/ce?os). He also 
watched over the sanctity of the oath (opKios) and 
the laws of hospitality (|eVfos), and protected sup- 
pliants {'iKecnos). He avenged those who were 
wronged, and punished those who had committed 
a crime, for he watched the doings and sufferings 
of all men (iTr6\pios). He was further the original 
source of all prophetic power, from whom all pro- 
phetic signs and sounds proceeded {Travoix<paios). 
Every thing good as well as bad comes from Zeus; 
according to his own choice he assigns good or evil 
to mortals ; and fate itself was subordinate to him. 
He is armed with thmider and lightning, and the 
shaking of his aegis produces storm and tempest : 
a number of epithets of Zeus in the Homeric poems 
describe him as the thunderer, the gatherer of 
clouds, and the like. He was married to Hera, by 
whom he had two sons, Ares and Hephaestus, and 
one daughter, Hebe. Hera sometimes acts as an 
independent divinity; she is ambitious and rebels 



against her lord, but she is nevertheless inferior to 
him, and is punished for her opposition ; his amours 
with other goddesses or mortal women are not con- 
cealed from her, though they generally rouse her 
jealousy and revenge. During the Trojan war, 
Zeus, at the request of Thetis, favoured the Tro- 
jans, until Agamemnon repaired the wrong he had 
done to Achilles. Zeus, no doubt, was originally 
a god of a portion of nature. Hence the oak with 
its eatable fruit and the fertile doves were sacred 
to him at Dodona and in Arcadia. Hence also 
rain, storms, and the seasons were regarded as his 
work; and hence, likewise, the Cretan stories of 
milk, honey, and cornucopia. In the Homeric 
poems, however, this primitive character of a per- 
sonification of certain powers of nature is already 
effaced to some extent, and the god appears as a 
political and national divinity, as the king and 
father of men, as the founder and protector of all 
institutions hallowed by law, custom, or religion. 
Hesiod also calls Zeus the son of Cronos and Rhea, 
and the brother of Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, 
and Poseidon, Cronos swallowed his children im- 
mediately after their birth, but when Rhea was 
pregnant with Zeus, she applied to Uranus and 
Ge to save the life of the child. Uranus and Ge 
therefore sent Rhea to Lyctos in Crete, requesting 
her to bring up her child there. Rhea accordingly 
concealed Zeus in a cave of Mount Aegaeon, and 
gave to Cronos a stone wrapped up in cloth, which 
he swallowed in the belief that it was his son. 
Other traditions state that Zeus was born and 
brought up on Mount Dicte or Ida (also the Trojan 
Ida), Ithome in Messenia, Thebes in Boeotia, 
Aegion in Achaia, or Olenos in Aetolia. Accord- 
ing to the common account, however, Zeus grew 
up in Crete. In the meantime Cronos by a cunning 
device of Ge or Metis was made to bring up the 
children he had swallowed, and first of all the 
stone, which was afterwards set up by Zeus at 
Delphi. The young god now delivered the Cy- 
clopes from the bonds with which they had been 
fettered by Cronos, and they in their gratitude 
provided him with thimder and lightning. On 
the advice of Ge, Zeus also liberated the hundred- 
armed Gigantes, Briareos, Cottus, and Gyes, that 
they might assist him in his fight against the Ti- 
tans. The Titans were conquered and shut up in 
Tartarus, where they were henceforth guarded b)- 
the Hecatoncheires. Thereupon Tartarus and Ge 
begot Typhoeus, who began a fearful struggle with 
Zeus, but was conquered. Zeus now obtained the 
dominion of the world, and chose Metis for his 
wife. When she was pregnant with Athena, he 
took the child out of her body and concealed it in 
his head, on the advice of Uranus and Ge, who 
told him that thereby he would retain the supre- 
macy of the world. For if Metis had given birth 
to a son, this son (so fate had ordained it) would 
have acquired the sovereignty. After this Zeus 
became the father of the Horae and Moerae, by his 
second wife Themis ; of the Charites by Eurynorae; 
of Persephone by Demeter; of the Muses by 
Mnemosyne; of Apollo and Artemis by Leto; and 
of Hebe, Ares, and Ilithyia by Hera. Athena 
was born out of the head of Zeus ; while Hera, on 
the other hand, gave birth to Hephaestus without 
the co-operation of Zeus. The family of the 
Cronidae accordingly embraces the 12 great gods 
of Olympus, Zeus (the head of them all), Poseidon, 
Apollo, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Hestia, De- 



ZEUXIDAMUS. 

meter, Hera, Athena, Aphrodite, and Artemis, 
These 12 Olympian gods, who in some places were 
worshipped as a body, were recognised not only by 
the Greeks, but were adopted also by the Romans, 
who, in particular, identified their Jupiter with 
the Greek Zeus. In surveying the different local 
traditions about Zeus, it would seem that originally 
there were several, or at least 3, divinities which 
in their respective countries were supreme, but 
which in the course of time became united in the 
minds of the people into one great national divinity. 
We may accordingly speak of an Arcadian, Do- 
donaean, Cretan, and a national Hellenic Zeus. 1. 
The Arcadian Zeus{Zivs Avkoios) was born, accord- 
ing to the legends of the country, in Arcadia, either 
on Mt. Parrhasium, or on Mt. Lycaeus. He was 
brought up there by the nymphs Thisoa, Neda, and 
Hagno. Lycaon, a son of Pelasgus, erected a temple 
to Zeus Lycaeus on Mt. Lycaeus, and instituted the 
festival of the Lyceain honour of him [Lycaeus; 
Lycaon]. No one was allowed to enter this 
sanctuary of Zeus Lycaeus on Mt. Lycaeus. 2. 
The Dodonaean Zeus (Zeus Aoi^oivaios or IleAacr- 
"/iKos) possessed the most ancient oracle in Greece, 
at Dodona in Epirus, from which he derived his 
name. At Dodona Zeus was mainly a prophetic 
god, and the oak tree was sacred to him ; but there 
too he was said to have been reared by the Dodo- 
naean nymphs (Hyades). Respecting the Dodo- 
naean oracle of Zeus, see Diet, of Antiq. art. 
Oraculum. 3. The Cretan Zeus (Zeus At/craTos or 
l^pt]Taq^vii]%). We have already given Hesiod's 
account of this god. He was brought up in a cave 
of mount Dicte, by the Curetes and the nymphs 
Adrastia and Ida, the daughters of Melisseus. They 
fed him with the milk of the goat Amalthea, and the 
bees of the moimtain provided him with honey. 
Crete is called the island or nurse of the great 
Zeus, and his worship there appears to have been 
very ancient. 4. The national Hellenic Zeus, near 
whose temple at Olympia in Elis, the great national 
panegyris was celebrated once in 4 years. There 
too Zeus was regarded as the father and king of 
gods and men, and as the supreme god of the Hel- 
lenic nation. His statue there was executed by 
Phidias, a few years before the outbreak of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, the majestic and sublime idea of this 
statue having been suggested to the artist by the words 
of Homer (iZ. i. 527). [Phidias.]— The Greek 
and Latin poets give to Zeus or Jupiter an immense 
number of epithets and surnames, which are derived 
partly from the places where he was worshipped, 
and partly from his powers and functions. The 
eagle, the oak, and the summits of mountains were 
sacred to him, and his sacrifices generally consisted 
of goats, bulls, and cows. His usual attributes are, 
the sceptre, eagle, thunderbolt, and a figure of 
Victory in his hand, and sometimes also a cornu- 
copia. The Olympian Zeus sometimes wears a 
wreath of olive, and the Dodonaean Zeus a wreath 
of oak leaves. In works of art Zeus is generally 
represented as the omnipotent father and king of 
gods and men, according to the idea which had been 
embodied in the statue of the Olympian Zeus by 
Phidias. Respecting the Roman god see J upiter. 

Zeuxidamus (Zev^'idafios). 1. King of Sparta, 
and 10th of the Eurypontidae. He was grandson 
of Theopompus, and father of Anaxidanms, who 
succeeded him. — 2 Son of Leotychides, king of 
Sparta, He was also named Cyniscus. He died 
before his father, leaving a son, Archidamus II. 



ZION. mi 
Zeuxis (ZeO^ts), the celebrated Greek painter, 
who excelled all his contemporaries except Par- 
rhasius, was a native of Heraclea (probably of the 
city of this name on the Euxine), and flourished 
B, c. 424 — 400. He came to Athens soon after 
the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, when he 
had already achieved a great reputation, although 
a young man. He passed some time in Mace- 
donia, at the court of Archelaiis, for whom he 
decorated the royal palace at Pella with paintings, 
probably soon after 413. He must have spent 
some time in Magna Graecia, as we learn from the 
story respecting the picture of Helen, which he 
painted for the city of Croton ; and it is also pro- 
bable that he visited Sicily, as we are told that he 
gave away one of his pictures to the Agrigentines. 
His travels through Greece itself were no doubt 
extensive. We find him at Olympia, where he 
made an ostentatious display, before the eyes of 
all Greece, of the wealth which his art had brought 
him, by appearing in a robe embroidered with his 
own name in letters of gold. After acquiring a 
great fortune by the exercise of his art, he adopted 
the custom of giving away his pictures, because no 
adequate price could be set upon them. The time 
of his death is unknown. The masterpiece of 
Zeuxis was his picture of Helen, in painting which 
he had as his models the 5 most beautiful virgins 
of Croton, whom he was allowed to select for this 
purpose from among all the virgins of the city. It 
was painted for the temple of Juno at Croton. 
This picture and its history were celebrated by 
many poets, who preserved the names of the 5 
virgins upon whom the choice of Zeuxis fell. The 
accurate imitation of inanimate objects was a de- 
partment of the art which Zeuxis and his younger 
riTal Parrhasius appear to have carried almost to 
perfection. The well-known story of the trial of 
skill in that species of painting between these two 
artists, if not literally true, indicates the opinion 
which was held in ancient times of their powers of 
imitation. In this contest the picture of Zeuxis 
represented a bunch of grapes, so naturally painted 
that the birds flew at the picture to eat the fruit ; 
upon which the artist, confident in this proof of his 
success, called upon his rival no longer to delay to 
draw aside the curtain and show his picture : but 
the picture of Parrhasius was the curtain itself, 
which Zeuxis had mistaken for real drapery. On 
discovering his error, Zeuxis honourably yielded 
the palm to Parrhasius, saying that he himself had 
deceived birds, but Parrhasius an artist. Besides 
this accuracy of imitation, many of the works of 
Zeuxis displayed great dramatic power. This 
appears to have been especially the case with his 
Infant Hercules strangling the Serpent, where the 
chief force of the composition consisted in the terror 
of Alcmena and Amphitryon, as they witnessed 
the struggle. Another picture, in which he showed 
the same dramatic power, applied to a very different 
subject, was his Female Hippocentaur, and which 
was lost in a shipwreck off Cape Malea, on its way 
to Rome, whither it had been sent by Sulla. 

Ziklag (2eKeAA.a, Se/ceAa), a town in the S. W. 
of Palestine, belonging to the Philistines of Gath, 
whose king Achish gave it to David for a residence 
during his exile from the court of Saul. On 
David's accession to the kingdom, it was united to 
Judah, 

Zioberis (Jinjeran) , a river of Parthia. 
Zion. [Jerusalem.] 



832 ZOAR. 

Zoar or Tsoar, Zoara or Zoaras (Zdap, z6apa. ; 
LXX. 2777a5p and Zdyopa : prob. Ru. in Ghor el 
Mezraa on the Wady el DeraaK), originally called 
Bela, a city on the S. E. of the Dead Sea. be- 
longing first to the Moabites. and afterwards to 
the Arabs. In the time of Abraham it was the 
smallest of the "cities of the plain," and was 
saved, at the intercession of Lot, from the de- 
struction which fell upon Sodom and Gomorrha, 

Zoetium or Zoeteum {Zo'inov^ Zoireiov ; Zoi- 
Tejeus), a town of Arcadia in the district Eutresia, 
N. of Megalopolis. 

Zoilus (Zwf\oy), a grammarian, was a native of 
Amphipolis, and flourished in the time of Philip 
of Macedon. He was celebrated for the asperity 
with which he assailed Homer. He found fault 
■with him prmcipally for introducing fabulous and 
incredible stories in his poems. From the list 
that we have of his writings, it also appears that 
he attacked Plato and Isocrates. His name be- 
came proverbial for a captious and malignant 
critic. 

Zonaras, Joannes ('Iwai/jojy 6 Zuvapas\ a 
celebrated Byzantine historian and theologian, 
lived in the 12th century imder the emperors 
Alexus I. Comnenus and Calo-Joannes. Besides 
his theological works there are still extant : 1. An- 
ncdes (xpoj/j/cdi^), in 18 books, from the creation of 
the world to the death of Alexis in 1118. It is 
compiled from various Greek authors, whose very 
■words Zonaras frequently retains. The earlier 
part is chiefly taken from Josephus ; and in the 
portion which relates to Roman history he has for 
the most part followed Dion Cassius. In conse- 
quence of the latter circumstance the Annals of 
Zonaras are of great importance in studying the 
early history of Rome. Of the first 20 books of 
Dion Cassius we have nothing but the abstract of 
Zonaras ; and even of the later books, of which 
Xiphilinus has made a more full epitome, Zonaras 
has preserved many statements of Dion which are 
entirely omitted by Xiphilinus. The best editions 
are bv Du Fresne Du Cano'e, Paris, 1686, foL; 



and by Finder, Bonn, 1841, 



A Lexicon, 



Zone {ZwvT]: Zwi a?oj), a town of Thrace on a 
promontory of the same name in the Aegaean, 
where Orpheus is said to have sung. 

Zopyrus {Zdiirvpos). 1. A distinguished Per- 
sian, son of Megabyzus. After Darius Hystaspis 
had besieged Babylon for 20 months in vain, Zo- 
pyrus resolved to gain the place for his master by 
the most extraordinary self-sacrifice. Accordingly, 
one day he appeared before Darius, with his body 
mutilated in the most horrible manner ; both his 
ears and nose ■were cut off", and his person other- 
■wise disfigured. After explaining to Darius his 
intentions, he fled to Babylon as a victim of the 
cruelty of the Persian king. The Babylonians 
gave him their confidence, and placed him at the 
head of their troops. He soon found means to 
betray the city to Darius, who severely punished 
the inhabitants for their revolt. Darius appointed 
Zopyrus satrap of Babylon for life, ■with the enjoy- 
ment of its entire revenues. — 2. The Physio- 
gnomist, attributed many \'ices to Socrates in an 
assembly of his disciples, who laughed at him and 
at his art in consequence ; but Socrates admitted 



ZYGANTES. 

that such v.-ere his natural propensities, but said 
that they had been overcome by philosophy. — 3. 
A surgeon at Alexandria, the tutor of ApoUonius 
Citiensis and Posidonius, about the beginning of 
the 1st century B.C. He invented an antidote, 
used^by Mithridates, king of Pontus. 

ZorSaster or Zoroastres {ZMpodaTprjs), th« 
Zarathnstra of the Zendavesta, and the Zer- 
dusht of the Persians, was the founder of the 
Magian religion. The most opposite opinions 
have been held both by ancient and modem •writers 
respecting the time in which he lived ; but it is 
quite impossible to come to any conclusion on the 
subject. As the founder of the Magian religion 
he must be placed in remote antiquity, and it may 
even be questioned whether such a person ever 
existed. This religion was probably of Bactrian 
origin, and from thence spread E.-ward ; and the 
tradition which represents Zoroaster a Mede sprang 
up at a later time, when the chief seat of his re- 
ligion was in Media, and no longer in the further 
East. There were extant in the later Greek lite- 
rature several works bearing the name of Zoro* 
aster ; but these writings -were forgeries of a later 
age, and belong to the same class of writings as 
the works of Hermes Trismegistus, Orpheus, &c. 
There is still extant a collection of oracles ascribed 
to Zoroaster, which are of course spurious. They 
have been published by Morell, Paris, 1595 ; by 
Obsopaeus, Paris, 1507, and by others. 

Zosim^as (Za'o-j,uos), a Greek historian, who 
lived in the time of the younger Theodosius. He 
wrote a history of the Roman empire in 6 books, 
which is still extant. This work must have been 
■«\Titten after a. n. 425, as an event is mentioned 
in it which took place in that year. The 1st 
book comprises a sketch of the history of the early 
emperors, down to the end of the reign of Dio- 
cletian (305). The 2d, 3d, and 4th books 
are devoted to the history of the 4th century, 
which is treated much less concisely. The 5th 
and 6th books embrace the period from 395 to 
410, when Attalus was deposed. The work of 
Zosimus is mainly (though not altogether) an 
abridgment or compilation of the works of pre- 
■vious historians. His style is concise, clear, pure, 
and not unpleasing. His chief fault as an his- 
torical writer is his neglect of chronology. Zosi- 
mus was a pagan, and comments severely upon 
the faults and crimes of the Christian emperors. 
Hence his credibility has been assailed by several 
Christian writers. There are no doubt numerous 
errors of judgment to be found in the work, and 
sometimes (especially in the case of Constantine) 
an intemperate expression of opinion, which some- 
what exaggerates, if it does not distort the truth. 
But he does not seem fairly chargeable with de- 
liberate invention or wilful misrepresentation. 
The best edition is by Reitemeier, Lips. 1784. 

Zoster {Co/ Vari)^ a promontory on the W. of 
Attica, bet^ween Phalerum and Sunium. It was a 
sacred spot, and contained altars of Leto, Artemia 
and Apollo. 

Zygantes or Gygantes (ZvyavT^s^ VvyavTes)A 
a people of Libya, ■n'hom Herodotus places on tbej 
W. side of the lake Triton. Others mention 
city Zygantis and a people Zyges on the coast 
Marmarica. 



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